Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 79 (2014) 576–584

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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Distribution of porphyry deposits in the Eurasian continentand their corresponding tectonic settings

1367-9120/$ - see front matter � 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2013.09.002

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 68999037, mobile: +86 13910520152.E-mail address: jingwenmao@263.net (J. Mao).

Jingwen Mao a,⇑, Franco Pirajno b, Bernd Lehmann c, Maocheng Luo d, Anita Berzina e

a MLR Key Laboratory of Metallogeny and Mineral Assessment, Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, Chinab Centre for Exploration Targeting, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australiac Mineral Resources, Technical University of Clausthal, 38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germanyd Faculty of Earth Science and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, Chinae Institute of Geology and Mineralogy, Koptyug Ave. 3, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online 2 October 2013

Keywords:Porphyry Cu (Mo–Au) depositsPorphyry Mo depositsEurasian continentSpatial–temporal distributionGeodynamic settings

a b s t r a c t

In the Eurasian continent there are three huge metallogenic belts of Cu and Mo porphyry deposits,comprising the Paleozoic Central Asian Ore Belt in the north, the Tethyan Eurasian Ore Belt of Jurassicto Cenozoic age in the southwest, and the East Margin Ore Belt of the Eurasian Continent of Jurassic toCretaceous age in the east. The latter is considered to be part of the vast Circum-Pacific ore belt. Someof the main features of the spatial–temporal distribution of Cu and Mo porphyry systems and relatedgeodynamic processes of the three metallogenic belts are described. In particular, the key role of post-subduction – related porphyry ore systems is emphasized, comprising collisional and post-collisionalCu–Mo porphyry deposits during the geological history of the Eurasian continent. The recurrent featureof these ore systems and related felsic rocks is their derivation from partial melting of stagnant orresidual oceanic slabs, and mixing with a variable amount of crustal material during magma ascent toshallower levels.

� 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction 2. Porphyry deposits in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB)

Porphyry deposits constitute one of the world’s major sourcesof Cu and Au and are a major exploration target due to the high de-mand for these resources (Sillitoe, 2010). In the past 40 years geo-scientific research has been mostly directed at the westerncontinental margins of North and South America, and the South-west Pacific Islands. Indeed, our knowledge and understanding ofgenetic models for porphyry systems is largely from the researchfocus on the Circum-Pacific continental and oceanic margins.

In contrast, many porphyry deposits in the Eurasian continentare less known and do not enjoy the benefit of the same intensiveresearch as those of the Circum-Pacific belts. The porphyry systemsin the Eurasian continent are distributed throughout a large spanof geological history, from the Mesoproterozoic to the Cenozoic.In the Phanerozoic, there are three large orogenic belts in whichporphyry deposits are found (Fig. 1), namely: the Paleozoic CentralAsian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), the Tethyan Eurasian Orogenic Belt(TEOB) (or Meso-Neotethys orogenic belt) of Jurassic to Cenozoicage, and the East Margin of the Eurasian Continent (EMEC) of Juras-sic to Cretaceous, which is considered part of the Circum-Pacificcontinental margin belt.

Major Cu–Au and Cu–Mo porphyry deposits are distributedover an interval of almost 5000 km across central Eurasia, fromthe Urals Mountains in Russia in the west, though the Central Asiancountries, Mongolia, Xinjiang (NW China), Inner Mongolia andNortheast China to the east (Seltmann et al., 2013, 2014;Yakubchuk et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2012; Goldfarb et al., 2013).These deposits formed in magmatic arcs within the extensive sub-duction-accretion complex of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt(CAOB; or Altaids) and Transbaikal-Mongolian Orogens, from thelate Neoproterozoic, through the Paleozoic to the Jurassic. Thesearcs were predominantly located on the Paleo-Tethys Ocean mar-gin of the proto-Asian continent, but are also associated with theclosure of two back-arc basins behind the ocean-facing margin.During the mid-Paleozoic, the two main cratonic components ofthe proto-Asian continent, the Siberian and Eastern European cra-tons (Fig. 2), began to rotate relative to each other, ‘‘drawing-in’’the two sets of parallel arcs to form the Kazakh Orocline betweenthe two cratons. In the Late Devonian and the Early Carboniferous,the Khanty-Mansi back-arc basin began subducting beneath theoroclinally infolded outer island arc mass to form the Valerianov-Beltau-Kurama arc. At the same time, the Paleo-Pacific Ocean be-gan subducting beneath the Siberian craton to form the Sayan-Transbaikal arc, which by the Permian expanded to become the Se-langa-Gobi-Khanka arc, and for a period was continuous with the

Fig. 1. Map showing distribution of the porphyry copper deposits in the Eurasian continent (modified after Sengor (1987) and Sorkhabi and Heydari (2008); deposit datacollected from Singer et al. (2005), Shen et al. (2010) and Mao et al. (2013)) Name of deposits: 1-Resck, 2-Rosia Poieni, 3-Bor, 4-Majdanpek, 5-Veliki Kvivelj, 6-Skouries, 7-Copler, 8-Sar Cheshmeh, 9-Sungun, 10-Saindak, 11-Reko Diq, 12-Duobuzha, 13-Xiongcun, 14-Qulong, 15-Jiama, 16-Nuri, 17-Yulong, 18-Malasongduo, 19-Pulang, 20-Monywa, 21-Bozshakol, 22-Samarsk, 23-Borly, 24-Balkash, 25-Kal’ makyr, 26-Taldy Bulak, 27-Sayak, 28-Aktogai, 29-Koksai, 30-Baogutu, 31-Xilekuduke, 32-Yulekenhalasu,33-Tuwu, 34-Oyu-Tolgoi, 35-Bainaimiao, 36-Duobaoshan, 37-Wunugetushan, 38-Budunhua, 39-Mujicun, 40-Dongguashan, 41-Chengmenshan, 42-Fengshandong, 43-Dexing, 44-Yinshan, 45-Yongping, 46-Luoboling, 47-Zijinshan, 48-Dabaoshan, 49-Yuanzhuding.

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Kazakh-Mongol arc. By the Mid to Late Permian, as the Kazakh Oro-cline had continued to develop, both the Sakmara and Khanty-Mansi back-arc basins closed and the collage of cratons and arcswas sutured by accretionary complexes. During the Permian andTriassic, the North China craton approached and docked with theSiberian plate, closing the Mongol-Okhotsk sea (an embaymenton the Paleo-Pacific margin) to form the Mongolian Orocline. Sub-duction and arc building activity on the Paleo-Pacific Ocean margincontinued to the Mid Mesozoic as the Indo-Sinian and Yanshanianorogenic cycles (Seltmann and Porter, 2005, and references citedtherein).

The most important porphyry Cu–Au–Mo and Au–Cu porphyryas well as epithermal Au systems (Fig. 2) are, according to age:

(1) Ordovician: The Kipchak arc (e.g., Bozshakol Cu–Au inKazakhstan, Taldy Bulak porphyry Au–Cu in Kyrgyzstan);the Duobaoshan island arc in Northeast China (e.g., Duobao-shan and Tongshan porphyry Cu–Au–Mo); the Bainaimiaoisland arc in East Inner Mongolia (e.g., Bainaimiao Cu–Au).

(2) Silurian to Devonian: The Kazakh-Mongol arc (e.g., Nurkaz-gan Cu–Au in Kazakhstan; Taldy Bulak–Levoberezhny Auin Kyrgyzstan); the Urals-Zharma arc (e.g., Yubileinoe Au–Cu in Russia); the Kazakh-Mongol arc (e.g., Oyu Tolgoi Cu–Au, and Tsagaan Suvarga Cu–Au, both in Mongolia).

(3) Carboniferous: The Kazakh-Mongol arc (e.g., Kharmagtai Au–Cu in Mongolia, Tuwu-Yandong Cu–Mo in Xinjiang, China;Koksai Cu–Au, Sayak skarn Cu–Au, Kounrad Cu–Au and theAktogai group of Cu–Au deposits, all in Kazakhstan); theValerianov-Beltau-Kurama arc (e.g., Kal’makyr-Dalnee Cu–Au and Kochbulak epithermal Au, both in Uzbekistan; Benq-ala Cu–Au in the southeast Urals of Kazakhstan; BaogutuCu–Au–Mo, and Halasu porphyry Cu–Mo in Xinjiang, China).

(4) Triassic: The Selanga-Gobi-Khanka arc (e.g., Erdenet Cu–Moin Mongolia, Badaguan and Taipingchuan porphyry Cu–Moin Inner Mongolia, China).

(5) Jurassic: The Selanga-Gobi-Khanka arc (e.g., WulugetushanCu–Mo in Inner Mongolia, China).

Precise age data indicate that the ages of the porphyry Cu min-eralization in the CAOB shift from east to west and from north tosouth from Ordovician to Late Carboniferous (Fig. 2), followingthe magmatic fronts of the accretionary orogen (Sengor et al.,1993). Most porphyry Mo deposits occurred in post-collisional set-tings along the Urals, Tianshan to Xilamulun sutures. The represen-tative porphyry Mo deposits are Shameika in the Urals(molybdenite Re–Os ages of 273 ± 5 and 282 ± 6 Ma; Mao et al.,2003a), Baishan and Gebitan in East Tianshan, China (Re–Os agesof 224.8 ± 4.5 Ma, Zhang et al., 2005, and 231.9 ± 6.5 Ma, Wu

Fig. 2. Map showing distribution of major porphyry copper and porphyry molybdenum deposits in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) and Mongolia–Okhotsk OrogenicBelt (MOOB) (complied based on the diagrams and data of Seltmann et al. (2005), Seltmann et al. (2013, 2014), Chen et al. (2013, 2014), Yang et al. (2012) and Shen et al.(2010)).

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et al., 2013a,b), and a group of porphyry Mo deposits along theXilamulunhe area in southeast Inner Mongolia (245–220 Ma, Zenget al., 2013; Nie et al., 2011; Jiang et al., 2011). These age data con-firm that the porphyry Mo deposits become younger from west toeast, which also fits well with the tectonic evolution suggested byXiao et al. (2008). Since the Mongolia–Okhotsk Ocean closed fromwest to east the age of the mineralization is correspondinglyyounger from Early Triassic to Middle Jurassic. The ErdenetCu–Mo porphyry deposit in Central Mongolia has a Re–Os age of241.0 ± 3.1 Ma (Jiang et al., 2011). In the De’erbugan ore belt ofnortheast Inner Mongolia (China), the Badaguan, Taipingchuanand Wunugetushan porphyry Cu–Mo deposits have ages of202 ± 5.7–177.6 ± 4.5 Ma (Chen et al., 2010, 2011; Li et al., 2012).Apart from the subduction-related porphyry Cu–Mo deposits thereare several Early–Middle Jurassic large-scale porphyry Modeposits, such as the 177-Ma old Luming and Daheishan depositsin Northeast China (Tan et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2009), whichare located in the back-arc basin south of the active continentalmargin.

In addition to the general tectonic, geologic and metallogenicsetting, and the distribution of the mineralized systems listedabove, descriptions of individual deposits provide important in-sights into their metallogenic significance (Seltmann and Porter,2005; Seltmann et al., 2013, 2014; Xiao et al., 2008; Li, 2006; Pira-jno et al., 2009; Yakubchuk et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2012; Goldfarbet al., 2013). Particularly, Seltmann et al. (2013, 2014) gives a de-tailed summary of the Cu (Mo, Au) porphyry systems in the CAOBand their corresponding tectonic evolution.

3. Porphyry deposits in the East Margin of the EurasianContinent (EMEC)

Porphyry deposits in the East Margin of the Eurasian Continentare mainly concentrated in East China. Mao et al. (2003b, 2005,

2011a, 2013), Sun et al. (2010) and Ouyang et al. (2013) have pro-vided comprehensive reviews on the metallogeny and tectonic set-tings of the Mesozoic polymetallic deposits in East China. Bothporphyry Cu–Mo (Au) and porphyry Mo deposits are common inEast China. The Mesozoic (Yanshanian) metallogenic province inEast China, as a part of the western Circum-Pacific metallogenicbelt, extends inland for more than 1000 km from the eastern mar-gin of continental China (Mao et al., 2011a). From northeastern tosouthwestern China, this metallogenic province is bounded by theDaxing’an, Taihang, and Xuefeng mountains in the west (Fig. 3).There are two types of porphyry copper systems: (1) porphyry-skarn Cu with ages of 175–135 Ma, distributed along the Qin-Hangbelt, Middle-Lower Yangtze River Valley, Northeast Taihang–Southeast Great Hinggan Range from south to north; and (2) por-phyry Cu–Au and epithermal Au with ages of ca. 100 Ma, whichare located in the Cretaceous basins of Shanghang in western Fuj-ian province (Southeast China), Yangchun in western Guangdongprovince (South China), and Xiaoxinancha in Jilin province (North-east China). On the whole, the former is located inland and the lat-ter at the continental margin (Fig. 3).

The mineralization dated at 170–135 Ma may have formedwithin a continental magmatic arc, with widespread magmatismand back-arc extension caused by low-angle subduction of the Pa-leo-pacific plate. The porphyry Cu–Mo–Au, porphyry-skarn-veintype Cu and Mo–Cu, epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn deposits, and evengranite-related Pb–Zn–Ag deposits in South China, North Chinaand Northeast China are proposed to be associated with partialmelting of subducted Paleo-Pacific plate, particularly along suturesor major tectonic boundaries where plate breakup and plate win-dows may have occurred (Mao et al., 2005, 2006, 2008,2011a,c,d, 2013; Zhou et al., 2007; Li et al., 2008a, 2010). PorphyryMo deposits, including several world-class deposits, such as Jindu-icheng and Sandaozhuang in East Qinling, Chaloukou in NortheastChina, and Caosiyao in Inner Mongolia developed in a back-arc

Fig. 3. Distribution of major porphyry copper and porphyry molybdenum depositsin East China.

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extension belt, and their genetically related granitic rocks are char-acterized by I-type signatures (Mao et al., 2008, 2011b, c; Zenget al., 2013; Li et al., 2013, 2014; Nie et al., 2012). Ling et al.(2009) suggested that the flat subduction of an oceanic ridge isresponsible for the formation of the porphyry-skarn Cu–Au–Modeposits in the Middle–Lower Yangtze River Valley in Early Creta-ceous. Alternatively, Gao et al. (2013) linked the porphyry Cu–Modeposits with the destruction of the North China Craton (NCC) keelduring Late Mesozoic and inferred that the ore-bearing porphyriesand associated volcanic rocks have a common parental basalticmagma, derived from partial melting of metasomatized mantlelithosphere beneath the NCC.

The porphyry Cu–Au and epithermal Au–Ag systems in pull-apart volcanic-sedimentary basins in the eastern continental mar-gin of China can be ascribed to large-scale lithospheric thinning,delamination and thermal erosion triggered by the changing direc-tion of the Paleo-Pacific plate from oblique to parallel to the conti-nent margin (Mao et al., 2007, 2008, 2010, 2013; Goldfarb et al.,2007, 2013). Wu et al. (2005) suggested that the extensive Creta-ceous granitic rocks, with an age range of 131–117 Ma in easternChina, were all emplaced in an extensional setting, as indicatedby the occurrence of A-type granite, dolerite dyke swarms andmetamorphic core complexes. It is proposed that this giant igneousevent was related to coeval lithospheric delamination in easternChina. The porphyry Cu–Au deposits and related granitic rocksare associated with residual subducted slab fragments (Maoet al., 2011a,c, 2013). Several world-class porphyry Mo deposits,comprising Shapinggou, Donggou, Yuchiling, Qiane’chong in the

Dongqinling–Dabie orogenic belt (Mao et al., 2008, 2011c; Zenget al., 2013) have been explored in the past 10 years. They aregenetically associated with S-type granites and are probably de-rived from an upper crustal source.

4. Porphyry deposits in the Tethyan Eurasian Orogenic Belt(TEOB)

Compared to the porphyry Cu deposits in the CAOB and in EastChina the Tethyan Eurasian Orogenic belt (TEOB) has not beenstudied in detail. The TEOB is of global size extending approxi-mately for over 10,000 km from the western Mediterranean(northern Africa and eastern Spain), across the Alps and Car-patho-Balkans, to SE Europe over the Pontides and the Lesser Cau-casus through Iran, western Pakistan, Central and SE Afghanistan,the Hjndu Kush, Southern Pamirs, Karakorum and the Tibet Plateauto Myanmar and Southwest Indonesia, where it joins the Pacificmetallogenic belts (Jankovic, 1986; Fig. 1). The TEOB hosts theTethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt (TEMB) – one of the world’smajor metal producing belts (Yigit, 2012), where porphyry coppersystems dominate (Jankovic, 1977; Cooke et al., 2005). Exception-ally large porphyry Cu deposits are the principal exploration tar-gets in the TEMB. Intensive exploration particularly in the lastdecade in SE Europe, Turkey, China and Myanmar, has revealed atotal resource of more than 100 Mt Cu, from about 50 porphyrycopper deposits and numerous related prospects (Mutschleret al., 1999; Singer et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2009).

The TEMB can be divided into four sectors from west to east,namely: Carpathian-Balkan, Pontides-Caucasus, Iran-Pakistan, Ti-bet and Three Rivers-Myanmar. The Carpathian-Balkan belt isone of the world’s oldest mining areas, which played a major rolein the history of European civilizations. Porphyry copper (Cu–Au ± PGE) deposits, commonly showing a close spatial associationwith high-sulfidation Au–Cu epithermal deposits, occur in a nearlycontinuous L-shaped belt extending from Romania through theBalkans (former Yugoslavia) to Bulgaria (Berza et al., 1998). Theformation of these deposits is related to the change in convergencebetween Africa and Eurasia from east-west to north-south in theLate Cretaceous (about 110 Ma), resulting in subduction-relatedmagmatism and related porphyry copper deposits, including Maj-danpek, Veliki Krively, Chelopech and Bor (Lips, 2002; Fig. 1). Thesemagmas are typically calc-alkaline to high-K calc-alkaline (Hein-rich and Neubaner, 2002). Age peaks of magmatism occurred at77, 85, and 91 Ma, and porphyry copper deposits formed at 77,85, and between 91 and 80 Ma (Lips et al., 2004).

In the Pontides-Caucasus sector there are many base, rare andprecious metal deposits, but typical porphyry Cu deposits are rela-tively rare (e.g., Kisladag and Copler; Jankovic, 1977; Yigit, 2009;Fig. 1). This sector was generated by the collision of the Arabianand Eurasian plates, in which melting and the subsequent develop-ment of magmatic activity took place from Late Cretaceous toPaleocene. Scattered radiometric ages suggest Jurassic ages in theSomkhit-Karabakh zone of the Trans-Caucasus, but Au-rich por-phyry systems in Turkey have mainly Eocene or younger ages (Yi-git, 2006, 2009; Gugushvili et al., 2010). The magmas associatedwith these Cu–Au (Mo) deposits show both island arc and conti-nental arc-related geochemical signatures and include alkalic com-positions, and share similarity with the Skouries porphyry inGreece.

All major porphyry Cu deposits in Iran occur along the -Dokhtarmagmatic belt, one of the main Cu-bearing regions in the world,including the world-class Sar Cheshmeh and Sungun deposits(Fig. 1). The relatively short Chagai magmatic belt in western Paki-stan hosts several porphyry Cu–Au deposits, including the giantReko Diq deposit and the smaller Saindak deposit (Fig. 1). In Iran,

Fig. 4. Distributions of major porphyry copper and porphyry molybdenum deposits in the eastern and southeast margins of the Tibet Plateau (modified after Xu et al. (2012),Hou and Cook (2009), Xu et al. (2013, 2014), Peng et al. (2013, 2014) and Zheng et al. (2013, 2014) and based on the tectonic map of Yin and Harrison (2000)).

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magmatic activity and Cu mineralization along the mainUrumieh-Dokhtar arc are linked with three main episodes: (1)Eocene-Oligocene; (2) mid-late Oligocene; and (3) mid-late Mio-cene (Shafier et al., 2009). The geochemical signatures of the mag-mas show a close association with typical arc-related porphyries.In Pakistan, Reko Diq shows two age groups, early Miocene andmid-late Miocene, whereas Saindak is of late Miocene age(Richards et al., 2012). Porphyry Cu–Mo and Cu–Au deposits in thissector are related to Neo-Tethyan subduction. The convergence ofthe Afro-Arabian plate with Central Iran and subsequent crustalthickening generated a fertile, metallogenic environment withabundant Miocene porphyry Cu deposits in the Kerman belt(Haschke et al., 2010). In western Pakistan, subduction of theArabian Sea beneath the Makran accretionary complex resultedin ore formation along the Chagai volcanic arc belt (Richardset al., 2012).

In Tibet there are two porphyry Cu belts, the Gangdese por-phyry Cu belt in the south and the Bangonghu-Nujiang porphyryCu–Au belt in the north (Fig. 4). They are the results of Neotethyanoceanic subduction, collision and post-collisional events during theconvergence of India with the Eurasian plate. Within the Gangdesebelt three porphyry Cu–Au deposits in the Xiongcun area are lo-cated in the Jurassic Yeba island arc, with ages of 172.6 ± 2.1–161.5 ± 2.7 Ma (Tafti et al., 2009; Lang et al., 2013, 2014). The por-phyry Mo and hydrothermal vein type Pb–Zn deposits in theNianqing – Tanggula area (or northern Gangdese) developed inthe back arc basin of the continental margin. The ore systems aresimilar to those in East Qinling, with porphyry Mo in the centerand peripheral hydrothermal Pb–Zn deposits (Mao et al., 2009,2011b). The ore formation ages of these porphyry Mo and vein typePb–Zn deposits range from 65 to 51 Ma (Gao et al., 2009; Zhaoet al., 2013). It is widely accepted that the initial time of the In-dia-Eurasia continental collision is between 65 and 50 Ma (Yinand Harrison, 2000; Ding et al., 2005; Searle et al., 2011; Xuet al., 2012), with the main collision occurring between 55 and50 Ma (Chung et al., 2009). In this case the porphyry Mo and

hydrothermal Pb–Zn systems in the northern Gangdese could haveformed in the late stages of subduction and early collision. A dozenof porphyry Cu–Mo (W) deposits, comprising Qulong and Jiama, lo-cated in the EW-striking middle Gangdese belt, have been exploredand are dated at 23–12 Ma (Rui et al., 2003; Hou et al., 2003; Menget al., 2003a,b; Li et al., 2005, 2006, 2007; Zheng et al., 2007; Tanget al., 2010; Wang et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2012). Several otherporphyry deposits, comprising Mingze and Chongmuda locatedsouth of the Yaluzangbu suture, formed in an age range of 40–30 Ma. The two age groups of porphyry systems occurred withintwo short extensional periods of the post-collisional regimes andtheir metals and related granitic rocks, were possibly derived fromthe re-melting of the residual oceanic slab with some input of crus-tal materials, whenever the magma rose to shallow levels (Quet al., 2004, 2007; Zheng et al., 2013, 2014). The study carriedout by Qu et al. (2007) indicates that the porphyry intrusionsresponsible for the Cu–Mo deposits in the Gangdese belt are K-en-riched and belong to the shoshonitic to high-K calc-alkaline series,characterized by enrichment of large ion lithophile elements (LILE)Rb, K, U, Th, Sr, Pb and depletion of high field strength elements(HFSE) Nb, Ta, Ti and heavy rare earth elements (HREE) and Y with-out Eu anomalies. These geochemical signatures suggest that sub-duction played a dominant role in their petrogenesis and thatresidual garnet was left in the magma sources. Moreover, Pb iso-tope systematics suggest that the porphyry magmas were domi-nantly derived from partial melting of subducted oceanic crust,and mixing with a minor quantity of sediments and mantle wedgecomponents. The three stages of the geodynamic evolution andassociated ore-systems in the Gangdese ore belt mentioned aboveare illustrated in the cartoon of Fig. 5.

The Bangonghu-Nujiang porphyry Cu–Au belt is hosted by theBangongco-Nujiang suture (BNS, Fig. 1), which is a 30–90 km wideand 2000 km long belt extending from Mogok (Myanmar) to Bang-ongco in Tibet (China). Until now, porphyry Cu–Au deposits havebeen explored in the western part of the belt, covering an area of600 km2, 60 km long (E–W), and 10 km wide (N–S), and centered

Fig. 5. Cartoon showing the tectonic evolution and metallogeny of porphyry copper and porphyry molybdenum deposits in the Gangdese ore belt. (a) Middle Jurassicsubduction related porphyry Cu–Au deposits in the Yeba Island Arc; (b) Early Cenozoic porphyry Mo and hydrothermal vein type Pb–Zn deposits related to late subductionand early collision in the back arc basin of the continental margin; (c) Cenozoic porphyry Cu–Mo (W) systems in multiple extensional settings within the post-collision stage.

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at the Duobuza and Bolong porphyry Cu–Au deposits. So far, explo-ration is concentrated on the Duobuza, Bolong, Nadun, Dibaonam-ugang, Rongna, Narou and Tiegelong porphyry Cu–Au andepithermal Au–Cu deposits. These porphyry-epithermal Cu–Ausystems are associated with Cretaceous diorite porphyry, quartzporphyry and granodiorite porphyry, and hosted by Cretaceousporphyries and their associated volcanic rocks, as well as Jurassicclastic rocks of littoral facies. The ages (Re–Os on molybdenite)of the porphyry Cu–Au deposits are between 118 and 80 Ma (Liet al., 2012; Tang et al., 2013). According to regional tectonic andsedimentary facies analysis, the Bangongco-Nujiang Ocean waspresent in the Triassic and extended into a deep oceanic basin inthe Early Jurassic. The oceanic crust was then subducted north-ward beneath the Qiangtang terrane by the Early Cretaceous, whenthe Bangongco-Nujiang suture was established as a result of arc-continental collision (Huang and Chen, 1987; Pearce and Deng,1988; Kapp et al., 2003; Li et al., 2012). Calc-alkaline intermedi-ate-mafic volcanic rocks and I-type granites formed in the northof the Bangongco-Nujiang suture zone in the Early Cretaceous,and are interpreted as a volcano-plutonic arc related to subductionof the Bangongco-Nujiang oceanic plate (Liao et al., 2005; Li et al.,2008). However, Qiu et al. (2004) proposed that the Bangonghu-Nujiang Ocean opened in the Early Jurassic, then subducted

towards north in Middle Jurassic and closed in Early Cretaceous.On the other hand, recently more researchers (e.g., Kang et al.,2010; Du et al., 2011) suggested subduction to both south andnorth.

The Three River porphyry Cu belt comprises the Triassic por-phyry Cu–Au and Cretaceous porphyry Cu–Mo deposits of theZhongdian magmatic arc, and the Jinshajiang–Red River Cenozoicporphyry Cu–Mo deposit belt associated with alkaline igneousrocks. The Zhongdian magmatic arc belongs to the southern partof the Yidun arc, which is located in the Mesozoic east-central ac-creted composite terrane of the Tibetan Plateau (Fig. 4). The Zhong-dian magmatic arc is also a significant Triassic porphyry-skarn Cudistrict in China, hosting several major deposits, such as Pulang,Chundu, Xuejiping, as well as several smaller and sub-economicoccurrences (Li, 2006; Li et al., 2011; Peng et al., 2013, 2014). Thesedeposits are also typical porphyry Cu–Au systems, geneticallyassociated with quartz diorite, monzodiorite, and quartz monzo-nite. The age of the mineralization ranges from 213 to 219 Ma(Li, 2006; Li et al., 2013). Recently, several Cretaceous porphyry-skarn Cu–Mo deposits, such as Hongniu and Hongshan have beenexplored. They are genetically associated with quartz monzoniteporphyry formed in the active continental margin, and withmolybdenite Re–Os ages of 80–78 Ma (Peng et al., 2013, 2014;

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Meng et al., 2013). The intrusions associated with Cu mineraliza-tion in both the Late Triassic subduction-related setting and theLate Cretaceous post-subduction setting share a similar magmacomposition in the Zhongdian magmatic arc. The only differenceis that the magma formed in the post-subduction setting containsmore crustal components. Peng et al. (2013, 2014) suggest thatduring the subduction of the Garze-Litang oceanic slab, partialmelting of the subducted slab or of the mantle wedge above theslab caused the formation of abundant Triassic porphyry Cu–(Au)deposits in the Zhongdian arc. The partial melting of the hydratedmantle wedge or subducted oceanic slab largely metasomatizedand transformed the arc lithosphere during a long subduction-re-lated tectonic process. Subsequent to subduction, remelting ofthe residual oceanic slab most likely further metasomatized thearc lithosphere, as described by Richards (2009).

The Jinshajiang–Red River Cenozoic porphyry Cu–Mo belt,extending over 2000 km in the eastern Indian–Eurasian collisionzone, is an important magmatic belt formed in an intra-continentalstrike-slip system in SW China. It comprises the Narigongma, Yu-long, Mangzong, Malasongduo, Zhalaga and Duoxiasongduo depos-its in the north which are dated at 35.4–36.6 Ma (Du et al., 1994;Wang et al., 2004), the Machangqing porphyry and BeiyaskarnAu–Cu–Pb–Zn deposit in the central part have Re–Os ages of 33–36 Ma (Wang et al., 2004; He et al., 2013), whereas the Harbo,Chang’anchong, Tongchang porphyry Cu–Mo, and O Qyo Ho por-phyry Mo deposits in the south have ages of 35–34 Ma (Wanget al., 2004; Zhu et al., 2009). These porphyry Cu–Au–Mo depositsare genetically related to a suite of alkaline rocks, such as pyroxenesyenite, syenite porphyry, quartz syenite porphyry, which are pro-posed to have been derived from the mantle (Zhang et al, 1998;Deng et al., 1998a,b). At about 45–30 Ma, tectonism subsequentto the Indian and Eurasian collision resulted in east–west exten-sion in southeastern Tibet, and caused emplacement of mantle-de-rived potassic magmas along the Ailao Shan–Red River shear zone(Chung et al, 1997, 2005). The magmas appear to have been de-rived from the asthenospheric mantle, possibly with mixing ofmaterial from the buried Tethyan oceanic lithosphere, upper man-tle, and/or crust (Tran et al., 2013, 2014).

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Prof. Yang Fuquan, Dr. Ouyang Hegen andMs. Chen Xiaodan for their constructive discussions and assistantduring drafting this paper. This special issue is partially fundedby China Geological Survey Project No. 12120113093600.

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