Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability · Dr. Mallam Adamu Babikkoi Dr. Suwaiba Said Ahmad Dr. Yale Ibrahim Danjuma Sani Balarabe Abubakar Muhammad Kamal Ja’afar

www.jases.org

e-ISSN 2360-8013

e-ISSN:2360-8013

Journal of Applied Sciences &

Environmental Sustainability

Volume 3 Issue 7, 2017

http://www.jases.org/scope/

http://www.jases.org/scope/

Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability www.jases.org e-ISSN 2360-8013

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JASES Volume 3, Issue 7, is a Special Issue Publication covering selected and revised papers after Peer-reviewed

by Scientific Committee from The International Conference on Science, Engineering, and the Social Sciences

(ICSESS) convened at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia in 2016 and also after Peer-reviewed by reviewers of JASES.

The ICSESS served as an academic platform for championing the pursuit of excellence in various research areas.

Special thanks to the Chief Guest Editor and Guest Editors who have made this possible.


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JASES Editorial Board

Editors-in-Chief

Prof. Dr. Malay Chaudhuri

Emeritus Professor, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia

Dr. Ibraheem Dooba

Special Adviser, Niger State Government, Nigeria

Managing Editor

Dr. Augustine Chioma Affam

University College of Technology Sarawak, Malaysia

Technical Editor

Dr. Ahmed Abba Haruna

Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia


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ICSESS Guest Editor-in-Chief:

Aliyu-Isah Chikaji

ICSESS Guest Editors:

Dr. Mallam Adamu Babikkoi

Dr. Suwaiba Said Ahmad

Dr. Yale Ibrahim Danjuma

Sani Balarabe Abubakar

Muhammad Kamal Ja’afar

Alhaji Mala Galti


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CONTENTS

Evaluation of Resistance in response to Infection of Southern Corn leaf Blight

Disease and Determination of Secondary Metabolites produced during the Interaction 1 - 17

Abdulaziz Bashir Kutawa, Kamaruzaman Sijam and Khairulmazmi Ahmad

Architecture and Recreational Tourism: Patronage of Parks and Gardens in

Kaduna Metropolis 18 - 28

Markus Bulus, Elimisiemon M. Chris, Anifowose K. Jide, Agbodike C. Chigozie

Building Orientation; Enhancing Nature with Nature 29 - 35

John James Anumah, Lesado Anumah

Consumers’ Housing Attributes in the Context of their Socio-Economic Background

in Ibadan Urban Centres 36 - 56

Babatunde Femi Akinyode, Tareef Hayat Khan

Integrated Waste Recycling Framework for Municipal Solid Waste Generated (MSWG)

in Bauchi Metropolis, Nigeria 57 - 67

Adamu Isa Harir, Rozilah Kasim

Influence of Socio-Cultural Factors on Residents’ Satisfaction among Gazian students

in Malaysia 68 - 84

Abdalrahim M. Shehab, Mohd Zin Kandar

Understanding the Underlying Mechanisms that Determine the Behaviour of Stakeholders

in Sustainable Development for Housing Production: A Review 85 – 112

Bala Baba

Comparison of the Production Capacity of Cement Factories in Nigeria 113 - 119

Okigbo O. N., Gana A. A. and Fabunmi F.O.


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Measuring Accessibility of Neighbourhoods to Commercial Activity Areas: Implication

for Land Use Planning in Lokoja, Nigeria 120 - 127

Adams Ndalai Baba, Nooraini Bte Yusoff, Norsiah Bte Abdulaziz, Solomon Dyachia Zakka

Compressive Strength of RHA Stabilised Earth Bricks Mixed With Locust

Bean Pod Extract 128 - 141

Umar Faruq Muhammad, Habibu Tanimu, Ahmad Hayaatuddeen

Self-Help Approach as Panacea for Housing Delivery Dilemma in Nigeria 142 - 158

David Olugbenga Taiwo, Nooraini Bte Yusoff, Norsiah Bte Abdul Aziz

Brief Survey on Implementation of Islamic Education Management Guidance

for Children Orphanage in Makassar 159 - 163

Husen Sarujin

Optimization of Fire Stations Services in Minna Metropolis using Maximum

Covering Location Model (MCLM) 164 - 179

E.A. Adesina, J.O. Odumosu, O.O. Morenikeji, E. Umoru, A.O. Ayokanmbi, E.B. Ogunbode

Finite-Difference Approximations to the Heat Equation via C 180 - 192

Olusegun Adeyemi Olaiju, Yeak Su Hoe, Ezekiel Babatunde Ogunbode

©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 3 (7): 1-17, 2017 e-ISSN 2360-8013

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Research Article

Evaluation of Resistance in response to Infection of Southern Corn leaf Blight

Disease and Determination of Secondary Metabolites produced during the

Interaction Abdulaziz Bashir Kutawa1&2, Kamaruzaman Sijam1 and Khairulmazmi Ahmad1

1Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul

Ehsan, Malaysia.

2Department of Biological Sciences, Federal University Dutsinma, P.M.B 5001, Dutsinma, Katsina State, Nigeria.

ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 02/06/2017

Accepted: 04/07/2017

A b s t r a c t

In Malaysia, corn is produced in small scale due to many diseases affecting

this crop and by planting susceptible hybrids. Southern corn leaf blight (SCLB)

is a foliar disease caused by a fungus Cochliobolus heterostrophus. This

research was aimed to evaluate resistance in selected inbred lines in response

to infection of SCLB disease, and to determine the plant secondary metabolites

produced during the interaction. Only one isolate (CH001) was used for this

study. This isolate was identified using morphological and molecular methods,

the aggressiveness of the isolate was also determined. Based on morphology

and molecular results, this isolate was identified as C. heterostrophus.

Pathogenicity test result showed that, the isolate was very aggressive with

mean disease severity index (DSI) of 60%. Based on assessment of resistance

in selected inbred lines of corn, line SLBR5 was the most resistant line with

DSI mean of 20.30% at the fifth week after inoculation, line SLBS3 was the

most susceptible line with DSI mean of 51.70%. The concentration of

peroxidase (PO), polyphenols oxidase (PPO) and total phenolic content (TPC)

were determined. In PO, resistant line SLBR5 produced higher compounds

with 6320, 7600 and 5800 mgGAE/g at the 1st, 2nd and 3rd week after

inoculation, respectively. Susceptible line, SLBS3 was found to produce less

with 1640, 1800 and 1920 mgGAE/g at the same assessment periods. For PPO,

line SLBR5 also produced higher PPO with 2440, 2560, and 2760 mgGAE/g at

the 1st, 2nd and 3rd week after inoculation, respectively. Line SLBS2

produced less PPO with 1080, 1240 and 880 mgGAE/g at the same period.

Similarly, in TPC, line SLBR5 produced the highest TPC with 15720, 15960

and 17720 mgGAE/g at the 1st, 2nd and 3rd week after inoculation,

respectively. Line SLBS3 produced less TPC with 11960, 10240 and 10840

mgGAE/g at the same assessment periods.

© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.

Corn, Evaluation, Resistance, Secondary Metabolite, Southern Leaf Blight


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1. Introduction

Wheat, corn and rice represent over 80% of Asia's cereal production, and more than 284 million ha of prime

Agricultural land (FAO, 2008). Corn (Zea mays L.) is a member of Maydeae tribe (grass family), "Poaceae"

(Singh, 2005). It is considered as a major cereal crop worldwide, with production of 695 million tons and

per unit area yield of 4815 kg ha (FAO, 2008). Corn plants are generally attacked by Cochliobolus

heterostrophus, in susceptible cultivars the infection that first manifest initially may spread quickly. While

in resistant cultivars, only small lesions developed and the pathogen is unable to reproduce. Researchers

inferred that, the hyphae of the pathogen cannot be spread from its initial area of infection in resistant corn

plant, since it is prevented by a compound found in plants. These chemicals are called "phytoalexins". For

cultivars that are resistant to southern corn leaf blight (SCLB) disease, Lim et al. (1971) found that the

extract from chlorotic lesions serve as the spore germination inhibitors. This restraint of germination in

spore was used as a test to isolate the amount of chemicals variable for resistance to C. heterostrophus

pathogen. Another work conducted by Lim et al. (1971) the phytoalexin and chemistry of corn was

examined in resistant corn plants. There was absence of phytoalexins in diffusates from both susceptible

and resistant corn hybrids. But the diffusates of resistant leaves of corn produced phytoalexins after three

days of infection. Therefore the C. heterostrophus causes the plants to induce chemical that helps in

protection. Green plants produced different types of secondary metabolites, responsible for protection

against wide kinds of pathogens (Bennett and Wallsgrove, 1994). These metabolites give a favorable

chance of survival to plant during the pathogen attack, however, they are considered insignificant for basic

metabolic activities of plants. Some groups of microbes can cause changes in secondary metabolite of corn

plants (Ait Barka and Nowak, 2006; Peipp et al., 1997). Plants react to pathogens and foreign bodies by

secreting a multi segment resistance mechanisms. The host plant first recognizes the invasion of pathogen

and therefore secretes protein encoded by plant disease resistance (R) gene that get attached to particular

pathogen-derived avirulence (Avr) proteins (Odjakova and Hadjiivanova, 2001). This defense is activated

by signaling system including cytosolic ions (H+ and Ca2+), jasmonate, reactive oxygen intermediates,

ethylene and salicyclic acid. Resistance genes encode pathogenesis-related proteins, for example, chitinases,

glucanases and compounds included in the biosynthesis of phytoexins as well as chemicals responsible for

lignification, oxidative stress protection and tissue repair (Agrios, 2005). Benzoxazinoids (Bxs) are a class

of metabolites generally found in grains and first discovered in the 1950's, and were found to have a wide

biological role including insect resistance, defense against pathogens and alleopathy (Bravo and Lazo,

1996; Niemeyer, 1988). These kinds of metabolites can be found in corn, rye and wheat and are synthesized

from tryptophan amino acid in shikimate pathway (Sicker et al., 2000). Phenols produced by plants are

substances derived from the phenylpropanoid and shikimate pathway. A few individuals are described as

``polyphenols'', a term use since not all are classified as derivatives of polyhydroxy (Robards et al., 1999).


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Some studies have reported anticarcinogenic and antioxidant eVects of white corn polyphenolics, for

example, p-coumaric and ferulic acid alongside their individual derivatives (Andreasen et al., 2001;

Anselmi et al., 2004). For most part, plants have protection systems that are activated in response to the

attacks of pathogen. The mechanism of defence might come up short where pathogens is able to foil the

effect of the secreted defence materials of plant or suppress the resistance response; leading to the virulent

pathogen to cause the disease after infection stage. Previous work has recommended that the disease can be

decreased by triggering the defence mechanisms by a stimulus, before the pathogen infection stage

(Choudhary et al., 2007). Host plant has the ability to produce a powerful response that neutralises the

adverse effect of the infection from becoming a severe disease. Hence, up to now, majority of farmers in

Malaysia, are not planting varieties that are resistant to SCLB disease, therefore, it is necessary to

investigate some selected inbred lines of corn that are resistant, and those that are susceptible to SCLB

disease, so that the level at which farmers loss their yield can be reduced. Secondary metabolites are

compounds that are not directly involved in metabolism processes like reproduction as well as normal

growth and development of an organism (Chizzali et al., 2012). These organic compounds often play a key

role in plant defence against pathogens and other interspecies defences. Since peroxidase, polyphenol

oxidase and phenolic compounds were reported to play an important role in plant defence, this study is

focused to investigate different compounds like peroxidase (PO), polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and total

phenolic content (TPC) that helps in protection of corn plant during the attack of C. heterostrophus

pathogen. The objective of this study was to assess selected inbred lines of corn against C. heterostrophus

pathogen, and to quantitate the secondary metabolites produced during the interaction.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Characterisation of Cochliobolus heterostrophus

Isolate CH001 of C. heterostrophus was identified using morphological method. Moreover, the isolate was

identified using molecular method and amplified using universal primer of β-tubulin, TUBUF2 forward (5'-

CGGTAACAACTGGGCCAAGG-3') and TUBUR1 reverse (5'- CCTGGTACTGCTGGTACTCAG-3')

(Kroon et al., 2004). After amplification, the PCR products were sent to MyTACG Bioscience Company for

purification and sequencing of DNA. The purified products of PCR were sequenced using automated DNA

sequencer (ABI PRISM®). DNA sequences results were aligned using BioEdit software version 7.2

(http://www.mbio.ncsu.edu/bioEdit/bioEdit). Partially length nucleotides sequences were searched for

sequences similarities to other sequences which are available in the NCBI database by using Basic Local

Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) algorithm (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) (Altschul et al., 1997). The

accession number for the isolate was obtained from the Genbank. The pathogenic level of this isolate was

http://www.mbio.ncsu.edu/bioEdit/bioEdit


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tested on thai super sweet (TSS) variety of corn in Ladang two glasshouse of Universiti Putra Malaysia

(UPM).

2.2 Planting Materials

The planting materials used for this study were selected inbred lines seed of corn [southern leaf blight

resistant one (SLBR1), southern leaf blight susceptible one (SLBS1), SLBR2, SLBR3, SLBR4, SLBR5,

SLBS2 and SLBS3] obtained from Green World Genetics (GWG) Sdn. Bhd. farm in Batu Arang

(Selangor). These seeds were at seventh to eighth generation, and were sown in plastic pots (20 x 30cm)

containing sterile soil medium. A total of 104 pots were used for this study and three seeds of corn were

sown in each of the pot. Eighty pots containing seedlings were inoculated with C. heterostrophus when the

plants reached 3-4 leaf stage (2 weeks old), the other 24 pots containing seedlings (control) were treated

with sterilized distilled water. Standard plant maintenance like watering and fertilizer application was

carried out during this study. This study was conducted at GWG glasshouse, and the experiment was

repeated two times in order to get consistency in the results.

2.3 Artificial Inoculation of C. heterostrophus

The pathogenicity test was carried out by artificial method of inoculation of C. heterostrophus, using

spraying method as described by Savory (2012). A 14 day old culture of 15 isolates was used. About 15 ml

of sterilized distilled water was carefully added in each of the plates containing a fully grown mycelium, the

mycelia were scrapped using sterilised glass rod, and the spore suspension was filtered into the beaker using

muslin cloth. The filtered spore suspension was diluted with distilled water and counted using

haemocytometer in order to get the desirable concentration (105 spores/ ml). The spore suspension was

transferred into the spraying bottle and around five to six drops of Tween 20 was added in 1 liter of the

conidial suspension. The spore suspension of C. heterostrophus was taken to the glasshouse for inoculation.

The suspension was sprayed on the leaves surfaces continuously until runoff, and the control seedlings were

sprayed with sterilized distilled water. Subsequently, the inoculated seedlings were covered with polythene

bags to maintain the moisture, and these bags were removed after one day of inoculation (Figure 1). The

pots were kept in the glasshouse to maintain the suitable incubation temperature of 27-35 ºC. The seedlings

were inspected on daily basis to monitor the initiation of the symptoms.


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Figure 1: Artificial inoculation of pathogenic C. heterostrophus on eight inbred lines of corn at GWG glasshouse, Batu Arang,

Selangor, Malaysia.

Inoculation was done at the time when the seedlings reached two weeks old (3-4 leaf stage). Only one

aggressive isolate (CH001) of C. heterostrophus was used for this study and a total of 104 seedlings were

used for the experiment. Each inbred line served as a treatment and was replicated ten times while three

replicates were used for the control. The experimental duration lasted for a period of five weeks after

inoculation (WAI) and complete randomized design (CRD) was used.

2.4 Assessment of Resistance in Selected Inbred Lines

Corn inbred lines were assessed based on external symptoms at one week interval for a period of five weeks

after inoculation. The external symptoms like disease incidence (DI) according to Madden and Hughes

(1995) and disease severity index (DSI) according to Campbell and Madden (1990) were assessed, using

rating scale adopted by Jenkins and Elliot (1946) based on a score of 0-5 disease classes, moreover, DSI

was used to categorise the resistant status of each inbred line. Area under disease progress curve (AUDPC)

according to Madden et al., (2007) was computed based on DSI for a period of five weeks after inoculation.

The pathogenicity of C. heterostrophus was quantified based on disease severity index (DSI). The

pathogenic variability of each inbred line line was categorised based on five virulent scales, highly resistant

(DSI=1-10%), resistant (11-20%), moderately resistant (21-30%), moderately susceptible (31-50 %) and

susceptible (> 50%) as presented in Table 1 (Shah et al., 2006).

Disease incidence formula =


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Where,

x = number of infected corn plants

n = total number of seedlings per treatment set

The formula of disease severity index =

DSI =

Where,

A = disease class (0 to 5)

B = number of seedlings showing disease class per treatment

n = total number of replication

5 = a constant that represent the highest class of assessment

The formula of AUDPC =

Where,

n = number of assessment times

Y = disease incidence

t = observation times

Table 1: Disease category used in the assessment of corn seedlings.

Scale (%) Disease resistant category

0 – 10 Highly resistant (HR)

11 – 20 Resistant (R)

21 – 30 Moderately resistant (MR)

31 -50 Moderately susceptible (MS)

>50 Susceptible (S)

Source: (Shah et al., 2006).


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2.5 Determination of Peroxidase (PO), Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and Total Phenolic Content

(TPC) Activity

2.5.1 Samples and Preservation

A total of two to three leaves samples were collected on weekly interval from the inbred lines infected with

pathogenic C. heterostrophus at GWG farm. The collected samples were labeled and kept in ice box for two

hours (from GWG farm to Microbiology laboratory, Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture,

Universiti Putra Malaysia). The samples were stored in refrigerator (-80 ˚C) until further analysis.

2.5.2 Preparation of Crude Extract for PO and PPO

Leaf crude extract was prepared according to the method described by Samatha et al. (2012) with slight

modifications. A 0.25 g of the preserved leaves, from each of the samples were grinded in a chilled mortar

and pestle by adding liquid nitrogen until a fine powder was obtained. The grinded samples were

transferred to 2 ml Eppendorf tube and kept in ice. The samples were treated with 250 µl of cold 0.05 M

sodium acetate buffer (pH 5). About 1.5 mg of polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) was added, the mixture was

centrifuged for 20 minutes at 14000 rpm (4 ˚C). After centrifugation, the supernatant for each of the

samples were collected and used for Po and PPO determination.

2.5.3 Determination of Peroxidase (PO)

About 50 µl of enzyme extract was transferred into a two ml tube containing 750 µl of reaction substrate

(80 ml of 0.1M Sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6), followed by addition of 250 µl of 1mM hydrogen

peroxide (H2O2), another 500 µl of guaicol was added to the tube and the mixture was incubated at room

temperature (25 ˚C) for 30 minutes. A change in absorbance was measured at 470 nm with three seconds

interval for one minute, was recorded after inserting the cuvette in UV spectrophotometer. The blank was

prepared from reaction substrate without addition of the extract (Kokkinakis and Brook, 1979).

Determination of Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO). This was tested by change in colour intensity of pyrrol

product. Mixture of the reaction comprised of 50 µl of enzyme extract from different samples and added to

a two ml tube containing 750 µl of 0.2 M sodium acetate buffer (pH 5) at 4 ˚C. Another 100 µl of 0.02 M

pyrogallol was added to the reaction mixture. The activity was expressed at 410 nm absorbance. The blank

was prepared from the reaction substrate without adding the extract (Kokkinakis and Brook, 1979).

2.5.4 Preparation and Determination of Total Phenolic Content (TPC)

Total phenolic content (TPC) of the leaves were examined using method of Slinkard (1977) and Singleton

et al. (1999) with slight modifications. A 0.25 g of grinded leaves tissues was transferred to a 2 ml


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eppendorf tube containing 1 ml of methanol. The mixture was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for five minutes. A

500 ml of the supernatant was added to the empty tube containing 250 µl of Folin Ciocalteu reagent and

distilled water (ratio 1:5). The mixture was incubated at 25 ˚C for three minutes, another 250 µl of 1M

sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) was added to the tube. Finally the reaction mixtures were incubated at room

temperature for 40 minutes in the dark with shaking intermittently. The absorbance was measured using a

spectrophotometer at 725 nm. Total phenolic content was expressed as Gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g of

the leaves. The activity of PO, PPO and TPC were expressed as changes in absorbance unit g−1 of plant

tissue according to the formula described by Kokkinakis and Brook (1979).

Where,

Optical density = the absorbance of spectrophotometer

Dilution factor = 10

g = the amount of tissue used

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Characterisation of Cochliobolus heterostrophus

Result from morphology showed that the conidial shapes were curved and elongated, which is the unique

feature of C. heterostrophus spore, like other Helminthosporium they are morphologically described by a

multicelled conidia, with the conidial cells organized in a linear arrangement not in irregular manner as in

Alternaria, a member of related genus. These findings are similar to the work of Sivanesan (1987) and

Manamgoda et al. (2014) who stated that, C. heterostrophus are differentiated from other members of genus

Helmenthosporium by having multicelled conidia. Based on molecular methods, this isolate was identified

to be C. heterostrophus and the accession number for this isolate was obtained from Genbank as

KU670330. Result from pathogenicity test showed that, this isolate was very aggressive by having mean

DSI of 60.00% and AUDPC value of 183.50 units2 at the fourth week after inoculation.

3.2 Disease Resistance of Selected Inbred Lines

Isolate CH001 of C. heterostrophus was confirmed to be pathogenic to eight inbred lines of corn. However,

in the case of resistant lines, the lesion only appears in the early stage of infection, after that it fails to

progress. In the case of susceptible inbred lines, the lesions of SCLB disease first appear as elliptical

reddish brown spots of about 0.2-0.5 cm in length, and as the disease progress over weeks, the lesion

became more clear and matured, it elongate longitudinally on leaf surface, by forming different zones of


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blighted areas, which were brownish red necrotic lesions. If the symptoms became severe, it can lead to

defoliation (Figures 2 A-B), but for the control, there was no symptom observed on the seedlings (Figure 3).

Figure 2: (A) The symptoms on susceptible inbred line SLBS2 became severe with brownish red necrotic lesions on the surface of

the leaves; (B) The symptoms on resistant inbred line SLBR3 first appear as spots on the surface of the leaves but vanish over time

Figure 3: Un-inoculated inbred lines without showing any symptoms of southern corn leaf blight infection

A B


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Another important factor required for this study is temperature, of which the environment for this disease to

progress depends heavily on suitable temperature (25-30 °C) for the pathogenic C. heterostrophus to thrive,

germinate and cause infection to the corn plants. Results from this study indicated that, based on disease

incidence (DI), inbred lines SLBS1, SLBR2, SLBS2, SLBS3 and SLBR1 were found to have higher

incidence of disease with 75.5, 70.80, 70.00, 69.50 and 60.00% in the first week after inoculation,

respectively and 100% each, in the fifth week after inoculation. The least incidence of disease was recorded

in line SLBR5 and SLBR3 having 10.50 and 13.00% in the first week after inoculation, respectively with

82.00 and 98.5% in the fifth week after inoculation, respectively (Table 2).

Table 2: Means of disease incidence (DI) for two experiments against pathogenic C. heterostrophus on eight inbred lines of corn.

Inbred lines 1 WAI

(%)

2 WAI

(%)

3 WAI

(%)

4WAI

(%)

5 WAI

(%)

SLBR1 (1) 60.00 80.50 95.00 100.00 100.00

SLBS1 (2) 75.50 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

SLBR2 (3) 70.80 95.50 100.00 100.00 100.00

SLBR3 (4) 13.00 78.50 90.50 95.00 98.50

SLBR4 (5) 47.50 81.00 90.10 98.50 100.00

SLBR5 (6) 10.50 35.00 55.50 75.00 82.00

SLBS2 (7) 70.00 96.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

SLBS3 (8) 69.50 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

WAI= week after inoculation

Based on disease severity index (DSI), Line SLBS3 was found to be the most susceptible lines to SCLB

disease with disease severity index mean of 51.70% and AUDPC value of 213.25 unit2 in the fifth week

after inoculation (Table 3). Lines SLBR4, SLBR1, SLBR2, SLBS2 and SLBS1 were classified to be

moderately susceptible lines with DSI mean of 31.67, 45.30, 47.31, 49.90 and 50.10%, with AUDPC value

of 131.17, 190.75, 201.28, 205.50 and 213.75 unit2, respectively, in the fifth week after inoculation. Line

SLBR3 was found to be the moderate resistant line to the disease by having 29.10% and AUDPC value of

123.75 unit2, respectively, in the fifth week after inoculation. Line SLBR5 was found to be the most

resistant inbred line by having mean DSI of 20.30% and AUDPC value of 85.75 unit2.


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Table 3: Means of Disease severity index (DSI) for two experiments against pathogenic C. heterostrophus on eight inbred lines of

corn.

These findings are similar to those reported by Lim et al. (1971) who worked on inbred lines assessment of

corn. Pataky et al. (2008) assessed some hybrids of corn and reported that 51 hybrids were classified as

moderately susceptible (MS) to SCLB (reactions of 7 to 9), eighty hybrids with ratings from 3 to 5 were

classified between moderately resistant (MR) and MS (4 to 6). One hundred and three hybrids were

classified as resistant (R) to MR with ratings lower than 3. Thirty-six hybrids with ratings of below 2 were

rated R. Scheifele et al. (1970) documented that, under field conditions cultivars and inbred lines of corn

that has T male-sterile cytoplasm were found to have more susceptibility to the disease of SCLB. Corn that

has T male-sterile cytoplasm is at minimum having one or more susceptible chance to become infected with

fungal infection other than that of pathogenic C. heterostrophus. Ayers et al. (1970) have reported that corn

with T cytoplasm is having a high chance to become susceptible to yellow leaf blight. Therefore, every corn

inbred lines having normal cytoplasm have greater chance of resistant than the other inbred lines that have

T cytoplasm. Smith et al. (1970) stated that the physiologic races of C. heterostrophus, particularly race T.

recently served as a whole supplement to the disease associated with plant reporter, that was attributed to

different aspects of SCLB disease epidemic that occur in 1970.

3.3 Determination of Peroxidase (PO), Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO) and Total Phenolic Content

(TPC) Activity in Inoculated Corn

Results from this study showed that, different types of inducible compounds are produced in inoculated

corn seedling. These phyto compounds are usually produced in huge quantities during the initial stage of the

infection (1 to 3 weeks after inoculation). A significant decline in production of these phyto compounds was

Inbred

lines

Inbred

line status

1

WAI

(%)

2

WAI

(%)

3

WAI

(%)

4

WAI

(%)

5

WAI

(%)

Mean

DSI

(%)

AUDPC

(units2)

SLBR1 (1) MS 18.50 46.00 50.00 55.00 57.00 45.30 190.75

SLBS1 (2) MS 14.50 53.00 59.00 61.00 63.00 50.10 213.75

SLBR2 (3) MS 15.56 47.00 57.00 58.00 59.00 47.31 201.28

SLBR3 (4) MR 12.50 31.00 33.00 34.00 35.00 29.10 123.75

SLBR4 (5) MS 16.67 30.00 35.00 35.00 41.67 31.67 131.17

SLBR5 (6) R 11.00 19.00 23.00 24.00 24.50 20.30 85.75

SLBS2 (7) MS 12.00 30.50 53.00 74.00 80.00 49.90 205.50

SLBS3 (8) S 13.50 37.00 56.00 71.00 81.00 51.70 213.25


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observed, during the fourth and fifth week after inoculation except in the case of line SLBR5, as noted in

PPO and TPC that continue to produce more compounds, even in the fifth week after inoculation. At the

fifth week of infection, this is the time when the infection progresses and the disease became severe on the

leaves surfaces. Furthermore, the total phenolic content (TPC) were found to be produce higher in corn

seedling more than the peroxidase (PO) and polyphenols oxidase (PPO). In general, the resistant inbred

lines tends to produce these compounds more than the susceptible inbred lines, and these could be the

reason why they can be able to avert the effect of pathogenic C. heterostrophus and prevent it from causing

severe infection, thereby preventing SCLB lesions to progress in the subsequent weeks, and cause

significant damage to the hosts.

The amount of peroxidase (PO) were found to be higher in the resistant inbred line, SLBR5 by having

6320, 7600 and 5800 mgGAE/g in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd week after inoculation, respectively. This was

followed by inbred line SLBR3 which is also a resistant line with 5600, 6280 and 5040 mgGAE/g in the 1st,

2nd and 3rd week after inoculation, respectively. The inbred line that was found to produce less inducible

compounds was SLBS3 which is susceptible line by having 1640, 1800 and 1920 mgGAE/g in the 1st, 2nd

and 3rd week after inoculation, respectively (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Activity of PO (Peroxidase) on corn leaves at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 weeks after inoculation with pathogenic C. heterostrophus

In the case of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), inbred line SLBR5 (resistant line) was also found to produce

higher PPO than the other inbred lines with 2440, 2560, and 27 60 mgGAE/g in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd week

after inoculation, respectively. Followed by line SLBR3 with 2240, 2280 and 2400 mgGAE/g in the 1st, 2nd

and 3rd week after inoculation, respectively. The least inbred line in term of PPO production was, SLBS2

with 1080, 1240 and 880 mgGAE/g in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd week after inoculation, respectively (Figure 5).


13 | P a g e

Figure 5: Activity of PPO (Polyphenol oxidase) on corn leaves at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 weeks after inoculation with pathogenic C.

heterostrophus

Based on determination of total phenolic content (TPC), line SLBR5 produced the highest with 15720,

15960 and 17720 mgGAE/g in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd week after inoculation, respectively. This was followed

by inbred line SLBR3 which is also a resistant line with, 14680, 15800 and 14840 mgGAE/g in the 1st, 2nd

and 3rd week after inoculation, respectively. The inbred line that was found to produce less was SLBS3

(susceptible line) by having 11960, 10240 and 10840 mgGAE/g at the same assessment periods (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Activity of TPC (Total phenolic content) on corn leaves at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 weeks after inoculation with pathogenic C.

heterostrophus


14 | P a g e

After incubation at room temperature, a mixture of blue to dark blue colour was observed, and this indicated

the presence of phenolic compounds, as presented in Figure 7 A-B. With this it can be stated that, the higher

amount of inducible compound produced in resistant lines, plays an important role in protection of corn

seedlings.

Figure 7: (A) The presence of blue to blue black colouration typically for indicating phenolic content. (B): Spectrophometer used to

study inducible compounds

These findings are similar to the work of Del Pozo et al., (2006) who investigated the composition of

polyphenolic in different grains cereal crops, not just for their function on cell wall structure, but

additionally for their bioactive antioxidant properties. Pan et al. (2003) studied the amount of polyphenols

and caffeine in infected green tea leaves and found that, the amounts of polyphenols were produced higher

than the caffeine. Several plant and fungal metabolites that occur in cereals were studied by Ates et al.

(2014). Robards et al. (1999) worked on Phenolic content and their function in oxidative metabolism in

some vegetables and fruits. Differences in metabolite levels in corn plant induced after inoculation with

some fungal pathogens was investigated by Walker et al. (2012). However, the findings of this study are not

similar to the work of Bajaj and Bhatti (1985) who studied tomato cultivar infected with Meloidogyne

incognita, showed higher PO and PPO activity in susceptible cultivar than in the resistant cultivar. In a

similar event, Mateille and Folkertsma (1994b) observed higher amount of PPO activity in cv. Poyo a

susceptible banana cultivar than in the resistant cv. Gross Michel at 8 weeks after inoculation, which may

be due to the (tissue browning) degree of root damage in the susceptible cultivar.

4. Conclusion

Based on the assessment of eight selected inbred lines, line SLBR3 and SLBR5 were found be resistant

lines, while line SLBR1, SLBS1, SLBR2, SLBR4, SLBS2 and SLBS3 were found to be the susceptible


15 | P a g e

lines among the inbred lines tested. Three types of inducible compounds (PO, PPO and TPC) were found to

be present in corn seedlings (inbred lines), after artificial inoculation of pathogenic C. heterostrophus. This

indicated that, both PO, PPO and TPC are produced higher in resistant lines (SLBR5 and SLBR3) than in

susceptible lines (SLBR1, SLBS1, SLBR2, SLBR4, SLBS2 and SLBS3), these inducible compounds helps

by playing a key role in defensive purposes.

Acknowledgement

The authours of this work would like to express their gratitude for the financial assistance obtained from

Green world genetics (GWG) and Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI).

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Research Article

Architecture and Recreational Tourism: Patronage of Parks and Gardens in

Kaduna Metropolis Markus Bulus1,2*, Elimisiemon M. Chris2, Anifowose K. Jide3, Agbodike C. Chigozie3

1 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor

Bahru, Malaysia.

2 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Kaduna State University P. O. Box 2339, Tafawa

Balewa Way Kaduna, Kaduna, Nigeria.

3 Department of Architecture, School of Environmental Studies, Federal Polytechnic Kaura Namoda P. O. Box 1012,

Zamfara, Gusau, Nigeria.

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

Parks and gardens are lungs and arteries of cities. Not only do they add to the

visual, aesthetics appeal and beauty of any city, they also provide nature,

character and green areas that are valuable for the sustainability, needs of the

environment and the urban drivellers. As urban populations have continued to

increase very rapidly in Nigeria, so have the needs for services to cater for the

requirements of the teeming population, including recreational and amusement

facilities. It is in this regard that this paper investigates the level of patronage

of parks and gardens in Kaduna metropolis, their physical state and facilities.

A purposive sampling technique was used to select five parks for detailed

study. Data were collected through the instrumentality of a questionnaire

which captured the questions this research intended to answer. Also, a

structured interview was conducted at the respective parks with the

management in other to complement the obtained data. The main findings

reveal the decrepit nature of most of the parks and gardens and their general

state of poor maintenance, and, Low level of patronage was discovered. The

paper concluded that, to increase patronage, the state government and the

respective owners of these parks should carry out a holistic renovation work

and provide additional facilities for the amusement of the various age groups..


Architecture; Recreation; Tourism; Amusement.

1. Introduction

Rapid urbanization and urban growth in Nigeria has led to a myriad of urban problems, one of which is the

provision of recreational facility to cater for the needs of its population (Yan & Santos, 2009). Parks and

gardens have been an important aspect of recreational planning in the developed world. In Nigeria however,


19 | P a g e

this is only relatively recent. Dating to the period of colonial role parks and gardens were used as deliberate

policy of segregation and even discrimination (Wen and Yu, 2012). Thus, while the European reservation

areas (non-government residential areas) had lavish provision of public parks and gardens, the township had

only few, and the native towns had in most cases none. Informal parks where use as buffer zones in many

cities in Nigeria to separate the different residential areas and sections. As cities have grown, so the needs

for recreational tourism and leisure has also increased (Jodice et al., 2011) and this has attracted the

attention of the government and communities on the desire to improve on the living conditions of the urban

dwellers through the provision of various recreational and other facilities. For example; housing it, heath

care, roads, parks and gardens and so on. Kaduna metropolis is Characterize by natural and man-made

recreational parks/ garden. As the city has grown over the years, that is, from the ancient colonial era to date

more public parks and gardens has been provided and developed to cater for the needs of the teeming urban

inhabitants whereas others has been lost to their urban uses (Airey and Chong, 2010). The lifestyle and

leisure behaviour of people who patronize parks and gardens is of paramount importance and this has

prompted the desire to evaluate the state of some of the parks and gardens in Kaduna metropolis. The

purpose of this research is to investigate the level of patronage of parks and gardens in Kaduna metropolis,

their physical state and facilities. In other to achieve these aim, the research employed the following

objectives;

To assessed the rate at which tourist visit park/gardens, for recreation or amusement.

To examine the park/gardens state of dilapidation

To Evaluation the facilities present in the park and their adequacy

To assess the extent to which these parks and gardens has satisfied the recreational and amusement

requirement of its tourist.

For the purpose of lucidity, the study has attempted to provide answers to the following questions;

What extent do people patronize parks and gardens in Kaduna metropolis?

What is the physical state of these parks /gardens that is, in terms of dilapidation?

Has these parks /gardens satisfied its tourist requirement for recreations and amusement?

1.1 The Concept of Parks and Gardens and Need For Recreation

Although the original meaning of the word “park” according to (Wen and Yu, 2012) meant a hunting

ground attached to the house of a gentle man. One of the holy books has also documented the creation of

parks by the invisible Almighty creator. God planned and planted the first garden on earth at Eden (from the

beginning). However, by the 19th century in Europe, the meaning changed to “nag land laid out as space,

essential for public use”. On the other hand however, the word “garden” in the words of (Olukoye, 2009)

connote an enclosed piece of ground, usually landscaped and comprising of grassland, flowers and widely


20 | P a g e

planted with trees and with facilities used for recreation. Yet another definition by (Kim et al., 2007) has it

that, the landscape architects consider a garden to be “an art” a means of expressing idea’s, which often

relate to earthly form of paradise. The important distinguishing principles that differentiate public parks

and gardens from private ones are ownership and use. Thus, public parks and gardens are those where

ownership and management are in the public domain and which are open to public use. The word recreation

is a Latin derived from the word to “recreate”, which means to “create a new” or “fresh after toil” (Kim et

al., 2007). Recreation is therefore more than just body exercise. It also has to do with one’s state of mind

and well-being. According to Kim et al., (2007) recreation is a voluntary activity chosen for pleasure, which

is carried out during leisure. Leisure being regarded as a measure of time, that is, the time remaining after

the necessary household chores has been completed. Leisure may so be defined as discretionary time

(Wood et al., 2013). Recreation on the other hand, embraces a wide range of activities undertaken during

leisure. However, the difficulty in the definition has prompted some authors to argue that recreation and

leisure are state of the mind and best defined in psychological terms8. Some individuals recreate for a

plethora of reasons and derived different level of satisfaction from the same activity. Thus, recreation is a

fundamental human need. Parks and gardens are areas devoted to green landscape salubrious and healthful

breathing spaces. They provide relief from the densely populated areas of industrialized cities of the mid-

19th century (used primarily for passive recreation). What differentiates modern parks from the traditional is

the accommodation for active recreation (Tran et al., 2015). Thus, difference in climate, cultural altitude

and social habits of any region influence the design and activities that takes place in a park and garden.

Consequently, it has been observed that parks/gardens create a special image for the city in which they exist

and a sense of pride for the community that support them (Wood et al., 2013). They are of artistic, historic

or cultural significance, and recreational enjoyment. They also exist for pleasure, appreciation of nature,

and conservation of natural resources, medical purpose or form of valued landscapes.

1.2 Recreational Standard for Parks and Gardens

Planning is an established process through which it is possible to control the physical development of cities.

Attempts to measure the effectiveness of a city’s provision of parks and standards have been formulated in

terms of unit area per thousand populations. According to (Xiao, 2006) an average of 2.7 acres (1.1 ha) per

thousand people is required. This is however, 4.6 acres (1.9 ha) in Cheshire which is largely a rural country

in California. At the local level in Abuja, an approximately 2.5 acres (1.01ha) of open space per a thousand

is recommended (Jodice, et al., 2011). Likewise (Airey and Chong, 2010), asserted that standards provide

the frame work for providing recreational areas and facilities. But (Krutwaysho and Bramwell, 2010) argue

that good design does not come from rules, regulation standards or any verbal procedures, but through a

process that examines and determines their real content and which eliminate irrelevances. Therefore,


21 | P a g e

standard should be applied with common sense and good judgment and not remain fixed in application, as

communities varies in their climate, topography and natural resources.

1.3 Accessibility and Users Satisfaction with Parks and Gardens

The form of intra-urban movement influences the level of patronage of parks and gardens. Movement has to

do with specific point location of activities, which individual seek to undertake. Accessibility is viewed in

terms of physical distance, travel time and cost. Location efficiency in based on accessibility of the facilities

to the user and involves physical distance and transport cost and time taken. In economic terms,

accessibility is the cost of transportation and fee paid before entrance. Krutwaysho and Bramwell, (2010)

argue that accessibility of parks and gardens to the public in Nigeria is reasonable in terms of fees charged

and age allowed. Most of the parks and gardens have no restriction on age limit. Physical distance however

remains an important factor, which affects accessibility. Murray et al, (2007), has cautioned that before

planning extensively and meaningfully for parks, the attitude and preference of the potential customers

should be studied, evaluated and closely understood. Realizing that, these are of primary importance to the

satisfaction of users. It is necessary therefore, to consider the users view-point when evaluating satisfaction

derived from recreation. Other factors that affect recreation are the socio-economic characteristics of users,

their educational attainment, occupational status, income, mobility, the availability of leisure time, sex,

marital status and family size; physical factors, especially facilities in the parks and gardens, location etc.

2. Research Methodology

Methodology employed for this research includes; the use of structured interview, direct field observation

and monitoring and administration of a structured questionnaire. Five (5) parks were selected in Kaduna

metropolis for detailed study. There, locations from the city center and spatial spread were considered.

These parks are; the General Hassan Katina Park (Gamji Park), Trappco Range and Resort, Pixie-Dixie

Amusement Park, Treasure of the Universe Resort and the Push Garden. A questionnaire survey was

articulated to collect factual information on the demographic, socio-economic characteristics of the users,

their level of satisfaction with such parks/gardens, the facilities available and state of dilapidation. The

questionnaire was administered in the five selected parks and gardens on a face to face approach. During

the reconnaissance survey, information on the type and nature of the facilities in the parks/garden, their

physical conditions, and degree of maintenance and cleanliness was recorded as observed.


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The data collected on the patronage of recreational parks and gardens in Kaduna were presented and

analysed in this section based on the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the respective

respondent’s and their level of satisfaction with the parks/gardens.

3.1 Respondent Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics

The demographic and socio-economic characteristics of respondent were collected based on their

age, sex, educational status and monthly income, since these has been found to be the most determinant

factors that influence patronage of parks and gardens. The age and sex distribution of visitors to the

different recreational/amusement parks and gardens is presented in Tables 1-5.

Table1: Showing Age and Sex Distribution of Users Bush Resort Garden

AGE GROUP MALES FEMALES FREQUENCY

14 YEARS BELOW 10 5 18

15-24 15 18 33

25-34 10 12 22

35-44 8 2 10

45-54 5 0 5

55-ABOVE 2 0 2

TOTAL 50 40 90

Source: Field Work (JULY, 2015)

Table 2: Showing Age and Sex Distribution of Tourist at General Hassan Kastina Park (GAMJI PARK)

AGE GROUP MALES FEMALES

14 YEARS BELOW 19 11

15-24 29 16

25-34 14 12

35-44 6 4

45-54 2 0

55 ABOVE 1 0

TOTAL 63 53



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Table 3: Showing the Age and Sex Distribution of Tourist at Treasures of the Universe Resort.

AGE GROUP MALES FEMALES

14 YEARS BELOW 4 3

15-24 8 9

25-34 6 5

35-44 6 3

45-54 2 1

55 ABOVE 1 _

TOTAL 22 25 52

Source: Field Work (JULY 2015)

Table 4: Showing Age and Sex Distribution of Tourist at Puxie-Duxie Amusument Park


14 YEARS BELOW 14 13 27

15-24 19 20 39

25-34 10 11 21

35-44 3 2 5

45-54 _ _ 0

55 ABOVE _ _ 0

TOTAL 46 46 92


Table 5: Showing Age and Sex Distribution of Tourist at Trappco Resort


14 BELOW 2 2 4

15-24 10 8 18

25-34 12 10 22

35-44 6 7 13

45-54 3 2 5

55 ABOVE 2 __ 2

TOTAL 35 29 64



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The overall age distribution of visitors indicate that youths (15-24) years has the highest group of people

who patronize parks and gardens in Kaduna metropolis, While those with 45years and above were the least.

This result agrees with6 discovery that, the desire to participate in exercising diminishes with age. From 30

years and above participation declined. Murray et al., (2007) also asserted that, frequency intensity and

participation in recreational activities changes over the years as the ability to participate in recreational

activities waxes and wanes with age. There are many notable exceptions; however, as with increased

provision of recreational facilities for older people, there is intendancy for resurgence amongst them in

active a creation. Only few people uses free time constructively, some use it in un-purposeful ways which is

detrimental to the society.

TABLE 6: Showing Educational Attainments Tourist In Parks

PARKS/GARDENS

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

PRIMARY

SCHOOL

SECONDARY

SCHOOL

TERTIARY INFORMAL TOTAL

GENERAL HASSAN

KASTINA

8 14 20 5 2

TREASURE OF THE

UNIVERSE

12 18 20 2 52

TRAPP CO RESORT 15 20 22 7 64

DUXIE—PUXIE

22 26 32 14 92

BUSH GARDEN

15 30 40 5 90

FREQUENCY

62 108 134 33

From the data presented on table14it is obvious that people higher educational background tend to engage

more in recreational/amusement pursuits than those who are not. Increase on income on the other hand has

a reverse effect as level of patronage decline with increase in income (see table 7).

TABLE 7: Showing Incomes and Patronage of Parks/Gardens

Parks/garden Monthly income

Less than

10,000

10,000-

20,000

20,000-

30,000

30,000-

40,000

40,000-

above

G.H.K park 26 25 20 18 10

T. of the

universe

20 18 15 10 5

Trappco Result 15 10 7 5 3


25 | P a g e

Duxie-puxie 25 20 15 12 10

Bush garden 12 10 8 6 4

frequency 98 93 65 51 32

Source: fieldwork (July, 2015)

Higher income earners tend to engage in more costly recreational pursuits. People who earn less than ten

thousand naira per month formed the bulk of those people using parks and gardens of which this study

found out to be students.

3.2 Users Opinion on Facilities in the Parks/Gardens

The Study examined users’ level of satisfaction with facilities in the parks and gardens, their physical

conditions, and state of dilapidation. An inventory of the facilities in the various parks /gardens studied is

indicated in Table 8.

Table 8: Showing Facilities In Parks/Gardens

Parks/gardens G.H.K.P Bush garden D.P.P T.U TRAPPCO TOTAL

Restaurant - -

Bar(s) - -

Toilet (s)

Tents (s)

Snooker table (s) -

Kiosk/shops (s) -

Public scat (s) - - - -

Volley ball court - -

Swings -

Parking lots

Average No of daily visitors 30 20 40 12 18

Source: fieldwork (July, 2015)

It can be deduce from the level of patronage that there is positive Correlation between the level of existing

facilities and the number of tourist visited in these parks and gardens. This result has concurred to Kevin

(14) assertion that the level of patronage will be directly proportional to the availability of facilities.


26 | P a g e

In terms of the level of satisfactions with facilities, 18% of the total respondent indicated that they are very

satisfied, 22% indicated satisfied while 60% indicated otherwise [see table 9].

TABLE 9: Showing Level of Satisfaction with Facilities in the Parks/Gardens

Level of

satisfaction

G.H.K.P B .G D.P.P TRAPPCO T.UNIVERSE TOTAL 100%

vary

satisfied

16 14 10 15 10 65 18%

Satisfied 14 10 12 20 14 70 22%

Not satisfied 36 27 28 40 30 161 60%

Source: Fieldwork (JULY, 2015)

On the types of leisure activities engage in while in the parks/gardens, these fall into three major categories,

firstly, sporting activities such as snooker, swings and table tennis secondly, passive activities such as

seating, resting, reading of newspapers and magazines or just to meet friends and thirdly, to use facilities in

the parks/gardens such as restaurants kiosk /shops toilets etc. Patronage of parks/gardens in usually high

during public holidays, while the time spends in the parks/gardens depends on the facilities that are

available. Those who visit for social and relaxation purposes tend to stay longer than those who visit on

business purposes, for example to patronize the restaurants.

3.3 Parks and Gardens State of Dilapidation

Users’ response to weather the parks/gardens need to be renovated; their state of dilapidation is shown in

table 1. From the data in the table, it can be deduce that Trappco range resort has the highest ranking,

followed with the bush gardens; General HASSAN Katsina park, Treasure of the Universe Resort and lastly

Dixie –Puxie Amusement Park.

TABLE 10: Showing Users Rating Of Parks/Gardens in terms of Delapidation

Level of dilapidation G.H.K.P B .G TRAPPCO T.U D.P.P TOTAL %

Very dilapidated 36 27 40 30 20 161 60%

Moderately dilapidated 16 10 20 14 10 70 21%

Not dilapidated 14 14 15 10 10 65 19%

Source: Fieldwork (JULY, 2015)

4. Conclusion

From the study, General Hassan Katsina Park has the highest patronage; followed by Dixie–Puxie

Amusement Park, Treasure of the Universe Resort, Bush garden and Trappco Resort respectively. Also, it


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has shown that parks/gardens in Kaduna metropolis are underutilized. To increase patronage, the state

government and the respective owners of these parks should carry out a holistic renovation work and

provide additional facilities for the amusement of the various age groups. Furthermore, public

enlightenment on the significance of recreation and leisure will boost patronage.

Acknowledgment

This study is a result of the assistance of many people with whom I have worked with. I would like to

particularly show gratitude to Managing Directors of all the Parks/Gardens for their contribution to the

success of this study. I am really thankful to Mrs. Markus too, for being there always when I needed her

support.

References

Airey D, Chong K. National policy-Makers for tourism in China. Ann Tour Res [Internet]. Elsevier Ltd;

2010;37(2):295–314. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2009.09.004

Akinlabi Fadamiro J, Joseph Adedeji A. Recreational experiences in parks and gardens, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Journal of Place Management and Development. 2014;7(1):5-26.

De Freitas CR. Tourism climatology: Evaluating environmental information for decision making and

business planning in the recreation and tourism sector. Int J Biometeorol. 2003;48(1):45–54.

Jodice LW, Lacher G, Norman WC, Hughes D, Culler W. and Management Linkages Between Traditional

Coastal-. 2011.

Kim H, Cheng CK, O’Leary JT. Understanding participation patterns and trends in tourism cultural

attractions. Tour Manag. 2007;28(5):1366–71.

Krutwaysho O, Bramwell B. Tourism policy implementation and society. Ann Tour Res [Internet]. Elsevier

Ltd; 2010;37(3):670–91. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2009.12.004

Murray D, Price B, Crilley G. Advocacy and Visitation Levels in Australian Botanic Gardens: Process and

Outcome Benefits. Journal of Park & Recreation Administration. 2007;25(3).

Olokesusi, F. An Assessment of Hotels in Abeokuta, Nigeria and its implication for Tourist. International,

Journal of Hospitality Management. 1990;(2):125-34.

Olukole TO. GIS Database and Wildlife-based Tourism: The Case of the University of Ibadan Zoo, Nigeria.

Tour Recreat Res [Internet]. 2009;34(2):213–7. Available from:

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02508281.2009.11081595

Tran X, Nguyen BL, Nguyen MC. Effects of the Big Five Personality Traits on Recreation Types - The

Case of Vietnam Tourism. 2015.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2009.09.004


http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02508281.2009.11081595


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Wen T, Yu J. Study of the Landscape Tourism Planning Based on Regional Culture: The Case of

TaoHuaJiang Landscape and Famous Scenery in Hunan Province. Appl Mech Mater [Internet].

2012;174-177:2617–20. Available from: http://www.scientific.net/AMM.174-177.2617

Wood S a, Guerry AD, Silver JM, Lacayo M. Using social media to quantify nature-based tourism and

recreation. Sci Rep [Internet]. 2013;3:2976. Available from:

http://www.nature.com/srep/2013/131017/srep02976/full/srep02976.html

Xiao H. The discourse of power: Deng Xiaoping and tourism development in China. Tour Manag.

2006;27(5):803–14.

Yan G, Santos CA. “CHINA, FOREVER”. Tourism Discourse and Self-Orientalism. Ann Tour Res

[Internet]. Elsevier Ltd; 2009;36(2):295–315. Available from:


http://www.scientific.net/AMM.174-177.2617

http://www.nature.com/srep/2013/131017/srep02976/full/srep02976.html


©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 3 (7): 29 - 35, 2017 e-ISSN 2360-8013

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Research Article

Building Orientation; Enhancing Nature with Nature John James Anumah1, Lesado Anumah2

1 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Jos-Nigeria

2 Archshel Development Ltd, Jos-Nigeria

E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

With the increase in energy efficient measures in residential buildings,

Architects in the tropics are continually exploring bioclimatic approaches that

enhance the efficient passive performance of buildings. A north-south

orientation is recommended for buildings in the tropics as this ensures the

building takes advantage of windward breeze that aids cooling and shuts out

excessive sunlight that causes overheating. Where site constraint makes it

difficult to achieve a north-south orientation, extra measures have to be

employed to ensure that the building is not over heated. The aim of a building

design is to provide comfort for occupants to do their activity at home by

considering the macro and microclimate. In this paper, emphasis is laid on

vegetation a natural and passive design feature to improve the microclimate. A

three (3) bedroom bungalow sited on a piece of land with some constraint, not

oriented in the recommended north-south orientation for building in the tropics

is studied. In this light, trees, shrubs and vegetal cover were used to improve

the microclimate and a comfortable exterior and interior were achieved

passively, while the aesthetic appeal of the ambience was enhanced. Buildings

can take advantage of the macroclimate of their locations, and the

microclimate can be improved upon with vegetation (passively) to achieve

comfortable living conditions while attaining naturally, aesthetically pleasing

scenery. Nature can be used to enhance nature.


Building orientation, Macroclimate, Microclimate, Vegetation

1. Introduction

The orientation of a building is important to its overall energy efficiency. A properly oriented building can

save a lot of money by cutting down heating and cooling costs. (EcoWho, 2017) Building orientation has

strong correlation with wind direction and sun radiation (Prianto et al., 2000). Every region in the world has

a specific climatic behaviour, some places might be too hot or too cold and some other in between. Prior to

every construction, there is an important decision to be taken in determining the building location; the

mailto:[email protected]



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orientation. This will turn the building to its most important side so occupants (users) will have the best

living conditions even when the weather outside is not too conducive (Akande, 2010). Tropical countries

are countries located between 15o north and south of the equator. The basic climatic condition in the tropics

is generally wet and dry season with high humidity and almost equal in day and night hours. Problems

frequently noticed in this climate are: high temperature in the building (over heating), low air quality for

internal spaces and glare. This contributes to high energy usage for cooling in buildings as users try to get

the right comfort zone (Sahabuddin, 2012). A building oriented for solar design takes advantage of passive

and active solar strategies. Passive solar strategies use energy from the sun to heat and illuminate buildings.

Building orientation facilitate temperature moderation and natural daylighting (Green Building Manual,

2011). Nigeria; a country in west Africa is located in the tropics and is faced with these problems in most of

her cities. Developers in most cities ignore these problems as they are primarily concerned with the value of

the properties and/or the amount these properties can generate as rent. Cooling cost is often ignored and

neglected as the use of air-conditioners is some form of status symbol in most cities in Nigeria. In the

tropics, buildings should maximally avoid direct sun and try to make a barrier between it and living space.

Figure 1: building orientation Source: The Constructor: Civil Engineering Home (2017)

Figure 1 above shows the orientation of a building with the longer sides facing the north and south. The best

orientation for buildings in the tropics is the north-south orientation as they are better for daylighting and

visual comfort; the east and west facades facing the sun. These facades are recommended to be of solid wall

or have minimal openings (Autodesk, 2017). To take advantage of the sun’s light and warmth, larger


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expanse of windows is recommended on the south façade than on the north. In climates of prolonged

excessive heat, an expanse of northern windows is recommended to benefit from indirect sunlight (Beal,

2010). Due to site constraint, these requirements might not be met, and then extra design measures have to

be employed to ensure that the building is not over heated. A natural solution will be to improve the micro-

climate around the building. This helps to reduce overheating and cooling cost, maximize outdoor comfort,

improve durability of building materials by reducing rain penetration and provide better visual environment

around the building (Rehan, 2016). The factors affecting micro climate can be classified as those outside the

architect’s control and those within the architect’s control.

Table 1: Factors affecting Micro Climate

Outside Architect’s control Within Architect’s control

Area and local climate Spacing and orientation of building

Site surrounding Location of open spaces

Site shape Form and height of buildings

Topographic features Fenestration

Surrounding buildings Tree cover

Wind breaks

Surrounding surfaces

Source: ESRU, (2012).

Table 1 above shows the factors affecting the micro climate. For this paper, emphasis was on the factors

within the architect’s control where orientation is not optimally achieved because of site constraint.

1.1 Enhancing Nature with Nature

Vegetation: this is the overall plant cover (trees, shrubs, grasses) within an area. Vegetation is one naturally

occurring phenomena. It is rich and provides an excellent means of improving microclimate. Its surfaces do

not heat up and they provide efficient shading at almost no cost (ESRU, 2012). It can be redirected,

redesigned and improved upon to enhance the micro climate, hence, the phrase “enhancing nature with

nature”. Trees can be planted to redirect and break winds, ground cover (grasses) can be planted to reduce

and in some cases curb the effect of erosion. They can also reduce the external temperature of a building

surrounding through evapotranspiration; compound word used to define evaporation and transpiration

(Burleson, 2011; Ismail et al., 2011). Hard surfaces are almost inevitable around buildings, but they should

be minimal to reduce the outdoor temperature. When hard surfaces are heated and these surfaces are

surrounded by shrubs, instead of a significant increase in the ambient temperature, the ambient temperature

remains cooler as a result of shading provided by plant foliage and moisture that they retain in the soil. A


32 | P a g e

vegetal cover of the ground keeps pavement comparatively cool and contributes much to a cooler outdoor

microclimate (Faust, 2000). Vegetation (trees, shrubs and grasses/groundcover) serves the following

functions:

Protection against solar radiant heat

Cooling of ventilated space after pavements and green cover

Reduction of dust by filtering the air

Regulating effects of humidity.

2. Methodology

Relevant literature on building orientation in the tropics and on improving microclimate was reviewed. For

this paper, emphasis was laid on vegetation as it is natural, effective and an affordable means of improving

microclimate. A simple three (3) bedroom bungalow sited on a site with some restraints was considered.

The building orientation was not the recommended north-south orientation for building in the tropics, but

trees, shrubs and ground cover were used to improve the microclimate. Hence, a comfortable exterior and

interior was achieved using affordable soft landscape elements.

3. Discussion

The site was irregularly shaped, though predominantly a triangle. This was the major constraint as the shape

of the site predetermined the shape and orientation of the building. The longer axis of the building had to be

on the longer axis of the site. The site had a north-east, south-west orientation, hence, the orientation of the

building.

Figure 2: Showing 3-dimensional architectural site plan

SOLAR NORTH


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Figure 2 above is a 3-dimensional architectural site plan of the 3-bedroom bungalow used as the case study

for this paper. It can be seen from the figure that the longer façade of the building is facing north-east and

south-west, hence, the building has a north-east, south-west orientation. The shape of the site was a

constraint in achieving the recommended north-south orientation. Even though modifications were made in

the landscaping at the construction stage to enhance the microclimate, the building orientation remained

unchanged. As the building had a north-east, south-west orientation, trees were planted on the north east

façade to filter the dry and dusty north-east trade winds, thereby reducing and to an extent eliminating the

effect of the wind. A duplex was also built about fifteen metres (15m) away on the north-east façade of the

bungalow in study thereby further reducing the effects of the dusty north-east trade winds.

Figure 3: Trees on the north-east façade Figure 4: Porch on the south-east façade

The smaller facades of the building were facing the south-east and the north-west. The south-east façade

had the tendency to be overheated as it receives most of the sunshine since the sun rises in the east and

travels to the west through the south. To curb or reduce overheating, a veranda (porch) was designed on this

façade and a window located in the porch, thereby, protecting it from direct sunlight. To achieve cross

ventilation in one of the rooms, a window had to be located on this façade and was exposed to direct

sunlight. Vegetation was used to curb and/or reduce the effect of overheating as a golden palm tree was

sited just in front of this window and Bahamas grass planted as ground cover.

Figure 5: Golden (areca) palm in front of Figure 6: Play area

Window


34 | P a g e

The north-west end of the site was designed as the play area and further away was an orchard. Trees were

also planted at the perimeter wall to curb the effect of glare from the sun-set in the west. The site had a

predominant south-east and the north-west slope. Ground cover (buffalo grass) was planted to curb erosion.

This ground cover had such an aesthetic appeal that it improved the aesthetic value of the site. The south-

west façade which was the other longer façade of the building was staggered to reduce the effect of driving

rain. A veranda (kitchen porch) was also designed on this façade. Trees were also planted on this façade to

reduce rain penetration. The pavements (hard surfaces) were minimal and restricted to carparks and

walkways. These surfaces were surrounded with hedges and vegetal cover thereby, keeping the ambient

temperature cool as a result of shading provided by shrub foliage and moisture retained in the soil.

Figure 7: Staggered south-west façade Figure 8: Hedges and Bahama grass surrounding

pavement

The gazebo, located close to the car park suffers no effect of overheating by means of reflection from the

pavement. This is because most of its sides are open; hence, heat is not trapped. Furthermore, it is

surrounded by vegetal ground cover (buffalo grass). Summarily, the building is allowed to grow with and

become part of the environment while taking advantages of the macroclimate and improving the

microclimate to its advantage.

4. Conclusion

Even though a north-south orientation is the best for buildings in the tropics, where this is not achievable

due to site constraint, vegetation can be used to improve the microclimate. This helps to attain a

comfortable outdoor and indoor ambient temperature while improving the aesthetic appeal of the site. As

architects, site constraint and imperfect scenarios should rather spur us on to bring out the best in our

creative abilities rather than aid us have excuses for the limitations of nature. The problems frequently

noticed in the tropics: high temperature in the building (over heated), low air quality for internal spaces and

glare can be curbed through proper planning, planting of trees and vegetal cover. Buildings can take

advantage of the macroclimate of their locations, and the microclimate improved upon with vegetation to

achieve comfort conditions and naturally aesthetic ambience. Nature can be used to enhance nature.


35 | P a g e

References

Akande, O. K. (2010), Passive design strategies for residential buildings in a hot dry climate in Nigeria,

WIT Press www.witpress.com ISSN 1743-3541

Autodesk (2017), Massing and Orientation for Daylighting, Autodesk sustainability workshop, Retrieved

14.07.2017 from autodesk.com/buildings/massing-orientation-daylighting

Beal, J (2010), How to Position a House on a Lot for Maximum Energy Conservation, SFGATE Home

Guides. Retrieved 14.07.2017 from homeguides.sf.com

Burleson, E. P. (2011). Energy Revolution and Disaster Response in the Face of Climate Change, Villanova

Environmental Law Journal, 22 (169)

EcoWho (2017), The Importance of Building Orientation, Eco Friendly and Sustainable living, retrieved

12.07.2017 from www.echowho.com

Energy Systems Research Unit; ESRU (2012), Macro and Micro Climate, ERSU web site (file type ’16-

climate.pdf)

Faust, J L (2000), In the Garden; Mulch to keep plants cool and moist, New York Today, N. Y. /Region

Green Building Manual, NJ (2011), Building Orientation, NEW COMMERCIAL UPDATED 5-MAY-11

Ismail, A., Samad, M. H. A., & Rahman, A. M. A. (2011), The Investigation of Green roof and White Roof

Cooling Potential on Single Storey Residential Building in the Malaysian Climate. World Academy

of Science, Engineering and Technology. 76 129-137.

Prianto, E., Bonneaud, F. Depecker, P. and Peneau, J-P. (2000), Tropical-Humid Architecture in Natural

Ventilation Efficient Point of View; A Reference of Traditional Architecture in Indonesia,

International Journal on Architectural Science, Volume 1, Number 2, p.80-95

Rehan, R. M. (2016), Cool city as a sustainable example of heat island management case study of the

coolest city in the world, HBRC Journal volume 12, Issue 2

Sahabuddin, F. (2012), 4 Key Factors in Designing a Building in Tropical Climate, A voyage of discovery:

a journey of life, lensahijau.blogspot.co.ke

The Constructor: Civil Engineering Home (2017), Building Orientation for Hot and Dry Climate, Home/

Building Technology and Construction Guide/ Building/ Building Orientation for Hot and Dry

Climate.

©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 3 (7): 36 -56, 2017 e-ISSN 2360-8013

36 | P a g e

Research Article

Consumers’ Housing Attributes in the Context of their Socio-Economic

Background in Ibadan Urban Centres Babatunde Femi Akinyode1,2, Tareef Hayat Khan3

1 Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

2 Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Nigeria.

3 Faculty of Built Environment, University of Technology, Johor Bahru, Malaysia.

Email: [email protected] +60106669717

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

This study investigated the relationship between consumers’ housing attributes

and their socio-economic background. Explicitly, it identified the influence of

consumers’ socio-economic status on their affordable houses, how significant

the socio-economic status impact on their affordable house and the facilities

provided within the houses. The study used data collected from 494

respondents in five local government areas within Ibadan urban centre.

Responses to housing attributes items influenced by their socio-economic

status are subjected to descriptive analysis. Item variables emerged from the

analysis were grouped into housing general conditions, materials and

construction methods, Facilities and House rent. These were considered as

significant factors under which housing attributes could be best explained.

Although the housing attributes are different from localities, different levels of

environment and densities, the housing attributes are similar in relation to the

consumers’ socio-economic status within the urban centre. The policy

implications of these results were also highlighted.


Affordable houses; consumers; house rents; housing; housing qualities; socio-economic

1. Introduction

Diversities of fascination and impetus influences ascribed to the endlessly increasing eagerness and

aspiration of numerous households to live in urban centre. These influences include prospect for

employment, provision of utilities, amenities and facilities within the urban centres. The repercussion was

the urban populations’ growth at an alarming rate in many developed and developing cities. This

subsequently brought about an proliferation in housing demand, housing shortage and problem of housing

affordability (Olayiwola, Adeleye, & Ogunshakin, 2005). Ibadan as a developing city became a

“consumers’ city” and is not left out in these problems. Various factors have led Ibadan urban centre to



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become “consumers’ city”, and these factors include attractive cultural amenities and infrastructural

facilities. Unrelenting influx of individuals to Ibadan urban centre resulted to increase in housing demand

followed by the increase in house rents and problem of housing affordability (Akinyode, 2016). Originally,

affordable housing was connected only with monetary influences. Housing research focusing on the

consumers, necessities exploration on the significance or impact of cultural, political, social or economic

factors that may collectively and likely influence the consumers’ immersion in the housing market

(Akinyode, Khan, & Ahmad, 2015). Since affordable housing is not always a benevolent or endowed

occurrence, it must look into the possibility to be accepted to the target consumers. Therefore, study on

consumers’ housing attributes in the context of their socio-economic background can be considered in

determining the influence of consumers’ socio-economic status on their affordable housing as this can give

a clue to the efficient housing provision within the housing market. This is mainly to make housing not only

affordable but also acceptable that can bring relief especially to the low and middle-income households in

making decisions to enter the market of affordable housing. Referring to housing affordability in Ibadan

urban centre specifically, the study will provide detailed knowledge on housing typology and environment

as this could provide ample information on the physical facilities of the housing in this context. Besides,

detail socio-economic data of the consumers can also be used in designing, planning and implementing

different housing related policies. Although the study is limited to Ibadan, the capital city of Oyo state, the

Nigerian housing policy makers and that of other developing countries can have an insight that would be of

relevant assistance and applicable in their housing affordability program through which affordable housing

programme would be improved. With this, the study is therefore designed to fill an existing research gap in

the field of housing research, contributes and adds to the existing housing research and literatures in Nigeria

with particular reference to Ibadan. The remaining of the paper is organized in the following order. This

introduction is followed by the review of relevant literatures by different scholars. The third part discusses

the methods and materials used in achieving the objectives of the study. Next is the presentation of the

empirical analysis, results and discussion for exploring the consumers’ housing attributes in the context of

their socio-economic background. This is to determine the influence of consumer’s socio-economic

background on their affordable houses. Finally, some of the policy implications emanating from the paper

are highlighted to conclude the paper.

2. Literature review

Consumer’s income and sufficient housing provision are seen as the two contributing factors for effective

housing demand (Allain, Hartwig, & Hayes, 2013; Ying, Luo, & Chen, 2013). Nevertheless, income is seen

as the most significant factor influencing effective housing demand (Davenport, 2003) because it measures

the affordability (Chen, Tsai, & Chang, 2007). The effective housing demand fundamentally depends on the


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consumer’s income due to insufficient provision of housing units. Consumers with far less income to cover

housing costs are not capable to meet housing demand among those with higher income (Andrews, 1998)

and consequently led to the problem of housing affordability. Thus, consumer must be ready to sacrifice

income to other necessities to secure housing unit. Davenport (2003) suggested increase in consumers’

income and reduction of income discrepancy to have optimistic influence to improve effective housing

demand and affordability amongst low-income household. The prices of house and the rate of housing

growth are the two measures identified by Todd (2007) that limit urban effective housing demand.

According to him, housing is in inelastic supply in some cities because of limited land and restriction on

development by regulations. McQuinn and O'Reilly (2008) supported this view and opined that, house price

is the determinant factors of effective housing demand and supply. Housing supply is the quantity of

housing units that the suppliers are willing and ready to supply depends upon the profit making at that

particular time period (Quigley, 2002, 2007; Wong, 2002). Gregory and Linlin (2009) saw the

commercialisation of residential housing via housing speculation in urban areas as the factor that is

responsible to rapid increase in house price. Government’s intervention in regulating housing market

through regulation could not be effective in controlling the house price due to upward shift in housing

demand. The forces of demand and supply are more powerful than government intervention. Therefore,

difference between housing demand and supply rate resulted from slow response of supply to demand

necessitates urgent attention in housing policy (Wendy, 2010). However, the involvement of government in

solving problems on affordable housing, improving housing provision and designing housing policies to

eliminate the problems and housing shortages remains unfruitful in most part of developing countries

especially in Nigeria (Aribigbola, 2011). Between 1960 and 1990, individuals budged to cities and the

growth rate of household’s movement into the city increased while the growth rate within the suburbs areas

fell Glaeser, Kolko, and Saiz (2001). The continued growth and expansion of the city led to wide gap

between housing supply and demand (UN-Habitat, 2011). The rate of housing provision falls short of the

rate of urban growth and housing need in Nigeria (Jiboye, 2011; Oladunjoye, 2005; Olotuah, 2000) thereby

resulted to increase in housing price. Consequently, lower income individuals are the most affected. Due to

the demand, housing units are still produced, but their quality gradually decreases in order to meet the level

of their affordability. Therefore, affordability often synchronises with lower quality of housing. Problems of

housing affordability especially among low and middle income households gave rise to slums and

uncomfortable environments within urban centres and outskirt of the city as a result of ill-working housing

markets (UN-Habitat, 2011). Such environments are seldom healthy, comfortable and dignified places to

live. Though, government at all levels and private sectors have made several efforts to improve the housing

provision and affordability in Nigeria urban centre but the problem of housing affordability remains the

same. Ineffective method of public housing delivery scheme coupled with non-taking into consideration the


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socio-economic status of the housing consumer has been a major problem that leads to problems of housing

affordability in Nigeria context. Hills (2001) in his study opined the combination of social inclusion that

focused on setting minimum housing standard and distributional aim that focused on supporting low-

income households as a strategy for housing affordability. The increased in housing demand resulted from

rapid rate of urbanization which cannot be merged with housing supply in both urban and semi-urban

centres in Nigeria subsequently led to prevalent problems of housing affordability whereby most Nigerian

cannot afford decent housing. This has however been of tremendous concern especially to all professionals

in human settlements and housing policy makers. Thus, urgent attention is imperative in order to solve the

problem of housing affordability in Nigeria with particular reference to Ibadan urban centres.

3. Methods and Materials

The study made use of quantitative research approach to achieve the objective of this study. The data were

collected through questionnaire survey. The study started with direct observation that led to identifying

problems. The questionnaires were administered among 500 respondents within the five local government

areas in Ibadan urban centre. There were 113 respondents in Ibadan North local government area, 119

respondents in North-East local government area, 59 respondents in North-West local government area, 101

respondents in South-East local government area and 108 respondents in South-West local government

area. Through verification of the questionnaires, six questionnaires were incomplete and then discarded.

The remaining 494 questionnaires representing 494 respondents were used in this study. This study

employed means t-test and descriptive analysis such frequency tables, percentage and histograms. All the

item variables passed through means t-test to confirm that all the item variables are eligible for analysis.

The employment of descriptive analysis was to explain the consumers’ housing attributes and the

significant impact of their socio-economic status on affordable houses and the facilities provided within the

houses.

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Validity and reliability of data

Some statistical validity and reliability test were done in order to make sure the statistical data were

significant. The validity in this study was based on scores, instruments, or research designs through Kaiser-

Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity. Cronbach’s Alpha was

used to access the internal consistent reliability of the survey instrument. In this study, both the Reliability

and Adequacy Test were performed and the result of the Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of Reliability test

indicated greater reliability while Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) of Validity test also showed that the

instrument truly measured what it supposed to measure. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient value of 0.753


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was considered sufficiently reliable and good internal consistency. This followed the recommendation of

some scholars that claimed the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient ranges between scale of 0.50 and 0.80 should

be considered sufficiently reliable and good internal consistency for an exploratory study such as this

(Foubert, Tepper, & Morrison, 1998; Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010; Khozaei, Ayub, Hassan, &

Khozaei, 2010; Newton & Meyer, 2010; Toyin Sawyerr & Yusof, 2013). The study also recorded higher

respondents of 494 administered questionnaires with KMO value of 0.835. This signifies reliable, adequate

and valid survey sampling (Field, 2009).

4.2 Housing qualities of available affordable houses

It is important to look at the physical qualities of the affordable houses within the context of consumer’s

socio-economic status. This is to determine the influence of consumer’s socio-economic background on

their affordable houses. This follows the hypothesis, which stated that consumers’ socio-economic status is

related to their affordable houses. Apparently, the services provided by any particular housing depend upon

a great variety of physical features of the house and the location in which it is situated (Atterhög & Song,

2009). The socio-economic data of the consumers is believed to have relationship to the housing quality and

the choice of housing unit. The quality, utilities and amenities that are available in the house are of

important to consumers in housing acceptability and choice preferences. There is a wide variety of features

in this aspect and these include house type, house age, house construction materials, toilet type, cooking

place, cooking materials, road accessibility type, source of water supply, distance to the source of water

supply, water supply frequency, water supply monthly payment, source of lighting, house rents, refuse

waste disposal method and so on. All the item variables passed means t-test as shown in Table 1 indicating

that they are eligible for analysis. Nonetheless, not all of the variables were considered necessary to be

discussed in this paper. The variables were further grouped into four under which housing attributes could

be best explained. The groups are as followed:

i. General conditions of the houses

ii. Materials and Construction methods of the house

iii. Facilities within the house

iv. House rent.

These were considered as significant factors to describe housing attributes during literature review and were

enlightened through descriptive statistics.


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4.2.1 General Condition of the Houses

The type of house occupied by an individual is as a result of market oriented economy housing situation. As

a large number of consumers in Ibadan urban centre struggle to find a minimum space that can be called a

shelter, few consumers live in more than enough residential areas that is highly serviced and well planned.

This differential situation to compete for space and shelter remains unresolved problem. Housing provides

more than space and shelter; often used by others to judge consumers and to classify them in the society.

Every type of house is being attached with a specific value (Adair, Berry, & McGreal, 1996; Robst, Deitz,

& McGoldrick, 1999).

Table 1: Mean’s t-test for Housing Attribute related Item Variables

One-Sample Test

Item Variables Test Value = 0

Item Variables t df Sig.

(2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference

95% Confidence Interval

of the Difference

Lower Upper

Type of House 40.632 493 .000 1.279 1.22 1.34

Estimate age of the House 75.680 493 .000 4.016 3.91 4.12

Materials used for the construction

of the House Wall

118.866 493 .000 2.733 2.69 2.78

House Flooring Materials 102.676 493 .000 2.085 2.05 2.12

House Roofing Materials 72.710 493 .000 2.164 2.11 2.22

Toilet type 117.204 493 .000 4.302 4.23 4.37

Where do you cook 103.355 493 .000 4.411 4.33 4.49

What do you frequently use for

cooking in your household

115.693 493 .000 3.140 3.09 3.19

Type of accessibility to the House 58.550 493 .000 1.856 1.79 1.92

What is the frequent source of

water supply

135.806 493 .000 3.158 3.11 3.20

What is the distance of the

frequent source of water to the

house

53.651 493 .000 1.065 1.03 1.10

How regular do you pay for the

water supply

74.929 493 .000 1.034 1.01 1.06

How much do you pay for the 60.068 493 .000 1.047 1.01 1.08


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One-Sample Test

water supply monthly

How much have you spent for the

water for the past 6 months

87.545 493 .000 1.028 1.01 1.05

What is the frequent source of

lighting

104.744 493 .000 3.532 3.47 3.60

How much do you spend on

electricity monthly

45.565 493 .000 1.231 1.18 1.28

Refuse waste Disposal Method 51.609 493 .000 3.202 3.08 3.32

How much do you pay monthly on

refuse waste collection

82.521 493 .000 1.045 1.02 1.07

In this study, five classification systems were adopted. Informal, traditional/Brazilian house predominated

among the sampled respondents by accounting for 84.82% of the sampled survey. This type of house was

profoundly concentrated commonly within the slum areas of each of the five local government areas. Only

9.50% of the total houses are categorised as single flat while block of flats and duplex accounted for 04%

and 1.60% respectively as presented in Table 2. The presence of single flats, duplex and block of flats are

only found in the Government Reservation Areas (GRAs) and other low-density areas. The implication of

concentration of Informal, traditional/Brazilian houses within the study area indicates that, majority of the

residents are living in slum and congested areas of Ibadan urban centre.

Table 2: House ownership and physical quality

Item Variables Frequency Percentage Histogram

Types of House within the study area

Traditional/Brazilian 419 84.82

Blocks of Flats 20 04.04

Single Flat 47 09.51

Duplex 08 01.61

Informal/Improvised 01 00.20

Total 494 100.00

Estimated Age of the House

1 - 15 Years 26 5.30

16 - 30 Years 40 08.10

31 - 45 Years 63 12.80

46 - 60 Years 136 27.50


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Above 60 Years 229 46.40

Total 494 100.00

Ownership of the House/House Tenure

Privately Owned 156 31.60

Government 15 03.00

Institution 09 01.80

Rented 314 63.60

Total 494 100.00

Ordinarily, the physical structure is being depreciated when a house is getting older. However, the qualities

of the house depend upon some numbers of other factors. These include the income of the owner, available

facilities within the house, conformity with physical planning regulations and so on (Fisher, Pollakowski, &

Zabel, 2009; Seelig & Phibbs, 2006). All these may exert some impact on the house rent within the study

area. The survey carried out tried to find out from the respondents what they thought could be the estimated

age of the house they are occupying. Only those who know the history of the house they are residing were

able to give reasonable answers while majority tried to guess what could be the estimated age of the house.

Nevertheless, since majority of the respondents claimed to have known the age by either estimation or

guess, it is possible that the average age for the house will be representative enough. The respondents’

estimation of house age that was built above 60 years is 46. 40% while 27.50% of the houses were built

within 46 and 60 years as shown in Table 2. The implication of this is that, majority of the houses are

relatively old and becoming deteriorated as shown in Figure 1 indicating the typical affordable houses

consumers are occupying within the study area.


44 | P a g e

Figure 1: The typical affordable houses being occupied by the consumers

The effect of age on the value of house and its consequent rental charges is not a straight-line progression.

The rental charges depend on the population of consumers that are competing for the available houses. This

supports the findings of some other scholars (Arayela, 2003; Onu & Onu, 2012; Otubu, 2009) that


45 | P a g e

stipulated that unprecedented increase in population results to high demand in housing and consequently

affects house rent. Most consumers got the house for rent through either the estate agent, assistance from

the family members or assistance from the co-staff/friends. The majority of respondents are occupying a

rented house because they cannot afford to get their personal house due to their financial capability. This

study sought to know the house tenure in order to determine the house ownership. This provided an

estimation of total number of respondents that fall within the tenancy occupation. Out of the 494

respondents that were sampled, only 31.60% of the total respondents claimed to occupy their private house

while majority of the respondents live in a rented house as shown in Table 2. Besides, 63.60% of the total

respondents occupy rented house while 3.00% and 1.80% of the sampled respondents occupy government

and institution house respectively. This confirms that respondents are occupying the house they got through

either the estate agent, assistance from the family members or through the assistance of co-staff.

4.2.2 Materials for the Construction of the House

The materials used for the house construction can judge the social status of the house occupants either as

owner or as the tenants. The survey reveals that 70.40% of respondents occupied the houses constructed of

blocks followed by 27.90% respondents that occupied houses being constructed of mud (see Table 3).

27.90% respondents occupied houses being constructed of mud is in line with the discovery of Binici,

Aksogan, Bakbak, Kaplan, and Isik (2009) and Binici, Aksogan, Bodur, Akca, and Kapur (2007) that

approximately 30% of the world’s present population live in mud structures because of its cheapness. It is

realised that majority of those respondents occupying mud houses are aged and native of Ibadan. This study

believes that a relatively good house that is constructed with good and quality material may attract high

rental values and high class of consumers compared with house that is constructed with poor and low

quality material. In spite of the fact that majority of the consumers’ desire to live in a house that is

constructed with good and quality material, not every consumer can afford to live in such house due to their

socio-economics background especially among low and middle income earners. 90.30% of the houses

surveyed used cement concrete for the flooring. This is followed by 5.1% houses are with ceramics tiles

while 2.2% with laterite that are being occupied by aged and Ibadan native consumers. Few consumers with

marble and terrazzo flooring are mostly found in GRAs being occupied by the high-income earners with

high socio-economic status.


46 | P a g e

Table 3: Materials for the construction of the House


Wall materials for the construction of the House

Blocks 348 70.40

Mud 138 27.90

Burnt Bricks 02 00.40

Cement Concrete 04 00.80

Wood or Bamboo 02 00.40

Total 494 100.00

Flooring materials for the construction of the House

Literate 11 02.20


Ceramics Tiles 25 05.10

Marble Tiles 08 01.60

Terrazzo 04 00.80

Total 494 100.00

Roofing materials for the construction of the House

Wood or Bamboo 02 00.40

Corrugated Iron sheet 460 93.10

Long Span Aluminium 21 04.30


Asbestos 09 01.80

Total 494 100.00

The housing market then becomes a powerful instrument in segregating or separating the low and middle-

income earners from the high-income earners within Ibadan urban centre. This result from the materials

used for the construction especially the roofing materials. For this study, five types of roofing material were

identified. Corrugated iron sheet takes the lion share of the type of roofing material that is being used for

house construction. Table 3 designates that, 93.10% of the total respondents’ house used corrugated iron

sheet and 4.3% used long span aluminium for the roofing. Few houses used aluminium and asbestos roofing

sheet because of high cost of purchase. The high cost of these materials cannot be affordable by majority of

the consumers and will also add to the rental cost. It can therefore be inferred that the commonest material

being used for house construction within Ibadan urban centre are cement concrete and corrugated iron sheet

for flooring and roofing respectively. This is because majority of the consumers are low and middle-income


47 | P a g e

earners with low socio-economic background which cannot afford to use very expensive material for house

construction. Besides this, the private housing sectors that are making housing provision for commercial

purpose always consider the affordable rent to the populace and the house location in the material to be

used.

4.2.3 Facilities within the House

Housing often contains some basic facilities such as toilet, kitchen, water supply, lighting facilities and so

on. The provision of these basic facilities often reflects in the house rents. In this study, investigation was

made on the provision of these basic facilities within the house. This aimed at comparing the consumers’

housing attributes with their socio-economic background. It also helped in determining housing attributes

influence on consumers’ housing affordability. Investigation on the provision of toilet facilities within the

study area indicates that majority of the house are being provided with pit latrine with total number of

51.00% of the total sampled survey as shown in Table 4. This is followed by the houses that are being

provided with water closet (WC) with total number of 43.10%. About 2.60% of the houses either do not

have any toilet facility at all or depend solely on public toilet. It could be deduced that majority of the

houses that are being provided with none or any other toilet facilities rather than water closet are majorly

found within the location where low and middle-income earners reside. These categories of the consumer

do not count this facility as so importance where they are living. This is because of their financial capability

and socio-economic background. This negate the findings of Cooper, Law, Malthus, and Wood (2010) who

were of opinion that an hygienic toilet facility is a pre-requisite for a housing unit, and it cannot be

compensated for in order to make the housing unit cheaper. Cooking facility is another facility that was

investigated by this study. This is to ascertain the location respondents and members of the household are

using for their daily cooking. Majority of the respondents are cooking in the kitchen with total numbers of

61.30% respondents followed by those cooking in the passage with total number of 28.10% respondents

which is equivalent to as specified in Table 4 whereas 03.60% respondents are cooking in the veranda.

Majority of the consumers takes proper cooking facility as a pre-requisite within the housing unit and this

confirms the result of Fehérváry (2002). Out of the 494 respondents, 78.70% of the respondents depend on

the deep well as the frequent source of their water supply within the study area. 15.00% depend on borehole

while 03.60% respondents claim to be buying water daily from the water vendors as presented in Table 4.

The use of borehole as the source of water supply can only be found in few houses within the housing estate

and some areas of low and middle-income earners residents where government provided.


48 | P a g e

Table 4: Facilities within the House

Item Variables Frequency Percent Histogram

Toilet Facilities of the House

None/Public Toilet 13 02.60

Open Space 09 01.80

Pail Latrine 07 01.40

Pit Latrine 252 51.00

Water Closet 213 43.10

Total 494 100.00

Cooking Facilities of the House

Outside 14 02.80

Room 20 04.00

Veranda 18 03.60

Passage 139 28.10

Kitchen 303 61.30

Total 494 100.00

Frequent Sources of water supply in the House

Stream/River 01 00.20

Purchase from Vendor 18 03.60

Deep Well 389 78.70

Borehole 74 15.00

Pipe-borne water 12 02.40

Total 494 100.00

Frequent Sources of lighting in the House

Candles 03 00.60

Kerosene 54 10.90

Generator 128 25.90

Electricity 295 59.70

Others (Local Lamp) 14 02.80

Total 494 100.00

In investigating frequent sources of lighting in the house within the study area, five options were given,

electricity as the frequent source of lighting takes the lion share with 59.70% followed by those using

generator as shown in Table 4. The 25.90% of the respondents claim to be using generator as the source of

their light and complained that, their electricity is faulty and the government refused to come into their aid.


49 | P a g e

10.90% of the respondents using kerosene for lighting are using this because they do not have regular

supply of the electricity. Only 02.80% respondents are the aged people living within the slum areas of the

study area are using the local lamp. One of the facilities influencing housing environments is the provision

of well-defined and maintained refuse disposal systems. These promote cleanliness and improve the beauty

of housing environment. Where this facility is lacking, poorly provided or improper maintained, the housing

environment becomes filthy, susceptible to mosquito and smell. These impair the health and well-being of

those living in such environment. Refuse disposal management is one of the challenges facing Ibadan urban

centre. In the study, collection of refuse by the government takes the larger percentage 66% as indicated in

Table 5. Those that involve in burning their refuse are 20.60% of the total respondents. This shows the

involvement of the state government towards the neatness of the city.

Table 5: Utilities within the House


Refuse Disposal Method in the House

Open Space/Burning 135 27.30

Stream 02 00.40

Communal Collection 07 01.40

Government Collection 328 66.40

Private Firm 22 04.50

Total 494 100.00

Accessibility to the House

Not Accessible 163 33.00

Untarred Road 239 48.40

Tarred Road 92 18.60

Total 494 100.00

Every housing unit needs and suppose to seek for a location that will give maximum accessibility to other

land uses and services such as places of work, recreation, shopping and so on. Moreover, housing proximity

to other physical, social and economic environment that is compatible to one another is also very important

to take into consideration (Djebarni & Al‐Abed, 2000). This is in examination of various consumers’

housing attributes in the context of their socio-economic background. This will enhance the value of the

house within the locality where it is situated. If all the housing developers are rational and being conscious

within the context of efficient physical planning development in order to create an environment that is well

conducive, comfortable and safe to the consumers, every housing unit will be situated within the area where

it can receive maximum secured accessibility. In this study, only 18.60% the respondents claim that, their


50 | P a g e

house is being accessible by tarred road while 48.40% respondents’ house are accessible by untarred road

and the remaining 33.00% respondents’ house are not accessible at all as shown in Table 5. The implication

of this poor accessibility to the houses within the study area is that, consumers will be deprived of the

proximity to some basic facilities within the city. Besides, lack of accessibility may affect consumers’

satisfaction as some scholars (Akinyode et al., 2015; Gutiérrez, Condeço-Melhorado, & Martín, 2010; Ipoh,

2011) confirmed accessibility to have significant influence on housing satisfaction and choice of residential

neighbourhood.

4.2.4 House Rents

Majority of the consumers within the study area are tenants while only few have their own personal house

as discussed previously. Out of 494 respondents, 47.40% of the total respondents pay their house rent

directly to the house owners and 19.00% of the respondents, pay house rent through the estate agent. Only

04.30% respondents are living in the house provided by their employers and their rent is being deducted

from their salary as reflected in Table 6. The remaining 29.40% of the respondents that are not applicable

indicates the respondents that are not paying rent. This category of consumers is living in non-rented house,

either in their personal or family house. The implication of this is that, the housing demand will be greater

than the supply (Jiboye, 2011; Oladunjoye, 2005; Olotuah, 2000) and may invariably increase the house

rent, affect housing quality and cause housing affordability problems. There are in existence different types

of housing unit within Ibadan urban centre broadly categorised as flat and Brazilian types. The structuring

of the responses and range of values were specified in accordance to these broad categories. The

respondents were required to specify the class of values that best represents their rent. The respondents that

pay below N20,000.00 per room constitute the highest percentage which is 50.80% of the total sampled

survey while the respondents that pay above N80,000.00 per room are the least respondents which is 0.40%

as revealed in Table 6. The respondents that pay between N91, 000.00 and N120, 000.00 per flat are the

highest.

However, non-applicable respondents in annual rent per room and annual rent per flat are those that either

owns their personal house or inherit the family house. Non-applicable respondents in annual rent per room

and annual rent per flat are 37.90% and 91.10% of the respondents respectively as shown in Table 6. Non-

applicable respondents are of larger percentage in the annual rent per flat. The majority of the respondents

are low-income households that cannot manage to rent high priced house like flat. This implies that,

majority of the respondents cannot afford to live in a flat assumed to be expensive compare with their

financial capability and socio-economic background. This result confirms that there is significant

relationship between consumers’ income and house types (Adair et al., 1996; Robst et al., 1999).


51 | P a g e

Table 6: House Rents payments


Medium of House Rents payment

Not Applicable 145 29.40

Directly to the owner 234 47.40

Agent 94 19.00

Deduction from the Salary 21 04.30

Total 494 100.00

Estimated Annual Rent per Room


Below N20,000.00 251 50.80

N21,000.00 - N40,000.00 51 10.30

N41,000.00 - N60,000.00 03 00.60

Above N60,000.00 02 00.40

Total 494 100.00

Estimated Annual Rent per Flat


Below N90,000.00 20 04.00

N91,000.00 - N150,000.00 18 03.60

N151,000.00 - N200,000.00 04 00.80

Above N200, 000.00 02 00.40

Total 494 100.00

House Rent Subsidy

No 481 97.40

Yes 13 02.60

Total 494 100.00

The study also determined those that have access to rent subsidy among the respondents. Only 02.60% of

the respondents have access to rent subsidy while the remaining 97.40% do not have access to rent subsidy

as presented in Table 6. The situation establishes that, the larger percentage of the respondents is not

government or company employees that will have access to rent subsidy. This also validates that majority of

the respondents are either self-employed or artisans. This implies that, the purpose of housing subsidies in a

household bearing less than the full cost of the housing (Agbola & Kassim, 2007; Sinai & Waldfogel, 2005)


52 | P a g e

to improve housing quality of low-income households and provide decent housing within their financial

capability (Gilbert, 2000; Hills, 2001) cannot be achieved among the majority of the consumers.

5. Conclusion and Policy Implications

The houses are mostly rented and rent is quite low. As expected from the lower income segment of the

society, high rent is not feasible for attracting them. Nevertheless, the physical conditions of these houses,

both exterior and interior as well as the construction quality are not of very high quality. That obviously

raises the immediate question whether low-income segment of society deserve to stay in low quality houses.

It can be concluded that there is a general assumption that affordable houses can be or should be of low

quality construction, exterior, and interior as if low rent is synonymous with low quality of houses and as if

they do not deserve to live in decent housing conditions. Thus, overall improvement of housing standard

irrespective of socio-economic classes is necessary for a nation to move forward. Accessibility to decent but

affordable housing provision is the key for countries like Nigeria, where the low-income group occupy the

majority of the demographic distribution. Improvement in housing stock along with well-planned

acceptable standard of infrastructures and affordable cost becomes strategically important social and

economic investment. In view of this, ameliorating housing affordability problems among different

consumers in Ibadan should be given urgent attention. In terms of amenities such as electricity or water

supply, these houses are good enough. However, certain physical or social issues need to be re-addressed.

For example, the construction materials, especially for wall construction with mud which is a popular

process need proper maintenance. Though average maintenance cost is still low but the standard of wall

construction can be upgraded, so that they do not give a dilapidated image. In terms of interior spaces, the

cooking spaces need to be properly designed as cooking is considered as a major activity in the household.

These houses do not provide the same way that traditional cooking process demands. Therefore, a less

sensible design is evident in these houses. Whether this kind of certain upgrading could cost much, is

subject to investigation which is not part of this present study. Conclusively, housing contributes towards

consumers’ improved health and increase in their productivity. Since government is not yet being able to

provide affordable housing directly, it can assist the private owners groups so that they can indirectly

contribute to a housing situation where every individual or household, irrespective of affluence, can live in

a decent housing environment. Meeting affordable housing need of consumers should be considered as a

way of improving their living standard that influence their health, welfare and productivity rather than self-

political ambition and financial gains.


53 | P a g e

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Research Article

Integrated Waste Recycling Framework for Municipal Solid Waste Generated

(MSWG) in Bauchi Metropolis, Nigeria Adamu Isa Harir1, Rozilah Kasim2

1Department of Urban & Regional Planning, A.T.B. University Bauchi, Nigeria.

2Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

Email: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 2/06/2017


A b s t r a c t

An audit survey of quantities and compositions of municipal solid waste

generated (MSWG) is important to plan an effective waste management in any

locality. Resource recycling of solid waste materials is more preferable than

waste disposal in landfills, which is the last choice consideration. In Bauchi

metropolis, the resource recycling possibilities from MSWG are rarely

explored as evident in the observed mixed waste disposed-off in the final dump

sites in the study area. In Bauchi as in most Nigerian cities mixed waste is

disposed without segregation into open dump sites as a typical method for

waste management. This study has investigated the MSWG in Bauchi

metropolis and explored the possibilities of integrated waste recycling (IWR)

due mainly to lack of waste characterisation studies. An IWR system combines

recycling with composting methods as a strategy to achieve optimum recovery

of inorganic and organic wastes respectively from the MSWG. This study is a

quantitative analysis of MSWG in the three residential zones within Bauchi

metropolis. Stratified random method was used to select 400 household units

as sample size for data collection and 368 of the screened data was found valid

for detail analysis. The result revealed waste composition that supported IWR

method and can recover up to 76.55% of MSWG in Bauchi the study area.

This study concludes that IWR possibilities are large from the compositions of

MSWG in Bauchi metropolis. Therefore, IWR framework is proposed to

implement these possibilities as a prelude to effective management for MSWG

in Bauchi metropolis, Nigeria.


Integrated waste recycling framework; Waste compositing; Waste recycling; Waste composition; Municipal solid waste generation; Bauchi metropolis

1. Introduction

An audit survey to characterize the municipal solid waste generated (MSWG) is the first process in

planning effective waste management system. Abur, et al., (2014), defined waste characterization as the


58 | P a g e

segregation of waste into various fractions to determine the quantity and composition; based on the location

and time of waste generation. Reliable data of MSWG is necessary to determine optimal methods and

techniques for collection and disposal of waste in effective waste management. Ogwueleka (2009) noted

that data on waste composition determined the adequacy of waste management system. Likewise, Harir et

al., (2016) supported the view that solid waste recycling and composting is most preferred than waste

disposal into the landfills. However, the success of waste recycling method is strongly relying on

dependable data from waste characterization (Bridgwater, 1979). Elkhedr, (2016) also recognised waste

characterization as important factor to effective waste management. The global generation of solid waste

have been increasing and rapidly. The estimates show an increase from 1.3 billion tons in the year 2012 to

2.2 billion tons by the year 2025 (World Bank 2012). Consequently, the waste management cost has

increased from $205 billion in 2012 to $375 billion estimated for 2025 (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).

The greater impacts of these changes are anticipated in developing countries (World Bank 2013). Therefore,

data for MSWG is most relevant in developing countries, to determine proper planning for effective waste

management systems (Harir, et al., 2015a). Despite the higher MSWG in the developed countries, the waste

management systems have been effective due mainly by waste characterization and proper planning of its

management. Björklund (2000), opined that waste recycling methods reduces the workload and create

savings which facilitate effective waste management. Likewise, a Zhang et al., (2010) has observed positive

contributions of waste recycling sector in Japan, Sweden, Germany and the United States. Therefore,

implementing the IWR method will be effective for waste management in developing countries. However,

IWR framework is virtually absent in the current system of waste management in Nigeria and most

developing countries. In Bauchi metropolis, the task of MSWG is beyond the system capacity; considering

the daily collections and disposal is only 69% of waste generations (Babanyara & Bogoro, 2011). Solid

waste disposal in open dump sites and the burning of combustible materials like cardboards, papers, rubber,

leather, wood, plastic, furniture, textiles, leaves and grasses are burned in the open air by local incinerator

method which serves as the most popular system of solid waste management in Bauchi as in most Nigerian

cities (Oyerinde, & Makama, 2016). Some organized open dumps are provided by waste management

authorities within the metropolis for waste disposal. but many others are sited indiscriminate on spaces

convenient to the residents. In both types of dump sites heaps of solid wastes are created due to poor waste

collection system. This serves a great risk to public health due to production of methane, leachate and

smokes, which pollutes the air, land, ground and surface water (Medina, 2005). Therefore, data on MSWG

is necessary to explore the integrated waste recycling (IWR) method for effective waste management IN

Bauchi metropolis and other cities in Nigeria.


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2. Overview of literature

2.1 Compositions of MSWG in Nigeria.

Literature has indicated the dominance of organic waste categories Nigerian cities (Afon, & Okewole, 2007

and Sha’Ato, et al., 2007). From analysis of eight Nigerian cities, Cristina, M. A (2013) reported a 57.5%

organic waste composition. Likewise, Nabegu (2008) observed a composition of 68.26% organic and

31.74% inorganic waste in three residential zones in Kano metropolis, Nigeria. Another study by Belel &

Mahmoud (2013), found 67.6% organic and 32.4% recyclable waste in Jimeta, Yola, Nigeria. Similarly,

Olukanni et al., (2014) evaluated a waste composition of 64% of largely recyclable and organic material in

Ota Town, southwest Nigeria. In an elaborate study of MSWG in many Nigerian regions, Harir et al.,

(2015b) showed the highest composition was 63% organic waste while 37% were inorganic recyclable

waste like papers, textiles, metal, plastics and glass materials. The narratives from this review has indicated

a convergence of high compositions of organic and inorganic materials from the MSWG in Nigerian cities.

This a clear implication that IWR method is the most appropriate policy to achieving effective system of

managing MSWG in Nigeria.

2.2 The integrated waste recycling (IWR) methods

The objective of integrated waste recycling is to optimize the recovery of potential resources from the waste

stream compositions for reuse. The method essentially consists of the recovery of organic and inorganic

waste for composting and recycling respectively. Composting is defined as the decomposition of organic

material at the appropriate temperature and humidity by aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms (Singh, et

al., 2011). Waste composting can divert huge quantities and compositions of MSWG from disposal.

Olukanni, et al., (2014) noted that composting of waste reduces the total workload and save cost of

management. This is most essential in developing countries, where the collection; transfer and final disposal

contribute half the total cost of waste management (Kadafa, et al., 2013 and Erami, et al., 2015). (Singh, et

al., 2011) noted the role of waste composting in mitigating the impacts of pollution from chemical

fertilizers on ground water and soil quality by reducing the amount of waste disposal. Organic fertilizer

from waste composting can replenish the soil quality through a balanced ecosystem. Farrell & Jones (2009)

recognised organic fertilizer in soil quality restoration when contaminated by heavy metals and acidic

pollution. The organic restoration of soil quality is practiced with positive effects in many developed

countries. Likewise, Tuomisto, et al., (2012) has noted the positive impacts farming with organic fertilizer

on soil quality restoration by reduction of nitrous oxide and ammonia. Ezeah (2010) suggested the benefits

of organic fertilizer in agriculture as substitute to chemical fertilizer in Nigeria will save the hard currency


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spent to import chemical fertilizer and to provide huge subsidy (about 70%) for domestic agriculture.

Similarly, Farrell & Jones (2009) cited that waste composting generates less Green House Gasses (GHGs)

by reduction of waste disposal and minimizing waste disintegration in the landfills. Therefore, integrated

waste recycling (IWR) method is relevant in the global campaign for Methane (MH4), Carbon dioxide

(CO2) and GHGs reduction. Agamuthu & Fauziah, (2013) also noted waste recycling as the most favoured

waste management method which salvages valuable materials from the waste stream. The IWR method is

basically concerned with inorganic materials like rubber, plastic, metals, aluminium and others which can

be reprocessed and re-manufactured and reused. This method can be implemented to an expanded waste

recycling system that caters for larger quantities and compositions of MSWG. Waste recycling has become

a huge business beneficial to the city’s economy worldwide (Agarwal, 2005). In developing countries an

estimated 2% of the population survives on waste recovery through the informal sector (Rahman, et al.,

2017 and Medina 2007). In China and India about six million and one million people are employed

respectively in the waste recycling sector (Agamuthu, 2013). In the USA, about one million people are

estimated to be earning $100 billion from solid waste recycling (US EPA, 2005). Le Courtois, (2012)

reported that in both the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the

emerging countries, solid waste business is worth $390 billion and the sector employed about 5% of urban

dwellers in low-income countries. Even though, waste recycling process accounts for some negative

impacts to health and environment, the method has more benefits to resource conservation with less

pollution impacts than alternative methods of waste management (Batool et al., 2008). In the over all, IWR

reduces waste disposal with less environmental impacts and more cost savings and greater positive effects

on waste management system. The integrated waste recycling as a combine waste composting and waste

recycling method has high socioeconomic and environmental benefits. The method can cater for larger

MSWG due to its combined capacity. Budin, et al., (2006) noted that integrated compositing and recycling

achieves optimum results for waste management. In a study of IWR method Budin, et al., (2006) discovered

up to 85% capacity to reduce solid waste disposal by students in University Mara, Malaysia. This clearly

implied the integrated method will significantly enhance effective waste management. Similarly, Abur et al

(2014) recognized the optimum impacts in the integrated recycling option for effective waste management

in Nigerian cities. Therefore, a framework to implement IWR method for MSWG is expected to achieve

effective waste management in Bauchi metropolis and in other Nigerian cities.

3. The study methodology

3.1 Description of the study area


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Bauchi metropolis is the administrative capital of Bauchi state, Nigeria. It is located in north east region of

Nigeria between latitudes 90 00’and 90 30’ North and longitudes 110 25’and 110 20’ East of the Green

Which Meridian (Gani, Chiroma & Gana, 2012). The metropolis has a total population of 318,038 people in

the year 2010 and the estimated growth rate is 2.8% per annum (Babanyara & Bogoro 2011). It occupies a

total land area of about 3604 hectares. Bauchi is one of the traditional settlements in northern Nigeria. It

consists both traditional and modern development which creates a dual urban structure (Gani, Chiroma &

Gana, 2012). The dual urban structure has three different zones of residential developments. There is a

traditional city or core city zone, a colonial development or G. R. A. zone and a Suburban development or

post-colonial zone. These three zones constitute the scope of this study.

3.2 The methodology and instruments

The study used quantitative approach and experiments survey and observations served as major instruments

of data collection. Three wards were selected; one each from the three different residential zone identified

within the study area. Stratified random sampling method was used for sample selection. The samples were

selected in proportion to household population of each study area as shown in Table 1.1. Samples of waste

generated were obtained directly from the households’ unit and the survey was conducted within one week.

Households’ are the basic units of experiments and observation surveys in the study. 375 households were

determined as adequate samples size for the 14,768 household units in the areas residential selected for the

study (Krejie & Morgan, 1970). Therefore, 400 households were selected for data surveys from which 368

samples or about 92% of screened data was found valid for analysis. The sample size was proportional and

fairly distributed with equal ratio of about 2.70% across the study area as shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1: Selected residential wards and sample size distribution (Field Survey, 2014)

Three residential zones

in Bauchi

Selected areas

for study

Household

units

Sample

size

% Sample

distributed

Core city zone

(traditional area)

Dan Amar ward

(A & B)

4,816 130 2.70

GRA zone

(modern area)

GRA ward

(old & new)

3,389

92 2.71

Suburban zone

(mixed area)

Yelwa ward

(A & B)

6,563 178 2.71

Total 14,768 400


62 | P a g e

The data from experiments survey for MSWG in the study area were analysed using SPSS version 2.4 data

analyses software. The findings of from computed descriptive statistics for MSWG quantities and

compositions are expressed in percentages and presented in Tables and Figures.

4. Discussion of findings

4.1 The compositions of MSWG in the study area

Table 2 presents the characterized composition of MSWG observed in the study area. Solid waste samples

were manually sorted into 10 categories and the composition was determined by weight the wet samples in

digital scales. The results are expressed in percentages based on the methods adopted from previous studies

(Nabegu, 2008). The fraction of each waste composition is expressed as a ratio of total weight of all

samples obtained for each study area or zone. The result shows MSWG was 59.89% organic materials,

namely: Food waste 10.31%, Animal dung 9.57%, Ashes 32.86% and Leaves and grasses 7.15%. Another

13.66% of MSWG are inorganic materials of Plastics 7.77%, Metals 0.91%, Paper 4.35%, and Glass bottles

0.63%. The least average categories were waste metals and glasses with 0.91% and 0.63%, respectively.

The organic wastes fractions are most suitable for composting; while, the inorganic wastes, like papers,

plastic; metal and glass are more suitable for recycling (Harir et al., 2015b).

Table 2: Compositions of MSWG observed in the study areas (Field survey, 2014)

Compositions

of MSWG

Core City

(%)

GRA

(%)

Sub Urban

(%)

Mean

(%)

IWR

Possibilities

Food waste 10.36 11.73 8.83 10.31 59.89%

Organic waste Ashes 35.27 26.44 36.87 32.86

Animal dung 4.8 4.82 19.09 9.57

Leaves, Grass 6.62 12.42 2.4 7.15

Plastic, Rubber 7.46 9.95 5.89 7.77 13.66%

Inorganic waste Paper, Cardboard 3.52 8.2 1.32 4.35

Metals 0.94 0.88 0.92 0.91

Glass, Bottles 0.48 1.32 0.08 0.63

Sand & Dust 17.23 18.35 14.25 16.61 Others 26.45%

Others 13.33 5.89 10.35 9.86

Total 100 100 100 100 100


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4.2 IWR Possibilities for MSWG in Bauchi Metropolis

This study has investigated the possibilities of integrated waste recycling (IWR) from the observed MSWG

in three residential zones of Bauchi metropolis. The result shows in Figure 1 that the combined possibilities

of IWR is about 73.55% from which 59.89% is organic waste and 13.66% inorganic waste as discovered

from MSWG in Bauchi metropolis.

Figure 1: IWR Possibilities from MSWG in Bauchi Metropolis (Field survey, 2014).

However, these possibilities remained largely as potentials that are untapped from the waste management

sector in the study area. These findings are consistent with Burdin (2006) which discovered 85%

possibilities for recycling in the composition of organic and inorganic waste disposed-off by students in

University Mara, Malaysia. Therefore, integrated waste recycling system will reduce costs and pollution

impacts of waste management and ultimately achieve an effective system of managing the MSWG in

Bauchi metropolis the study area.

4.3 The proposed IWR framework

The summary of MSWG in the study area presented in Figure 1 has supported the IWR framework

proposed in this study. The framework has categorized the MSWG into organic and inorganic materials and

assessed possibilities of implementing IWR based on compositions of MSWG and the waste processing

options in the study area. This serves as the basis for the proposed IWR framework for MSWG as shown in

Figure 2.


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Figure 2: Proposed IWR Framework for MSWG in Bauchi Metropolis

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

This study concluded that possibilities of IWR are large and up to 75.77 % consisting of 59.88% organic

waste and 16.65% recyclable wastes could be recovered through IWR of MSWG in the study area. It is also

concluded that IWR method is the most suitable options for waste management in the study area. However,

in the current system, waste recycling practices are inadequate as evident in the mixed waste compositions

disposed into open dump sites observed in the study area. Therefore, the IWR framework is proposed to

achieve optimum waste recycling possibilities in the study area. This strategy is expected to accomplish

effectiveness in the waste management system for Bauchi and similar cities in Nigeria.

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Research Article

Influence of Socio-Cultural Factors on Residents’ Satisfaction among Gazian

students in Malaysia Abdalrahim M. Shehab, Mohd Zin Kandar

Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor,

Malaysia

Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 2/06/2017


A b s t r a c t

The high level of demand and necessities for sustainable housing in recent

time, different problems has been raised relating to Residents’ satisfaction and

urban quality of life. This paper examined the influence of six socio-cultural

factors “i.e. family structure, family values, family life style, religious beliefs,

privacy, safety and security” on housing satisfaction in Gaza from Gazian who

are currently studying at Malaysian universities. Data was collected from

randomly selected sample of 180 Gazian students from five universities in

Malaysia namely UTM, UPM, UM, UKM and USM via survey questionnaire.

Standard linear regression model was used to test the statistical relationship

between residents’ satisfaction and socio-cultural factors. Decision tree C4.5

algorithm classifies the data based on the concept of information entropy. The

data are classified at each node of the tree after analyzing the attribute of the

data. SVM analyzes the extracted data and uses the health parameters listed to

group the related data. The approach is of two stages: training and testing. The

training dataset is build using the health data representing the listed search

words. This training set is used to classify the test data. The data are tested

with the training set and only women and child health data are stored in classes

that help in advocacy monitoring in an efficient way. Furthermore, significance

of the study provides a valuable insight for understanding how importance for

Palestinian society those socio-cultural values are integral part in Palestine to

develop and improve the quality of housing.


PFI, Benefits, Strategy, Value for money, public procurement

1. Introduction

Housing is universally acknowledged as the second most essential human need after food and is considered

a major economic asset in every nation. This study attempts to investigate the socio-cultural factors

influence on residents’ housing satisfaction of the Gazian society as one of the most conservative Arabic

societies in the process of evolution of construction technology and the concerning of applying the


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principles of sustainability in housing recently. Globally, housing is recognized as a factor for the

assessment of human development1. Over the past few years, housing has been on the top of the political

agenda in conflict areas because of the effects of war from the devastation in the housing sector. After

having played an important role as a trigger of the crisis, the persistence of depressed conditions in the

housing market risks today derailing prospects of a sustained a recovery of the global economy2. While

housing is perceived as a barometer for gauging the health or of a nation, it is also essential to people’s

quality of life: not only because it represents the single largest item in have households’ budgets and

balance sheeted3, but also because it greatly affects individual’s well-being through a package of

psychological and socio-economic channels. The concept of residential satisfaction has many definitions

and applications depending on the context it occurs. The concept has been studied in several fields related

to housing studies4. Families’ satisfaction with a residential environment determines the quality of their life,

an achievement of their needs and aspirations5. Residential satisfaction is seen as the difference between the

real and required housing conditions6, 7. For a society, a dwelling is not just a space to stay, it is in fact a

place to socially interact and perform rituals. A house is built based on its use and various sociologists

believed that the design of a house defines socio-cultural values, hence reducing the possible choices for use

of space8; 9, 10. In11 notes that, “housing which does not provide space for contemplation will not allow

for the growth and development of individuality. Thus, housing not only contributes to the development of

man physically and mentally, but also contributes to the growth of culture and human morals”. Housing

also provides a shelter from extreme weather conditions and a place where to sleep and rest. But a house is

also “the center of family life, where children are born and raised, where socialization takes place and

family ties are nurtured”12. All these elements make a “house” a “home” and are intrinsically valuable to

people. The structures of the culture is considered as the major ingredient of the integration of civilization

which including the system of activities, behaviors, practical application and lifestyles on the individual and

collective levels of society. On the social level, civilization produces forms its own style of housing layout

which reflecting the system of values, culture, thoughts, believes, social network and behaviors of society13

In14 and15 opine that the socio-cultural trends of human being know that vary from one community to

another, and socio-cultural values are both direct and indirect effects on human’s habitation. These

variances are the sequences of socio-cultural factors that are formed by different people. The man's

occupation in societies and the other resources also have played significance role in building his house16. It

is refer to the good investment of houses17. In 18, 19 conclude that residents in some parts of Nigeria did not

feel satisfaction due to lake of socio-cultural thoughtfulness such as the family values, family structure and

religion in public housing design, In the same context. In17 considers the housing satisfaction and the quality

of housing are affected by different socio-cultural values. According to 19, there is an urgent need to develop

operational framework for meet the sustainable development and resident’s satisfaction in housing sector, it


70 | P a g e

is required to consider the socio-cultural values in housing design and plan. No doubt that understanding

socio-cultural consideration and its influences of housing satisfaction is suitable access to respect thoughts,

believes and trends of the residents during the housing design process and to feel them satisfaction. Hence,

this study attempts to investigate effects of socio-cultural values on residents’ satisfaction in the Gaza Strip.

1.1 Gaza Strip Background

The Gaza Strip is a very narrow region of the state of Palestine; it is located along the south-western part of

the Palestinian coastal plains region. The total area of Gaza is about 360 km2. It has borders with Egypt on

the south west for 13 km and with Israel across the east and north for 59 km and it has a 40 km long

coastline. The total population of Gaza is 1.8 million and it is one of the highest population growth rates in

the World standing at 3.48%. By 2020, Gaza’s population is projected to reach 2.13 million20. Gaza has

experienced multiple Israeli military incursions and bombing campaigns since the unilateral withdrawal by

Israel in 2005. Including the 2014 Israeli war on Gaza, there have been seven military operations since

2006, resulting in over 4,200 Palestinian casualties (both civilian and non-civilian)21. In July 2014, the

Israeli power attacked Gaza for seven weeks of air strikes and ground operations. The war has killed more

than 2,100 Palestinians and displaced more than 500,000 persons as a result of conflict. It also destructed

more than 13,000 homes and affected another 100,00022, which led to the high rate of increase in demand

for residential housing units in Gaza.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

Many studies are inadequate as they tend to ignore the social and cultural aspect of the residents and focus

strictly on economic and technical standards and its effect on the residents’ satisfaction. This has further

compounded the problem as houses that are adequate from the designer point of view may not necessarily

be adequate from the inhabitants' point of view. On the other hand, the lack of consideration of these socio-

cultural values in housing designs in Gaza has led to several unexpected challenges such as deformation of

the built houses by the occupants to suit or adapt to their needs. Since the social and cultural values are

imperative to determine social behavioural patterns that require a sustainable housing structure, thus the

present study aims to investigate the influence of such socio-cultural values over residents’ satisfaction for

quality housing in the Gaza Strip. To achieve these objectives, this study investigates the influence of socio-

cultural values (Family structure, family values, family life style, religious belief, privacy, safety and

security) over residents’ satisfaction. The findings of the present study provide a valuable insight for

understanding the significance of socio-cultural values in Palestine in realizing a residents’ satisfaction for

quality housing.


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1.3 Significance of the Study

Findings of this study should have an impact on housing policy, planners, designers and developers; this

study would involve furthermore to the previous literature; the significance of this study lies in its attempts

to providing preliminary insight into which is the most important socio-cultural factors influence on

residents’ satisfaction.

1.4 Literature Review

Housing means more than shelter and or the success of achieving housing projects 23,24. Housing satisfaction

however refers to the end-users’ degree of contentment with the current housing situation25. In other words,

the behavioral sense of user’s satisfaction in housing defining an attitude based on the establishment of an

environment. Some researchers prefer to define housing satisfaction as adefintion of emotional components

to determine users’ satisfaction in housing, while others prefer perception26. Recently, some of scholars

have contributed to the concept residential satisfaction and quality housing (e.g. 27; 28, 29, 5, 30, 3, 4, 12, 31, 25, 32).

Most of these studies due to the literature have explored that scholars have used the different variables to

identify satisfaction models by applying several statistical techniques.

1.5 Conceptual Framework and Study Hypothesis

The conceptual framework presented in Figure 1 summarizes how the relationship between the six sets of

influencing the socio-cultural factors and resident satisfaction is broadly envisaged.

1.6 Socio-cultural Factors

Social customs usually consist of cultural elements such as social experiences, philosophies, beliefs and

attitudes, etc. transferred verbally from one generation to the other. Such customs determine the social

behavioural patterns and pressurize the members of the society to treat them as a part of normative culture33.

The socio-cultural preferences of man; which also considered welling types are important parameters in

identifying qualitative housing34.


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Figure 1. The conceptual framework

1.7 Residents’ Satisfaction

In 7,28 state that the housing satisfaction concept has been used for four main targets: firstly; as a key to

improve the quality of life. Secondly; as an indicator estimate the demand of housing. Thirdly; as a scale for

develop the private sector of housing projects. Fourthly, it is as a tool to measure the residents’ satisfaction

of surrounding area; and finally, as a key to set variables to determine the relationship between the

resident’s values. In 35 define housing satisfaction as assessment by respondents of characteristics of the

social and environment. However, there is no consensus about the type of appraisal provided by

respondents when questioned about their residential satisfaction. Some authors follow a purposive

approach, where residents’ own goals are at the centre of the evaluation of residential satisfaction36. In37

define residents’ satisfaction as a mirror reflecting the level of the end users feeling towards their houses in

order to help them to achieve their mission. In38 defines life satisfaction as assessment of knowledge of

users’ life. Life satisfaction can be considered essential element for human well-being. Extensive researches

in psychology and social sciences have been conducted to identify the factors affecting the welfare

objective and subjective. Different tools were used to measure how citizens from different countries live

well39. Satisfaction regarding to the conditions of house means that any complaints are given housing units

that meet the needs and aspirations of the residents27.

1.8 Relationship between Socio-Cultural Factors and Residents’ Satisfaction

Socio-cultural values that influence housing design depends upon factors like family values, religious

beliefs, family structure and domestic life-style. These components complement each other and are

described below. In this line, among all identified environmental values, use of space is the significant

social value in housing design31. In 40 discover relationship between residents’ satisfaction, reason to move,

and quality of life is a sequential process, with satisfaction with the neighborhood to predict movement and

mobility that affect the quality of life. The designs of many new residential developments have been

patterned along developers and designers’ ideas and perceptions to meet future needs, aesthetic appearance


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and developer’s goals rather than its suitability towards ensuring occupants or end-users satisfaction41.

According to8 houses are formed as a result of large scale of social factors and cultural values. Since every

facility is aimed at meeting set design aspirations, completed residential buildings should fit the residential

buildings completed for functions and use of the users to ensure the relative of residents’ satisfaction42. The

section explains the hypothesis as the followings:

Family Values

Family values evolved within a larger social and cultural group. According to Hendry the psychological

association exists among the individual identity and the group in the community. He has further stated that

the family values are normally developed based on a community’s cultural and social orientation of either

independence or interdependence. Interdependence involves greater emotional dependence among members

of a social group, whereas independence is associated with self-reliance of individuals43. Therefore it is

hypothesized that:

H1: Family values are positively related to residents’ satisfaction.

Family Structure

The families mostly use different housing units for their children according to their social and cultural

values. In the modern communities the living style and social values are different44. Houses design

determines the internal and external spaces of housing that can be disruptive or supportive of the culture of

their residents45; 8, 46. Conducted housing research from a cultural and historical perspective and studied

housing as a reflection of culture and environment. They listed family structure as one of the important

cultural factors that affect housing. Thus family and kinship relations are the fabric of an overall social

structure. The social roles and tasks are assigned according to gender in a kinship and family system. Thus,

it is hypothesized that:

H2: Family structure is positively related to residents’ satisfaction.

Life Style

Life style is determined by the way a family is consuming its housing space. It consists of a society’s habits

and inclinations of using house spaces for different household purposes like food arrangement etc. different

societies have developed different spatial and behavioural patterns to use the available housing space. These

patterns are usually based on their spatial needs for socializing, living, and individual and family usage. In

order to fulfill such needs, housing structural arrangements are required in accordance with the behavioural

patterns. Such structural arrangements are a cultural variable which affect the life style within the house and

also influences outer appearance. The important factors that determine the behavioural mechanisms are the


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use of space for kitchen, living, customs, and other usage. Thus, house structure is built with a notion to

maintain an effective social life style of a family. Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H3: Life style is positively related to residents’ satisfaction.

Religious Beliefs

Past research has established that human behaviour and spatial form define religious beliefs both in

traditional and modern societies. However, the religious qualities of the house47 are not considered

important in modern societies and religious rituals are managed external venues. This can be specially seen

in Western societies. But, in many societies, houses are built keeping in view the availability of space to

perform indoor religious obligations and practices. Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H4: Religious beliefs are positively related to residents’ satisfaction.

Privacy

Some of culture of society requires more privacy and less interference, while others have no such qualms.

Proxemics standards also explain why the homes of Germans, who intensely value their privacy, have much

sturdier doors and locks compared to American and Middle Eastern homes. Such home interior practices

greatly differ from those of the traditional Malay48. In489 shows that the residents although planners

efforts to make the outer shape of housing to be attractive, users were considerably more attention to issues

such as lack of privacy, space congestion and inadequate to expand the scope of the family or guests.

Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H5: Privacy is positively related to residents’ satisfaction.

Safety and Security

In50 used elements such as housing conditions, a sense of security in the neighborhood; the physical

elements of the house and its surroundings. they feel that the quality of life is linked to the feeling of

security, safety and protection from the elements (wind, rain, and lightning) and environmental comfort

(thermal, acoustic and visual art space). According to them, a sense of security and safety not only related to

the crime rates and the quality of police work, but also for street lighting and the emergence of movements

in public places. Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H6: Safety and Security are positively related to Residents’ Satisfaction.


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2. Methodology

In this research study, self-administered survey was applied in five Malaysian universities. This study used

five point Likert scales which have accepted by various scholars51, 52. The current study has proposed

theoretical model on the basis of extensive literature review as illustrated in Figure 1. The study empirically

tested the model shown in Figure 1. The theoretical framework has consisted of family structure, family

values, family life style, religion and attitude beliefs, privacy, safety and security and one dependent

variable i.e. on residents’ satisfaction. The instruments in this research were adapted from the literature

review. This study used 180 samples to attain the research objectives which seem to be an adequate sample

that represents the population53. The evaluation of the adequacy of the measurement model based on criteria

generally fit with the data and the validity of the content, analysis, convergent validity, discriminate

validity, and reliability.

2.1 Data Collection

Copies of questionnaire were distributed to the Gazian students at five Malaysian universities, three of the

in Kuala Lumpur, one in Penang and one in Johor Bahru by hand directly at the beginning of the July 2015.

182 questionnaires were distributed while 180 of them were returned. The questionnaires were returned to

the researcher by hand or through the surveying time. The Primary data was collected via random

probability sampling technique from sample size of 180 students studying at five universities in Malaysia.

The respondent’s mainly be longs to the Gaza Strip only. The questionnaires used in the study were

developed and tested via validity and reliability tests. Standard multiple regressions model was used to test

the proposed hypotheses, to predict sustainable housing design. The data was analysed via SPSS 22

statistical software.

3. Demographic Data

Out of 180 total respondents, 68% were male respondents and only 32% were female respondents. The

largest group of age was ranging between 18 and 30 years (53%) followed by 31 to 40 years of old equally

(39%). The majority of the respondents are living in Gaza city followed by Khan Younis. (69%) of the

respondents are living in apartment followed by (20%) of them are living in detached houses. And the

largest group of family size average of respondents from 3 to 5 persons (48%) followed by 6 to 8 family

size average (40%) as shown in Table 1.


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Table 1. Comparison in terms of Accuracy (%)

No. Item Number Percent (%)

A Gender

A1 Male 122 68%

A2 Female 58 32%

Total 180 100%

B Age of Respondents

B1 18-30 95 53%

B2 31-40 70 39%

B3 41-50 15 8%

B4 Over 50 - -

Total 180 100%

C Living Area of Respondents

C1 Gaza 56 31%

C2 Khan Younis 46 26%

C3 Rafah 31 17%

C4 North of Gaza 29 16%

C5 Middle Camps 18 10%

Total 180 100%

D the house type you are living

D1 Apartment 124 69%

D2 Detached house 36 20%

D3 Street House 20 11%

Total 180 100%

E Number of persons in the house

E1 3-5 86 48%

E2 6-8 72 40%

E3 2 13 7%

E4 Over 8 9 5%

Total 180 100%


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3.1 Reliability analysis of survey instruments (Measures)

The Table 2 shows that Cronbach’s coefficient (α) is used for measuring the reliability of the survey

measurement items i.e. questionnaires. The one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is used to test that a

variable of interest is normally distributed54. The individual and accumulative values are listed in Table 2.

Family Structure: The Family structure was measured by 5 items. The scale reliability value was 0.96.

Family Values: The family values was measured by 5 items scale developed by this study. The scale

reliability value was 0.93.

Family Life Style: The family life style was measured by 5 items scale developed by this study. The scale

reliability value was 0.87.

Religion and Attitude Beliefs: The religion and attitude beliefs was measured by 5 items scale developed

by this study. The scale reliability value was 0.89.

Privacy: The privacy was measured by 5 items scale developed by this study. The scale reliability value

was 0.85.

Safety and Security: The safety and security was measured by 5 items scale developed by this study. The

scale reliability value was 0.88.

Residents’ Satisfaction: residents’ satisfaction was measured by 5 items. The scale reliability value (a =

0.79).

Table 2. Reliability Analyses of Variables

Variables Items Alpha

Value

Family Structure 5 0.96

Family Life style 5 0.93

Family Values 5 0.87

Religion &Attitudes Beliefs 5 0.89

Privacy 5 0.85

Safety and Security 5 0.88

Residents’ Satisfaction 5 0.79

Overall 35 0.92


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4. Analysis and Result

This study has examined the influence of socio-cultural values (family values, religious beliefs, family

structure, life style, privacy; and safety and security) over residents’ satisfaction among Gazian students

studying at five Malaysian universities. The analysis includes descriptive, correlation, linear and multiple

regression analysis as the followings:

The correlation analysis, has confirmed the existence, of linear relationship among the impendent and

dependent variables. The correlation analysis illustrates and how variables are related to each other. The

relationship of the entire variables i-e family structure, family values, family life style, religion & beliefs,

privacy, safety and security are positively correlated with residents’ satisfaction. The table 3 has showed all

relationships among variables are significant at 0.01 levels.

Table 3. Correlation Analysis

**Correlation is significant at .01 level (2-tailed)

4.1 Regression Analysis

The regression statistics are consisted of standard errors, standardized coefficients (Beta), t statistic tests,

and degree of significance between dependent and independent variable of this study.

4.2 Linear Regression

Model R R square Adjusted R

Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 .932a .869 .848 .09037

Variables FS FV FLS RAB P SS RS

Family structure 1

Family Values .449** 1

Family life style .215** - .028** 1

Religion &attitude

beliefs .006** .121** .252** 1

Privacy .217** .192** .131** .216** 1

Safety and Security .236** .259** .030** .235** .542** 1

Residents’

Satisfaction .173** .415** .261** .098** .742** .727** 1


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Table 4. Coefficientsa

aDependent Variable: Residents’ Satisfaction

It is noticed in the coefficients table that all of the significance levels of the independents variables are <

.05, thus, all the hypothesis are all significant and the results supported them.

4.3 Multiple Regression

Table 5. Model Summary

Predictors (constants) FS, FV, FLS, RAB, P, SS

Table 6. ANOVAs

4.4 Dependent variable: Residents’ Satisfaction

The multiple regression statistics revealed that overall model is highly significant. The Tables 5, 6 presented

the values of R square, F statistics, and significance of model. All of the independent variables ‘family

structure, family values, family life style, religious beliefs, privacy, safety and security’ predicted the

dependent variable ‘residents’ satisfaction’ to greater extent. The inferential statistics have confirmed that

over all model was significance with value F (40.995) = 41.00, (p < 0.05) the coefficient of determination

value was (R square = 0.869) means all the independent variables ‘family structure, family values, family

Variables

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Unstandardized

Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Std. Error

(Constant)

FS

FV

FLS

RAB

P

SS

-.363

-.417

.457

.137

-.146

.506

.557

.437

.107

.088

.028

.039

.076

.084

--

-.274

.359

.314

-.241

.480

.846

-.831

-3.878

5.198

4.861

-3.733

5.665

6.622

.411

.000

.000

.000

.000

.000

.000

Model R R square Adjusted R

Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 .932a .869 .848 .09037

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 22.509 6 .334 40.995 .000a

Residual .302 37 .008

Total 2.309 43


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life style, religious beliefs, privacy, safety and security’ predicted shows variability of almost 87% for the

dependent variable ‘residents’ satisfaction’ at 95% probability level.

5. Discussion

This study has examined the influence of socio-cultural values (family values, religious beliefs, family

structure, life style, privacy, safety and security) on residents’ satisfaction with among Gazian students

studying at Malaysian Universities, as shown in the conceptual framework in figure 1. The analysis includes

descriptive, correlation, linear and multiple regression analysis. The concept of housing satisfaction is

linked to the material, architectural and engineering components for home, behavioral, social,

characteristics, cultural and personal of the residents, and the components of the environment and the nature

of the institutional arrangements which runs the home. Assessing housing satisfaction entails evaluating the

level of end-users satisfaction for a housing unit with defined building features, located in a particular

neighbourhood, with socio-cultural amenities29. Residents’ satisfaction in housing is defined as an

emotional component that reflecting the satisfaction and happiness to the housing place which also creates

these feelings55, 56. This study agrees whit some scholars those have confirmed that housing adjustment

promotes housing satisfaction by facilitating the inclusion of users’ culture, and also by explaining the

reasons of changing needs and boundless and desires. This is because housing adjustment remains

inevitable as the needs and desires which are basic to households’ existence remain dynamic57. Moreover, 32

find that socio-cultural structure in the city becomes one of the essential components of the quality of life;

expectations and satisfaction of the individual come into prominence. This outcome of this study finds that

the family structure was the most important factor of the socio-cultural values influencing on residents

‘satisfaction, and then the family life style in Palestinian community. It has also been argued by many

scholars that residents’ satisfaction is greatly influenced by socio-cultural values of societies 27; 28, 29, 5, 30, 3, 4,

12, 58, 31. These studies are supporting this study which considers the socio-cultural aspects of the housing

satisfaction as a key element to determine residents’ satisfaction in housing.

6. Conclusion

As shown in the analysis results, the findings of this study explore that the family structure and family life

style are the most important components of the Palestinian socio-cultural values which forming the housing

design. Accordingly, these values influence on the residents’ satisfaction. The study reveals that all the

independent variables ‘socio-cultural values’ significantly influence the residents’ satisfaction among

Gazian students in Malaysia at 0.01 levels. Furthermore, significance of the study provides a valuable

insight for understanding how importance for Palestinian society that socio-cultural values are integral part

in Palestine to develop and improve the quality housing. That is because the conservative values and eastern


81 | P a g e

culture which has good relations and respectful of the relatives and neighbours in the Gaza Strip. Thus, this

study recommends guiding policy-maker, housing developers and designers to highlight and take in

confederation the socio-cultural factors of the housing users when planning for new housing projects.

Finally, this study has been conducted in small domain of Gazian students studying in five Malaysian

universities in Malaysia. Taking in consideration the population of this study, the sample adopted is

considered a small and related to a close domain of Palestinian students in Malaysia which may provide

limited feedback. Thus, future studies should consider a larger sample with different respondents. Similar

studies in future should also be carried out among different communities for developing a broader

identifying of the socio-cultural values with respect to residents’ satisfaction.

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Research Article

Understanding the Underlying Mechanisms that Determine the Behaviour of

Stakeholders in Sustainable Development for Housing Production: A Review

Bala Baba

[email protected]

1 2Department of Architecture, School of Environmental Studies, Modibbo Adama University of

Technology, Yola, Adamawa, Nigeria.

ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 2/06/2017


A b s t r a c t

Sustainable development requires us to change our construction technologies

in order to avoid negative environmental and economic impacts. However,

evidence shows that stakeholders in the field are still choosing housing

construction materials and methods that do not advance sustainable

development Therefore, this paper gives a detail review into the understanding

of underlying mechanism in sustainable development and a summary f some of

the underlying issues were proposed also the inherent values and choice

processes that determine the choice decisions of housing user and housing

practitioners, as well as the relationship between these choice determinants and

the requirements of sustainable development were highlighten in the review

process. © Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.

Keywords: housing, sustainable, understanding, underlying, stakeholders, Buildings .

1. Introduction

This study links together three main multifaceted concepts: sustainable development; housing construction

materials and methods (also referred to in this study as housing construction technologies); and

Stakeholder choice behavior. Figure 1 below is a graphic representation of the conceptual framework

showing the links between the different concepts that are central to this study.


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Figure 1: Conceptual framework – Sustainable development, housing construction materials and

methods and choice behavior (Source: Nyong, 2012)

This critical review of the literature is focused on three key areas: the concept of sustainable

development; sustainable development and housing construction; and stakeholders in the field of

housing construction. The objectives of this critical review of the literature are:

To establish an operational conceptualization of sustainable development.

To understand how this conception of sustainable development functions in the field of

housing production.

To identify the stakeholders who are relevant to the advancement of sustainable development

in the field of housing production

A very large number of definitions of sustainability and sustainable development can be found in the

literature (Dobson, 1996; Meadowcroft, 2000; Das, 2006). Aljammaz (2006), Dresner (2002) and Mebratu

(1998) all hold that the best way to clarify the concept of sustainable development is by means of a review

of its historical development and subsequent widespread acceptance. However, Dobson (1996) explains

that this kind of discursive approach to understanding a concept is limited because it becomes obsolete as

new developments occur. Dobson (1996) further points out that a definitional approach is also problematic

for understanding sustainable development because of the large number of ‘contested and contestable’

definitions that have been proposed. This author therefore advises an analytical approach that incorporates


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the discursive and the definitional but also gives a full and comprehensive analytical account of what

constitutes the concept. He points out that this approach would result in the identification of more than one

typology.

Indeed three typologies are identified in this study. The first is a clarified conceptualization of sustainable

development, which is adopted for this research. The second is an ecocentric reading of sustainability and

the third is a homocentric reading of sustainability, both of which are argued against. A brief outline of the

historical development of the concept of sustainable development, and its international, national and

industry level adoption is presented below. This is followed by a study of the Brundtand Report definition

of the term and a comprehensive and explicit analysis of what sustainable development entails. The result

is a clear and widely accepted definition of the term ‘sustainable development’ and an understanding of its

operational frame.

2. Backgroud to sustainable development

Mebratu (1998) undertakes a historical and conceptual analysis of the concept of sustainability and

sustainable development. Mebratu (1998) holds that natural systems, with their self-regulatory

mechanisms, are sustainable and mutually supporting. The paper states, however, that the development

and complexity of modern society, combined with population growth of the human species, has induced

changes in the natural order. The study reports that the population of mankind has shown continuous

growth, numbering about 10 million by 6,000BC and expanding to approximately 800 million by the 18th

century and to more than 5 billion by 1990. This exponential population growth was supported by

mechanisation and accelerated changes within the last century in production capacities, the access to

information and increased interdependencies in a globalising world. These complexities, brought on by

industrialization and globalization, led to severe environmental, socio-cultural and economic dysfunction.

Sustainable development is one of the concepts Mebratu (1998) describes as having developed as a

strategy to cope with this far-reaching ‘systemic dysfunction’ (Mebratu, 1998:493). The paper holds that

the inherent value concepts of sustainable development, looking after the earth and other people, are as old

as civilization itself. However, according to the study, the unprecedented complexities that have developed

in the world in the last century have given the concept of sustainable development a new urgency.

Dresner (2002) traces the end of sustainable living to this same period, the age of enlightenment when

nature became perceived as an enemy to be conquered. This, he explains, is the period when the growth

and harnessing of knowledge in the Western world led to exponential increases in the methods of


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production and patterns of consumption which have been identified as inimical to the ecosystem. Smith

(2005) adds the point that advances in health care led to fewer deaths and increased life expectancy, which

resulted in unprecedented population growth in the past century. Diverse and widespread pollution,

resource depletion and destruction, loss of soil fertility, loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, deforestation,

desertification, eradication of species and habitat, the build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

resulting in climate change, depletion of the ozone layer and the extreme poverty of so many are some of

the symptoms Vilches and Pãcrez (2009), Halliday (2008), Dresner (2002), Edwards (2002), Smith (2005)

and Roaf (2007), among many others, identify as arising from this new world order of rapid economic and

population growth.

Hill and Bowen (1997) and Dresner (2002) both provide chronological reviews of the development of

concerns about the environmental damage resulting from the activities of mankind. According to their

reports, from the middle of the 20th Century, ever increasing attention became focused on the detrimental

effect of progress on the fragile ecological systems on which the existence of mankind depends. A number

of significant actions and events occurred from the late 19th Century in direct response to the growing

understanding of the deterioration in the earth’s ecosystem as a result of population expansion and human

development. These were given by Dresner (2002) as the rise of the environmentalist movement and the

conservationist movement, leading up to the first Earth Day held in 1970; the energy crisis of the 1970s;

and the report commissioned by President Carter of America on the state of the environment up to 2000.

This report stated that if advancement strategies were not altered, ‘life for most people on earth will be

more precarious in 2000 than it is now…’ (Barney, 1981:1). The 1972 United Nations Conference on the

Human Environment held in Stockholm created a global forum for the concern about environmental

problems. Dresner reports that eventually, in 1974, the ecumenical study conference on Science and

Technology for Human Development convened by the World Council of Churches where the concept of

‘sustainable society’ first emerged, founded not on environmental concerns but on the concern for the

human condition. It is from here that the idea of a meeting point of concern for the global environment and

concern for global social justice became known.

In 1980, the publishing of the World Conservation Strategy by the International Union for Conservation of

Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) first introduced the term ‘sustainable development’ (Trzyna, 1995),

defined as ‘the integration of conservation and development…’ (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1980). However,

Hill and Bowen (1997) and Dresner (2002) show that the term ‘sustainable development’ did not attain


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world prominence from this 1980 IUCN publication, but rather from the 1987 report of the World

Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) entitled Our Common Future. Our Common

Future is also called The Brundtland Report after the Chairperson of the Commission, Gro Harlem

Brundtland. Mebratu (1998) writes that The Brundtland Report stands out among other global initiatives

because it succeeded in bringing about a critical turning point in international political action on the

environment. The term ‘sustainable development’ became firmly integrated into global discourses from its

use by the Commission, as Brown and Bhatti (2003) and many others testify. Similarly, Dresner (2002)

credits the Brundtland report with winning and maintaining worldwide attention on issues of the

environment. Steele (1997) further holds that one of the most important contributions of this report was

highlighting the dichotomy in both the values and the standards of living between the rich and poor

countries that the ecological debate expected, replacing this dichotomy with equitable expectations.

Dresner (2002) shows that its success is largely due to the integration of the seemingly opposing

environmental concerns of the economically developed North and the economic concerns of the

developing nations of the geographic South. Previous to the publication of the report, debates raged about

whether economic development should be prioritised to the detriment of environmental management, or

whether environmental conservation should be the focus, at the cost of economic development in the

developing regions of the world; these debates polarised the North and South (Grainger, 2004; Dresner,

2002).

Sustainable development was used in the Brundtland Report to denote a concept of economic development

and progress that does not harm the environment or deplete precious resources. The Brundtland Report is

generally seen as having succeeded in unifying the two objectives of environmental sustainability and

economic development into a united global agenda (Steele, 1997; Dresner, 2002). Meadowcroft (2000),

Dresner (2002) and Grainger (2004) attribute the success of the Brundtland Report representation of

sustainable development in overcoming the global divide to two of its features:

i.) Firstly, they show that the Brundtland Report was considered visionary in as far as it accepted and

incorporated the need for human progress and development, unlike previous environmental movements

that advocated reductions in economic growth and human development as the solution to environmental

stewardship.

ii.) Secondly, they point out that the report linked poverty firmly to environmental damage for the first

time, as opposed to the prevailing notion at that time which viewed environmental damage as resulting


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mainly from excessive consumption in the advanced nations. The report highlighted the need to urgently

pursue the eradication of poverty and the improvement of economic growth in developing nations in order

to secure both the goal of environmental sustainability itself and the equally important and independent

goal of socio-economic development.

Ngowi (2001) illustrates this second point further. In describing the rural populations of developing

regions, the paper states: ‘Short-term survival pressures often force these rapidly growing rural

populations into practices that cause long-term damage to forests, soil and water’ (Ngowi, 2001:292); and

similarly for the urban populations: ‘In the densely populated cities of the developing countries … the

challenge is whether it is physically possible to protect sufficient natural resources in built environments

to further contribute to sustainability needs’ (Ngowi, 2001:292).

Meadowcroft (2000) comments that the Brundtland Report presents a scenario where it is no longer

necessary, or even useful, to choose either environmental protection or societal advancement. Economic

advancement can and should be pursued, but in ways that support the preservation of the environment.

Hodge (1997) describes this value system as ‘a parallel care and respect for the ecosystem and people

within – not one or the other, not one more than the other but both together as one’ (Hodge, 1997:8).

Steele (1997) states: ‘The concept of sustainability, then, has been inextricably linked to development and

by extension to economics’ (Steele, 1997:6) Similarly, Dresner (2002) observes: ‘Rather than challenge

the idea of economic growth directly, the concept of sustainable development sought to modify the kind of

growth strategies that were pursued’ (Dresner, 2002:63, emphasis from original). Thus sustainable

development pursues both environmental and economic improvement.

Sustainable development represents a paradigm shift which incorporates both promoting economic

development and supporting environmental sustainability. The difference in the sustainable development

paradigm is given as the understanding that economic growth and development is not directly correlated

with the consumption of resources as previously assumed. This difference in thought is what Paredis

(2011) describes as ‘decoupling growth from resource flows’ (Paredis, 2011:207). The two models

presented below, in figures 2 and 3, graphically illustrate mankind’s increased understandings of how

economic development and environmental sustainability affect human welfare after the paradigm shift of

sustainable development.


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Figure 2: Pre-sustainable development - Development versus sustainability (Source: Nyong,

2012)

Figure 3: Sustainable development - development together with sustainability (Source:

Nyong, 2012)

3. Sustainable Development and Housing Production

Sustainable development and housing production directly affect one another, as the conceptual

framework of this study shows As Section 7.67 of the United Nations’ Agenda 21 states:


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The activities of the construction sector are vital to the achievement of the national socio-

economic development goals of providing shelter, infrastructure and employment. However, they

can be a major source of environmental damage through depletion of the natural resource base,

degradation of fragile eco-zones, chemical pollution and the use of building materials harmful to

human health. (UN, 2004)

Similarly, Asif et al. (2005) state that all over the world, construction contributes significantly to

socio-economic development even as it makes significant use of natural resources and contributes

significantly to the generation of greenhouse gasses. Brown and Bhatti (2003) highlight the

importance of understanding housing and its impacts on sustainable development when they

write: ‘Research could usefully focus on the complex inter-relationships of the impact of housing

policies and practices on broader societal goals such as sustainability and economic growth.’

(Brown and Bhatti, 2003:513)

Although this study is only concerned with housing production, housing production is not the

only stage of the building that is relevant to the advancement of sustainable development. In

relation to the impacts that housing has on sustainable development, the lifecycle of buildings is

often recognised as having three major stages:

1. The production stage, which includes all activity prior to occupancy of the building.

2. The building-in-use stage.

3. The decommissioning stage at the end of the building’s useful life.

(Gerilla et al., 2007; Abeysundara et al., 2009; Ortiz-Rodriguez et al., 2010; Monahan and Powell,

2011, among others).

Monahan and Powell (2011) present a clear flow chart that shows these life style stages

graphically and also highlights the construction stage, which is the life cycle stage this PhD study

focuses on. This flow chart is reproduced in figure 6 below.


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Figure 4: simplified lifecycle process flow chart showing the production stage

(Source: Monahan and Powell, 2011:183)

The present study focuses on the production stage because this is the stage in which choice of

housing construction materials and methods is made. Furthermore, the materials and construction

methods that are used in the construction affect all the other subsequent stages of the building’s

life cycle, as Zhang and Canning (2011) and others rightly point out. As Harrison (2006) puts it:

The choice of materials for construction controls whole of life cycle impacts such as emissions,

gross take, properties of wastes returned to the bio-geo-sphere, use of recycled wastes and their

own recylability. Materials also strongly influence lifetime energies, user comfort and durability.

(Harrison, 2006:110)


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It must be observed here that while there is some literature on the relationship between housing

construction and economic development, the greater majority of sustainable development literature

in the field of construction employs the sustainability discourse, with a resultant emphasis on

environmental sustainability and the well-being of future generations. Sustainable housing,

ecohousing and green construction are some of the widely used terms that clearly reveal this focus

on the environmental impacts of housing construction. The impacts of housing construction on the

economy and the well-being of present generations, by contrast, are treated much less.

For instance, Salè (1998) state that ‘architecture has come to be understood as an intrinsically

ecological discipline’ (Salè, 1998:413, emphasis from original). Similarly, Parkin et al. (2003)

discuss the United Kingdom government’s approach to sustainability and sustainable development

in the construction industry at the macro level from the position that sustainability is the goal of

sustainable development and therefore the goal of change in the construction industry. This

relatively common conceptualization reduces ‘sustainable development’ to being synonymous with

‘construction projects that are sustainable’; essentially translating the word development into

projects (rather than economic development) and thereby silencing the economic aspects of the

problem. In this regard, Choguill (2007) holds that the commonly found operational definitions of

sustainable housing that contain environmental approaches and do not include the meeting of

needs are meaningless; they describe good housing rather than sustainable development in

housing. To achieve sustainable development in housing, he argues, the surest guidance is to seek

to meet current needs through economic development as a central guiding principle. The present

study reviews both economic and environmental implications of housing construction materials

and methods as it is presented in the literature.

4. Summary/Conclusion

In the process of trying to understanding the underlying mechanisms, a detailed review of

literature was done and the following understanding were established.

1. An operational conceptualization of the term “sustainable development” was identified for this

research, aimed at achieving the two goals of environmental sustainability and economic

development.

2. The causal relationship between housing construction materials and methods and sustainable

development was identified within the two operational domains of the environment and the

economy. This produces a theoretical and normative requirement for change to the materials and

methods currently in use for housing construction in order to advance sustainable development in

the field of housing production. The review showed that this need for change is promoted through


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institutional steerage. Innovation in housing technologies and the assessment of impacts from

housing technologies were shown to be the processes used to produce the needed change.

3. Housing users and housing practitioners were identified as the two stakeholder groups in the

field whose choice behaviour affects the materials and methods used for housing construction.

The literature shows that at this time, most stakeholders are not choosing materials and methods

of housing construction that advance sustainable development.

The role of housing users and housing practitioners is to implement necessary changes in the field

through their choice of housing construction materials and methods, in order to avoid negative

environmental and economic impacts. There is clear evidence in the literature that this role is not

being fulfilled to a significant extent and this is impeding the sustainable development effort in

the field of housing production. Several studies were identified that investigate stakeholder

behaviour, in particular choice behaviour. However, they do not provide adequate explanations

for the choice decisions of these housing users and housing practitioners for choice of housing

construction materials and methods.

The critical review of the literature therefore points to a need to better understand the choice

behaviour of these stakeholders. The explanation of stakeholder choice behaviour can best be

achieved through theoretical understandings of the stakeholders’ underlying choice mechanisms.

This theoretical understanding will also enable the clarification of the relationship between the

choice determinants of the stakeholders and the change requirements of sustainable development.

The next chapter presents a review of choice behaviour theories in the social sciences, in order to

identify the theoretical concepts by which choice behaviour of the identified stakeholder groups

can be described, categorised, understood and explained.

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36(12): 1287-1297.

Zimmermann, M., Althaus, H. J. &Haas, A. (2005). Benchmarks for sustainable construction - A

contribution to develop a standard. Energy and Buildings 37(11): 1147-1157.


113 | P a g e

Research Article

Comparison of the Production Capacity of Cement Factories in Nigeria

Okigbo O. N.1, Gana A. A.1 and Fabunmi F.O.2

1Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal Polytechnic Bida, Niger State, Nigeria.

2Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria

Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 2/06/2017


A b s t r a c t

Production of cement in Nigeria has been traced to post independence era. This

witness development plans and import substitution policies. Cement is usually

used as a binding agent in construction industry. The increase in production of

cement could lead to reduction in prices of cement which will lead to higher

infrastructural development by both individual and government. Looking at the

importance of cement production in infrastructural development this paper

compared the production capacity of four major companies who have factories

in Nigeria so as to determine the factories that produces higher. In doing this,

data on production capacity of the four companies were gotten from cement

manufacturer association of Nigeria (CMAN). These data were analysed using

student’s test in order to determine the significance difference between the

production capacities of the four companies. Form the analysis it was gotten

that Dangote has the significance difference of 88% from the other three

companies. This shows that the cement companies that has higher prospect of

contributing to the development of infrastructural in Nigeria is Dangote cement

companies. The paper recommends that more effort should be put by

government in establishing policies that will help the other companies to

increase their production.

© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights

reserved.

capacity, cement, development, factories, production, infrastructure

1. Introduction

The development of cement production in Nigeria could be traced to post-independence era which

witnessed the introduction of development plans and import substitution policies. This had impacted on the

cement requirement for development of civil infrastructure of the nation (CMAN2012). Mojekwu,

Ademola, and Oluseyi (2011) observed that all the raw materials used in cement manufacturing were

available in Nigeria. Raw materials like limestone, red alluvium and shale are available in large quantities

in all the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria. It is only gysum that was available in thin layers.

Furthermore, the demand for cement is derived from the demand for residential and non-residential

construction. Of these two, the latter is predominantly due to government spending and to forces of

depression in the private business sector (Maxwell 2013).


114 | P a g e

Mojekwu et al (2011) additionally stated that residential housing is by far the longest segment of cement

consumption. The crucial forces on the demand for residential housing are population pressure and the rent

level. It is also noted that the pressure from these sources is so critical to make housing an essential

commodity. As such the demand for cement arising from this sector is in turn so critical and it would

remain strong even in the face of government policy on population control and general austerity. It would

appear however that with respect to income (especially above a certain middle-class level) the demand for

cement would be inelastic. It is suspected however, that such inelasticity would bear a relationship with real

income and with level of housing rent (WAPCO, 1990).

Lead capital equity research (2013), explained that, the cement industry in Nigeria has experienced

immense growth over the past few years. Although it is capital intensive due to high cost of construction of

high capacity plants and the heavy machinery deployed in running the business/ cement demand has been

on the rise since conception of cement production in 1957. At present, the total installed capacity is about

28 million tones as at 2012, while local consumption is estimated at 19 million tones. In all business

environments, the level of infrastructure development provides the basic foundation for the overall

economic development and growth. The cement industry supplies that critical ingredient that holds together

infrastructure projects. This showing that there is much room for expansion and the industry is just getting

started in a developing country like Nigeria. Therefore, it is an obvious fact that with rising investment in

infrastructure in Nigeria the demand for cement in the afordable future is almost insatiable. Makoju (2010)

reported that demand for cement increased rapidly and initially all the requirement was not met with

imports. For instance, imports which were estimated to be 80,000tons in 1949 grew by more than double in

1950 and quadruple to 626,500 tons by 1960. All this supply was met entirely with imports until the

establishment of Nigercem in Nkalagu in the eastern region of Nigeria in 1957. This was followed by the

construction of another 600,000 tons plant sponsored by then western region government in Ewekoro which

was commissioned in 1960. Next was the northern Nigeria Cement Company with the production capacity

of 100,000 metric tons was commissioned at Sokoto in 1967.

Makoju (2010) also noted that after the construction of the Sokoto cement plant in 1967, the nation made

little or no further efforts to increase cement production capacity in the ten years that followed. The three

regions seemed to have been satisfied with having their own cement plants and there was no private sector

interest in this sector. Besides, the break out of the civil war of 1967 to 1971 slowed down economic

activities nationwide and made Nigeria unattractive to foreign business in Nigeria. Thus, for ten years

installed capacity remained statement. The post civil war reconstruction activities seemed to have led town

explosion in demand for cement. Government's response to this was to embark on massive uncoordinated

importation of cement. This result to the cement Amada of the early mid-70s.


115 | P a g e

In order to correct the error committed in embarking on massive importation of cement, government by way

of loans and equity stake, partly funded the construction of the second generation of cement plants in

Nigeria leading to the birth of Sagamu plant in 1978 (with a 0.9 metric tons capacity), Ashaka in 1979

(0.7m tons capacity) and Benue cement company (BCC) 1980 (with a 0.9 metric tons capacity).

Two things seem to be of particular interest in the first and second generation cement plants in Nigeria.

First, virtually all of the companies had strong government ownership and control and second a good

number of the cement plants built before the eighties were wet rather than dry process plants (dry process

plants are more economical and fuel efficient).

Throughout the twenty years spanning 1980 to 2000, no single cement plant was constructed in Nigeria.

Instead, it was import terminals that witnessed growth from two in 1980 to about twelve in 2000 (Makoju

2010).

As the local production was nose diving, imports were expanding in the small period imports grew from 0.8

metric tons in 1986 to 3.34 metric tons in 2000. The facts are that since the introduction of the policy in

2002 and within seven years of its introduction, the number of the cement plants in Nigeria land had

increased from four in 2002 to eight in 2008.

Over some few years ago, Nigeria with its population of over 150million people presents a huge market for

any good product, cement inclusive. Considering our level of development, demand for cement has a huge

growth potential. These suggest that our absorptive capacity for cement is potentially high if and when the

economy is right.

The problem that arises is how despite the comparative advantages in the production of cement, these

opportunity have failed to transform Nigeria from a cement importing country into a cement exporting

country; a development which has inhibited growth not only of the cement industry but the manufacturing

sectors in general. However, the over dependence on cement imports seems to have created some problems

for the local cement manufacturers and indeed the Nigerian economy at large such problems, include;

providing employment opportunities to the countries exporting cement to Nigeria, Issues of licenses to

another countries to import cement to Nigeria, high jack the prices of cement produces locally by the

manufacturers, Lack of exposure of some local manufacturer of cement.

This paper aimed at comparing the production capacity of the four cement factories in Nigeria and

recommend the one that has a fast growth in production from 2005 till date. In achieving the aim the

following objective were set, to compare the production of each manufacturer of cement in Nigeria in order

to ascertain the company that has the highest production in Nigeria between the ten years of study.


116 | P a g e

2. Methodology

In achieving the aim and objectives of the paper focused on four cement production companies in Nigeria,

such as Dangote cement industry, large WAPCO plc, Ashaka cement Plc, and cement of northern Nigeria

plc (CCNN) were used. Data on their productions were gotten from these companies for the 2005 to 2015.

That is, ten years. The data used were gotten from the information provided by Cement Manufacturers

Association of Nigeria (CMAN). A null hypothesis was set as shown below;

HO1 - there is no significant differences between the productions of local manufacturers of cement in

Nigeria.

To test this hypothesis student t test was used. The summary of the results was as shown in Table 2. Also

bar chart was use to represent the production of this four cement factories.

3. Data Presentation

Table 1: Production Capacity of the Four Cement Companies 2005 - 2014

S/N YEAR PRODUCTION

(MT)

DANGOTE

PRODUCTION

(MT)

LAFARGE

PRODUCTION

(MT)

ASHAKA

PRODUCTION

(MT) CEMNN

01 2005 1,871,769.80 154,703.70 35,207.00 9,319.50

02 2006 1,790,427.80 174,573.90 33,677.00 8,914.50

03 2007 2,112,180.60 147,980.00 39,729.00 10,516.50

04 2008 2,574,930.72 212,820.67 48,433.09 12,820.52

05 2009 2,900,946.74 239,766.23 54,565.09 14,443.75

06 2010 4,196,043.34 346,807.30 78,925.36 20,892.01

07 2011 5,807,710.34 4,800.13 109,239.96 28,916.46

08 2012 7,189,859.15 594,249.26 135,237.45 35,798.15

09 2013 9,168,147.20 755,515.80 171,938.00 45,513.00

10 2014 10,774,199.80 890,498.70 202,657.00 53,644.50

Source: Cement Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (CMAN) 2014


117 | P a g e

Figure 1: Bar Chart Showing the Production of the Four Cement Factories 2005 - 2014


Figure 2: Average Production of the Four Cement Factories in Ten Years



118 | P a g e

Table 2 Students’ T – Test Analysis of Differences between the Cement Production of Dangote and

Lafarge Wapco Plc

Key: SS = statistically significant NS = not significant

4. Discussion of result

The mean value for Dangote cement production is higher than of the other three cement factories

production because The P value was less than the expression value (0.005). It was referred from the above

observation that, the differences in the cement production of Dangote and cement production of other three

factories were statistically significant at the level of 0.05 significance, thus the null hypothesis was rejected.

But in comparing the mean value of the other three factories with each other. There was no significant

difference. The p value was higher than the 0.005 set as the expression value. The null hypothesis were

accepted.

5. Conclusion

It could be concluded that the mean value of Dangote production has the highest level of significance. It

could also be seen in the bar chart. The p values of Dangote versus the other three were less than 0.005

level of significant set. That shows that there is significant difference between Dangote cement production

and the three other factories production.

MEAN VALUE INFERENCES

S/NO X Y T Pvalue Remark Action of

hypothesis

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Dangote Cement Production

Dangote Cement

Production

Dangote Cement Production

Lafarge Wapco

Cement Production

Lafarge Wapco

Cement Production

Ashaka Cement

Production

Lafarge Wapco Cement

Production

CCNN Cement Production

Ashaka Cement

Production


Ashaka Cement

Production


4.993

4.703

4.722

4.706

3.707

3.398

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.006

0.007

0.008

SS

SS

SS

NS

NS

NS

Reject hypothesis Ho



Accept hypothesis Ho




119 | P a g e

6. Recommendations

From the observation and results the followings recommendation were made:

The government should ban the importation of cement so as to boost economy of the cement production in

Nigeria.

The government should reduce the tax rate and policies to the cementmanufacturers in Nigeria to allow

more peoples to come into the cement manufacturing industry.

Government should made funds available on single interest digit so as to help the companies in the

expansion of these factories.

References

Barry R. (2000). The Construction of Building Vol. IV Cross by Logwood Staples Publication. Pp 15 -16.

CMAN Business Day (2012). Communiqué at the Conference on Cement Based Construction in Nigeria

Organized by, Cement Manufacturers Association of Nigeria and Business Day Media Ltd pp. 8.

Denzin N. K and Lincoln Y. S (1998). Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials, Thousand Oaks,

CA: Sage Publication. Equity Research, Banking Group 7th May, 2011 Pp. 25.

Maxwell J. C. (2013). Cement Manufacturing Industry Report of Lead Capital Equity Research April 2013

Pp. 7 - 11.

Makoju, J. O. (2010). Cement Industry in Nigeria; the Journey so far. A paper Presented at the 2nd Abitem

International Cement Conference, Ikeja, Lagos Pp. 12.

Mojekwu, J. N., Ademola Idowu, and Oluseyi Sode (2011). Analysis of the Contribution of Imported and

Locally Manufactured Cement to the Growth of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Nigeria (1986 – 2011).

Nwosila, V. (2012). Businessdayonline.com 16th May 2012.

The Guardian, Monday, May 28, 2012 Pp. 27.

Wapco (1990). West African Portland Cement Company Plc: Corporate Plan (1990 – 1992). India Equity

Research/Cement (2009) Pp. 7 – 10.


120 | P a g e

Research Article

Measuring Accessibility of Neighbourhoods to Commercial Activity Areas:

Implication for Land Use Planning in Lokoja, Nigeria Adams Ndalai Baba*, Nooraini Bte Yusoff, Norsiah Bte Abdulaziz, Solomon Dyachia Zakka

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310

Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.

ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 2/06/2017


A b s t r a c t

Planning residential areas require accessibility to other land uses in other to

enhance urban functionality. Commercial activity areas in most developing

economies are essential to neighbourhoods as places for shopping, social

interaction and also serves as opportunities to generate employment and

income that supports neighbourhood living. This paper explores relationship

between planned neighbourhoods and commercial activity areas in Lokoja

using the Access Opportunity Index (AOI). The findings show that 60% of the

planned neighbourhoods are disadvantaged in accessibility to commercial

activity areas in the city. The Spearman’s rho test further reveals that,

correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) between informal Home-

based enterprises (HBE) occurrences in neighbourhoods and access

opportunity to commercial activity areas. The result shows a moderate inverse

relationship of - 0.4, an indication that with increase in access opportunity to

commercial activity areas, there is a corresponding decrease in HBE

occurrence. Applications/Improvements: The implication of this resulted in

areas with less access to commercial activity areas having more occurrences of

unorganised HBEs that negates land use planning objectives. Policies that will

integrate neighbourhoods and commercial activity areas have been suggested

to reflect research findings.


Accessibility, Neighbourhood, Land Use, Planning

1. Introduction

Accessibility of residential areas to other activity areas is an essential consideration in land use planning.

The advent of the industrial revolution brought about the concept of neighbourhood unit as a remedial

measure for urban degradation. This necessitated the need to create a physical environment whereby

children will not traverse streets with heavy traffic while embarking on school journeys, as schools are

located within walking distance and for women to have easy walk to shopping areas to obtain daily


121 | P a g e

household goods. It is also desirable for workers to find convenient transportation to and from work1. Since

the components of urban activities revolves around living, working, recreation and shopping, it is

imperative to ensure effective linkage between all these activities. Accessibility implies the ease with which

any land use activity can be reached from a location by means of a particular transport system2, 3. Therefore,

accessibility becomes a feature to the facility4. The understanding of accessibility factor in land use

planning will require a consideration of location of the activity areas relative to the users, the transport-

system, and the way space and distances influences the potential usage of facilities. The influence of

distance on potential usage is often conceptualised through distance-decay functions. It implies that

increasing distance or travel-cost has an inverse effect on the possible usage of a facility, i.e. it is less likely

that facilities far away is used than those at closer range 5,6,7,8. The principle of distance decay-

decay factor is established on the assumption that spatial interaction is enhanced basically by two factors:

the potential of the destination to attract flows and the extent to which the origin and destination are

separated9. Humans naturally tend to improvise when a desired facility is out of reach on account of

distance or capacity to sustain a given population. The implication of this may contravene planning ethics

and standards. Much as studies have been conducted on land use planning and accessibility, literature gap

exists in understanding the relationship between neighbourhood planning and access to commercial

facilities which this study seek to address. Such studies are not evident in literature about the study area.

Several housing development projects were embarked upon by various governments in Lokoja, the Kogi

State capital in central Nigeria since the creation of the state in 1991 to the year 2012. These planned

neighbourhoods were meant to provide living quarters for the civil servants essentially on owner-occupier

basis. However, the design and implementation of these housing developments lacked basic ancillary

facilities required of an ideal neighbourhood such as commercial activity areas. Their locations in many

cases seems to be disadvantaged in terms of proximity to existing planned and informal markets which

serves as shopping areas for urban dwellers10. The neighbourhoods tend to be saddled with proliferation of

informal enterprises which are unorganised. In recognition of the vital role of accessibility in land use

planning, this paper examine the access opportunity and determine the level of equity in access of planned

neighbourhoods to commercial activity areas of Lokoja. Attempt was made to establish the extent to which

distance factors in neighbourhood location in relation to commercial activity areas impact on space usage in

residential areas.

2. Concept, Trend, and Scale

In measuring accessibility, possible options were to carry out a straight line distance measurement to focal

points i.e., from passengers’ terminals of neighbourhoods to commercial activity clusters or use average

commuting time between the two points. The use of straight line distances to represent accessibility may not


122 | P a g e

be suitable, because it does not equate to travel time distance. In view of the variations in the quality of

roads and possibility of misrepresentation in areas where geographical or transportation features that are

capable of acting as barriers to direct access3, the second option was found to be more appropriate. This

approach was apt to overcome any intervening opportunities in travel distance such as bad roads, traffic

hold-ups etc. which are found to be peculiar to neighbourhoods in the study area. The researcher embarked

on trips from each of the 10 neighbourhoods (developed between 1991- 2012) to all the commercial activity

areas of Lokoja. The average travel time commuting to commercial activity areas from each neighbourhood

was observed using stop watch and recorded in minutes on an observer code sheet in a cross-tabulated form.

This data is useful in measuring Access Opportunity Index (AOI) which according to Smith, 1977 cited in

Morenikeji11 help in planning studies to find the best location for specific facilities in relation to population

needs. The model given as:

(1)

Where S = Size of facility j, t = time taken to travel from residence i to facility j; b = exponent describing

distance-decay effect. Measuring the overall AO for the city will be derive using the formula below.

(2)

This signifies the sum of Access opportunity of neighbourhoods multiplied by their respective population

and divided by the total population of all the neighbourhoods. The access opportunity model is also useful

in measuring the role distance of commercial activity areas and the neighbourhood play in inducing the

intensity of neighbourhoods’ Home Based Enterprise (HBEs) occurrences. The assumption is that, with

proximity to commercial facility locations, there will be less occurrence of HBEs. Facility measured in this

study are the commercial activity areas whose sizes were determined by physical counting of outlets and

sheds. Counting of shopping outlets became the only option because, apart from the New Market that has

official record of number of shops, the rest are a mix of temporal sheds and permanent stalls without official

records of their capacity. A complete enumeration of HBEs was carried out to determine the extent to which

distance of neighbourhoods to commercial activity areas has induced their proliferations. The enumeration

carried out listed HBEs in households, streets and public spaces of planned neighbourhoods in the study

area. Ten planned neighbourhoods that shows evidence of intensity of HBE occurrences were selected for

measurement. The essence of this is to aid the understanding of the extent to which distance to commercial

activity areas has contributed to HBE occurrences in the neighbourhoods.


123 | P a g e

3. Problem and Policy

Facility is represented by the commercial activity areas in town. Ten commercial clusters has been

identified based on the intensity of activities and their capacity to attract human flows for shopping and

other needs. The outlets are mainly informal markets and commercial clusters distributed in different parts

of the urban area. These include Ganaja Market (GM), Gaduma Market (GD), Ganaja Junction (GJ), and

Lokongoma Market (LM). Others are Mammy Market, (MM), Adankolo Market, Kpata Market, Old

Market (OM), New Market (NM) and Felele Market. The capacity of the commercial activity areas in terms

of number of stalls/sheds depicted in italics and AO of neighbourhoods to commercial activity areas

represented in bold asterisk are shown in Table1. Time taken to travel from residence (neighbourhood) to

facility (commercial activity areas) is also indicated in Table 1.

Table1. Access Opportunity (AO) Index of Neighbourhoods to Commercial Activity Areas

S/N

Neighbourhood

Population

Average commuting distance to commercial activity areas (minutes) and AO

G

M4

4

GD

32

GJ

108

LM

85

MM

172

AM

186

KM

415

OM

720

NM

3000

FL

66

Tota

l

AO

1 Lokongoma I

1225

8

*6

3

*11

1

*108

1

* 85

9

*19

7

*27

10

*42

12

*60

19

*158

30

*2

518

2 Lokongoma II

750

10

*4

5

*6

3

*36

2

*46

7

*25

9

*21

12

*34

14

*51

21

*142

32

*2

367

3 Adankolo

370

10

*4

5

*6

2

*54

3

*28

12

*14

1

*186

3

*138

4

*180

10

*300

21

*3

913

4 Salau Attima

300

13

*3

9

*4

7

*15

6

*14

3

*57

12

*16

15

*83

16

*42

24

*125

34

*2

361

5 Workers village

480

14

*3

9

*4

7

*15

7

*12

3

*57

12

*16

15

*83

17

*42

24

*125

35

*2

259

6 Aniebo Qtrs.

350

4

*11

1

*32

2

*54

2

*46

12

*14

5

*37

9

*46

10

*72

18

*167

28

*2

481

7 Olobayo1

1000

5

*9

4

*8

1

*108

2

*46

11

*16

5

*37

9

*46

10

*72

18

*167

28

*2

511

8 Olobayo2

1130

3

*15

2

*16

3

*36

4

*21

12

*14

7

*27

10

*42

12

*60

19

*157

30

*2

390

9 Otokiti

1265

17

*3

18

*2

9

*12

8

*11

1

*172

15

*12

18

*23

19

*38

27

*111

37

*2

386

10 Ganaja

1250

1

*44

2

*16

7

*15

7

*12

16

*11

10

*19

13

*32

14

*51

22

*136

32

*2

338

Total 8120 4524


124 | P a g e

Access opportunity is determined by the AO value, whereby the higher the value obtained the greater the

access opportunity of the particular neighbourhood. From Table1 Adankolo Estate with a score of 913 has

the greatest access opportunity to the commercial activity while workers village with 259 score has the least

AO. To determine the AO for the entire the city, each neighbourhoods AO is multiplied by its population,

the values are summed up and divided by the total population as follows;

Table 2. Access Opportunity (AO)

Neighbourhood Pop. AO Pop.*AO

Lokongoma I 1225 518 634,550

Lokongoma II 750 367 275,250

Adankolo 370 913 337,810

Salau Attima 300 361 108,300

Workers village 480 259 124,320

Aniebo Qtrs. 350 481 168,350

Olobayo I 1000 511 511,000

Olobayo II 1130 390 440,700

Otokiti 1265 386 488,290

Ganaja 1250 338 422,500

Total 8120 3,511,070

Therefore, the AO for each neighbourhood multiply by their respective population is summed up to give a

total of 3511070, and is divided by the sum of the neighbourhoods’ population (as shown in Table 2) which

is equal to 8120. The value given is 432 and this represent the overall AO for the city. A higher value is an

indication of higher access opportunity. This shows that six neighbourhoods which are Lokongoma 2, Salau

Attima, Workers Village, Olobayo 2, Otokiti and Ganaja falls below the mean AO value of 432. This is an

indication that 60% of the neighbourhoods are disadvantaged in accessibility to commercial activity areas in

the city. In order to determine the level of equity in access opportunity to commercial activity areas among

the neighbourhoods, the standard deviation (SD) of AO was calculated using Microsoft Excel 2013. The SD

value derived is 178, which indicates the level of variations in accessibility of neighbourhoods to

commercial activity areas in the city. This is quite significant with varying implications on occurrences of

informal HBEs among the neighbourhoods. Relating the number of housing units in neighbourhoods to

HBE occurrences and AO, it is evident in Figure 1 that neighbourhoods which falls below the mean value

of the AO have a considerable higher number of HBE occurrences. Considering neighbourhood sizes,

Adankolo with fewer housing unit and highest AO, has the least of HBE occurrence. It implies that to a

great extent, neighbourhoods’ proximity to commercial activity areas reduces the rate of HBE occurrences

and vice versa. A Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient analysis to establish the implication of


125 | P a g e

accessibility factors on land use planning thus determine the extent to which distance of neighbourhoods to

commercial activity areas of the city induced HBE occurrence as shown in Table 3.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

Numberof HBE Number of housing unit Access opportunity to commercial activity areas

Figure1. Number of HBE, housing units and access opportunity

Table 3. Correlation between HBE intensity in neighbourhoods and access opportunity to commercial activity areas

Correlations

HBE occurrence

in

neighbourhoods

Access opportunity to

commercial activity

areas

Spearman's

rho

HBE occurrence in

neighbourhoods

Correlation

Coefficient

1.000 -.408**

Sig. (2-tailed) . .000

N 353 353

Access opportunity to

commercial activity

areas

Correlation

Coefficient

-.408** 1.000

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .

N 353 353

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The test reveals that, correlation between HBE occurrences in neighbourhoods and access opportunity to

commercial activity areas is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed). The result shows a moderate inverse

relationship of - 0.4, an indication that with increase in access opportunity to commercial activity areas,

there is a corresponding decrease in HBE occurrence. It follows therefore, that when neighbourhoods are


126 | P a g e

designed with or closer to commercial outlets there will invariably be a decline or non HBE occurrences.

This finding reveals that HBEs which are usually unorganised will continue to increase in planned

neighbourhood as long as they are far from commercial areas. This is in agreement with the origin based

gravity model9 (Eldridge and Jones, 1991) that the degree to which the origin and destination are separated

will affect the attraction of human flows. Human flows to commercial activities areas from neighbourhoods

are influenced by distance in the study area, hence informal home-based enterprises thrive more in areas

farther away from them.

4. Conclusion

It has been established that accessibility played an important role in land use planning decisions. The study

revealed that 60% of the neighbourhoods are disadvantaged in terms of accessibility to commercial activity

areas. There is also a significant variations in accessibility of neighbourhoods to commercial activity areas.

Distance to commercial activity areas is an important factor that encouraged the proliferation of HBEs

among neighbourhoods in an unsuitable manner. For effective interaction and urban functionality,

neighbourhood location decisions should reflect provisions or proximity to areas where commercial

activities are available to cater for immediate shopping needs in line with neighbourhood planning

principles. The significance of this, is that land use planning efforts are distorted by emergence of

unorganised informal enterprises that not only compromise aesthetic quality but alter original land use

plans. Neighbourhood centres which are inevitable components of residential land use planning should be

considered in subsequent planning efforts. In the meantime, rehabilitation of neighbourhoods to provide for

organised outlets for commercial activities is strongly recommended for existing neighbourhoods. As part

of long term plans, stakeholders in urban development and management should begin to make plans for

Enterprise Housing that will bring about a mix of activities in neighbourhoods. Such mixed homes

incorporate income making activities, social amenities like parks, schools etc. It will also provide spaces for

the elderly and others who may not need to commute to city centres for their daily needs. Subsequent

research efforts should seek suitable and acceptable ways of integrating home-based enterprises in

residential land use planning effort. Such effort should have a wide civil engagement with various

stakeholders to come up with templates that build in the value system components of beneficiaries. This

will address the issues of accessibility to commercial activity areas, neighbourhood sustainability and

contravention to planning standards.


127 | P a g e

References

1. Shambharkar, R. M. The Neighbourhood Unit Concept as an Urban Space. Architecture – Time

Space & People 2008; 30-34.

2. Dalvi, M. Q. Behavioral modeling accessibility, mobility and need: Concepts and Measurement.

Behavioral travel modelling, D. A., Hensher P. R., Stopher, eds., Croom Helm, London; 1979.

3. Chin H. C., Foong K. W. Influence of Accessibility on Housing Values on Housing Values –

Journal of Urban Planning and Development. 2006; 132 (2):120-129.

4. Heanue, K., Menchkhoff, G., Peyrebrune, H., Pisarski, A. Urban mobility: An international

perspective. Routes Roads Special 1. PIARC World Association; 1995.

5. Hansen, W.G. How accessibility shapes land use. Journal of the American Institute of Planners.

1959; 25:73-76. Reprinted with permission by Kraus Reprint Corporation (1966). DOI:

10.1080/01944365908978307. Accessed 15 September 2015.

6. Koenig, J.G. Indicators of urban accessibility: Theory and application. Transportation 1980; 9:145-

172.

7. Fortheringham, A.S. Spatial structure and distance-decay parameters. Annals of the Association of

American Geographers. 1981; 71(3):425-436.

8. Skov-Petersen, H. Estimation of distance-decay parameters - GIS-based indicators of recreational

accessibility. Scandinavian Research Conference on Geographical Information Science;

Proceedings. Aas, Norway; 2001 June 24-27.

9. Eldridge J. D., Jones J. P. Wrapped Space: A Geography of Distance Decay Effect. Professional

Geographer. 1991; 43(4): 500-511

10. Baba, A.N., Yusoff, N.B., Elegba, E.O. Towards Cities Inclusiveness: The Land Use Paradigm

Option for Nigeria." Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2015; 172: 367-374.

11. Morenikeji, W. Research and Analytical Methods for Social Scientists, Planners and

Environmentalists, Jos University Press Ltd, 106, Jos; 2006.


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Research Article

Compressive Strength of RHA Stabilised Earth Bricks Mixed With Locust

Bean Pod Extract Umar Faruq Muhammad1, Habibu Tanimu2, Ahmad Hayaatuddeen2

1 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor

Bahru, Malaysia.

2 Department of Science Technology, Nasarawa State Polytechnic, Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria.

Email: [email protected], +60133737200, +2348077441884

ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 2/06/2017


A b s t r a c t

Locust bean pod has been used for ages as traditional construction material for

water proofing of earth walls, floors and roofs. Modern researches have also

validated it usefulness as a binder for production of laterite bricks. The aim of

this study is to determine the compressive strength of Rice Husks Ash (RHA)

bricks treated with locust bean pod extract (LoPEx).Tests were carried out in

which different sample batches of RHA bricks, B1, B2 and B3, were molded.

The sample batches were differentiated by the quantity of LoPEx used in their

mixes, which are; 2, 4 and 8 head pans respectively. The compressive strength

of the samples were tested at 7, 14 and 28 days respectively. The results

showed that the extract can significantly increase the compressive strength of

RHA bricks. The strength also increased as the amount of extract was

increased. This is a confirmation of the high potentials of locust bean pod

extract being used as a binder in the production of RHA bricks. It is

recommended that a research be conducted on cement and RHA stabilized

earth bricks mixed with locust bean pod extract.


RHA, LBP, LoPEx, Extract, Bricks, Traditional

1. Introduction

As a result of increased industrial and agricultural processes across the globe, there has been significant

increase in industrial and agricultural wastes which constitute environmental pollution. Much research

efforts in recent times are geared towards possible ways of recycling these wastes for re-use to keep the

environment clean, safe and sustainable. The construction industries have the greatest potentials for the

utilization of these wastes (Shafigh, Mahmud, Jumaat, & Zargar, 2014). The two main reason a lot of these

wastes are used or reused in construction is because, they can replace the expensive stone-based aggregates

in concrete mixes and can also replace the more expensive conventional (Vishwas & Gaikwad, 2013),


129 | P a g e

(Behera & Behera, 2013) and (Shaikh, Thorat, Unde, & Shirse, 2015) since they are pozzolanic in nature.

Continues experiments and researches have subjected earth material to various ‘wastes’ replacement; earth

has proven to be one of the, if not the, best natural building materials (Minke, 2006). In fact, where

Industrial Building Materials IBM) such as concrete and steel, have proven impossible to fulfill shelter

requirements, the vacuum is being replaced by ‘earth’ especially in the form of ‘stabilized ‘’soil blocks’’,

also known as stabilized Compressed Earth bricks (CEB). The stabilization here refers to agricultural waste

derived stabilizers such as rice husk ash (RHA) and locust bean pod extract (LoPex). Rice Husk Ash is one

excellent type of natural stabilizers that has seen extensive research and development; Khan et al., (2012)

proved that, 25% RHA as replacement of cement in concrete mix results in the same or better concrete than

conventional concrete mix. Locust Bean Pod Extract (LoPex) is another excellent additive which has been

proven by Aguwa & Okafor, (2012), to increase the compressive strength of laterite (soil) blocks

considerably. These researches have indeed validated the pozzolanic nature of these ‘wastes.’ The term,

‘pozzolan,’ is derived from the name ‘pozzuoli,’ a town situated near Mount Vesuvius. As an active

volcanic mountain, it occasionally produced ashes that were mined by the Romans years ago, and used in

the construction of their buildings as a binder in the same way cement is used today (Senapati, 2011).

Hence, other types of ashes like those of fuel, coal and rice husks, are categorized as pozzolans due to the

possession of binding enhancing properties. Pozzolans are either natural or artificial. Artificial ones are

those that occur due to man-made processes; for instance, fly ash which is one of the fine-particles residue

produced during coal combustion in a blast furnace (Pandian, 2013). There are also natural pozzolans such

as calcined clay, calcined shale and metakaolin. The pozzolanic properties of these and even other

substances are largely due to the silicates compounds found in them. They, by nature, usually react with soil

particles to form calcium silicate cement, in a reaction that is water insoluble. The binding or cementing

agents in the pozzolans are the same as those of the ordinary Portland cement. The difference is that, in

Portland cement, the calcium silicate gel is formed from the hydration of anhydrous calcium silicate,

whereas with pozzolans, the gel is formed by the removal of silica from the clay materials of the soil. When

this happens, the silicate gel proceeds immediately to coat and bind clay lumps in the soil together, and to

block off voids in the soil structure. In time, this gel gradually crystallizes into well-defined calcium silicate

hydrate, and the micro crystals also interlock. This reaction ceases on drying, as very dry soils will not react

with pozzolanic materials or cement (Argus and Gendut, 2002). For any ash or other substance to be a

pozzolan, it has to fulfill the requirements set out in Table 1 (Kaur, Farooq, & Singh, 2005).


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Table 1: Requirements for fly ash and natural pozzolans for use as a mineral admixture in Portland cement concrete as per ASTM

C618-93.

1.1 Rice Husk Ash

About 120 million tons of rice husks are produced annually around the world as ‘agro-waste ’(Kumar,

Mohanta, Kumar, & Parkash, 2012). In Nigeria where about 3,000,000 tonnes of rice is produced annually,

the rice husk production is about 600,000 tonnes (Chukwudebelu, Igwe, & Madukasi, 2015). Rice husks are

basically composed of 80% organic volatile materials and 20% silica (James and SubbaRao, 1996) in

(Olawale & Oyawale, 2012) . Sabat & Nanda, (2011) however puts it at between 20% and 23% by weight

of the paddy. This varied composition of husks is due to geographical and climatic conditions, types of rice,

and the quantity of fertilizer used (Govindarao, 1980). Burning of rice husks produces rice husk ash (RHA)

Requirements Classification

N F C

Chemical Requirements

SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3, min % 70.0 70.0 50.0

SO3, max % 4.0 5.0 5.0

Moisture content, max % 3.0 3.0 3.0

Loss on ignition, max % 10.0 6.0 6.0

Physical Requirements

Amount retained when wet sieved on 45

Om. Sieve, max %

34 34 34

Pozzolanic activity index, with Portland

cement at 28 days, min % of control

75 75 75

Pozzolanic activity index, with lime, at 7

days, min (MPa)

5.5 5.5 -

Water requirement, max % of control 115 105 105

Autoclave expansion or contraction, max% 0.8 0.8 0.8

Specific gravity, max variation from

average.

5 5 5

% retained on 45 sieve, max Variation, and

% points from ave

5 5 5

NOTE *Class N: Raw or calcined natural pozzolan that comply with the application requirements for the class as given herein, such as some diatomaceous earths;

opaline cherts and shales; thufs and volcanic ashes or pumicites, calcined or uncalcined; and various materials requiring calcinations such as some clays and shales.

**Class F: Fly ash normally produced from burning bituminous coal that meets the applicable requirements for this class as given herein. This class of fly ash has

pozzolanic properties.

***Class C: Fly ash normally produced from lignite or sub bituminous coal that meets the applicable requirements for this class, as given herein. The class of fly ash, in

addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some cementitious properties.


131 | P a g e

which is rich in silica, and can be an economically valuable raw material for the production of natural silica

(Kalapathy, Proctor, & Shultz, 2000). Despite the differences in compositions of different rice husks, some

form of proportional relationship can be discerned as depicted in Table 2.

Table 2: Typical chemical composition of rice husks

SiO2 91.75 88.32 89.08

Al2O3 2.07 0.46 1.75

Fe2O3 1.56 0.67 0.78

CaO 1.3 0.67 1.29

MgO 1 0.44 0.64

Na2O 0 - 0.85

K2O 2.32 2.91 1.38

LOI - 5.8 2.05

Source: (Pushpakumara & De Silva, 2012).

On the average, the highest chemical constituent is Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) while the lowest is Sodium

Oxide (Na2O). It is this high amount of SiO2 which is amorphous silica that results in the silica-rich residue

after the combustion process of the rice husks.

1.2 Locust Bean Pod

One important agricultural waste is the Locust Bean Pod obtained from the fruit of the African locust bean

tree, Parkia biglobosa. It is a perennial tree found in the savannah zone of West Africa, with multipurpose

use; as food, for soil fertility, as medicine, etc. The harvested fruits yield empty pods, which makes up

about 39% by weight of the fruit (Yisa & Jimoh, 2011). Use of locust bean pod extract has been a common

traditional practice in Northern Nigeria. The extract is mainly used as a bonding agent between traditionally

produced clay tiles and the soil beneath in the construction of durable floor finishes rooms. Some floors

constructed using this method have been in existence for the past fifty (50) years and above (Adama and

Jimoh, 2011). Locust bean pod, largely considered as waste agricultural biomass, has had extensive usage in

traditional buildings. The pods are soaked in water for at least, four days, and the extract used to mold mud

blocks for building purposes. Another way of using the pods is heaping them over mud block fences and as

soon as rain begins to fall on them, the leached solvent percolates down the wall to make it water resistant

after it dries up. In order to add to this body of knowledge, this study aims at establishing the compressive

strength of Rice Husk Ash-stabilized laterite bricks that are mixed with Locust bean Pod Extract (LoPEx).

The first objective is to produce rice husk ash using a very accessible method. The second objective is to

extract constituents from the locust bean pods. And the third objective is to establish effects of these

materials on compressive strength of earth bricks.


132 | P a g e

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Leaching of the Locust Bean Pod

2.1.1 Collection of the LBP

The locust bean tree is abundant in the Northern Nigerian region generally and Nasarawa State particularly.

This research was conducted at the beginning of the locust bean harvest season that is the dry season which

is also hot season. All the pods used in this research were gotten from Keffi (villages of Taaka-laafiya,

Dorawa, Anguwan Gwandara, and ‘Yar-kadde) and Lafia (Agyaragu village); these two LGAs are in

Nasarawa State. Despite being the beginning of the harvest season, nonetheless, some factors affected the

supply of the pods. For instance, most of the producers in the villages have been used to pounding the

whole locust bean with a pestle and mortar, because they were primarily interested in the seed which they

use to produce a type of local food seasoning called ‘daddawa.’ Hence, our demand for only the pod meant

they had to manually peel the locust bean in order to preserve the pod as much as possible. That made the

gathering of the pods very time consuming and expensive.

2.1.2 Production of the Extract

The pods were bagged and transported to the outdoor Rice Milling neighbourhood in Lafia, Nasarawa State,

where they were boiled in large steel tanks for leaching. The entire pods, weighing 480kg, were put inside

3,600 litres of water. The mix was boiled for about 20min and left for 24 hrs to cool down. Boiling method

was used because solubility of the pods increased as the temperature of the water increased. Also, the

choice for water as the solvent was due to its very low viscosity, a property that allows it to circulate freely

than most solvents (Aguwa & Okafor, 2012). After that period, the residue pods were removed and

discarded. The liquid extract, which had a dark purple colour, was collected and used for the research

mixes.

2.1.3 Chemical Analysis of the Extract

The locust bean pod extract (LoPEx), was analyzed for its chemical constituents using the facilities of the

Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State’s Soil Science Laboratory. Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometer (A.A.S.) was used for the analysis; this test is used to determine the metallic

constituents of silicate materials. The LoPEx, which is in solution form, is reduced to its elemental state and

vaporized. It is then drawn into a suitable flame which excites the outer most electrons to higher orbital.

After a short interval of time, the electrons return to ground state and a quantum of radiation is emitted.

Each constituent element is indicated by well-defined lines resulting from the emission (Muhammed, 1993)

in (Olawale& Oyawale, 2012). A result of this test is shown in Table 3.


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2.2 Rice Husk Ash (RHA)

2.2.1 Collection of the Rice Husk

The husks were collected at Lafia, Nasarawa, where an active rice milling industry exists; shown in Figures

1a and 1b.

Figures 1a and 1b: Rice milling in Lafia

2.2.2 Production of the RHA

The researchers constructed a mass concrete slab in leased open field on which the sacks of rice husks were

emptied, as shown in Figure 2a. The heaps were large and their combustion was extremely slow, hence the

need to make them smaller; they were divided into heaps of about 1.2m in diameter and about 0.6m in

height. These heaps took up to 48hrs to burn down. The open air burning method was adopted, as shown in

Figure 2b, firstly because it provided a better pozzolanic property than controlled burning in a kiln or

furnace, since controlled method leaves residues of unburnt carbon in the ash (Akinyele, Salim, Oikelome,

& Olateju, 2015). Secondly, open method ensured that the burning temperature did not reach 7500 or above

which would have caused crystallization of the RHA, and consequently lead to excessive environmental

pollution (Krishnarao et al., 1992) in (Olawale & Oyawale, 2012). Thirdly, because it was a more accessible

method of burning to even low-income earners, which makes it sustainable. The husks at the core of the

heaps underwent more complete combustion due to less oxygen. The resulting RHA was carefully skimmed

at intervals and the remaining unburnt husks are rekindled; shown in Figure 2c and 2d. At the end, the ash

was collected, and bagged for transportation to the research station, situated at the Nasarawa State

Polytechnic, Lafia.


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Figures 2a, b, c and d: Production of rice husks ash by the researchers.

2.2.3 Chemical Analysis of the RHA

The RHA was also analysed for its chemical constituents at the same laboratory in Minna, Niger State, and

the results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Chemical composition of the RHA and LoPEx

Parameters RHA (%) LoPEx (%)

SiO2 55.09 42.67

Al2O3 8.25 9.92

Fe2O3 6.22 5.89

P2O5 0.04 2.02

CaO 10.59 9.78

MgO 1.02 1.00

Na2O 1.89 0.86

LOI 13.02 11.99

2.3 Laterite Soil

The soil used in the research was sourced from Gandu area of Lafia L.G.A. Laterite was used because it is a

generally iron rich soil with a hard ferruginous surface expression and some degree of chemical and

mineralogical differentiation below (Eggleton 2001) in (Saynor& Harford, 2010).

2.4 Production of the Bricks

The test-bricks used were produced in batches; 1, 2, 3, based on the different quantities of their mix

materials namely, laterite soil, RHA, and LoPEx. A batch 4 was produced as the Control Group (CG), with

its materials being laterite soil, rice husk ash, and little water.


135 | P a g e

In all the three test batches, quantities of the laterite soil and the rice husk ash remained constant while the

amount of LoPEx was varied; as shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Quantities of materials for bricks production

Laterite RHA LoPEx Qty in ‘head

pans’ Qty head pans % of Mix Qty head pans % of Mix

Batch (CG) 11 73 4 27 Enough water

Batch 1 11 73 4 27 2

Batch 2 11 73 4 27 4

Batch 3 11 73 4 27 8

In the entire measurement of the materials, head pan was used, and the materials were measured level with

the rim of the head pan. The head pan was adopted because limited intelligence was required before using

it, and it is a basic tool in construction. It was also used because of easy accessibility and convenience to the

common man. The 27% amount of RHA replacement level was used in the mix, in line with Dakroury et al.

(2008) and (Givi, Rashid, Aziz, & Salleh, 2010) in (Torkaman, Ashori, & Sadr Momtazi, 2014).

2.4.1 Preparation of the Batches’ Mixes

For all the batches, the laterite soil was first sieved using measured unto a clean concrete slab casted for that

purpose. Shovels were used to spread the soil thin and then the RHA was also spread over it. The two were

dry-mixed over and over using the shovels, until an even mix was achieved. After that, the mix was again

spread thin but with ridges and valleys round, and then the required amount of LoPEx was slowly poured

into the valleys. For the fact that the laterite soil was a little bit damp, it became necessary to allow the

Batches to soak the extract for some time; Batch 1 for 1 day, Batch 2 for 3 days, and Batch 3 for 8 days, in

order to get them dry enough to be moldable. The increasing number of waiting days was due to the

respective increasing amount of the LoPEx. At the end of the periods of days the mixes formed into lumps

which had to be broken down by use of shovels again.

2.4.2 Molding of the Bricks

Molding was carried out by the use of a locally fabricated, manually operated machine press, which was

fabricated by SOLBATEC in Nigeria; Figure 3. The sizes of the molded bricks, refered to as, Rice-Husk-

Ash-Locust-Extract, RHALex for short, are shown in Table 5. A total of 12 bricks were molded; 3 bricks

for every Batch.


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Figure 3: The manually operated brick molding machine.

Table 5: Size of the brick samples molded

Length (mm) Width (mm) Height (mm)

210 100 100


3.1 Chemical Analysis of the RHA and LoPEx

The analysis results, showing quantities of the respective chemical constituents of both the RHA and LoPEx

are presented in Table 4. From the results, sum of the percentages of the chemical compounds in the RHA,

SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3, is 69.56%. This is approximately 70% which satisfies the minimum ASTM C618-

93 standards for class “F” pozzolana, in Table 1. Loss on Ignition of the RHA is 13.02%, which is higher

than Table 1. This is not a problem (Oda, 2003) and can be accepted (Awal & Shehu, 2013) because it only

shows that the time was not enough for total removal of carbon from the RHA. For the LoPEx, the sum of

these compounds is 58.48% which also satisfies the standard of 50% minimum for class “C” natural

pozzolana. Its Loss on Ignition is 11.99% which is similarly higher than the standard, and also acceptable as

the RHA. Most important though, is the fact that both materials are proven to be pozzolana based on ASTM

C618.

3.2 Compressive Strength Test of the Bricks

Compressive strength test was carried out on all the brick samples – Control Group (CG), Batch 1, Batch 2,

and Batch 3. The results are in Tables 6, 7, 8 and 9.


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Table 6: Compressive Strength test of RHALex Batch 4: The Control Group bricks

Brick

no

Date cast Date

tested

Age

for

testing

(days)

Structure Wt.

of

bricks

(g)

Density

of

bricks

(kg/m3)

Crushing

load

(KN)

Area

(mm2)

Crushing

strength

(N/mm2)

Ave

strength

(N/mm2)

RHAL 30/06/’13 28/07/’13 28 BRICKS 8035 1287 60 48000 1.3 1.1

‘’ ‘’ 8134 1303 48 ‘’ 1.0

‘’ ‘’ 7704 1234 48 ‘’ 1.0

Table 7: Compressive Strength test of Batch 1, 2 and 3 at 7 days

Bric

k no

Date cast Date tested Age

for

testin

g

(days)

Structur

e

Wt.

of

brick

s (g)

Density

of

bricks

(kg/m3

)

Crushin

g load

(KN)

Area

(mm2

)

Crushing

strength

(N/mm2

)

Ave

strength

(N/mm2

)

B1

10/06/201

3

17/06/201

3

7 BRICKS 7996 1281 40 48000 0.83

0.86 ‘’ ‘’ 8137 1304 48 ‘’ 1.00

‘’ ‘’ 7888 1264 36 ‘’ 0.75

B2

10/06/201

3

17/06/201

3

‘’ BRICKS 7666 1229 40 ‘’ 0.83

0.75 ‘’ ‘’ 7382 1183 40 ‘’ 0.83

‘’ ‘’ 7467 1197 28 ‘’ 0.58

B3

10/06/201

3

17/06/201

3

‘’ BRICKS 8414 1348 80 ‘’ 1,67

1.56 ‘’ ‘’ 8328 1335 64 ‘’ 1.33

‘’ ‘’ 8356 1339 80 ‘’ 1.67


138 | P a g e


Brick

no

Date cast Date tested Age

for

testin

g

(days)

Structur

e

Wt.

of

brick

s (g)

Density

of

bricks

(kg/m3

)

Crushin

g load

(KN)

Area

(mm2

)

Crushing

strength

(N/mm2

)

Ave

strength

(N/mm2

)

B1

10/06/20

13

24/06/201

3

14 BRICKS 7781 1247 40 48000 0.83

0.89 ‘’ ‘’ 7792 1249 40 ‘’ 0.83

‘’ ‘’ 7702 1234 48 ‘’ 1.00

B2

10/06/20

13

24/06/201

3

‘’ BRICKS 8057 1291 52 ‘’ 1.08

1.03 ‘’ ‘’ 7584 1215 56 ‘’ 1.17

‘’ ‘’ 7494 1201 40 ‘’ 0.83

B3

10/06/20

13

24/06/201

3

‘’ BRICKS 8410 1348 56 ‘’ 1.17

1.20 ‘’ ‘’ 8180 1311 56 ‘’ 1.17

‘’ ‘’ 8079 1295 60 ‘’ 1.25


Brick

no

Date cast Date

tested

Age

for

testing

(days)

Structure Wt.

of

bricks

(g)

Density

of

bricks

(kg/m3)

Crushing

load

(KN)

Area

(mm2)

Crushing

strength

(N/mm2)

Ave

strength

(N/mm2)

B1

10/06/2013 08/07/13 28 BRICKS 7648 1226 40 48000 0.83

0.76 ‘’ ‘’ 7745 1241 32 ‘’ 0.67

‘’ ‘’ 7862 1260 38 ‘’ 0.79

B2

10/06/2013 08/07/13 ‘’ BRICKS 7421 1189 36 ‘’ 0.75

0.67 ‘’ ‘’ 7554 1211 28 ‘’ 0.58

‘’ ‘’ 7522 1205 32 ‘’ 0.67

B3

10/06/2013 08/07/13 ‘’ BRICKS 8288 1328 32 ‘’ 0.67

0.89 ‘’ ‘’ 8184 1312 60 ‘’ 1.25

‘’ ‘’ 8192 1313 36 ‘’ 0.75


139 | P a g e

4. Discussion

The compressive strength of the RHALex bricks is measured against the postulation that both materials are

pozzolanas. Looking at Tables 6, 7 and 8, for all the samples B1, B2 and B3, their average strengths

increase with the age of the bricks from 7days. Table 6 shows that at 7days, B3 with 1.56N/mm2 is stronger

than B1 of 0.86N/mm2 and B2 of 0.75N/mm2. Similarly, Table 7 shows that at 14days, B3 with 1.20N/mm2

is stronger than B1 with 0.89N/mm2 and B2 with 1.03N/mm2. At 28days; Table 8, the results are also

similar. This can be more clearly seen in Table 10, at least for B1 and B2. Quantities of the LoPEx,

increased from B1 to B3, resulted in increased average compressive strength. This increase supports the

assertion on the pozzolanic nature of LoPEx, even though a lot of individual brick samples possess lower

average strengths than the CG at Hence, even at 7days, a RHALex brick attains its optimum compressive

strength for use in construction. This could be attributable to continues evaporation of the LoPEx from the

samples during curing. However, these increases and decreases are not significant with the increase in age

of curing. Furthermore, the higher the quantity of LoPEx in the mixes, the higher the average strength of the

samples;

Table 10: Average compressive strengths of sample batches related to age.

At 7 days

B1

Ave strength

(N/mm2)

B2

Ave strength

(N/mm2)

B3

Ave strength

(N/mm2)

Control Group Ave

strength

(N/mm2)

5. Conclusions

Locust bean pod, considered as waste in modern times but traditionally used in building construction ages

ago, has been processed and tested in this research. Its extract, LoPEx, was used to mold bricks that have

been stabilized with rice husk ash, RHA. The bricks were tested afterwards to determine their compressive

strengths. The results showed that the LoPEx increases the compressive strength of RHA stabilized earth

bricks. The strength can also be increased by increasing the quantity of the LoPEx in the earth mix. The

research results have therefore shown that RHALex bricks have the potentials to be used as construction

materials, which would ensure the utilization of LBP and rice husks. This would consequently lead to

environmental sustainability.


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Akinyele, J. O., Salim, R. W., Oikelome, K. O., & Olateju, O. T. (2015). The Use of Rice Husk Ash as a

Stabilizing Agent in Lateritic Clay Soil. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology,

International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural

Engineering, 9(11), 1392–1396.

Awal, A. S. M. A., & Shehu, I. A. (2013). Evaluation of heat of hydration of concrete containing high

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Research Article

Self-Help Approach as Panacea for Housing Delivery Dilemma in Nigeria David Olugbenga Taiwo1*, Nooraini Bte Yusoff 2, Norsiah Bte Abdul Aziz3

1, 2, 3 Department of Urban & Regional Planning, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310

Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia.


ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 2/06/2017


A b s t r a c t

As world population increases so does the need for housing. This is especially

true of developing countries like Nigeria. Despite the various interventions by

the government, a large proportion of the population of Nigeria cannot still

afford to own houses. Self-help housing can be described as practices in which

low-income groups solve their housing needs through their own resources of

labour and finance. Arguably, housing provision is the social responsibility of

the government to provide affordable housing for the citizenry but in the face

of the falling financial resources and global economic problem, alternatives

have to be sought to meet the housing needs of the populace. In the light of

this, the paper explores the self-help housing delivery practices in Nigeria with

the attendants’ problems by using the South West geopolitical zone as case

study. The paper also determines the extent to which government interventions

have been successful in providing housing for Nigerians. The paper then

concludes that in order to meet the challenges of shelter provision, there is an

urgent need to re-direct and focus the attention of the Nigerian population to

channel their resources on self-help approach of housing provision rather than

to rely solely on the government. The primary data was gathered through

observations and questionnaire administration on the respondents in the study

area. The secondary data were gathered through literature search from journal

publications, magazines and the internet.


Self-help; Affordable; Housing; South-West

1. Introduction

One of the current and growing problems in countries of Africa is the issue of accessibility to housing.

Provision of housing to the city dwellers particularly those that are below average in the towns and cities is

one of the foremost worries at the turn of this century. In most of the studies been conducted by researchers

and academia, it is glaring that the problems of housing is global in outlook, but the effect has assumed a

greater dimension in most of the third world countries otherwise known as the global south1. Housing


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provision in most developing countries appears to be faced with numerous challenges which include

inaccessibility to land, inadequate funding, inefficiencies of policy as well as absence of political will.

These aforementioned challenges in Nigeria have brought situations of poor housing development resulting

in individuals to embark on self-help housing projects to meet their needs. The supply of new additional

houses to the existing ones has been at the rear in almost all the states of Nigeria as a nation when compared

with other developing countries. The country experience one of the most prevalent housing shortage

situations in Africa, primarily as an outcome of her enormous population size estimated at 170 million2.

Records available from various literatures shows that by 2009, Nigeria housing deficit was projected at

about 16 million dwellings which might have necessitated the requirements for a whooping sum of $40

billion to execute3 and by 2015 housing deficit in Nigeria has increased to 17 million units2. Housing

means different things to different people, to some it stands for shelter, as it serves as one of the pointers of

a person’s standard of living and his or her place in the society. The importance of housing cannot be

underestimated for the realization of improved living conditions in both the rural as well as the urban

centres of the country. Arising from the qualities and characteristics of housing, the demand for housing has

continue to rise due to increase in population and the growth in urban sizes which has swiftly led to the

increase in the gap between housing need and supply. The migration of rural households to urban areas in

search of urban opportunities has placed immense pressure on affordable land and housing. The continuous

increase in population as well as sudden surge in the size of cities in the recent past years have shown

through dearth of housing units and has led to the spate of increase in rents and other evils; which include

poor state of living conditions in the urban areas, inaccessibility to better water supply, poor state of

sewage facilities, people residing in overcrowded surroundings, living in houses often times classified as

unfit for human habitation due to structural defect, residing in position with no security of tenure, high

crime rates among others. In the social life of every Nigerian, home ownership boosts one’s status in the

society and from the point of view of built environment; housing plays an important role in the

enhancement of human health, social and economic welfare of the society and as such housing is a basic

needs of man for the purpose of security, privacy and protection from negative impacts of the

environment4,5,6. In spite of the numerous efforts by successive Nigerian governments and even the private

sector to tackle housing challenges in the country, the residential housing problems appear to increase

beyond solution7,3,6,8. However, the inability of various past governments to provide affordable housing to

the vast majority calls for concerns among scholars and researchers. A lot of scholars have mentioned the

failure of government in meeting the yearnings and aspirations of the low and medium income groups in the

area of housing provision, however, the challenges facing the vast majority of the population in the area of

self-help project seems to still persist. The various governments in Nigeria over the years had been involved

in numerous housing programmes, basically for the purpose of making the vast population to have access to


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affordable housing. These housing involvements are revealed in the yearly fiscal necessities for housing

urban development, and in establishing institutional framework for the development of housing 9 In spite of

the numerous attempts by various governments, as well as private individuals, agencies at home and the

foreign scene to make more houses available Nigeria, the problem of housing which have to do with deficit

and in ability to afford houses appears not to have abated. This advances credibility to the rising

transnational worry over the situations. The wage of average Nigerian is typically not sufficient to address

his issues to possess a place of his decision or rent an apartment of his taste. The provision of fundamental

utilities and services especially housing is incompletely the obligation of the government, which has been

debilitated lately by declining political will and some different factors. It appears that in the history of

housing development in Nigeria, the private sector had been at the front burner. The main root for this

perhaps, might be due to the large housing market in country. The housing market in the country is

dominated by the private sectors buildings, which might have been caused by the continual failure in the

housing delivery by the government. 10 reveals that as far back as 2002, the formal and informal private

sectors have been constantly providing over 90 percent of the housing stock in the country11. However,

12opined that the private sectors contribute about 80 percent of the total supply of housing in the country, as

opposed to other nations in the sub-region. This paper attempt to analyse housing provision in Nigeria with

attention on strategies on self-help housing approaches, taking a look at the difficulties of the players of

self-help housing process in the country. The paper highlights self-help housing commitment to the housing

stock of Nigeria particularly among the masses of the nation's continually rising population.

1.1 Methodology

The methodology combined the primary and secondary sources of data gathering process. For the

exploratory, this covers reviewing and examining vital literatures. Exploratory research is usually used to

investigate the feasible opportunities for understanding the problem and to carry out further research. An

in-depth investigation of the relevant writings sought to build up strategy orientations on housing provisions

in the countries of the global south, particularly in Nigeria, highlighting the success and disappointments.

The methodology anchored on basic intuition and exposition of the subject of self-help housing

interventions and ideas in the housing sector of Nigeria. Both primary and secondary information were

utilized as part of completing the research work. Essentially, organized surveys were administered on

various strata of the respondents. The South west geo political zone of Nigeria has been selected and three

cities have been chosen from this geo political zone of Nigeria for the purpose of this study. The cities are

Lagos, Ibadan, and Ado Ekiti; an aggregate number of 110 questionnaires were served however 87 were

recovered. Direct interviews and perceptions were likewise utilized. Additionally, the purposive sampling


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was expected to be adopted as the households were directly met on the topic. The technique for data

analysis was by the utilization of tables and simple statistical analysis.

2. Past Government Efforts in Housing Delivery

As part of the efforts to deliver housing for Nigerians, the federal government has attempted various

approaches which ranged from strategic plan to action plans. The under listed are some of the past efforts of

government in the country by different administrations.

2.1 The Loan Schemes

The period 1929 saw the beginning of African Staff Housing Loans Scheme which was presented by the

Lagos Executive Development Board with the end goal of building houses available to be purchased to

African civil employees in Lagos. This circumstance persevered until the time of self-government in the

1950s, with the formation of Housing Corporations by the Regional Government which gave out serviced

plots for private housing development and gave mortgage finance to the first time to non-government

individuals and built houses available to be purchased.

2.2 First National Development Plan Period (1962-68)

The vehicle for economic development hinged on Development Plan. With this, the government made some

attempts to enhance housing condition and housing was lumped with Town and Country Planning with

pitiful funds. The civil war time of 1967 made the housing sector to endure close finish disregard amid this

period government exercises focused on provincial capitals Enugu, Kaduna, Ibadan and Benin City where

staff quarters for senior officials were constructed. Housing Corporations were fairly immaterial as their

effect within the medium and upper wage housing market stayed low.

2.3 The Second National Development Plan Period (1970-74)

National Council on Housing comprising of all state commissioners in charge of housing was inaugurated

in 1971 and this was the epoch of government's first immediate contributions in development of housing

units through the creation of National Housing Programme of 1972. The Central Government through an

empowering order planned to develop 59,000 housing units with 15,000 in Lagos and 4,000 units in each of

the other eleven state capitals keeping in mind the end goal to co-ordinate a nationwide housing program,

the Federal Housing Authority was established in 1973.


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2.4 The Third National Development Plan Period (1975-80)

During this period, a sum of N2.6billion was allocated to develop 202,000 units with 50,000 units in Lagos

and 8,000 units in each of the other nineteen states for low and middle income families. The overall success

was less than 15 percent of the houses completed. Along that line, Nigerian Building Society was changed

to Federal Mortgage Bank with an initial capital of N150 million.

2.5 The Post Military Era

In light of the idea of affordability and citizen participation in all-encompassing National Housing Program

was set up in 1980 with the objective gathering of the low and middle salary groups. A sum of 40,000 units

was designed to be built every year across the nation with 2,000 units situated in every state including the

Federal Capital Territory. Out of the state allotment, 80 percent were reserved for the low wage group. By

June 1983 just 3,200 units had been finished while the overall accomplishment was just 20 percent.

Halfway through the execution, the second period of the system started involving 20,000 units of two

bedroom core houses additionally for the low wage bunches. 13Observed that the period 1984-1990, the

housing sector was limping in limbo, during this period there were no discernible strides made in the sector.

The government announced ambitious housing targets without any strategy for meeting those targets.

Afterwards, in 1992, the Federal Government passed the National Housing Act requiring workers both in

public and private parts earning more than ₦ 3,000 every month to contribute 2.5 percent of their month to

month pay rates. The Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria was made the organization of government to gather

and manage the asset.

2. 6 National Housing Programme:

The creation of Festival Town and Ipaja Town in Lagos was done under the 1975–1980 National Housing

Program by the Federal Housing Authority. Under this program, the Central Government built up Amuwo-

Odofin Phase 1 Estate in Lagos and the main ever Federal Low Cost Housing in other 11 states. This

housing project was the major noteworthy government exertion at giving affordable housing to Nigerian

nationals on long term contract reimbursement terms. The Nigerian Building Society was changed to

Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN). By1979, the Central government set up low cost housing

development (Shagari Low Cost) in the then 19 states of the federation. In 1981-1982 National Housing

Programme, was designed to give 350 medium/high salary housing units in each of the then 19 states in of

the country, to supplement the Shagari administration's Low-cost Housing Program labeled "A period of

consolidation". The Nigerian urban scene was covered with numerous suspended/deserted housing

ventures, coming about because of the past, failed projects. Shagari's Low-income schemes and FHA's

schemes. The focus here then moved from new projects to finish of feasible suspend schemes.


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2.7 Site and Services Scheme

The rising figures of “spontaneous or squatter settlements” in cities all over the third world, in the face of

tight planning control, regular demolitions and high-cost construction programmes was of great concern to

the World Bank. This brought a new way to deal with urban improvement which fused different types of

supported self-help; the two "bundled" which got the most backing were site and service plot, and

upgrading schemes. Basically, initially furnished low-income recipients with serviced plots including tenure

security and help to build their own particular houses. The second approach helped house owners in existing

squatter zones to get residency to their property, and enhance their homes. Huge numbers of these

destinations exist everywhere throughout the nation basically provided by the government Low cost

housing, slum upgrading and core housing options; all these Nigeria had once practiced. While comparing

home ownership rates in different countries, 14reveals that Nigeria has a home ownership rate of 25 percent

whereas in such countries as the Republic of Benin, Kenya, Singapore, South Africa, Libya and the United

States, the home ownership rates are 63, 73, 90, 56, 41 and 70 percent respectively (See Table 1.0)

Table 1. List of Countries and Home ownership Rate

Rank Country Home Ownership Rate Source

2012 2013 2014

1 Romania - 95.6 96.1 *

2 Benin Republic - - 63.3 *++

3 Kenya - - 73.0 *++

4 Singapore - - 90.3 **

5 South Africa - - 56.0 *++

6 Libya - - 41.0 *++

7 Croatia - 88.5 89.7 *

8 Bulgaria - 85.7 84.3 *

9 China - 90 ***

10 United States - - 64.5 +++

12 Nigeria - - 25.0 *++

Sources : *Eurostat 2015 ** Singstat.gov.sg , *** Statistics Singapore , ++Statistics New Zealand, +++ United

States Census *++Chukwu L. (2014) -


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3. Self-Help Housing Evolution and Practices

Self-help housing has existed among social orders and nations from time immemorial before the advent of

Town Planning and information in housing15,16. Going through the memory lane, self-help housing picked

up noticeable quality among the underdeveloped nations in the 1930s and mid 40s preceding the beginning

of the Second World War through the utilization of pilot housing schemes by the International Cooperation

Administration (formally Housing and Home Finance Administration), a United States Agency, in Latin

American countries.. Along the line, Turner in the mid-1960s was appropriate to execute the likelihood of

self-help housing widening the thoroughly considered theoretical structures and in like manner development

trim and impacting the interest and routine of self-help housing17. Turner17 essential perspective on self-help

housing believed is mounted on the opportunity to-work of which tenant control is pre-prominent to the

accomplishment of any housing programme18,19 recalling the choosing goal to overcome bureaucratic and

imaginative deterrents. Hence, choices concerning housing provision for the masses are supposed to be

controlled by the occupants in a base up methodology, since this will affect the change framework and

nature of the houses relating to tenant financial, social and social qualities 19, 20. This proposition by Turner

however reflected more non-Marxist perspectives that required business visionary (or Marxist) considered

considering housing to be a thing with use respect and market regard21. Marxist musings looked for after by

Burgess in 1977 battled that self-help housing gets the chance to be less costly with the departure of paid

work (sweat worth) of the inhabitant not the non-participation of advantages which reduce the organization

of some expenses on needy individuals21. Self-help housing has been differently given distinctive

definitions by a number of authors. Self-help housing has been perceived as 'practices in which low-wage

groups proffer answers for their housing need on a very basic level through their own resources and finance.

19moreover, gave a meaning of self-help housing as one that grants poor groups to go about as key chiefs

in venture, arranging, design, organization and execution with state support in beginning task subsidizing,

planning on undertaking organization and oversight in the midst of use. During the time self-help housing

has developed different varieties that join;

1) Self-help housing,

2) Unaided [laissez-faire] self-help housing,

3) Institutional self-help housing

Pugh15 delineates self-help housing as a housing scheme in which site-and-service are given to the

individual family unit tolerating hazard for the progression of their own housing units. Unaided self-help

may be portrayed as housing thought where the government have impact. Along these lines, people or

families get all materials and accounts to finish their housing unit on a plot of land obtained by families.

Free enterprise self-help housing is extraordinarily pervasive among middle to high wage masses especially

in informal settlements with constrained state control18,22. Institutional self-improvement housing as


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appeared by 19insinuates 'execution of self-improvement housing through get-together based foundations or

get-togethers known as lodging cooperatives. It is key to note that reliably, the legislature of Nigeria failure

to meet the lodging supply to bigger piece of her residents, has expanded the self-help housing point of

view in its strict sense. Most Nigerian has savoured the experience of the free enterprise self-form housing

overall portrayed as self-help housing, supplying essentially 95 percent of the housing stock in the nation.

As demonstrated by23 self-improvement housing is endeavoured by the low pay families and for both

middle and high pay families. Not in the smallest degree like the Marxists and Non-Marxists conviction

structures of self-improvement housing that go along with some level of government mediation, self-build

is portrayed as a cash related utilization of work force, or exertion, as the individual or by a party to

accumulate a specific undertaking relying on either outside or inside help or both, through particular

courses without utilizing institutional assistants.

3.1 Self-help Schemes- Rocinha, Favela Bairro Project.

The authorities in Rio de Janeiro have figured out a way to diminish issues in Favelas. They ventured up

Self-help Schemes: This is when local authorities furnish nearby occupants with the materials needs to build

a lasting settlement. This incorporates breeze blocks and cement. The neighbourhood occupants give the

work. Cash spared can be spent on giving fundamental civilities, for example, power and water. Today all

the houses in Rocinha are built using cement and blocks. Contrasted with straightforward shanty or ghettos,

Rocinha has a superior created base and several organizations, for example, banks, drug stores, transport

lines, digital TV.

3.2 Self -help Schemes –Sao Paulo

The Local authorities give the building materials e.g wood and breeze squares, nearby inhabitants give the

work supply. Nearby powers give fundamental administrations (e.g water, power and sewerage framework

with the cash spared.


Self-Help Housing: Issues and Factors

Some of the major issues limiting the private sector in housing delivery system in Nigeria among others

include the followings: poor land accessibility, poor access to housing finance, obstructions to land

procurement, high cost of building materials, planning regulations and codes, problems of residential

infrastructure. Developer, for example, self-builders confront various requirements in seeking after self-

help in these urban regions. Some of these imperatives incorporate; poor access street systems, absence of

power, absence of water, and absence of sufficient security in and around advancement territories. These


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difficulties are not impossible to peculiar to the Nigerian self-builder. Truth be told in other developing

nations (e.g. Egypt, Nigeria, Kenya, Ghana, Tanzania, Turkey, Jamaica, Philippines, Brazil and so on), self-

build housing ventures face comparable limitations exuding from sources, for example, social, monetary,

ecological, political, innovative, bringing about low quality development, over-utilization of building

materials than required, lacking sunshine and ventilation, insufficient base network, non-tweaked and

institutionalized outlines for all24. It must be stated here that self-help housing and site and services are not

the same though they are somehow similar (see Table 2).

4.1 Land Accessibility

Access to land and its affordability are considerable obstructions to housing by the private sector in the

country. The virtual nationalized land allocation procedure is not effective and makes a flourishing situation

for land grabbers. The cost of building a house has continued to increase astronomically due to land

speculations. From the survey conducted in the South West part of Nigeria 80.4 percent of the respondents

strongly agreed that accessibility to land at affordable cost has been one of the major constraint to the self-

help housing approach as a system of housing delivery in the country, while 8.0 percent differs and did not

see land accessibility as problem to self-help housing provisions, the remaining 11.6 percent of the

respondents were undecided whether accessibility to land is an inhibiting facto to housing delivery. The

process and procedure for acquiring land has been difficult, due to the land use act. As of 2013, the World

Bank’s “Doing Business” project ranks Nigeria 185th (out of 189 countries) for the ease by which property

is registered. In a survey of Nigerians in 201224 the second greatest challenge facing 22 percent of those that

want to invest in real estate was reported to be in difficulty in obtaining titles. There have been suggestions

for the de-nationalisation of land and liberalisation of urban land markets in the country. Total of 40.2

percent of the respondents are owner-occupier while 59.8 are living in rented apartment25. Other factors that

inhibit the self-help housing development include high land prices, lack of serviced land in the peri-urban,

there are inherent court cases and litigations on land and cost of obtaining planning permit has been on the

increase.

4.2 Finance

Finance is apparently an incontrovertible issue in housing advancement in Nigeria. One of the methods for

tackling this circumstance is to make more open doors and avenues for housing finance to address the issues

of the low and lower centre salary workers. The Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN), the apex

housing finance establishment, experiences acute shortage of funds. The FMBN and PMIs ought to be

rebuilt to empower them draw in private capital and inculcate trust in financial specialists and clients. The

rebuilding and change of these establishments ought to be in discussion with different partners in the


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housing business in order to gather reaction on way to deal with housing finance difficulties of different

financial gatherings in the public eye. Money related interventions and foundations, for example, PMIs and

helpful social orders assume key part in empowering private sector housing. The common organization in

the nation ought to work towards re-establishing trust in the economy and expanding livelihood chances to

upgrade the capacity of labourers to secure advances build their sparing limit.

4.3 Cost of Construction

Building material industry and materials for housing development are essential to the housing segment in

Nigeria. There are key issues that have to be put into cognizance in the enablement of this sub-division in

the housing improvement process. These entails guaranteeing that the local building material industry

produces appropriate and affordable building materials, and determining the effect of wide financial

changes on building materials. Total of 81.6 percent of the respondents alluded to the fact that cost of

labour and building materials have negatively impacted on their ability to construct their own houses. For

example, while the cost of 50 kg pack of cement sold at N45 in 1989, N430 in 1996, it was valued up to

N700 in 2000; the business sector cost of the same 50kg of bag of cement changes amongst N1600 and

N2000 in 2015. Self-help house development depends vigorously on building materials that are to a great

extent imported. Materials, for example, cement, glass, aluminum and alu-zinc material sheets, paints, tiles,

electrical links, plumbing inputs, clean products have segments/entire imported to take care of demand in

the building business. It is not restricted to cost of work and concrete alone, all different adornments of

building has gone up accordingly representing some difficulties to self-improvement housing conveyance in

the nation. Osei-Tutu and Adjei-Kumi refered to in 24, building materials constitute 65-70 percent of the

expense of development in Ghana and remain an immense limitation to self-manufacturers. The

circumstance is the same likewise in Nigeria and numerous developing nations of the worldwide. See figure

1, the cost of building a house varies across the countries of the world, and looking at Nigeria terrain, the

costs is much higher than other countries and could not be easily raised by the low income groups , so the

idea of self-help approach could come into play to assist these economically less privilege individuals to

aspire to own their houses.

4.4 Infrastructural Facilities

Poor infrastructure inflates the price of transporting and producing goods, shortage of skilled labour, level

of infrastructural facilities, accessibility directly or indirectly impair the cost of construction. Lack of

infrastructural facilities around the site can also be hindrance to the take-off of self-help housing project.


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4.5 Increase in House Rent

In Nigeria's urban areas, especially Lagos, Abuja and Port Harcourt, late years have seen a climb in housing

costs on a scale that is once in a while found in creating municipal areas. Universally, the most astounding

land cost ascends throughout the most recent decade have been recorded in countries, for example, India,

which saw costs rise 284percent somewhere around 2001 and 2011, and Russia, which saw an expansion of

209 percent in the same period6. Notwithstanding, in urban areas, for example, Lagos, it is evaluated that

house costs ascended by 400-500 percent somewhere around 1998 and 2008. This upward development in

house rent has picked up prompted the increment in the quantity of people who need to manufacture their

own homes. Be as it might, the nation has one of the most minimal home-ownership rates when contrasted

with other African nations and some developing countries.

Figure 1. Average Cost of a House in Nigeria, India and South Africa 25

4.6 Self-builder Related

Most self-builders in Nigeria are people or family units in the low to center to upper salary bunches

ordinarily with restricted learning and data in regards to building development and arranging controls.

Different qualities connected with self-builders incorporate absence of guarantee to secure advance, absence

of the essential involvement in housing improvement, and the housing undertaking is normally, for family

utilization and not available to be purchased. Nigerian self-builders are persuaded by responsibility for

house being worked as property that can be passed on as legacy for succeeding generations Asiedu, cited

in24. Notwithstanding financial difficulties, self-builders for the most part, build up an individual sparing

society that permits them to gather adequate finance to meet the expense of a segment of the house to be

manufactured. By and large, self-builders have exceptionally restricted information with respect to cost

sparing measures to be utilized on their undertaking. Along these lines limit strengthening of people setting

out on housing procurement through the self-build idea is important to enhance the learning base of


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potential designers. This will add to decreasing cost invades, over-design, and better administration of work

and material assets through their immediate association on the project and during the time of construction.

5. Benefits of Self-Help Housing

Figure 2 below is an illustration of self-help housing with the various sectors overlapping and what each of

the segment is capable of generating.

Figure 2. Self-help Housing Interactions

As shown from figure 2, self-help housing regenerates’ communities, since most of the players are involved

in the construction exercise this brings about regenerating the town. It also serves as a way of training and

employment opportunities for the locals and those that will be involved in the production of some ancillary

facilities. Self- help housing reduces empty property, all the houses that has commenced construction has

the tendency of being completed and there by reduces emptiness in the area of property allocation. Self-help

housing is also a way by which communities facilities could be better provided, since the local authorities

or government has no direct involvement in the construction of houses. Money can be saved through that

process to provide community facilities. Also Self-housing housing is a way by which enterprise

opportunities are provided for the people. Through self-help housing individuals develop skills which could

later be used for the purpose of generating income and increasing the financial capability of people.


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6. Recommendations

The eventual cost of the housing is made cheaper by encouraging locals to undertake most of the work

themselves. The Local Authority simply provides the materials and may provide the ground work for the

drainage and sewage system. Most local authorities would prefer not to have shanty towns, but cannot

afford to provide new high quality housing to replace them. Therefore, to overcome this problem, the local

authority needs to encourage people to improve their own property through self-help schemes through:

Formations of self-help housing cooperatives and associations: This will be a means of developing an

individual’s capacity to work with others to create peaceful, equitable economic structures. Confirmation

benefits off a small scale locally focussed approach. Potential for leverage: Self-help housing approach

provides the opportunity to level up with others in the areas of housing provision. Scope for viral

expansion: Self-help housing as it is practiced in Sao Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro will enhance rapidly

increase existing housing stock in the country. Self-help housing will help low–income households improve

the conditions of existing housing/build their own houses. Government do not provide housing directly but

provide assistance in other form instead e.g providing construction materials /basic services. Self-help

housing program if well-coordinated give you the opportunity to build your own house. Working together

with other families, you will learn valuable construction skills as you build your own house.

7. Conclusion

Throughout the years, the government has set out on different methodologies in the conveyance of housing

to the people, for example, mass housing schemes, rooftop credit schemes, site and service scheme, and so

forth and all have not yielded the greatly coveted results. The private people have been the significant

supply of housing stocks as observed by12. There is undoubtedly about it present and past governments have

considered housing as a noteworthy need on their advancement plan, be that as it may, contending

formative difficulties and additionally the journey for progression in force wrecks the center and drive to

contribute proper assets for the achievement of giving sufficient lodging to the masses particularly the low

pay bunches. The paper found that because of the failure of governments to meet the housing needs of the

populace throughout the years, an expansive piece of the population has taken up the occupation of meeting

their own unique housing needs. People/family units are mostly doing as such through the self-

improvement/self-form housing strategy, generally depicted as self-provided. In order to close the gap of

housing deficit in the country which presently stands at 17 million, self-help housing will go a long way in

meeting peoples housing needs.


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Table 2. Similarities between Self –help Housing and Site and Services Scheme

References

1. Mojdeh Nikoofam, and Abdollah Mobaraki. Improving the quality of affordable housing: The case of

Mara in Famagusta City, North Cyprus, Turkey. Recent Advances in Engineering Mechanics,

Structures and Urban Planning; 2013

2. Independent Newspapers Limited - Nigeria’s 17million housing deficit: challenges before Buhari.

Available from: http://dailyindependentnig.com/2015/04/nigerias-17m-housing-deficit-challenges-

buhari/. [Accessed 29th December 2015]

3. Basorun J.O. and Fadairo G. Government challenges in housing the urban poor in Ado Ekiti, Nigeria.

Journal of Sustainable Society. 2012; 1(2): 31-35

4. Obi N.I. 1 & Obinna U. Dynamics of housing affordability in Nigeria. Civil and Environmental

Research. 2014; 6(3):

5. Nubi, O.T. Affordable housing delivery in Nigeria. Paper presented at: The South African

Foundation International Conference and Exhibition, Cape Town, South Africa; 2008 October. page

1-18

6. Agbola, Tunde and Adegoke, S. A. Housing sector reforms and sustainable development in Nigeria.

Environ link. 2006; 1(1): 8

7. Olotuah, A. O. Sustainable urban housing provision in Nigeria: A critical assessment of development

options. Paper presented at: Proceedings of the Africa Union of Architects Congress, Abuja, Nigeria.

2005 May 23-28. Page 64-74.


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8. Akinmoladun, O.I. and Oluwoye, J.O. An assessment of why the problems of housing shortages

persist in developing countries: A case study of Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social

Sciences. 2007; 4(4): page 589-598

9. Diogu, J.O. Housing the poor in Nigeria: The Integrated project approach. AARCHES Journal of the

Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria. 2002; 2(1)

10. Henshaw G. The role of private sector in the provision of affordable housing to the public. Paper

presented at: The Nigerian Society of Engineers Workshop; 2010; Calabar, Cross-River, Nigeria.

11. Federal Government of Nigeria. National housing fund decree. Lagos Government Printing Press.

2002; 79(3)

12. Olatubara C. O. Fundamental of housing in T. Agbola, L Egunjobi & C.O. Olatubara (Eds) Housing

development and management. department of urban and regional planning, University of Ibadan.

2007; page 70-106

13. Agbola, T. and Elijah M. Agunbiade. Urbanization, slum development and security of Tenure: The

challenges of meeting millennium development goal 7 in metropolitan Lagos, Nigeria in the

Sherbiniin, A., A. Rahman, A. Barbieri, J.C. Fotso, and Y. Zhu (eds.). 2009. Urban population-

environment dynamics in the developing world: Case studies and lessons learned. Paris: Committee

for International Cooperation in National Research in Demography (CICRED). Available from:

http://www.populationenvironmentresearch.org/workshops.jsp#W201

14. Chukwu L. Addressing housing deficit in Nigeria. News Agency of Nigeria (NAN). 2014 January 16

15. Pugh, C. The theory and practice of housing sector development for developing countries, 1950-

1999. Housing Studies. 2001; 16(4): page 399-423

16. Nnamdi, E. Perspectives on the architecture of Africa’s underprivileged urban dwellers. Social

Dynamics: A Journal of African Studies. 2011; 37(1): page 43-77

17. Turner, J. F. C. The re-education of a professional and housing as a verb. In: J.Turner and R. Fichter

(Eds.) Freedom to Build. Macmillan, New York. 1972.

18. Harris, R. and Giles, C. A mixed message: the agents and forms of international housing policy,

1945-1973. Habitat International. 2003; 27(2): page 167-191

19. Ntema, L. J. Self-help housing in South Africa: Paradigms, Policy and Practice. Unpublished PhD

Thesis, University of the Free State, South Africa. 2011

20. Marcussen, L. Third world housing in social and spatial development. Avebury, England. 1990

21. Stein, A. A critical review of the main approaches to self-help housing programmes. University

College London, London. 1991

22. Duncan, S. S. and Rowe, A. Self-provided housing: the first world’s hidden housing arm. Urban

Studies. 1993; 30(8): page 1331-1354


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23. Gough, K. V. and Yankson, P. A Neglected aspect of the housing market: The Caretakers of Peri-

urban Accra, Ghana. Urban Studies. 2010; 48(4): page 793-810.

24. Anthony Bangdome-Deryet al. Overview of self-help (Self-build) housing provision in Ghana:

policies and challenges. Developing Country Studies. 2014; 4(6): page 78-84

25. National Bureau of Statistics. Nigeria Real Estate Sector: summary report:2010-2012; Real estate

outlook in Nigeria. 2015: page 19-21

26. Diogu, J. and Onyegiri,I. Cost reduction strategies in residential design. Environmental Research

Journal. 2006; 1(1) page 1

27. Federal Government of Nigeria. National housing fund decree. Government Printing Press, Lagos.

1992; 79(3)

28. William, G. A. D. An Evaluation of the low-income housing sector in Jamaica. Un-Published MSc

Thesis. Georgia Institute of Technology. 2006

S/N Factors Sub items

1

Land

Accessibility/Tenureship

1. Land acquisition process and procedure

2. Time taken to acquire land

3. Land Ownership

4. Cost of obtaining planning/approval permit

5. Court cases and litigations on land

6. Delay in title registration

7. Lack of serviced land in peri-urban

8. High land prices

2

Finance 1.Lack of sufficient housing finance

2.Poor access to bank loans at favourable conditions

3. Inadequate access to finance

4. Inaccessibility to loans from cooperative society

5.Poor savings culture

6.lack of high level of knowledge in cost savings

7. Inadequate finance in the housing sector

3 Cost of Construction 1. High cost of labour

2. Lack of skilled labour

3. Absence of on-site supervision

4. High cost of building materials


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5. Dearth of knowledge of indigenous materials

6. High dependence on imported materials

7. High cost of alternative construction techniques

8. Poor workmanship quality

4 Infrastructural facilities 1.Level of infrastructural facilities accessibility

2.Lack of infrastructural facilities around the site

3.The types of facilities required

5. Absence of utilities

5 Mortgage Finance 1.Lack of mortgage facilities for low/middle income households

2. Access to mortgage loans in Nigeria is not sufficient/enough

3. High interest rate by mortgage institutions

4. Absence of favourable payback period of loan

5. Requirements for collateral security

6. Absence of capital base available to mortgage institutions

6 Demographic 1.Motivation to own a house

2.Lack of awareness

3. Overbearing of project owners on construction activities

4.Cultural and social values effects

7 Self-builder related 1. Knowledge on building regulations and laws

2.Level of knowledge in house construction

3.Absence of loan guarantee to households

4. General assumption of design requirements

5. Self-builder’s over influence on construction activities


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Research Article

Brief Survey on Implementation of Islamic Education Management Guidance

for Children Orphanage in Makassar Husen Sarujin.*1

Fakulty of Education and Teaching Universitas Islam Makasaar (UIM), Jalan Perintis Kemerdekaan, No. 29 Makassar,

Sulawesi Selatan, 90245 Indonesia

ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 2/06/2017


A b s t r a c t

This research deals with human resources management for Islamic education

including curriculum and instructional programs, teachers and educational

staffs, facilities, budgets, and machines at three different levels of Islamic

Schools in Banjarmasin, Kalimantan, Indonesia. This research employed

qualitative approach which was oriented to the theoretical phenomenology and

used multi-cases study design. Data were collected using in-depth interview,

observation, and documentation. The analyses were done by having the

following steps: data collection, data reduction, data display, and conclusion,

drawing and verifying. The analysis involved individual case and cross cases

analyses. The findings revealed the continuous improvement orientation,

customer satisfaction and expectation fulfillment, implementation results

control, and strategies to overcome resistance in curriculum, instructional

program, teachers, educational staffs, facilities, budgets, and machines.


Islamic, education, management, children, Makassar

1. Introduction

The Process of caring of children through educational activities has been in existence throughout history

and has now evolved to socio-cultural development of humans on the earth's surface. Special child care in

Islamic education has been ongoing since the time of Nabi Muhammad, where he also acted as a caregiver,

teacher or principal educator. After the death of Nabi Muhammad, Islamic education process is growing

along with the spread of Islam to the rest of the region, including in the archipelago, Indonesia.


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Ahmad M. Sewang suggested that the arrival of Islam to Indonesia, initially through trade and acceptance

shows two different patterns, the bottom up and top down. Islam entered Indonesia in the 7th century AD or

coinciding with the year 1 AH, and more widely affect the lives of the people of Indonesia, as well as being

the main religion of the nation. The success of Islam has infiltrated into the midst of the people of

Indonesia. In the beginning, it was not supported because of the lack existence of such organizations or

propaganda methods that has made Islam as effective as it is today. Islamic organization at that time where

maybe just an association of several people who shared the desire to spread the teachings of Islam. The

organization, in part then focused on building activities of orphanage children through educational

activities, such as Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama.

The world of education has contributed significantly to the socio-economic development through the ways

of improving the knowledge, skills, attitudes and productivity skills. Society in general, uses education for

technology advancement in social and economic fields, because the benefits are extensive and can use in

various fields. There by, making the development of education a major concern for all nations. Islamic

Education in Indonesia is very important, that the government passed a Law, Act No. 20 of 2003 on

National Education System, in which is mentioned that:

1. The Islamic Education organized by the Government and / or groups of followers of Islam,

according to the legislation.

2. Islamic Education serves to prepare students to be members of the public who understand and

practice the values of their religion and / or become a theologian.

3. Islamic education can be organized in formal education, non-formal and informal.

4. The Islamic Education shaped diniyah education, schools, and other such forms.

5. The provisions concerning Islamic education as referred to in paragraph (1), paragraph (2), (3) and

(4) shall be further regulated by Government Regulation.

Act No. 20 of 2003 mentioned above, confirming the position of Islamic Education as an integral part of the

national education aimed at creating human faith and fear of God Almighty. Thus, the core of the national

education goals is faithfulness and devotion to God Almighty.


161 | P a g e

I. Research Problem

The principal issue this research seek to examined here is how the implementation of Islamic Education

Management in Pembina noble character in an orphanage in the city of Makassar?

This research seeks to answer the question raised above by answering these three questions:

1. How is the implementation of Islamic Education Management at the orphanage in Makassar?

2. What are the factors supporting and inhibiting the implementation of Islamic Education

Management at the orphanage in Makassar?

3. How do the results of the implementation of Islamic Education Management in coaching moral

values in the orphanage in Makassar?

II. Methodology

This research employed qualitative approach and used a case study research design. Data were collected

using interview, observation, and documentation. The data analyzed include data from individual case and

cross cases.

III. Findings

The implementation process of Islamic education management at the orphanage in Makassar City, including

planning, implementation, organizing, and supervision, did not materialize. Therefore, the orphanage in

Makassar City is considered to have failed to implement the management process in an integrated manner

because it only emphasizes the teaching of the Qur'an, while other aspects of Islamic education such as

teaching about the material of monotheism, worship, not being a concern, even those materials as An

important part of the Islamic educational process is not taught formally or informally

Factors supporting the implementation of Islamic Education management at the orphanage in Makassar

City, is the sincerity of nursing homes to carry out their duties and high commitment so that the

implementation of Islamic education is still implemented although not maximal. Another contributing factor

is that coaching can run fulltime because between the carer as the educator resides in the orphanage with the

orphanage children, thus enabling the implementation of Islamic education continuously. While the


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inhibiting factors, is the availability of very minimal funds, limited educational facilities and infrastructure,

the mentality of different orphanage children cause difficulties in coaching, and because the nursing home

with the discipline of non-Islamic education is not able to provide moral education

The result of the implementation of Islamic Education management in noble moral formation for orphanage

children in Makassar City, is the achievement of ouput in the form of noble morals for the orphanage

children, in contrast to other children outside the Orphanage. On the other hand, it was found out that the

pattern of education in orphanage consists of three categories, namely authoritarian education, democratic

education and permissive education, and the most dominant implementation is democratic education.

Furthermore, there were found out about the type of orphanage in Makassar City, which is smart orphanage

type, healthy orphanage type, harmonious orphanage type, green orphanage type, orphanage care type,

orphanage care type and creative orphanage type.

IV. Conclusion

Process of the implementation of Islamic education management at the orphanage in Makassar, including

planning, execution, organization, and supervision, did not materialize. The orphanage in Makassar failed to

implement an integrated management process because it only emphasizes the teaching of the Koran, while

other aspects of Islamic education such as teaching about the material monotheism, worship, dates was not

a concern, even though such materials plays an important part in the process of Islamic education, it is not

taught formally or informally in the orphanage.

REFERENCES

Al-Qur'an al-Karim

Abdullah, Abd. Rahman. Actualization of Basic Concept of Islamic Education; Reconstruction of

Islamic Thought in Philosophy Overview. Cet. I; Jakarta: UI Press, 2001.

al-Abrāsy, Muhammad Athiyah. Rūh al-Tarbiyah wa al-Ta'līm. t.t .: Isa al-Bābī al-Halab, t.th.

Ahmadi, Abu. Education. Cet.II; Jakarta: Rineka Copyright 2001.

al-Ahwāniy, Ahmad Fu’ad. al-Tarbiyah fīl Islam. Mesir: Dār al-Ma’arif, t.th.

Allee, John Gage. Websters Dictionary. Chicago, Wilcox & Folt Book Company, 2003.


163 | P a g e

Allen, Louis. Management profession. Jakarta: Erland, 2000. Amin, Ahmad. al-Akhlaq fiy al-Islam. As

Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 2000.

al-Ak, Syekh Khālid bin Abd. Rahman. Tarbiyah al-ABNA 'wa al-Banat Fi Dhau Quran wa al-

Sunnah, translated by Muhammad Halabi Hamdi with the title How to Educate Children Islam. Cet. I;

Yogyakarta: Ad-Dawa, 2006.


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Research Article

Optimization of Fire Stations Services in Minna Metropolis using Maximum

Covering Location Model (MCLM) E.A. Adesina1, J.O. Odumosu1, O.O. Morenikeji2, E. Umoru2, A.O. Ayokanmbi1, E.B. Ogunbode3

1 Department of Surveying & Geoinformatics, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of

Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.

2 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of

Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.

3 Department of Building, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger

State, Nigeria.


ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 2/06/2017

Accepted: 04/07//2017

A b s t r a c t

The study is aimed at determining the optimal locations for the present

geographical location of fire stations service in Minna Metropolis considering

the distance and benefits of the users to the facility or if there is needs for an

additional fire stations service to be added using Maximum Covering Location

Model (MCLM). The existing fire stations service in the study area were three

(3) which served as facilities (Supply) while 2012 and 2014 number of fire

incidences and the population were used as the centroid points for the wards

and also utilized as demand points which are twenty-five (25) in the study area.

The impedance time was set to be 5-minutes and 2000 meter radius was used

as a distance factor. After the assessment of the coverage of the existing fire

stations service using (MCLM), It was discovered that two wards were

uncovered (based on the imposed time constraint) while nineteen (19) wards

were uncovered based on the distance factor. Thus, the three fire stations

service could not guarantee total coverage in the study area. Therefore,

recommendations was made for the location of five (5) new fires stands to

serve the uncovered wards in the study areas in case of emergency.


Distance Factor, Fire Stations Service, Maximum Covering Location Model, Optimal location, Population, Response Time. Service area and Ward

1. Introduction

Locations of the best facilities of emergency services, such as fire stations service and ambulances are the

major concerns of the Local and the State Government everywhere in the orb. Determining where to site the


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spare facilities and what figures of these facilities are needed to be sited are very teething troubles that

course of action (policy) makers are uneasy with in the present day urban area (Algharib, 2011). Catay et al.

(2010) dealing with emergency activity such as sickness, accident, disaster, and fire etc. the arrival time of

the fire services or ambulance to the region where the incidence occurred is very paramount in other to safe

guard lives and properties. The emergency activity services reduces the death rate and infirmity, as well as

assists to anticipate economic losses if it well planned. siting of new stations (fire stations) in a best location

as to do with three factors (i.e. time, distance and population) of such area intend to locate the facilities for

the benefit of the potential users (demands) to have an ease assess to the facilities (Supply) in other to

reduce the hazard that might have caused due to sickness, accident, disaster, and fire etc. to prevent loss of

lives and properties if peradventure there is an emergency of call case of any incidence (Challands et al.

2010). Minna fire service is not different from other fire stations service in the entire world. It’s meant to

serve the entire populace by reducing loss of lives and properties in case if there are emergency cases such

as fire, oil spillage etc. considering the major factors (i.e. The distance among the stations should be

different however with respect to population density and the land uses and so the response area should be

different, but the maximum accessibility and a time interval of 3 to 5 minutes should be the determinant

factors, the response time of each station should depend on its area of action, so the stations should cover at

most 2000m radius to guarantee quick response with respect to the 40km speed per hour) during the siting

of this facility in question (fire station) in other to determine the number of stations that would be enough to

occupy the entire service area is of a great concern of the policy maker and the planners (Habibi et al.,

2008). This study was carried out in other to solve the problem of inequality distributions of fire stations

services in some part of Minna metropolis by determining the optimal locations for the present geographical

location of these facilities considering the distance from the potential users (Demands) to where these

facilities were sited and also to see if all the potential users (Demands) are benefiting from these facilities or

there is needs for an additional fire stations to be added in the study area using Maximum Covering

Location Model (MCLM). Also, to determine the best location of additional services of facilities in the city

and to assess the maximum coverage of the people the facilities will serve.

2. The concept of Maximum Covering Location Model (MCLM)

Maximum Covering Location Model (MCM); locates a facility called m and the m which is the facility use

to increase (maximize) the total figure (number) of the demands to be covered by the facility m. In addition,

location-allocation model (MCLM) also handle both high/small demand points in a real sense whereby

allow some demand points to be uncovered if the figure (number) needed to covered the total demand

points of that particular area as gone beyond the limit range of the m (Authors Research, 2016).


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Thus, based on the defined parameters above; pq is a new variable introduced to be equal to 1 when the

demand points (nodes) q is covered and otherwise to be zero. As a result, the new parameters added can be

expressed (MCLM) as:

(1)

(2)

(3)

Where

From inference drawn from the objectives it locates the actual number of facilities that can be served

conveniently in any demand points at any particular region within a specified distance range. Also, that all

the demand points (Nodes) within a specific range (distance) would be covered and benefited from the

facility in all of set covering location. Therefore, Equation (1) wants facilities m to be sited. Equations (2)

links the facility m sited with the number of the demand points meant to be covered and finally, Equation

(3) is integral constraints. Thus, two factors were involved in the formulation of location-allocation

problems which are maximum distance and time constraints. As a result, set covering model was formulated

in other to reduce the cost of siting a facility for the coverage level to be achieved. However, from the

literature it was also reviewed that there two (2) main sections of covering models in which coverage is to

be optimized when dealing with pull objectives in respect to covering models in the network models they

are: Location Set Covering Model (LSCM) and the Maximum Covering Location Model (MCLM).

According to Klose and Drexl (2005), Location Set Covering Model (LSCM) was formulated as follows:


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Where computes a set of at most q centers with a range lesser than r or no exit

sets. On the contrary, from the design of location – allocation problems, the MCLM is the main location

covering problems used to locate the actual number of demand points that the facility will serve

conveniently at any particular region within a specified distance range (i.e. determining the circular balls

with minimum radius for Euclidean distance within a particular region). Owen and Daskin (1998) and

Plastria (2001) provide complete information on this location-allocation problem (MLCM). The Pull

objectives are: MCLM locates the actual number of demand points that the facility can serve at any

particular region within a specified distance range conveniently. The demand points (Nodes) within a

specific range (distance) would be concealed and benefited (served) from the facility in all of set covering

location problems.

3. Materials and methods or Study area description

3.1 Materials

Both the primary and secondary data were used in the cost of this study; the primary data used was the

spatial data of the existing fire stations (i.e. x and y coordinates) using hand held GPS in the study area

which was depicted in Table1and the secondary data includes a LANDSAT ETM 15m resolutions imagery

of the study area acquired from Department of Geography, FUT Minna, the total number of recorded fire

occurrences and the population.

Table 1: Location of the existing fire Stations and there coordinates within study area

S/N FIRE STATION NAME LOCATION EASTINGS

(mE)

NORTHINGS

(mN)

1 Fire Service Headquarters Bosso 230632.000 1064701.000

2 Tudun Wada Fire Service

Station

Tunga 231433.000 1061223.000

3 Bosso Fire Service Station Bosso 229944.000 1064973.000

Prior to the census conducted in 2006; an estimated population of 3.4% annual growth rate was estimated

and used in this study. However, in 2012 a total number of fifty (50) fire incidences were recorded while in

2014 a total number of seventy (70) fire incidences were also recorded in Minna Metropolis. The estimated

population for 2012 is 426,269 while for 2014 is 455,749 were also used during the course of this study.


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3.2 Methods

The spatial distribution of the fire stations within the study area (i.e. the x and y coordinates) were used to

determine the coverage limit between demand points and the facility (fire station) whereby using two

constraints (time and distance) alongside with the demand points (i.e. the centroid). The impedance time

was set to be 5-minutes and 2000 meter radius was used as a distance. Thus, to evaluate, equate and

ascertain the coverage of the facility that would be covered by the demand points based on the two imposed

constraints (time and distance); Maximum Coverage Location Model (MCLM) was used alongside with

Arc GIS software. Then, with the integration of Maximum Covering Location Model with the Geographical

Information System (GIS); 2012 and 2014 populations and previous recorded occurrences of fires was used

to produce various coverage results (i.e. the uncovered and covered regions in the study area). Figure 1

shows the pull objectives of MCLM Model used in this study.

3.3 Algorithms of Pull Objectives MCLM

Let F = ( x’ and y’) = Facility (Fire Station) (4)

D = Demand points/Centroid points (5)

IT/DF = Impedance Time (5minutes) and Distance Factor (2000meters) (6)

CA = Covered Area

UA = Uncovered Area

Thus, equate Equations (5) into Equation (4) and impose Constraint Equations (6) as

a buffer range to determine the covered and uncovered areas by (MCLM) (7)

Let CA = If Equations (7) fall within the range/ radius of specified buffer range of distance

factor (2000m) or impedance time (5 minutes) of Equation (4)

Let UA = If Equations (7) fall beyond the limit of specified buffer range of distance

factor (2000m) or impedance time (5minutes) of Equation (4)

Therefore,

FD = CA (i.e. If IT/DF < FD) (8)

If Equation (8) cannot hold (i.e. to cater for the all demand points at a particular

region), let additional facilities to be sited for the people in the region be Equation (6)

(i.e. facility to cater for the uncovered area)

FD = UA (i.e. If IT/DF > FD) (9)


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However, siting a fire station service, there are two questions to have in mind: (i) Is the siting of the facility

will be enough to serve the people intend to serve? (ii) What is the distance of the facility to the potential

users (i.e. demand points) to serve? Thus, in siting a fire service station not all the node (demand points)

would be served using (MCLM) but if the demand points (i.e. the potential users) to use the facility is

within the service region they would also be benefited from the service (facility) even though its more than

ten minutes away from the close facility but if it beyond the limit of the imposed time and distance

constraints some areas will be uncovered (i.e. They will not be benefited) from the services of the facility in

intend to render.

Figure 1: The Pull objectives of MCLM

3.4 Study Area description

Minna the capital city of Niger State has its center co-ordinates on 600 33’ 00’’E and 90 37’ 00’’ N and it

covered an area approximately 884 hectares. Minna consists of two local Government Areas (i.e. Bosso and

Chanchanga Local Government Area). It consists of various neighborhoods as depicted in Figure 2. Minna

populations in 2006 census was 348, 788.


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Figure 2: Map of the Study Area (Department of Geography, FUT Minna, 2016)

3.5 Experiment/ tests conducted

Geo-referencing and digitizing a LANDSAT image (i.e. 15m resolutions) of Minna in a layer under the

geo-database file format was the first process. Thereafter, the addition of shape files for 2012 and 2014 fire

occurrences record and the population of the study area. Thus, additional shape files was also made for the

three fire stations found in the study area. The process is depicted in figure 3. The steps used to evaluate the

x and y coordinates of the fire stations in the study area using Maximum Covering Location Model was

depicted in figure 4. Hence, a dataset is required whenever any analysis wanted to be carried out using

Network Analyst Tool in Arc Map. In view of that, in the Network Analyst Toolbar a New Location-

Allocation was chosen at the end of the data preparation. On the other hand, for the “new location-

allocation”, a layer was produced; and the layer was presented alongside with its six network analysis

classes. Originally, by default Network Analysis Class were unfilled. Network analysis classes are: Demand

points, Line Barriers, Facilities, Polygon Barriers, Lines and Point Barriers. Finally, all the three fire

stations service found in the study area are the facilities in the Network Analysis Class. As demand points

(i.e. the potential users), the following data were added for the year 2012 and 2014 respectively (Population

and fire incident data). A set-up of location-allocation properties was set and twenty-five (25) demand

points were considered for the analysis. Conversely, all the necessary setting was carried out in the

location-allocation model software used in running the analysis. Travel from was set to Facility to Demand


171 | P a g e

and other default settings of U-turns at junctions and restrictions were maintained. In the ‘Analysis Setting’

tab, Impedance was set to minutes, In the ‘Advanced Setting” tab, Facilities to choose was set to three (3),

Problem Type was set to Maximize Coverage, Impedance transformation was set to linear, Impedance

cutoff was set to five (5) and other default settings were maintained. The “Solve” button on the Network

Analyst Toolbar was then used to run the location-allocation analysis. The analysis was run thrice selecting

one fire station at a time until all the three existing fire stations were included in the analysis. Also,

impedance cut off was set to 2000 to determine how the models will perform with distance.

Figure 3: Maximum Covering Model for Data Preparation Analysis (Authors Research, 2016)


4.1 Results

The outcome of using the Maximum Covering Location Model (MCLM) using one fire station was shown

in figure 5, twenty (20) areas were covered out of twenty-five (25). In Figure 6, the result from applying the

model using two fire stations is shown and the analysis showed that twenty-three (23) were covered out of

the twenty-five (25) areas. However, adding the third fire stations to the analysis doesn’t have any effect on

the uncovered area earlier from analysis when two fire stations were used. Figures 7 - 9 show the result

from applying the Maximum Covering Location Model using the 2000m distance threshold with one, two


172 | P a g e

and three fire stations respectively. Figure 10 shows the locations for siting new fire stations to correct the

problem of under-coverage and attain maximum coverage.

Figure 4: Method of generating location-allocation layer and running of MCLM


173 | P a g e


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Figure 9: Maximum Coverage Model with three Fire stations using 2000m distance threshold

Figure 10: Maximum Coverage range for Siting New fire stands location


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Table 2 and 3 shows the covered and uncovered areas using the 5minute response time and 2000m distance

threshold respectively.

Table 2: The figures of fire incidences and population of concealed and unconcealed areas using 5-minutes response time

S/N Concealed

Areas

Population

2012

Affected Area by

Fires_2012

Population

(2014)

Affected Area by

Fires (2014)

1 Bosso Town 22310 6 23850 3

2 GRA 16730 2 9250 2

3 Sabon – Gari 16250 1 17400 1

4 Chanchaga 41270 2 44130 4

5 Limawa 6220 3 6650 3

6 Okada Road 4360 0 4660 0

7 Tunga 3920 7 4190 10

8 Tudun Fulani 16660 0 17810 3

9 Tudun Wada

North

30970 2 33110 3

10 SabonGari 10410 1 11130 1

11 Tudun Wada

South

15960 4 17100 5

12 Army Barracks 23630 2 24290 1

13 Dutse Kura II 6750 3 9250 2

14 Bosso Estate 20700 2 22130 2

15 Sango 45730 0 48920 3

16 Minna Central I 11420 1 12210 3

17 F-Layout 5032 2 5380 2

18 Dutse Kura I 8650 3 9250 3

19 Maitumbi 21370 3 22850 3

20 Tayi Village 8230 0 8790 0

S/N Concealed

Areas

Population

2012

Affected Area by

Fires_2012

Population

(2014)

Affected Area by

Fires (2014)

21 Makera 15370 2 16440 5

22 Minna Central II 10590 1 11320 3

23 Barikin Sale 7970 1 8520 3


176 | P a g e

S/N Unconcealed

Area

Population

2012

Affected Area by

Fires_2012

Population

2014

Affected Area by

Fires _2014

1 SaukaKauta 37020 0 39580 2

2 Kpagungu 19930 4 21310

Table 3: 2000m radius as threshold for Concealed and Unconcealed Areas in the study area (Authors’ Analysis, 2016)

S/N Concealed Areas Unconcealed Areas

1 F-Layout Okada Road

2 SabonGari I Dutse Kura I

3 GRA Bosso Town

4 Limawa Tudun Fulani

5 Tunga Dutse Kura II

6 Minna Central I Bosso Estate

7 Tayi Village

8 SaukaKauta

9 Tudun Wada South

10 Barikin Sale

11 Chanchaga

12 Tudun Wada North

13 Minna Central II

14 Makera

15 Kpakungu

16 Army Barracks

17 Maitumbi

18 Sango

19 SabonGari II

4.2 Discussion of Results


177 | P a g e

Twenty-three (23) out of the twenty five (25) areas were hid by just two of the fire stations in the study area

shown in figure 6. Sauka-Kauta and Kpakungu are the areas that were uncovered and the two areas covered

56,950 people out of the total number of people in the whole twenty-five (25) areas which was 374,182.

However, the addition of the third fire stations to the analysis did not give a result for the additional

coverage of the study areas for the uncovered areas earlier mentioned in (section 5.0) from analysis when

two fire stations were used; by implication the specified five minutes time impedance used as an effect on

the distance to the facility in question (i.e. > Fire Station). Figures 7 to 9 show the result obtained from

applying the model using one, two, and three fire stations respectively with the 2000m distance threshold.

In figure 8 the three (3) fire stations were added in the analysis and result showed that a total of six (6) areas

were covered by the existing three (3) fire stations and nineteen (19) areas were uncovered. The need for

siting more new fire stations in the study area is of great concerned based on the fact that the population of

the uncovered area in the future will proliferation and it will have an adverse effect on how fire incidences

to be attempted to and this will prevent loss of lives and properties if the State Government can site more

new fire stations.

Similarly, among the three fire stations found in the study area; two of these existing fire stations are too

close to each other (i.e. in term of distance) which are extremely increases the maximum coverage of one

and dipping the maximum coverage of other (Bosso Fire Service and Fire Service Headquarters). The

analysis of the spatial distribution of the three (3) fire stations located within the study area; the criteria used

in siting them and the results of covered and uncovered areas in terms of map were able to ascertain. Based

on this, the number of existing fire stations in the study area cannot accommodate the whole city thus more

fire stations is needed to be sited. The locations for the new suggested fire stands together with their

coordinates to spot-on uncovered area are shown in table 4. The locations of the area for the new proposed

fire stands are: Maitumbi, Sauka-Kauta, Kpakungu, Bosso, and Chanchaga area.

Table 4: Location for New Fire Stands Coordinates

S/N Location Eastings (mE) Northings (mN)

1 Maitumbi 233523.267 1065514.298

2 Kpakungu 230898.878 1060241.211

3 Sauka-Kauta 228906.278 1061213.208

4 Chanchaga 235467.262 1056985.019

5 Bosso 229538.077 1067919.992


178 | P a g e

5. Conclusion/ Suggestion

5.1 Conclusion

This model (i.e. Maximum Covering Location Model) as proved the efficacy of locating the best location of

fire station within a specified areas whereby used to determine the relationship between the facility (fire

station) and potential users (demands) that can be concealed in term of distance and a predefined response

time. This method of location-allocation problem when integrated with Geographical Information System

(GIS) provides an optimal location of facilities. Based on capacity and demand information and queries

generated in this work, the expansion and intensification in population there was quite proliferation in the

record of the fire incidences between 2012 and 2014. Thus, the incidence of the disaster in the amount of

fire in the future will be intensification. As shown in Figure 10 and Table 4.

5.2 Suggestion

It is suggested that the location for siting new fire stands to correct under-coverage problem should be

considered. Finally, the optimal fire station centers are visually detected by employing an improved

Maximum Covering Location Model, which considers both geographic accessibility and service quality in

the research area.

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank the Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State and the State fire service

in Minna, Niger for the valuable data provided.

References

Algharib, S.M. (2011), Distance and Coverage: An Assessment of Location-Allocation Models for Fire

Stations in Kuwait City, Kuwait.http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view/acc_num=kent1310950444.

23rd March, 2015.

Badri, M. Mortagy, A. and Alsayed, A. (1998). A Multi -Objective Model for Locating Fire Stations.

European Journal of Operation Research. Volume 110, Number 2, Pp 243-260.

Catay, B. (2011). Taxonomy for Emergency Service Station Location Problem. Optimization Letters,

volume 6, Issue 6, Pp 1147 – 1160

Challands N. (2010), the Relationships between Fire Service Response Time and Fire Outcomes. Fire

Techno 46:665-676


179 | P a g e

Daskin, M. S. and Dean, L. K. (2008); “Location of Health Care Facilities,” Chapter 3 in the Handbook of

OR/MS in Health Care: A Handbook of Methods and Applications, F. Sainfort, M. Brandeau and

W. Pierskalla, Editors, Kluwer, pp. 43-76.

Department of Geography, Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State, 2016.

Habibi, K., Lotfi, S., and Koohsari, M.J. (2008). Spatial Analysis if Urban Fire Station Locations by

Integrating AHP Model and IO Logic Using GIS (A Case Research of Zone 6 of Tehran). Journal

of Applied Sciences, Issue 8: 3302-3315.

Hacioglu, C (2010). Spatial Requirements of Fire Stations in Urban Areas: A Case Research of Ankara.

Msc Thesis, Middle East Technical University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied

Sciences, Ankara, 13th August, 2015.

Klose, A., Drexl, A. (2005). Facility location models for distribution system design. European Journal of

Operational Research, 162, pp. 4-29.

Megiddo N, Zemel E and Hakimi SL (1983).The Maximum Coverage Location Problem. SIAM Journal of

Algebraic and Discrete Methods, Volume 4, Issue 2, pp253-261

Owen, S. and Daskin, M. (1998). Strategic Facility Location: A review. European Journal of Operational

Research. Volume 111, pp 423-447.


180 | P a g e

Research Article

Finite-Difference Approximations to the Heat Equation via C

Olusegun Adeyemi Olaiju1, Yeak Su Hoe1 and Ezekiel Babatunde Ogunbode2,3

1Faculty of Science, Department of Mathematics, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

81310, Skudai. Johor Bahru. Malaysia.

2Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Structures and Materials,

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. 81310, Skudai. Johor Bahru. Malaysia.

3Department of Building, Federal University of Technology Minna. Niger State. Nigeria.

Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 2/06/2017

Accepted: 04/07//2017

A b s t r a c t

Partial differential equations (PDEs) are useful tools for mathematical

modelling in the field of physics, engineering and Applied Mathematics.

Useful as these equations are, only a few of them can be solved analytically.

Numerical methods have been proven to perform exceedingly well in solving

difficult partial differential equations. A popularly known numerical method

known as finite difference method has been applied expansively for solving

partial differential equations successfully. In this study, explicit finite

difference scheme is established and applied to a simple problem of one-

dimensional heat equation by means of C. These sample calculations show that

the accuracy of the predictions depends on mesh spacing and time step. The

result of the study reveals that the solutions of the heat equation decay from an

initial state to a non-varying fixed state circumstance, the temporary

performance of these solutions are smooth and bounded, the solution does not

improve local or global utmost that are outside the range of the initial data.

© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights

reserved.

Boundary conditions, C program, Finite difference method, Heat equation, Partial differential equations.

1. Introduction

According to Louise (2015), PDEs classification is important for any numerical solution chosen. The

general equation governing partial differential equations is of the form:

PDE are classified into three categories, which are;

i. Elliptic, where , e.g Laplace’s equation; ,


181 | P a g e

ii. Hyperbolic, where , e.g 1D wave equation; ,

iii. Parabolic, where , e.g Diffusion equation; ,

The one-dimensional heat equation is a parabolic PDE and is of the form

where is the dependent variable, and is a constant coefficient called the thermal

diffusivity which is the material property.

Equation (2) is a model of transient heat conduction in a lump of solid with thickness L. The

domain of the solution is a semi-infinite strip of width L that continues indefinitely in time. In a

practical computation, the solution is obtained only for a finite time. Solution to equation (2)

requires specification of boundary conditions at x = 0, (Dirichlet boundary

conditions) and x = L, (Neumann boundary conditions) and initial conditions at t

= 0. ,

As mentioned by Hadamard, a problem is well-posed (or correctly-set) if satisfies the succeeding

circumstances;

a. it has a solution,

b. the solution is unique,

c. the solution's behaviour changes continuously with the initial conditions.

So, the heat equation is well-posed (Louise, 2015; Lloyd, 1996).

The finite difference method is one of the various techniques for finding numerical solutions to Partial

differential equations. In all numerical solutions, the continuous partial differential equation is substituted

with a discrete approximation, which means the numerical solution is known only at a finite number of

points in the physical domain which can be selected by the user of the numerical method. In general,

increasing the number of points will equally increase the resolution as well as the accuracy of the numerical

solution (Gerald, 2011).

The discrete approximation outcomes in a set of algebraic equations that are elucidated for the values of the

discrete unknowns. Figure 1 is an illustrative depiction of the numerical solution. The grid is the set of

points where the discrete solution is computed which are called nodes. Two basic parameters of the grid are

∆x, the local distance amongst contiguous points in space, and ∆t, the local distance amid adjacent time

steps.

The basic idea of the finite-difference method is to replace continuous derivatives with so-called difference

formulas that involve only the discrete values associated with positions on the grid.


182 | P a g e

Relating the finite-difference method to a differential equation involves replacing all derivatives with

difference formulas. In the heat equation, there are derivatives with respect to time and derivatives

concerning space. Using various arrangements of mesh points in the difference formula results in difference

schemes. In the limit as the mesh spacing (∆x and ∆t) go to zero, the numerical solution obtained with any

valuable system will approach the true solution to the original differential equation. Though, the rate at

which the numerical solution approaches the true solution varies with the system. Several academic

writtings have been published on numerical solution of heat equation (william, 1992; Morton and Mayers,

1994; Jeffery, 1998; Clive, 1988; Golub and Ortega, 1993; Burden and Faires, 1997; Thomas, 2013;

Strikwerda, 2004 and Hoffman, 1992).

Figure 1: Flow chart for the solution of the heat equation


183 | P a g e

Finite difference method

By considering Figure 2, the white squares indicate the location of the initial values which are

already known. The grey squares indicate the location of the boundary values which are also

known. The black circles indicate the position of the interior points where the finite difference

approximation is to be computed.

Figure 2: Discrete Grid Points

Consider Taylor series expansion of about the point in Figure 2

Suppose terms is considered in equation (3) then the forward difference in time

approximation for will be arrived at,


184 | P a g e

A higher order approximation for can be derived if the Taylor series expansion for is

equally considered:

By subtracting equation 5 from 3, we have the centred difference equation in time, which always

gives higher order accuracy than the forward difference:

Similarly, the approximation for the second order derivative can be derived by the addition of

equations 3 and 5:

The same approximations apply to spatial variable x

The above approximations are used by the finite difference method to solve partial differential

equations numerically.

Solution of 1D heat equation

Consider the heat equation (2), for and discretise time and

variable x relating to space.

Let , and , .where and are

the length of t and x respectively and are number of, the grids on both x and t axis.

If , then, equation 2 has the following finite difference approximation from equation

(4) and (7) and by dropping and

and


185 | P a g e

So that the discretised version of equation 2 is,

Which can be rewritten as,

where .

Thus, gives the solution for the temperature at the next time step.

Assume there exist initial conditions,

and mixed boundary conditions,

(Dirichlet boundary conditions) for

(Neumann boundary conditions)for

Then, the solution to equation 2, with initial conditions (9) and boundary conditions (10) and (11)

takes the following steps,

From equation (11) we have,


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which gives,

Combining equations (8),(9),(10) and (12) gives,

Equation (14) can be written in the form:

Stability of the Numerical Methods

The solutions to Equation (2) subject to the initial and boundary conditions in Equations (9), (10)

and (11) are all bounded, decaying functions. Thus the magnitude of the solution will decrease

from the initial condition to a constant.


187 | P a g e

Explicit finite difference method is only stable if k (the gain parameter) satisfies or

the time step satisfies: . If the time step exceeds this value, this can yield unstable

solutions that oscillate and grow. (Gerald, 2011; Arnold, 2015).

C program

C is categorised as the high-level and general-purpose programming language which is appropriate

for the development of portable applications. C is originally intended for writing system software

(techopedia.com). Additionally, Techopedia.com also describe C as one of the most extensively

used languages in programming. C language has a compiler for most computer systems, and it has

generated many popularly known languages such as C++. Consequently, C has been accepted as

an influential programming language which belongs to the structured, procedural paradigms of

languages. It has been shown to be flexible and may be used for diverse applications. However,

despite C been a high-level language, it has been seen to share several characteristics with

assembly language (Greg, 2014)

Test Problem

The finite difference codes are verified by solving the heat equation using C codes

with boundary conditions , , . , and initial

condition . The exact solution to this problem is,

Setting , , , ,

and , , , the following tables are generated which give the

Numerical and exact solutions of the problem together with the errors generated by the numerical

solution.

Table1: The values of at for

0.000 0.160 0.240 0.240 0.160 0.000

0.000 0.148 0.228 0.228 0.148 0.000

0.000 0.138 0.216 0.216 0.138 0.000

0.000 0.129 0.204 0.204 0.129 0.000

0.000 0.121 0.193 0.193 0.121 0.000

0.000 0.114 0.182 0.182 0.114 0.000

Table2: The values of exact at (I,j) for

0.000 0.152 0.245 0.245 0.152 0.000


188 | P a g e

0.000 0.143 0.231 0.231 0.143 0.000

0.000 0.135 0.218 0.218 0.135 0.000

0.000 0.127 0.205 0.205 0.127 0.000

0.000 0.120 0.194 0.194 0.120 0.000

0.000 0.113 0.182 0.183 0.113 0.000

Table3: The error in at (i,j) for

0.000 0.008 -0.005 -0.005 0.008 -0.000

0.000 0.005 -0.003 -0.003 0.005 -0.000

0.000 0.003 -0.002 -0.002 0.003 -0.000

0.000 0.002 -0.001 -0.001 0.002 -0.000

0.000 0.001 -0.001 -0.001 0.001 -0.000

0.000 0.001 -0.000 -0.000 0.001 -0.000

Table 1 shows the Numerical Solutions to the Problem of one-dimensional heat equation. Table

two shows the exact solution of the problem while Table 3 gives the error which is the difference

between the exact solution and numerical solution. By comparing Tables 1 and 2, it was observed

that the values are very close, which shows consistency (Arnold, 2015).

0

0.5

1

0

0.02

0.04-0.01

0

0.01

0.02

x

Variation of Error Distribution for Nx=25 and Nt=150

t

Figure 3: Explicit Finite Difference method error distribution with time for


189 | P a g e

0

0.5

1

0

0.01

0.02

0.030

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

x

Variation of temperature Distribution for Nx=25 and Nt=150

t

U(i

,j)

Figure 4: Explicit Finite Difference method for temperature distribution with time for Nx=25,

Nt=150

0

0.5

1

0

0.01

0.02

0.03-5

0

5

10

x 10-3

x

Variation of Error Distribution for Nx=Nt=5

t

U(i

,j)

Figure 5: Explicit Finite Difference method error distribution with time for Nx= Nt=5


190 | P a g e

0

0.5

1

0

0.01

0.02

0.030

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

x

Variation of temperature Distribution for Nx=Nt=5

t

U(i

,j)

Figure 4: Explicit Finite Difference method for temperature distribution with time for Nx=Nt=5

Figure3 and 5 show the error in temperature on the implementation of finite difference method to

1D heat distribution problem for Nx=25, Nt =150 and Nx=Nt=5. From the above figures, It is clear

that the errors become smaller with the increasing number of grids. Since the quality of solution

improves with increasing number of elements. We conclude that the result is valid. (Subramanian,

2009).

Conclusion

So far we have used the finite difference method as a solution of one-dimensional heat equation.

The explicit method has been used out of the different finite difference methods. The results were

compared with the exact solution of the problem. We got the approximate solution by the method

using C program, specifically Code:: Block software from www.codeblocks.org and Matlab from

https://www.mathworks.com to generate the surface plots.

The research has revealed that the size of the mesh is significant to arrive at an accurate solution

when using finite difference method, the smaller the size of the mesh the closer is the numerical

result to the exact solution. Also, C program proved to be a powerful tool in programming the

solution of one-dimensional heat partial differential equation. It was also observed that the

solutions of the heat equation decay from an initial state to a non-varying steady state condition.

The transient behaviour of these solutions are smooth and bounded; the solution does not develop

http://www.codeblocks.org/


191 | P a g e

local or global maxima that are outside the range of the initial data. However, the study is limited

to using explicit finite difference method on parabolic PDE only. It should be noted that finite

element method and finite volume method are powerful tools to solve difficult partial differential

equations.

REFERENCES

Arnold Douglas N. (2015). Lecture notes on Numerical Analysis of Partial Differential Equations.

Available at http://www.math.umn.edu/~arnold/8445/notes.pdf

Burden R. L and Faires J. D (1997). Numerical Analysis. Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., New York,

sixth edition.

Clive A.J. F (1988). Computational Techniquess for Fluid Dynamics. Springer-Verlag Berlin.

Gerald W. Recktenwald (2011). Finite-Difference Approximations to the Heat Equation

www.nada.kth.se/~jjalap/numme/FDheat.pdf

Golub Gene and Ortega James M (1993). Scientific Computing: An Introduction with Parallel

Computing. Academic Press, Inc., Boston.

Greg Perry and Dean Miller (2014). C Programming Absolute Beginner’s Guide.Third Edition.

Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeffery Cooper (1998). Introduction to Partial Differential Equations with Matlab. Birkhauser,

Boston.

Lloyd N. Trefethen, (1996). Finite Difference and Spectral Methods for Ordinary and Partial

Differential Equations, unpublished text, 1996, available at

https://people.maths.ox.ac.uk/trefethen/pdetext.html

Louise Olsen-Kettle (2015), Numerical solution of partial differential Equations retrieved from

http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:239427.

Morton K.W. and Mayers D.F(1994) Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations: An

Introduction. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

Strikwerda J. C. (2004) Finite difference schemes and partial differential equations, SIAM.

http://www.math.umn.edu/~arnold/8445/notes.pdf

http://www.nada.kth.se/~jjalap/numme/FDheat.pdf

https://people.maths.ox.ac.uk/trefethen/pdetext.html

http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:239427

http://epubs.siam.org/doi/book/10.1137/1.9780898717938


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Subramanian. S. J. (2009). Introduction to Finite Element Method. Department of Engineering

Design. Indian Institute of Technology. Madras.

Techopedia. C Programming Language (C). Sourced online on 10th Dec, 2016 and available at

https://www.techopedia.com/definition/24068/c-programming-language-c

Thomas, James W. (2013) Numerical partial differential equations: finite difference methods. Vol.

22. Springer Science & Business Media.

William F. (1992) Numerical Methods for Partial Differential Equations. Academic Press, Inc.,

Boston, third edition.

https://www.techopedia.com/definition/24068/c-programming-language-c

http://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780387979991

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