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“Journey to Ithaca”: Best Prac*ces for Error Correc*on and Feedback in Foreign Language Wri*ng
Lourdes Ortega Department of Second Language Studies
University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa
University of Notre Dame March 29, 2012
Please cite as: Ortega, L. (2012). “Journey to Ithaca”: Best Prac2ces for Error
Correc2on and Feedback in Foreign Language Wri2ng. Invited lecture, University of Notre Dame, South Bend, IN, March 28.
“Whenever … students have turned in their compositions to me, I have felt a rush of mixed emotions: excitement at the prospect of reading their ideas, but at the same time utter dread of the monumental task of dealing with all those errors! I usually start out with good intentions of focusing primarily on the students’ message and attending to only the “most important” errors; but all too often, I end up plowing through each paper, systematically circling, crossing out, putting brackets around, and/or revising every usage error I find. A few days later, [… I return the papers to them] They read through the corrected paper once, (if I’m lucky), making mental note of the errors, (with or without understanding; to be filed in short-term memory), and then put away (or throw away?) that completed venture, ready to try their luck again at the next assignment. …Is anything really gained by the experience?”
Zamel (1985 pp. 93-94)
A teacher’s experience:
Error Correction
How does accuracy fit
into language education,
when communicative competence is
a goal?
Time!
How come is the research on EC so
inconclusive?!
Motivation!
What should I do about errors when a wriJng assignment is about
content, not language?
Error Correction???
Where is Ithaca?
Contemporary Ithaca
Contemporary Ithaca
Mythical Ithaca: Odysseus / Ulysses The Trojan War The long journey back
home to Ithaca
Literary Ithaca:
Konstantinos Kavafis Alexandria, 1863-1933
Ιθάκη, Κωνσταντίνος Π. Καβάφης (1911)
Σα βγεις στον πηγαιμό για την Ιθάκη, να εύχεσαι νάναι μακρύς ο δρόμος, γεμάτος περιπέτειες, γεμάτος γνώσεις. Τους Λαιστρυγόνας και τους Κύκλωπας, τον θυμωμένο Ποσειδώνα μη φοβάσαι, τέτοια στον δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δεν θα βρείς, αν μέν' η σκέψις σου υψηλή, αν εκλεκτή συγκίνησις το πνεύμα και το σώμα σου αγγίζει. Τους Λαιστρυγόνας και τους Κύκλωπας, τον άγριο Ποσειδώνα δεν θα συναντήσεις, αν δεν τους κουβανείς μες στην ψυχή σου, αν η ψυχή σου δεν τους στήνει εμπρός σου. Να εύχεσαι νάναι μακρύς ο δρόμος. Πολλά τα καλοκαιρινά πρωϊά να είναι που με τι ευχαρίστησι, με τι χαρά θα μπαίνεις σε λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους·∙ να σταματήσεις σ' εμπορεία Φοινικικά, και τες καλές πραγμάτειες ν' αποκτήσεις, σεντέφια και κοράλλια, κεχριμπάρια κ' έβενους, και ηδονικά μυρωδικά κάθε λογής, όσο μπορείς πιο άφθονα ηδονικά μυρωδικά·∙ σε πόλεις Αιγυπτιακές πολλές να πας, να μάθεις και να μάθεις απ' τους σπουδασμένους.
Πάντα στον νου σου νάχεις την Ιθάκη. Το φθάσιμον εκεί είν' ο προορισμός σου. Αλλά μη βιάζεις το ταξίδι διόλου. Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλά να διαρκέσει·∙ και γέρος πια ν' αράξεις στο νησί, πλούσιος με όσα κέρδισες στον δρόμο, μη προσδοκώντας πλούτη να σε δώσει η Ιθάκη. Η Ιθάκη σ' έδωσε το ωραίο ταξίδι. Χωρίς αυτήν δεν θάβγαινες στον δρόμο. Αλλο δεν έχει να σε δώσει πια. Κι αν πτωχική την βρεις, η Ιθάκη δεν σε γέλασε. Ετσι σοφός που έγινες, με τόση πείρα, ήδη θα το κατάλαβες η Ιθάκες τι σημαίνουν.
Journey to Ithaca When you set out on your journey to Ithaca, pray that the road is long, full of adventure, full of knowledge. … … … …
… … … … Always keep Ithaca in your mind. To arrive there is your ul*mate goal. But do not hurry the voyage at all. It is be\er to let it last for many years; and to anchor at the island when you are old, rich with all you have gained on the way, not expec*ng that Ithaca will offer you riches.
Ithaca has given you the beau*ful voyage. Without her you would have never set out on the road. She has nothing more to give you.
And if you find her poor, Ithaca has not deceived you. Wise as you have become, with so much experience, you must already have understood what Ithacas mean.
(Konstan*nos Kavafis, Ithaca, 1911;
English transla*on by G. Barbanis based on R. Dalven, retrieved from h\p://users.hol.gr/~barbanis/cavafy/)
Error Correc*on (EC) A daun*ng professional conundrum? A rich journey of professional self-‐discovery?
1. WHAT DOES THE RESEARCH SAY?
The research evidence is disputed and controversial Arguments for pessimism: Trusco\ (1996, 1999, 2007)
Arguments for op*mism: Bitchener & Ferris (2012)
Other key researchers with interest in the EFL classroom
Icy Lee Fiona Hyland
Van Beuningen, Catherine G., De Jong, Nivja H., & Kuiken, Folkert (2012). Evidence on the effec*veness of comprehensive error correc*on in second language wri*ng.
Language Learning, 62, 1-‐41.
Turning point, good news?
• It works! • It has added value over just self-‐edi*ng • It is be\er than sheer wri*ng prac*ce • It doesn’t inhibit students’ willingness to tackle complex wri*ng
n=268, 13 intact high-‐school classes, 14-‐year-‐olds in the Netherlands, Dutch L2, content-‐based biology assignments (metamorphosis of 4 insects: bu�erflies, honeybees, ladybugs, wasps), comprehensive/unfocused correcJon
Moderate op*mism recommended
“We conclude that comprehensive CF is a useful educaJonal tool that L2 teachers can use to help learners improve their accuracy in wriJng” (Van Beuningen et al., p. 38)
But the research base is s*ll insufficient for guiding teacher ac*on
in any of the details and it is dominated by ESL/EFL
perspec*ves
2. The “how” of Error Correc*on
Bitchener & Ferris (2012)
Direct: calls a\en*on to the error & offers a specific solu*on (teacher as copy-‐editor or proofreader)
( Chandler, 2003)
Indirect: indicates the presence of an error & asks students to make correc*ons themselves
(teacher as prompter)
( Chandler, 2003)
( Chandler, 2003)
Degree of explicitness in indirect EC: e.g., error codes included
(informa*veness)
Degree of explicitness in direct EC: e.g., rule explana*on included
(informa*veness)
Ortega, personal data, international graduate student paper
B&F (2012)’s research verdict? We have insufficient evidence yet but…
“it would seem that, in most instances, either indirect feedback … or a judicious combina*on of direct and indirect correc*on … might best meet student writers’ needs” (p. 149)
On the other hand, direct error correc*on may have longer-‐term
effects for grammar learning… (p. 66)
Hot from the press, Van Beuningen, De Jong, & Kuiken (2012): direct à be\er long-‐term for grammar errors
indirect à be\er long term for lexical & spelling errors
Direct or Indirect, and how Explicit? Consider Type of error:
grammar/nongrammar, learner readiness Learning goals:
higher accuracy levels? be\er self-‐edi*ng skills? be\er finished product?
My own big cau*on: one-‐shot wri*ng (with no revision) and one-‐glance feedback (with no reflec*on)
is not worth the teacher’s effort! Plan ways in which students will use your feedback… pressure/demands on EC use
3. “what,” “how much,” and “when”
The how much of EC Focused/selec*ve à which errors (e.g., preterit/
imperfect; gender agreement; word order)? Unfocused/comprehensive à all?
“The ques*on of whether focused or unfocused wri\en CF is more effec*ve in helping learners acquire L2 forms
and structures cannot, at this stage, be fully answered” (B&F, 2012, p. 62)
[but correc*on in Van Beuningen et al. 2012 was unfocused/comprehensive]
12 lines 30 errors
“the focus [should be] on selected language pa�erns related to the specified criteria of the wriJng tasks rather than on all errors”
(Lee, 2011, p. 389-‐390)
Focused feedback: “task-‐tailored feedback”
Focused feedback: diversified “feedback plus”
• “if [teachers] find that in one class the most serious error type is subject-‐verb agreement, they can spend more Jme teaching the grammar rule. AddiJonal ediJng exercises for students of different proficiency levels can be developed and assigned as supplementary grammar work to be completed outside of the classroom. Students can be provided with self-‐checking answer keys and engage in self-‐directed learning outside of the classroom.”
Lee (2011, p. 390)
Errors are less or more treatable… and never instantaneously!
Results from Bitchener, Young, & Cameron (2005)
English Simple past English Definite article
English prepositions
Less treatable errors, student not “ready”
“The suppliers will decide what to produce and how to produce by observing buying behaviour of buyers” “A supplier will decide what to produce and how to produce by observing the buying behaviour from buyers.”
In interview: “Yeah, this one I don’t quite understand because I’m going to speak about buying behaviour of a common buyer, not particular buyers and I think that we don’t need to have article here, but when I get comments from my teacher I try to put one article.”
F. Hyland (1998)
revised
<art>
the when of EC When important
errors arise, timely,
teachable moments
Once the same error persists, on a later day I
prepare a mini grammar lesson
It varies depending on the activity or
assignment
I decide on some grammar focus depending on what we cover in the textbook or curriculum, and I tell my students ahead of time
My own advice?
First know yourself
What kind of teacher are you in terms of EC?
How/what/how much/when do you like to correct errors in your students’ wri*ng?
Then experiment within reason
Explore alterna*ve strategies for how, what, how much, when of EC (you may
discover be\er EC strategies, and diversifica*on itself may be be\er)
4. WHERE RESEARCH IS MOSTLY SILENT…
Error correc*on is deeply “rela*onal,” a teacher-‐student ma\er:
In giving feedback, we simultaneously offer a representation of ourselves as teachers and as individuals, revealing our beliefs about language, learning, writing, and personal relationships. We can be impersonal, critical, and autocratic, or informed, sympathetic, and helpful, and controlling this representation of self can be crucial to maintaining interaction with students and providing feedback that will be taken seriously.
(Hyland & Hyland, 2006, p. 207)
What do students want, and how do they use error correc*on?
Only few studies, interes*ng but superficial: Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J. M. (2005). Error correc*on: Students’ versus teachers’ percep*ons.
Language Awareness, 14(2&3), 112-‐127. Loewen, S., Li, S., Fei, F., Thompson, A., Nakatsukasa, K., Ahn, S., et al. (2009). L2 learners’ beliefs about
grammar instruc*on and error correc*on. Modern Language Journal, 93, 91 -‐ 104. Schulz, R. A. (1996). Focus on form in the foreign language classroom: Students' and Teachers' views on
error correc*on and the role of grammar. Foreign Language Annals, 29, 343-‐364. Schulz, R. A. (2001). Cultural differences in student and teacher percep*ons concerning the role of
grammar instruc*on and correc*ve feedback: USA-‐Colombia. Modern Language Journal, 85, 244-‐258.
“Students want and expect to be corrected by
their teachers”…
…True?
Ortega (2005)
Communica*on-‐oriented learners:
“Unless you're a na*ve speaker, you're not gonna be able to speak perfect [. . .] I mean, we're s*ll English speakers, you know? [. . .] Cause, I mean, you want to say it correctly, but I don't think you need to say it always correct, I think you can always get away with it, or get along the idea in a basic way, yeah, you want to say it correctly, but it'll come through repe**on and going over more and more, or being among people that speak correctly all the *me.”
Accuracy-‐oriented learners: “I always go back and think
about the errors that I make, almost to the point where I don't want to say anything if it's going to be wrong, although I think I've go\en passed that problem, you see, otherwise you can't say anything, but yeah, I do want it to be perfect, I'm always trying to get it a hundred percent perfect, I'm never happy with just sort of less.”
foreign language students
heritage language students Diminished agency From Cohen & Robbins (1976): Eva (China born, moved to Australia at 16
and to the US at 19):
“I have never start anything from ABCD. Everything is always skip, skip, skip since I’ve been going so many places… I wasn’t taught the way a person is supposed to be taught. I wasn’t taught in the right way, so that is why some of the grammars were never drill into me”
Different needs From Hedgecock & Le�owitz (2011) • [HL students] know how to speak but
not how to write. [Antonio] • I use colloquial – I want to make it more
standard … now I’m aware that I was poor in Spanish and need to improve it … I know that I’m limited to some parts of my language. [Ofelia]
• ... I had no notion of [writing]. I made lots of mistakes as far as writing goes… I might be at a higher level as far as conversating and speaking. [César]
• My writing is not professional. [Manuel] • Spanish is in our brain. We just have to
polish it. [Jorge]
My own advice?
Ask your students
1. Find out how they feel about EC 2. Don’t assume you know, don’t assume they all feel the same way
3. Don’t assume that what they say they want and what they really want are always the same thing
Ques*onnaires, free wri*ng Do you want your teachers to respond to all
errors or only some errors in wri*ng? Why?
Do you want your teachers to use error codes in error correc*on? Why or why not?
Do you think you are making good progress in wri*ng accuracy? In your opinion, does teacher error correc*on help? Explain your answer.
Whose responsibility is it to correct errors in student wri*ng? Why?
Lee (2004)
In your opinion, what is the best way for me to give feedback about your grammar errors in your wri*ng?
Please circle ONE statement only:
(a) Don’t correct my grammar. Let me try to correct my errors myself. (b) Only correct the most serious errors. (c) Circle my errors, but don’t correct them for me. (d) Circle my errors and tell me what type of error it is (verb tense, word choice, etc.). (e) Correct all of my errors for me.
(Ferris & Roberts, 2001)
Train your students to make good use of
your correc*ons Don’t assume they know what to do with
your feedback
Discuss errors and feedback via conferencing or as a whole class
What is the error? What is the correct form? Why did you make the error? a. I knew the rule but just didn’t apply it (i.e., carelessness) b. I learned the rule once but was uncertain about it c. I never really learned the rule Possible reasons for difficulty with the rule: a. My na*ve language got in the way b. English is just confusing for me when it comes to this point
c. Grammar books and/or classroom teaching have confused me here (If applicable) Did you check over this correc*on? Was the correc*on specific enough to help?
(Cohen & Robbins, 1976)
Discuss with them in class how they use /can use your feedback
Produc*ve strategies? Making a mental note Wri*ng down points by type Iden*fying points to be explained Asking for teacher explana*on Referring back to previous composi*ons Consul*ng a grammar book Rewri*ng: a. Only incorpora*ng teacher’s comments b. Revising and expanding Not doing anything
(Cohen & Cavalcan*, 1990)
And remember: Plan what pressures to use your correc*ons you will place on
them!
Ac*vity/lesson planning: Revision, in-‐class discussion of errors, error logs…
In the end, individual students will need
different things and flexibility and teacher judgment will be needed
Rod Ellis (2009), 10 principles of CE for teachers:
“8. Teachers should be prepared to vary who, when, and how they correct in accordance with the cogniJve and affecJve needs of the individual learner. In effect this means they do not need to follow a
consistent set of procedures for all students.” (p. 14)
Cogni*ve & affec*ve needs
Undoubtedly true: teacher feedback can become a source of great insight
for FL writers
[…] Your comments made me think of readers more than anything, which I did not care much
before. That perspective brought me to reconsider my writing, which was hard but fun! It also took me time. Yet, this struggling process served me many “ah-ha” moments at the end
too. [...]
[Ortega, personal data, international graduate student’s email, cited with permission]
[…] Your comments made me think of readers more than anything, which I did not care much
before. That perspective brought me to reconsider my writing, which was hard but fun! It also took me time. Yet, this struggling process served me many “ah-ha” moments at the end
too. [...]
[Ortega, personal data, international graduate student’s email, cited with permission]
"I know my writing is better now than to compare to the beginning of this year and the middle of it too. Because you wrote many thank you and happy like comment in my writing journal before now. After winter you stop praising too often. Then you gave some negative feedbacks, which means I should know the right, academic way to write” [Ortega, personal data; college EFL undergraduate student journal to
her writing teacher, cited with permission]
"I know my writing is better now than to compare to the beginning of this year and the middle of it too. Because you wrote many thank you and happy like comment in my writing journal before now. After winter you stop praising too often. Then you gave some negative feedbacks, which means I should know the right, academic way to write” [Ortega, personal data; college EFL undergraduate student journal to
her writing teacher, cited with permission]
Cogni*ve and affec*ve needs
Undoubtedly true: wri*ng and error correc*on can be about deeply
personal investments
Affect: Samorn, Thai graduate student over 30, doing a degree in business:
“At the first time I think that my writing is good because friends always say that it’s good. But my teacher say that I have to have a lot of writing because it’s not so good and at the first time I feel confident of my writing because I think that my grammar- my tense and my plural and verb use with plural, with singular is OK. But when the feedback come out, teacher doesn’t look enough in that grammar. The grammar is not the most important thing for her, so she check in the coherence, in introduction, in something else. And I haven’t got good marks so I think that I am poor in everything of writing. [....] I think that my grammar is good but I didn’t get any comments that ‘oh your grammar is good, but you still have to, you still have to correct about something like this’ But all the comments come that my writing is not so good, so I feel that everything is poor. [....] I think that at least she should admire me some points. [... ] From that time I discouraged a lot and I feel don’t like writing.”
(F. Hyland, 1998, pp. 277-‐278)
Affect: Samorn, Thai graduate student over 30, doing a degree in business:
“At the first time I think that my writing is good because friends always say that it’s good. But my teacher say that I have to have a lot of writing because it’s not so good and at the first time I feel confident of my writing because I think that my grammar- my tense and my plural and verb use with plural, with singular is OK. But when the feedback come out, teacher doesn’t look enough in that grammar. The grammar is not the most important thing for her, so she check in the coherence, in introduction, in something else. And I haven’t got good marks so I think that I am poor in everything of writing. [....] I think that my grammar is good but I didn’t get any comments that ‘oh your grammar is good, but you still have to, you still have to correct about something like this’ But all the comments come that my writing is not so good, so I feel that everything is poor. [....] I think that at least she should admire me some points. [... ] From that time I discouraged a lot and I feel don’t like writing.”
(F. Hyland, 1998, pp. 277-‐278)
[…] I did not think I was weak in my grammar but when I got comments from a lot of professors about my grammar, I still feel I’m not legitimate academic writer. Their comment make me to think I’m not academically appropriate, but still need to go to ESL English classes to fix my grammar. I feel often I’m a long-term patient in a hospital to get a 10 year long surgery. [...]
[Ortega, international graduate student’s free writing, cited with permission]
[…] I did not think I was weak in my grammar but when I got comments from a lot of professors about my grammar, I still feel I’m not legitimate academic writer. Their comment make me to think I’m not academically appropriate, but still need to go to ESL English classes to fix my grammar. I feel often I’m a long-term patient in a hospital to get a 10 year long surgery. [...]
[Ortega, international graduate student’s free writing, cited with permission]
[My other weakness is] Academic voice. I’m getting into post-modernism. But I don’t have post-modernist’s academic voice in my writing. So, I really wish I can get their voice in my writing. So that I can be part of their community .
[same international graduate student’s free writing]
[My other weakness is] Academic voice. I’m getting into post-modernism. But I don’t have post-modernist’s academic voice in my writing. So, I really wish I can get their voice in my writing. So that I can be part of their community .
[same international graduate student’s free writing]
5. WHERE RESEARCH IS ENTIRELY SILENT…
EC in curricular context
Beginning proficiencies
Communica*ve competence as
goal
How do we do EC?
wri*ng?
Likely in the lower-division curriculum
Advanced proficiencies as
ideal goal
Humani*es outcomes
accuracy & error
correcJon?
Likely in the upper-division curriculum
My own advice?
Clarify goals for wri*ng
Pay a\en*on to wri*ng assignments
Goals for wri*ng: What do we want to get out of wri*ng in our course/
curriculum • A better writer
• Someone who has been transformed by a humanistic world view
• Someone who is a highly proficient user of the FL
Goals for wri*ng:
Learning to Write (LW) Writing to Learn Content (WLC)
Writing to Learn Language (WLL)
Manchón (2011)
Across LW, WLC, WLL… wri*ng offers great Language Learning Poten*al
(Manchón, 2011) “… wri*ng elicits a\en*on to form-‐meaning rela*ons that may prompt learners to refine their linguis*c expression – and hence their control over their linguis*c knowledge – ... This process appears to be facilitated by the natural disjuncture between wri\en text and the mental processes of genera*ng and assessing it.”
(Cumming, 1990, p. 483)
Language Learning Poten*al of wri*ng (examples from Ortega, 1999)
However, lower-‐division…?
The lower the proficiency level, the more selecJve and direct error correcJon should be, and the more posiJve, affecJve feedback there should be.
In fact, lower-‐division
consider two learning goals for wri*ng: language fluency and mo*va*on to
write
language fluency as goal for wri*ng (Ortega, 2000)
language fluency as goal for wri*ng
mo*va*on to write as goal for wri*ng (Sasaki, 2011)
“Me gusta este clase mucho porque me gusta escribir. La gente piensa que yo estoy extraña pero es la verdad. No me gusta escribir estoy escribiendo. Pero cuando estoy terminado, me gustalo!”
(Ortega, 2000)
mo*va*on to write as goal for wri*ng (Sasaki, 2011)
“Me gusta este clase mucho porque me gusta escribir. La gente piensa que yo estoy extraña pero es la verdad. No me gusta escribir estoy escribiendo. Pero cuando estoy terminado, me gustalo!”
(Ortega, 2000)
“Yo nunca he creido que yo puedo cumplir un papel que era cuatro paginas en español. […] Para mi, estuvo un logro muy grande […] Para final yo quiero escribir los papeles que estare orgulloso de cual y que puedo usar en la futura en otras clases y expansionar en los temas.”
Ortega (2000)
“Yo nunca he creido que yo puedo cumplir un papel que era cuatro paginas en español. […] Para mi, estuvo un logro muy grande […] Para final yo quiero escribir los papeles que estare orgulloso de cual y que puedo usar en la futura en otras clases y expansionar en los temas.”
Ortega (2000)
engaged wri*ng > fluency > (quite later) accuracy?
A\en*on to assignments we want “wri*ng tasks that mo*vate and engage EFL students and make them want to pose themselves sophis*cated problems as writers, as well as to persist and spend as much *me as needed in wri*ng”
(Ortega, 2009, p. 245)
A\en*on to assignments
ComposiJons/essays Research papers PosiJon papers ReflecJons Journals/diary Movie reviews PresentaJons on ppt Technology genres
Picture/photo wriJng Scripted dialogues Best recipe Journals/diary Free wriJng Technology genres
Upper division as much as possible,
leave topic choices open to students
Lower division as close as possible
to their own experiences
Clarify goals for wri*ng
Pay a\en*on to wri*ng assignments Ar*culate across courses
Use mul*ple (re)sources for EC Prac*ce triage/cul*vate adaptability
In conclusion…
Know yourself Ask & work with your students
Experiment within reason Don’t underestimate EC
Understand your wider context
Frustrated, baffled by EC?
Remember Ithaca Make your search for fulfilling EC prac*ces into a rich journey of professional self-‐
discovery
Thank you!
Ithaca Oahu
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feedback in second language acquisi2on and wri2ng. New York: Routledge.
Bitchener, J., Young, S., & Cameron, D. (2005). The effect of different types of correcJve feedback on ESL student wriJng. Journal of Second Language Wri2ng, 14, 191-‐205.
Chandler, J. (2003). The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accuracy and fluency of L2 student wriJng. Journal of Second Language Wri2ng, 12, 267-‐296.
Cohen, A. D., & CavalcanJ, M. C. (1990). Feedback on composiJons: Teacher and student verbal reports. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Second language wri2ng: Research insights for the classroom (pp. 155-‐177). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cohen, A. D., & Robbins, M. (1976). Toward assessing interlanguage performance: The relaJonship between selected errors, learners' characterisJcs and learners' explanaJons. Language Learning, 26, 45-‐66.
Cumming, A. (1990). MetalinguisJc and ideaJonal thinking in second language composing. WriQen Communica2on, 7, 482-‐511.
Ellis, R. (2009). CorrecJve feedback and teacher development. L2 Journal, 1(1), 3-‐18.
Ferris, D., & Roberts, B. (2001). Error feedback in L2 wriJng classes: How explicit does it need to be? Journal of Second Language Wri2ng, 10, 161-‐184.
Hedgcock, J., & Le�owitz, N. (2011). Exploring the learning potenJal of wriJng development in heritage language educaJon. In R. M. Manchón (Ed.), Learning-‐to-‐write and wri2ng-‐to-‐learn in an addi2onal language (pp. 209 – 233). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Hyland, F. (1998). The impact of teacher wri�en feedback on individual writers. Journal of Second Language Wri2ng, 7, 255-‐286.
Hyland, K., & Hyland, F. (2006). Interpersonal aspects of response: ConstrucJng and interpreJng teacher wri�en feedback. In K. Hyland & F. Hyland (Eds.), Feedback in second language wri2ng: Contexts and issues (pp. 206-‐224). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jarvis, S., Grant, L., Bikowski, D., & Ferris, D. (2003). Exploring mulJple profiles of highly rated learner composiJons. Journal of Second Language Wri2ng, 12, 377-‐403.
Kavafis, K. (no date). Bilingual Greek-‐English collec2on of poems. Compiled and maintained by G. Barbanis, retrieved February 10, 2006 from h�p://users.hol.gr/~barbanis/cavafy/
References cited (conJnued): Lee, I. (2004). Error correcJon in L2 secondary wriJng
classrooms: The case of Hong Kong. Journal of Second Language Wri2ng, 13, 285-‐312.
Lee, I. (2011). Working smarter, not working harder: Re-‐visiJng teacher feedback in the L2 wriJng classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review, 67, 377-‐399.
Manchón, R. M. (Ed.). (2011). Learning-‐to-‐write and wri2ng-‐to-‐learn in an addi2onal language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Ortega, L. (1999). Planning and focus on form in L2 oral performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisi2on, 21, 109-‐148.
Ortega, L. (2000). Understanding syntac2c complexity: The measurement of change in the syntax of instructed L2 Spanish learners. Doctoral dissertaJon, University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Ortega, L. (2005). What do learners plan? Learner-‐driven a�enJon to form during pre-‐task planning. In R. Ellis (Ed.), Planning and task performance in a second language (pp. 77-‐109). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.
Ortega, L. (2009). Studying wriJng across EFL contexts: Looking back and moving forward. In R. M. Manchón (Ed.), Learning, teaching, and researching wri2ng in foreign language contexts (pp. 232-‐255). Clevedon, UK: MulJlingual Ma�ers.
Trusco�, J. (1996). Review arJcle: The case against grammar correcJon in L2 wriJng classes. Language Learning, 46, 327-‐369.
Trusco�, J. (1999). What's wrong with oral grammar correcJon. Canadian Modern Language Review, 55, 437-‐456.
Trusco�, J. (2007). The effect of error correcJon on learners’ ability to write accurately. Journal of Second Language Wri2ng, 16, 255-‐272.
Van Beuningen, C. G., De Jong, N. H., & Kuiken, F. (2012). Evidence on the effecJveness of comprehensive error correcJon in second language wriJng. Language Learning, 62, 1-‐41.
Zamel, V. (1985). Responding to student wriJng. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 79-‐101.
Lee (2011) p. 399
Lee (2011, p. 389): a feedback form with pre-‐established criteria and coverage can help balance of coverage & reduce teacher *me and scary red-‐ink on paper
Special do’s and don’ts for wriMng in a foreign language (for students):
• Do write about a topic that interests you. • Do remember that content counts! • Do use known vocabulary and construc*ons you have already learned. • Do use the dic*onary carefully, always cross-‐checking and looking for examples
in context. • Do take risks in the language and be inven*ve. • Don’t write a paper the day before the deadline. Give yourself *me not only to
develop ideas fully but also to double-‐check the correctness of all your grammar. • Do carefully document and support your thesis. • Don’t rely on the Internet for research.
h\p://www.marque\e.edu/wac/departmental/Marque\eUniversityWri*nginForeignLanguagesandLiteraturesCourses.shtml
For example, journal writing… self-introduction on week 2 of class
Hola, Lourdes: Me llamo Liz Smith. Tengo diecinueve años y vivo en la isla de Maui todo mi vida. Ahora vivo en Honolulu con mi novio y dos amigos. […] Yo tengo una personalidad timida. No hablo mucho mas del tiempo. Pero ahora hablo mucho mas que dos años pasados. Este es porque mi novio es muy fuerte y hable mucho, y pues yo hablo mas. […] Todas las dias yo voy a la escuela y despues voy a mi trabajo. Yo trabajo a Cafe Bella. Es una fiambreria de italiana. Me gusta mucho, pero no tengo tiempo libre. Pero, cuando tengo un poco tiempo libre me gusta voy a la playa. Tambien me gusta nadar y correr. Tambien me gusta ir a los juegos de mi novio. Ello es un parte del equipo de futbol para Hawaii. […] Este es mi vida.
Lee (2011) ELT Journal
Ortega (2000)
Ortega (2000)
