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Editorial BoardSandra SmithHead of Department

Nigel BamforthSenior Furniture Conservator

Lucia BurgioSenior Object Analysis Scientist

Fi JordanSenior Ceramics Conservator

Elizabeth-Anne HaldaneSenior Textile Conservator

Graham Martin Head of Science

Alison RichmondDeputy Head, RCA/V&A ConservationPostgraduate Programme

Mike WheelerSenior Paper Conservator

Designed by V&A Design

Photographs are credited individually

All enquiries to:-Conservation DepartmentVictoria and Albert MuseumLondon SW7 2RL, UKTelephone +44 (0)20 7942 2131Fax: +44 (0)20 7942 2092e-mail conweb@vam.ac.uk

The V&A Conservation Journal is an informal publication and references in articles are discouraged. Readers may contact authors for further information via the e-mail address above

The V&A Conservation Journal is now availableonline at:www.vam.ac.uk/res_cons/conservation/journal

Contents V&A Conservation Journal No.55

1 EditorialSandra Smith, Head of Conservation

2 Stein Mellon textile project at the V&AHelen Persson, Curator (Collections Management),Asian Department

5 Storage of the Stein Loan CollectionThórdis Baldursdóttir, Textile Conservator

8 Discoveries on a pair of CassoniThomas Geissler, Furniture Conservation Intern

11 The treatment of two Coptic tapestry fragmentsFlorence Whaap, Textile Conservation Intern

14 Surreal semi-syntheticsElizabeth-Anne Haldane, Senior Textile Conservator

19 Investigation of the patina on Bidri using advancedsurface analysis techniques

Emma Beardmore, Visiting Researcher, Imperial CollegeGraham Martin, Head of Science SectionDavid McPhail, Department of Materials, Imperial CollegeRichard Chater, Department of Materials, Imperial College

22 New staff

24 New interns and students

Staff Chart

Front Cover images: S.361&A-1985 ‘Fate’ from Les Presages,designed by André Masson, 1933.Photography by Richard Davis, V&A Photographic Studio ©ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2006

S.149-1985 ‘Spinning Top’ from Jeux d’enfants, designed byJoan Miro, 1932.Photography by Richard Davis, V&A Photographic Studio ©Succession Miro/ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2006

T.393-1974 ‘Tear’ dress by Elsa Schiaparelli, 1938Photography by Richard Davis, V&A Photographic Studio ©Schiaparelli France SAS

Conservation DepartmentStaff Chart Spring 2007

Head of ConservationSandra Smith

PA to Director ofCollections Services(vacancy)

Sculpture, Metals,Ceramics & Glass(SMCG)

SculptureCharlotte HubbardSofia MarquesVictor BorgesBrendan Catney (c)Johanna Puisto Lisa WagnerJonathan Kemp (c)Sarah Healey-Dilke

MetalsDiana HeathJoanna WhalleySophy WillsDonna StevensCatia Viegas WesolowskaGates Turner (c)Johanna Puisto (c)

Ceramics & GlassFi JordanJuanita NavarroHanneke Ramakers

Stained GlassSherrie EatmanAnn Marsh (c)

Furniture, Textiles & Frames (FTF)

FurnitureShayne RiversTim MillerNigel BamforthDana Melchar

Gilded Furniture andFramesChristine PowellZoë Allen

TextilesLynda Hillyer (c)Albertina CogramFrances HartogSusana Fajardo-HunterElizabeth-Anne HaldaneLara FleckerNatalia Zagorska-Thomas (c)Cynthea Dowling (c)Joanne HackettRoisin MorrisKatharina Mackert (c)

Paper, Books &Paintings (PBP)

PaperMerryl HuxtableVictoria ButtonMichael WheelerSusan CatcherLisa Nash (RIBA)

PreservationConservatorsClair BattissonSimon FleuryChris Gingell

BooksJane RutherstonAnne BancroftAnne Greig (c)Eoin Kelly (c)

PaintingsNicola Costaras

Science

Boris PretzelBrenda KeneghanValerie BlythLucia Burgio

InformationManagement &Administration

Angela KnightLouise Egan

RCA/V&A ConservationModern JewelleryCordelia Rogerson, PhDMaterials and Techniquesof Tudor Portrait MiniaturesTimea Tallian, MPhilTextilesAlice Cole, MAHazel Arnott, MA(with Historic Royal Palaces)Jennifer Barsby, MAHistory, Ethics & ManagementHelen Evans, MPhilConservation of BronzeSculptureLucy McLean, p/t in-post MAMusical Instrumentsand Ethnographic ObjectsSandra Joly, MA (with the Horniman Museum)

Characterisation of Photographsin The National ArchivesCollection Simon Bloxham, MPhil(in association with TheNational Archives)The Drawing Media & WorkingTechnique of David Smith(1940–1965) & its Significance to his Aesthetic PhilosophyRichard Mulholland, MPhilNatural History Conservation Lirica Lynch, MA (with theNatural History Museum)Conservation and Mounting ofCostumeSam Gatley, MA (in collaboration with theHistoric Royal Palaces)Conservation of MusicalInstrumentsChris Egerton, p/t in-post MA

Other StudentsEnabling Museum Professionalswith New CollectionsManagement ToolsEmma Richardson, University of Southampton/V&ACollaborative PhDAnalytical ChemistryCarolyn McSharry, ImperialCollege/V&A Collaborative PhDInvestigating the Problem ofConsolidating East AsianLacquer (provisional title)Nanke SchellmanV&A/Hochschule für BildendeKünste Collaborative PhDExamination of the Effectof Western & JapaneseConsolidation Treatments ofMicro-cracks in the Surface of Aged Japanese Lacquer(provisional title) Adel Elmahdy, 3 year PhD,Loughborough University

RCA/V&A ConservationWilliam Lindsay (RCA)Alison Richmond (V&A)Vincent Daniels (RCA)Joanna Baden (RCA)Harriet Standeven (V&A)

InternshipsFurnitureCatherine CoueignouxPaintingsSally TaorÉowyn KerrScienceAgnieszka Depta

Victoria Oakley Marion Kite Alan Derbyshire Graham Martin Fiona Campbell

Visiting ResearchersTitika Malkogeorgou

KeySenior ManagementTeam

(c) Contract Staff

ˆ

The major phase of the Stein Mellon Textile Projecttook place between October 2003 and August 2004when the V&A participated in a co-operative projectto create an international resource for materialrecovered from sites along the ancient trade routesin Central Asia. The project attempts to redress thelack of access and knowledge that internationalscholars have previously experienced in relation tothese collections.

The Far Eastern Section acts as custodian for nearly600 textile fragments; all retrieved from the chainof abandoned oasis settlements along the Silk Road.The entire area now falls within the boundaries ofthe People’s Republic of China in the Xinjiang UygurAutonomous Region. The fragments were broughtback from three long expeditions by the Hungarian-born archaeologist Sir Marc Aurel Stein (1862-1943)between 1900 and 1916. These significant textiles,dating from around 300 BC to AD 1200, came to theMuseum in the 1920s and 1930s and are on loanfrom the Government of India. At the time, the HMIndian Government funded Stein’s explorations,with the British Museum for his second expedition,which has textiles from his Central Asian journeysas does the Museum of Central Asian Antiquities inNew Delhi.

With funding from The Andrew W MellonFoundation, the fragments have beenphotographed and catalogued and will be madeaccessible on the Foundation’s planned Silk Roaddatabase as well as on the British Library’sInternational Dunhuang Project website and theV&A’s own Collections Online database. This majorphase of the project was completed ahead ofschedule and well within budget. In May 2005, TheAndrew W Mellon Foundation approved a proposalto extend the project and use the remainder of thegrant to improve storage of the Stein textilecollection, pursue scientific analysis on some of thefragments and rebind Stein’s publication Serindia(5 vols., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921). It has been across-departmental project, in particular involvingthe Asian Department, Photographic Studio,Records Section and Conservation (Textiles, Books,Preservation and Science), but also collaborationwith colleagues from external institutions.

The Stein textile collection comprises a wide varietyof different techniques and materials, andembraces examples of domestic textiles to sacralsilks. It also bears witness to the cultural diversity inthe Silk Road area, the exchange of ideas and thevibrant trade in all directions. The collection couldalso be significant in the discussions of origin andspread of tapestry and carpet weaving. Mostresearch interest and attention have been given tothe finds from Cave 17 of the Buddhist cavecomplex of the Mogao Grottoes, near the oasistown of Dunhuang, in the Gansu corridor. The cavecomplex is also known as Qianfodong, ‘the Caves ofthe Thousand Buddhas’. Famous as the site of theworld’s largest and earliest paper archive, and asthe only surviving Buddhist library of its time. Itwas discovered in 1900 in a small side-cave whosedoor had been plastered over and concealed bypaintings, probably in the late eleventh century.

Among around 40,000 documents, in Chinese,Tibetan and other languages, and paintings, therewere also a great number of long, narrow silk stripsand small squares. These silk fragments show anincredible breadth of colours, from canary yellowthrough the clearest red to deepest indigo (Figure 1).The Dunhuang finds demonstrate a range ofbeautiful yet subtle damasks, vibrant polychromepattern woven silks, and embroidered gauzes,clamp-resist dyed and painted silks. A number ofcomplete and fragmented banners, canopies andaltar valances give evidence of the importance ofthis shrine site as one of China’s great Buddhistpilgrimage complexes.

The wide-spread use and dominance of Chinesesilks in these Central Asian trading oases is furtherillustrated by several examples of jin silks from theancient burials in Astana, dated between the thirdto the end of the eighth century AD. The fragmentsshow the richness of face-covers and other burialclothing used by the ruling classes of a kingdomcentred on the cities of Karakhoja (Gaochang) andYarkhoto. However, textile finds from Astana alsoindicate a new weaving technique and highlightthe trade of silk in the other direction andtransferring of motifs, with Sassanian and Sogdiansilk material. A much more assorted collection of

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Change from tradition is always difficult, but nevermore so than when longstanding practice hasachieved success and continues to deliver it. This isthe case of the Conservation Journal; established tohighlight the activities and achievements of V&AConservation in a timely way, it is a source ofconsiderable pride and inspiration to the Departmentand the Museum and much admired by otherinstitutions.

But it is the time for change. The creation of theConservation website has provided a new vehiclethrough which we can disseminate our knowledgeand expertise and make it available to the widestpossible audience. Over the past four years we havemade a concerted and concentrated effort to ensurea good web presence. The site continues to develop;in 2007 advice on care of materials will be includedwithin the collections areas of the site and we willhave an area referring to ‘frequently asked questions’.We therefore have two forums to showcase the workof the Department, and it is opportune to considerhow each can most effectively be used.

At a time when the Museum requires ourprofessional expertise to deliver visitor-focussedactivities, it is essential that we do not lose sight of the need to share and debate conservation practicewith the conservation profession. Research andpresentation of the results through conferencepapers and posters, refereed professional journalsand heritage publications requires time andresources. Continuous professional development isessential for a forward-looking department and adynamic staff. Time taken to deliver publicationsaimed at a more general audience, such as theConservation Journal and the Website, restricts thecontribution that we make to the wider profession.There is a need to redress this balance so that wecontinue to contribute to the wider professionalknowledge pool.

After much soul searching and considerablediscussion, the decision has been made to reduce theConservation Journal to one edition per year. Thissingle annual publication will continue to highlightthe skills, expertise, versatility and innovation of theDepartment. Through brief articles each Section/Studio will have the opportunity to showcase someaspect of their work. It is anticipated that there willbe a mixture of retrospective, current and ongoingpractical projects together with articles on other keydepartmental activities, such as education andstrategic development. Where appropriate thesearticles will link to more information-related subjectson the website, providing a more coherent andintegrated approach to our knowledge and expertise.The website will become the forum for timelyinformation, such as staff, intern and student details,which was formerly presented in the ConservationJournal. The printed version of the annualConservation Journal will be in full colour and willcontinue to be mailed to museums, galleries andlibraries throughout the world. The Journal will alsobe available electronically through our website.

All that is left for me to say, is to thank all thecontributors to this last edition of the tri-yearlyJournal. I look forward to writing the editorial for the annual V&A Conservation Journal which will be published in spring 2008.

EditorialSandra Smith

V&A Conservation Journal to become an annual publication

Stein Mellon Textile Project at the V&AHelen PerssonCurator (Collections Management), Asian Department

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north and west of Dunhuang and designed to ensure the safe transit of goods across the area,dating from 200 BC to AD 400. The finds from theseencampments are more utilitarian, suitable for the hard life of a soldier far away from home.

The collection has been subjected to some scientificanalyses. Beside the already mentioned C14 tests,around 30 samples have been sent for fibre and dyeidentification. We hope that the results can indicatelikely production areas. Textiles have also beenanalysed by Dr Lucia Burgio, Senior Object AnalysisScientist, with Raman microscopy and X-rayfluorescence, to identify pigments used and metalliccomponents of paint. Scientific analysis revealed thattwo of the fragments were coloured with orpiment –a poisonous, pale yellow pigment containing arsenic,proving the importance of in-house analysis of theV&A collection.

The entire Dunhuang textile collection has beenexamined in detail by Professor Zhao Feng from The China National Silk Museum and will feature in a collaborative publication between The BritishMuseum, The British Library, The Victoria and AlbertMuseum and The China National Silk Museum. This is due for publication in April 2007.

Thanks to the continued support of The Andrew WMellon Foundation, the Stein textile collection hasbeen catalogued, photographed and is now housed inimproved storage conditions. The project has alreadyexcited a degree of external research interest and hasattracted several visitors. The expected increase ofinterest in the collection due to the publicity generatedby the Mellon project and the International DunhuangProject has also necessitated conservation work onStein’s publication Serindia. This will enable accessand enjoyment to Stein's own descriptions, hisarchaeological surveys of the areas and catalogues.Furthermore, it has been possible to pursueimportant scientific analysis which is usually costlyand rarely executed within the core Museum budget.The results from the scientific analyses will hopefullyprovide vital clues to the origin and context of thecollection, contributing to current discussions andpushing back the boundaries of our understanding oftextiles from Silk Road sites.

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materials comes from Niya. Among the silks there arefragments of leather and fur, grass ropes andmatting, and lots of wool. The wool comes fromsheep, Bactrian camels, yaks and goats.

The oldest textile fragments in the collection werediscovered at Loulan, a complex comprising manysites: the ruins of dwellings, adjacent refuse heapsand nearby grave pits. The silks show typical small-scale classic Han (206 BC-AD 220) patterning of cloudscrolls and mythical beasts interspersed withdedicatory inscriptions. But the wools from this siteare very interesting, in particular the knotted piecesor carpet fragments (Figure 2). The designs showHellenistic influences rather than Chinese, but with aCentral Asian colour palette. These fragments havebeen radiocarbon dated to 800 BC-200 BC whichconflict with the accepted date range for this site,and therefore will need further tests and research forconfirmation. The Stein collection has also some fineexamples of shoes and sandals used in the region,predominantly from Mazartagh, and what Steinnamed as ‘The Limes Watchtowers’, based on theirresemblance to the Roman limes in Europe. Thesewere a line of fortified encampments stretching both

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Figure 1. A rainbow of coloured silks from Dunhuang (LOAN:STEIN.658, Ch.00488; LOAN:STEIN.639, Ch.00236; LOAN:STEIN.459,Ch.00256; LOAN:STEIN.455, Ch.00325; LOAN:STEIN.463, Ch.00436; LOAN:STEIN.671, Ch.00495b; LOAN:STEIN.465, Ch.00314).

Figure 2. A carpet fragment from the burial grounds of Loulan(LOAN:STEIN.647, L.C.ii.09.a).

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Larger three-dimensional objects, including manyshoes, were placed on individual padded boards. Theboards were made using a Correx base covered withDomette (a thick brushed cotton) and scoured Calico(plain woven cotton fabric). Where necessary, soft 3-Dmounts were made to fit inside the objects forinternal support.

It was necessary to make the best use of the depth ofthe drawers and find a solution that would make itpossible to access and safely store large flat textiles.Most were placed in fabric-covered padded folders(Figure 2). Both sides of the folder were padded withthick Domette to support and hold the shape of thetextile. For three-dimensional textiles, several layers of Domette were used to make a relief. All the folderswere labelled with numbers and an image. Very largeflat textiles were put on rigid, lightweight, fabric-covered boards, padded on both sides. A largefragmented silk embroidery, needing special attentionbecause of its fragile condition and size, was placed ona lightly padded, rigid board, covered with a nylon netoverlay stitched to one side of the board and attachedwith Velcro® (hook and loop fastening) to the otherthree sides (Figure 3). The fabric covered folders makeit possible to store up to six layers in a drawer or on ashelf, allowing for easy access and the safe handlingof both sides of the object.

A decision was made to remove and replace mostof the previous mounts, which were made ofinappropriate and potentially harmful materials. Theold glass was heavy and difficult to handle andremoving it was also in line with current health andsafety practice. Some of the Perspex was heavilyscratched and many of the mounts had already beenpartly opened to gain access to the objects forphotographing. The textiles were carefully removedfrom their mounts and put in Melinex sleeves and/orfabric-covered or card folders. This allowed the backsto be studied, revealing interesting details.

Special consideration was given to objects treated byJoan Joshua who worked with Stein and carried outdocumented treatments on the collection. It wastherefore felt to be important to preserve examplesof her work. The mounting technique Joan Joshuaused was to adhere textiles to pure linen board usingflour and water paste on thin strips of Japanesepaper.

1A few of these textiles were removed from the

boards based on their condition and, in some cases,to gain access to the reverse. Textiles on boards wereput into new folders and labelled with both objectnumbers and a photograph. Seven very fragmented

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A nine month project funded by The Andrew WMellon Foundation was set up to improve the storageof the 600 objects in the V&A Stein textile collection.The objects had been stored in six drawers (1690 x790 x 105mm) and on part of two shelves in thetextile store, Far Eastern Collection Offices. A limitedamount of extra space was allocated for theimprovements. Some work had already been carriedout as part of the project, and a large number ofsmall flat textiles had been put in ready-made acidfree card folders. Most of the other small objectswere in transparent bags labelled with adhesivestickers. Various mounting techniques and conservationtreatments have been used since the collectionarrived at the V&A. Textiles had been sandwichedbetween two sheets of glass, Perspex® or glass andwood. Fragments had been adhered to card or netand stitched onto backing fabrics adhered to boards.A priority for improvement was a drawer storing 46large flat textiles in 21 layers, making them verydifficult to access. At this point almost all of theobjects had already been removed from original Steinpackaging (mostly envelopes and fabric bags) but afew very fragmented textiles were still kept in theoriginal paper parcel wrappings.

The key objectives of the storage project were to:• preserve the archaeological textile collection,

where possible as found, although some of theobjects had been treated at the Museum prior tothis project

• provide safe, protective storage and remove andreplace any unsuitable and potentially harmfulstorage and mounting materials

• improve access for study and safe handling withinthe Museum

• clearly label all objects and other material linkedto the collection, to include the museum loannumber, the original Stein site number and aphotograph

• list the exact location of each textile.

The very limited space available for this large numberof objects meant that it was necessary to considerthe entire collection as a whole and select methodsto make the best use of the space. This requiredcareful examination and measurement of eachobject. This showed that it would be possible to store271 fairly small three-dimensional textiles inPlastazote® foam (ethylene copolymer) lined trays(20mm or 40mm deep). The outline of each textilewas taken on a Melinex® (transparent polyester film)sheet and then transferred on to paper. Wherepossible, objects from the same archaeological sitewere kept together, but the main objective was theoptimal use of the space available. The diagram ofeach tray was scanned and Plastazote cut on themount-cutting and box-making machine (ZundPlotting Systems). This was attached to Correx®boards using double sided tape (Tesa-4965). Heavy-weight Melinex sheets were cut to shape and placedunder each object to act as a barrier between thetextiles and the textured Correx and to makehandling easier. Boxes, to keep the trays in, weremade to measure from archival folding box board.Photographs of each layer and object numbers areattached to the box lids to identify the textiles ineach drawer without the need for handling (Figure 1).

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Storage of the Stein Loan CollectionThórdís BaldursdóttirTextile Conservator

Figure 1. A storage drawer housing six boxes, each containing four Plastazote® trays

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Figure 2. Flat textiles in padded fabric-covered folders, labelled with photographs

Figure 3. A fragmented silk embroidery (LOAN:STEIN.343, Ch.00294) on a paddedboard with a net overlay

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The Victoria and Albert Museum has a largecollection of Medieval and Renaissance furniture.In preparation for the opening of the exhibition At Home in Renaissance Italy in October 2006, a pairof cassoni were returned to the Museum from a longterm loan to the National Gallery, London (museumnos 7708-1861 (Figure 1) and 7709-1861). During theirconservation some surprising discoveries were made.

The term cassone (large box) is used for decoratedItalian chests of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.Their decoration changed from painted design in thefifteenth and early sixteenth centuries to carving(sometimes partially gilt) in the second half of thesixteenth century. Many cassoni, made in pairs with a central coat of arms, served as marriage chests.

No information has been found about either cassonibefore their acquisition in 1861. Josephine vonHenneberg ascribed both cassoni to the Sienese artistBartolomeo Neroni known as Il Riccio (1500-1571). Shesuggested that they were made to celebrate the newtitle of Cosimo I de’ Medici (1518-1574) as Duke ofFlorence and Siena.

1On this basis they were dated

between 1561, a year after Cosimo’s official entratainto Siena, and 1569, when he became the Grand Dukeof Tuscany. Her proposals were based on the carvedpanels and figures on both cassoni, as well as a drawingwhich may be a preparatory design for them.

The walnut-constructed and partly gilt cassoni have a central panel on the front, depicting a shield heldby two cherubs. This panel is flanked by high reliefpanels on either side, carved with elaborate scenes of ancient Roman history. One cassone (7709-1861)shows Romulus studying the sky, ordering theconstruction of a new city and the founding of Rome.The second cassone (7708-1861) shows Romuluscommanding the Sabine women to be carried off(Figure 2). The figures on the front corners representprisoners and the end panels display mythicalanimals.

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textiles, still in original Stein paper parcels, were keptin their wrapping but given further support in newboxes or folders. Other original packing materialssuch as envelopes, fabric bags and paper wrappingsare housed in folders together with correspondingobjects. Alternatively, they were kept in a box, labelledand placed in Melinex sleeves for safe handling. A listwas completed, stating the exact location of everyobject in the store.

The storage of and access to the collection has beenimproved considerably. The clear unified labellingenables objects to be easily located. Unsuitablestorage and mounting materials have been replaced.The preventive nature of the new mounts andstorage methods supports the shape and conditionof the textiles and encourages careful handlingwithout the need to touch the fragile objects. Theseimprovements will hopefully result in further studyand research into this important and diversecollection of Asian textiles.

AcknowledgementsI would like to thank Chris Gingell, PreservationConservator, for his help and advice and Yueh-SiangChang, Assistant Curator, Asian Department, for herassistance.

References1. Godden Amos, A., ‘The Stein Loan of textiles in the

Victoria and Albert Museum’, V&A ConservationJournal, no 26 (January 1998), pp.8-10

Joshua, J., ‘The Restoring of Ancient Textiles’,Embroidery ( September 1933), pp.15-18

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Discoveries on a pair of CassoniThomas GeisslerFurniture Conservation Intern

Figure 1. Cassone 7708-1861

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Figure 2. Romulus commands the Sabine women to be carried off (7708-1861)

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All external surfaces have been obscured with a darkcoating, which contains varied layers of stain,pigmented and dyed varnishes, wax layers and dirt.Both visual and microscopic examination of thissurface coating showed oil gilding on gesso, someareas having a red mordant. The few traces of earliergilding on the lid and the gadroon moulding, possiblyoil gilding, were insufficient to indicate more aboutthe original condition. Underneath the presentgilding on the relief panels there was no evidence ofearlier gilding or its removal. The dark toning hadbeen deliberately added on top of the gilding, whichremains bright and intact underneath. Most of theobscuring dark coating is likely to have been appliedat one time, but some elements are varnished lightbrown whilst others appear dark brown or even black.

The conservation treatment included reattachingloose decorative elements and surface cleaning.Detached decorative elements were re-glued usingCanadian fishglue. After gently vacuuming thesurface to remove accumulated dust, it was cleanedwith water and non-ionic detergent. After discussionswith the curators it was decided not to lighten thedark appearance of the gilding or the walnut, as thiswould produce a patchy surface and reveal previousill matched restorations.

In conclusion, I would like to propose that bothcassoni have been restored and altered, possibly inthe first half of the nineteenth century: two newcarcases were constructed to carry the elements of apair of sixteenth century cassoni (Figure 3). Possiblyone long front board was cut into the three reliefpanels and was then applied as three pieces on thecarcase, with a newly constructed frieze aroundthem. The resulting joints on the top were concealedwith a strip of wood, while the joints on the front andsides between the panels and the frieze were coveredwith mouldings. The original figures are attached tothe front corners, while on the back corners scrollsare applied (probably as a substitute for lost figures).One scroll was constructed in oak during thistreatment in the nineteenth century, while threeother scrolls in walnut could have originated fromanother piece of furniture. At this time, there wasprobably only one apron surviving, which is nowcarried by cassone 7708-1861. The original detached

lid was planed from the inner side, in the samemanner as the newly constructed carcase. The gildedand dark-finished surface is part of this alteration inorder to conceal the different ages of the materialsand to tone down new gilding. It was also a commontreatment in the nineteenth century to finishsurfaces with dark coatings in order to produce apatinated appearance. Whether or not this pair ofcassoni, as originally built, was designed by BartolomeoNeroni for Cosimo I de’ Medici as Duke of Florenceand Siena remains unknown.

AcknowledgementI am grateful to my colleagues in the FurnitureConservation Studio and the Furniture, Textiles andFashion Department for their help and advice inwriting this article.

References1. von Henneberg, Josephine. Two Renaissance

Cassoni for Cosimo I de’ Medici in the Victoria andAlbert Museum, Mitteilungen des KunsthistorischenInstitutes in Florenz, 35, (1991), pp. 115-132.In 1988 von Henneberg discovered 150 unknownarchitectural drawings in the Vatican Library.

2. Similar altered cassoni are described in: Focarino,Joseph (ed), The Frick Collection: an illustratedcatalogue. V.5 Furniture: Italian & French (New York1992), pp. 45-55, and Faenson, Liubov, Italian cassonifrom the art collections of Soviet museums(Leningrad 1983), pl. 165-172

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The drawing, discovered by von Henneberg, depictspart of a cassone with similarities to both V&Acassoni.

1The similarities of the decoration are

remarkable: the curled scrolls in the heavy convexgadroon moulding, the division into three panelswith the shield in the central panel and therusticated quoins as well as the corner figures. Linksto Cosimo I are found in the carved reliefs. The panelsshowing Romulus as the founder of Rome could referto Cosimo I, founder of a state almost the size ofancient Etruria. Romulus is wearing a suit of armoursimilar to that worn by Cosimo I in a portrait byGiorgio Vasari (Palazzo Vecchio, Florence). One of themythical animals on the end panels is identified asCapricorn, a zodiac sign adopted by Cosimo I as hisimpresa after extending his territory over twelvetowns, including Siena in 1560. We find laterrepresentations show Capricorn with much enlargedwings, similar to that carved on the right-hand panelof cassone 7708-1861. The four prisoners, identified asancient Dacian captives, had often been representedin the sixteenth century as symbols of the ‘newbarbarians’ and could refer ‘to actions taken byCosimo’.

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Examination accompanying the conservation of thecassoni yielded some unexpected revelations:• both cassoni consist of a lap-joined carcase with

affixed carved elements attached by nails.2

Thisconstruction seems unusual in comparison withother cassoni in the V&A collection

• the framing around the high relief panels showsigns of alterations

• the relief panels and their surrounding friezes areattached to the carcase. The joints are concealedon the top edge with a clumsily designed strip ofwood

• astragal and leaf mouldings cover the jointsbetween the relief panels and the frieze on thefront and the lateral sides

• the leaf mouldings underneath the panels do notappear to have been tailor-made for this piece.The carved middle element is not centred andsmall pieces of moulding are added on either endto increase its length

• the frieze around the relief panels showsfractured wood and uneven steps, caused by aplane. This is in contrast to the otherwise wellexecuted work on the cassoni

• the bottom of the carved ornaments along the lidlooks cut away, which suggests a later planing ofits inner side

• the carcase and the inner side of the lid show thesame slightly oval working marks of a plane and itis likely that they were treated at the same time

• there are no signs of a former apron on cassone7709-1861, while an apron on 7708-1861 is nailedon the bottom supported by rectangular blocksfrom behind

• the cassoni are constructed in solid walnut(Juglans spp.) but, unusually, the longitudinalboards on the bottom are made of chestnut(Castanea sativa). Parts of the frieze, covered fromthe gadroon moulding are made of oak (Quercusspp.) as well as chestnut but the scroll on the left-hand side of cassone 7709-1861 is made ofoak (Figure 3).

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Figure 3. Sectional view of 7709-1861. Elements constructed inoak and chestnut are displayed in greyDrawing by Thomas Geissler

Recently the Victoria and Albert Museum lent nineCoptic textiles to the Yorkshire Museum, York for theexhibition Constantine The Great. The exhibitioncelebrated the life of the Christian convert andRoman Emperor who ended centuries of persecutionof Christians by establishing religious tolerancewithin the Empire. The Coptic Christian Church wasfounded in Egypt in AD 451 and is closely associatedwith Constantine’s reign. Among the loaned textileswere two tapestry fragments (Museum no 267-1889,161.5 x 49.5cm Figure 1), (268-1889, 37 x 37cm) fromAkhmim, Egypt. The two fragments, which onacquisition had been given one museum number,may be part of the same hanging. They are woven inlinen and wool and are of similar design and colourpalette. The designs consist of bands of vegetationand geometric patterns, birds are also representedand a water lily can be identified on the largerfragment.

The fragments had raw, fraying edges and manyholes causing general weakness. In some areas theborders were detaching. The fibres were desiccatedand brittle, there was discolouration from oxidationand ingrained soiling/dust, the colours however, hadremained strong. There was also adhesive residuevisible on the front surfaces. This had come throughfrom the reverse of the pieces which had bothapparently been adhered to cardboard with a whitepainted surface. Though most of the cardboard hadbeen removed, there was a great deal of adhesiveresidue on the reverse and patches of white paintand cardboard remained (Figure 2). The white paintwas analysed by Lucia Burgio, Senior Object AnalysisScientist, using EDXRF with a Rohntec ArtTAXspectrometer. The result showed titanium to be thepredominant element indicating that the whitepaint was probably made from titanium oxide, apigment commercially available from the 1920s.This suggests that the fragments had been adheredto the painted cardboard after their acquisition.A positive iodine test and negative Biuret testconfirmed the adhesive as a starch paste.

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It was proposed that the fragments be wet-cleanedto eliminate potential degradation products;including soiling and the cardboard residues, to relaxthe fibres, increase flexibility, realign the weave andto improve the colours. The dyes were tested in asolution of the non-ionic detergent Dehypon LS45®.All the colours were found to be stable in both waterand detergent solution. The paint and cardboardresidues were removed prior to wet-cleaning. As theresidues were embedded in the starch paste it wasnot possible to remove them with damp cotton woolswabs. A sample of starch paste was placed in adroplet of water to test how long it took to swell, asthis would make it easier to release the paint, but ittook more than a day. This technique was thereforediscounted, the risk of keeping a desiccatedarchaeological textile wet for this length of time was far too great.

The possibility of using an enzyme was investigated.Following research and discussion with Professor HalErickson, University of Texas, and colleagues at theV&A it was decided to test the Albertina Kompresse®.This ready-to-use poultice system contains α-amylaseenzymes from the Bacillus species in a methylcellulosegel

1. The system is not buffered, relying instead on the

natural acidity of the textile to provide the conditionsfor the enzyme to work. The gel is supplied in a dryform, embedded in a polypropylene fleece material.This is cut to size and the enzymes reactivated withwater by the user. As the textile was going to be wet-cleaned a slightly damper poultice than usual wasused in order to penetrate the thick layer of starch.Tests proved successful, the total time the damppoultice needed to be in place to swell the starch wasbetween 20-30 minutes. As the poultice swelled thestarch, both it and the paint could easily be removedusing a damp cotton wool swab (Figure 3). Theprocess, which was carried out under magnification,took a total of 40 hours to treat the reverse of bothfragments. The starch on the surface of the textilewas successfully removed releasing the majority ofthe paint residues, but starch embedded in the fibresremained. An enzyme bath could have been

employed to remove these residues. However, thequantity of enzyme required was very difficult tocalculate and the additive (Ca+) was consideredundesirable.

The fragments were wet-cleaned in a dilute solutionof Dehypon LS45; including rinsing, the total durationof the bath was 45 minutes. It was hoped that thelow levels of enzyme residue, left in the fragmentsfrom the poulticing treatment, would be releasedinto the detergent bath, and that they in turn wouldremove the remaining starch. The wet-cleaning didsucceed in extracting much of the remaining starch.It also reduced the soiling, relaxed the fibres, removedthe creasing and brightened the colours.

Enzyme Seminar DayThe above treatment raised the whole issue of theuse of enzymes in conservation treatments. ProfessorHal Erickson, who was visiting the UK in March 2006,very kindly offered to come to the V&A and give a oneday, intensive seminar on the subject. The following isa brief overview of the day.

Enzymes are proteins (polypeptides) which catalysereactions. Their monomers are amino acids joined bypeptide linkages (amide). The combination of aminoacids dictates the folding or shape of the enzymes.This pre-ordained functional shape is what givesthem their high degree of specificity and efficiency,often referred to as the ‘lock and key’ model.

The enzymes most commonly employed inconservation are the hydrolases which includeproteases, lipases or glucidases (α-amylase). Thesource can be animal (pancreatic extracts),vegetable (cereal), microbial, bacterial or fungal.The latter two are the least expensive but, forconservation purposes, those from the purer,microbial source are preferable.

Enzymes cannot function without being able tomove and, therefore, water or high humidity isessential for their activation. Enzymes also requirevery specific conditions to operate. These include ionbalance, pH, temperature and concentration. Purified

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The Treatment of Two Coptic TapestryFragmentsFlorence WhaapTextile Conservation Intern

Figure 1. Fragment 267-1889 after treatment

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Figure 2. Deposit of paint and cardboard adhered to the reverse with starch paste Figure 3. Removing swelled starch deposits with a damp swab

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The V&A’s major spring exhibition Surreal Things:Surrealism and design is the first to explore theinfluence of Surrealism on all aspects of designincluding theatre, interiors, fashion, film, architectureand advertising. Surreal Things features nearly 300objects – furniture, paintings, sculpture, architecture,jewellery, ceramics, photography, graphics, film,fashion and textiles drawn from the V&A’s collectionsand from public and private collections around theworld. The exhibition focuses on the work of Surrealistartists and designers active before 1939 and followstheir careers after the war.

The world of theatre and fashion is well represented:the exhibition begins with a selection of costumeand set designs for Ballet Russes productions in the1920s and early 1930s by the artists Giorgio de Chirico,Joan Miró and André Masson and ends with astunning ‘catwalk’ of couture costumes (Figure 1).The witty fashion designs of Elsa Schiaparelli arefeatured, including the famous ‘Tear’ dress on whichshe collaborated with Salvador Dali (Cover image).Also on display are a number of costumes by CharlesJames including his influential ‘pneumatic’ satinevening jacket.

Prior to the exhibition, all the V&A’s costume andtextile exhibits arrived in the Textile ConservationStudio for treatment and mounting. They includedseven ballet costumes, eleven couture costumes, sixaccessories and nine printed textiles. Several costumesrequired extensive conservation treatment and all ofthe costumes required mounting on mannequins fordisplay. Two fibre-glass mannequins were speciallycommissioned to mimic the poses of ballet dancersas captured by contemporary photographers. Themannequin for the character of Fate from the 1932ballet Les Presages leaps in the air and the mannequinfor the Spinning Top from Jeux d'enfants actuallyspins on ‘pointe’ rotated from below by a motor(Front cover image). The knitted wool leotard worn by Fate has pale bulging ‘eyes’ stitched to the hood,which have a distinct resemblance to ping-pong balls cut in two. Brenda Keneghan, Senior PolymerScientist, analysed the material using FourierTransform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). The results

revealed that the eyes are made from cellulosenitrate, the first semi-synthetic plastic material. Manymore semi-synthetics were to be found amongst theSurreal Things costumes, although they were not allas immediately obvious as Fate’s eyes.

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water, as used in textile conservation, can cause theenzymes to ‘unfold’, deactivating them. To counterthis, ions (Ca2+ or Mg2+) need to be added, unlessthey are already extant in the object.

Enzymes are more soluble and therefore efficient atlow concentrations. As it is usually almost impossibleto quantify the amount of material to be removed, itis advisable to begin a treatment with a low enzymeconcentration which can be increased if necessary.

Conservators are often concerned about enzymeresidues remaining on objects. The conservationliterature suggests that heat, 40ºC-50ºC, willdenature enzymes. This is a misconception in mostcases, as industrially manufactured enzymes areproduced with robust disulfide bonds to protectthem during storage and transportation. Otheroptions such as an extreme adjustment of pH, theuse of solvents and drying techniques are sometimesconsidered but these may well be harmful to theobject. A more realistic approach is to inhibit theenzyme used by an incremental alteration to the pH or by introducing an enzyme-specific proteininhibitor. It should also be noted that water-solubleenzymes will generally readily flush away duringwashing.

At present there are no recorded negative effectsfrom dry enzyme residues remaining on artefacts,other than the difficulty of reapplying starch pastein a treated area. In time enzymes will break downand oxidize, and there is a possibility this couldcause slight browning. The use of enzymes is notrisk free, the old adage ‘like dissolves like’ applies.Some enzymes act on peptide linkages. Esterlinkages, which are very similar, may also be affectedwhich may not be desirable. A small number of dyesmay also undergo change, for example the glycosidering of cochineal may be affected by α-amylase. Theenzyme that carries the least risk, is most availableand comes ‘ready-to-use’ is saliva. It is available in apurified, manufactured version but this tends to beexpensive.

Enzymes are very specific and require exactingparameters for optimum results. Professor Erickson’sfinal advice was to consider an enzyme treatment asa last resort. He also mentioned there has been somesuccess amongst his students at swelling glues usingpropylene glycol for celluloses and urea for proteins,or a combination of both.

AcknowledgementsI am grateful to Professor Hal Erickson for hisprecious web assistance in the choice of treatmentand for giving the seminar at the V&A, which wasextremely useful and very much appreciated. I wouldalso thank Lynda Hillyer, who entrusted me with theconservation of these fragments, and Elizabeth-AnneHaldane who shared her experience using theAlbertina Kompresse®. Thanks are also due to Dr LuciaBurgio, to the textile conservation team and toFrances Hartog for assistance with this article.

MaterialsDehypon LS45®http://conservationresources.comAlbertina Kompresse® http://klug-conservation.comReferences1. Erickson, H.M., ‘Usage Recommendations for

α-Amylases : Maximizing enzyme activity whileminimizing enzyme-artifact binding residues’The Book & Paper Group Annual 11, Washington DC,(AIC/BPG 1992) pp. 24-33.

Haldane, E-A., McClean, L., ‘Adapting Techniques:Cleaning A Covenanting Banner’ Dust, Sweat andTears: Recent Advances in Cleaning Techniques, Ed.Dawson, L., Berkouwer, M., (UKIC Textile Section 2003),pp.15-27.

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Surreal semi-syntheticsElizabeth-Anne HaldaneSenior Textile Conservator

Figure 1. S.860-1980 ‘The General’ from Le Baldesigned by Giorgio de Chirico, 1929

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The majority of the couture costumes in the exhibitiondate from the 1930s. By this time the production ofthese cellulose-based textile fibres was wellestablished and the quality had improved astechnology advanced. The regenerated cellulose fibreshave similar properties to cotton but chemicalmodification during processing produces a change inthe physical characteristics of the fibres. They are notas strong as cotton and have relatively poor wetstrength but they all have excellent draping qualities,are soft to the touch and are shiny like silk.Manufacturing methods were also developed toproduce a duller, less shiny fibre so that the productwould have a wider range of end uses. The filamentcould be cut into small pieces and spun together toproduce a ‘staple’ yarn, other methods includedincorporating de-lustering agents into the fibre orapplying ‘finishes’ to the fabric. The rayon fibres can be dyed with the same dyes that are used for cottonbecause they are all made from cellulose, but new dyeshad to be developed to dye cellulose acetate fibresbecause of the difference in their chemical structure.

Elsa Schiaparelli and Charles James both worked withtextile manufacturers to develop new fabrics for theircouture garments and often endorsed products aswell. Schiaparelli is said to have popularised the use of rayon, particularly through the use of interestingweaves that added texture to the fabric. She is alsowell known for her enthusiastic use of plastics to make jewellery, and as buttons and trimmings on her garments.

It is not always easy to tell if a fabric is man-made so the Surreal Things costumes that could possiblyinclude man-made fibres were analysed. Existingrecords for these costumes generally stated that theywere either made from silk or did not specify a fibretype. The aim of the testing was to provide accurateinformation for the curators and also to informconservation treatment. Samples were analysed with FTIR microscopy by Brenda Keneghan. A numberof objects were analysed by Emma Richardson(University of Southampton/V&A Collaborative PhDstudent) on portable, non-invasive Near InfraredSpectroscopy (NIR) equipment.

1The results are shown

in Table 1. A large proportion of the couture costumestested incorporate some form of man-made material.

It is interesting to see how many blended silk andrayon fabrics were found amongst the costumesincluding the ‘Tear’ dress (Cover image). In a blend,fibres are mixed together during the spinningprocess to produce a new yarn that benefits from theproperties of both fibres. This is different from thefabric in the ‘Column’ dress where the weft is onefibre, cuprammonium rayon and the warp is silk.The Charles James jacket is made from celluloseacetate. This fabric, referred to as ‘slipper satin’, issmooth with a soft sheen that emphasises the three-dimensional qualities of the jacket. An interestingform of rayon, supporting the satin columns in the‘Column’ dress, was found by Alice Cole, RCA/V&AConservation student, during treatment (Figure 2).The columns are lined with a loose mesh fabric, theimprint of which can just be seen on the dress fabric.This mesh was probably made to imitate and improveupon horsehair, which was often incorporated intofabrics to stiffen them. The rayon fibre in the meshlooks like nylon fishing line but pre-dates nylon, thefirst truly synthetic fibre, which was launched ontothe market in October 1938.

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Alexander Parkes is credited with the invention of thefirst cellulose nitrate based plastic, which he calledParkesine. At the 1862 Great International Exhibitionhe exhibited a variety of Parkesine objects as diverseas combs, billiard balls, buttons, imitation tortoiseshelland false teeth. The material was made by treatingcellulose with nitric and sulphuric acids to producecellulose nitrate; plasticisers were then added so thatthe material could be moulded. In the followingyears, Hyatt in the USA developed Celluloid fromcellulose nitrate plasticised with camphor and by the 1880s Celluloid was being used by the clothingindustry to make detachable, easy to clean collarsand cuffs.

Cellulose nitrate was also used to produce the firstartificial fibres; it was dissolved in alcohol and etherto produce a solution of collodion, which was thensquirted through a series of fine holes (in a ‘spinneret’)to produce long filaments that solidified in warm air.The filaments were then treated with ammoniumhydrogen sulfide to convert them back to cellulose.During the 1890s Count de Chardonnet became thefirst successful manufacturer of this new fibre andnamed it Chardonnet silk. Once this process forcreating artificial fibres was established, new methodswere discovered for dissolving cellulose that did notinvolve nitration. The ‘cuprammonium’ process, bywhich cellulose was solubilised using copper sulfate,ammonia and caustic soda, was developed in 1890but did not achieve commercial success until 1919when a very fine yarn was developed making itpossible for the fibre to compete with the viscoseprocess, which was more economical. The viscoseprocess was patented by Cross and Bevan in 1892.In this process cellulose was degraded with causticsoda then treated with carbon disulfide resulting in a viscose solution. The fibres were converted back tocellulose in a chemical bath. Cotton linters or purifiedpulp from trees is the most common source of thecellulose used in the production of regeneratedcellulose fibres. These new methods replaced theChardonnet process, slow and dangerous due to the explosive nature of cellulose nitrate.

Until the 1920s man-made fibres were commonlyreferred to as ‘artificial silks’. The name ‘rayon’ wasderived following a nationwide competition in theUSA in 1925. It was initially used to describe all man-made fibres but is now used when referring tocuprammonium rayon and viscose rayon. These fibresare similar to each other because they are bothconverted back into cellulose. The other fibredeveloped during this period, cellulose acetate, oftensold under the brand name ‘Celanese’, differs fromthe regenerated celluloses because it is not convertedback into cellulose after processing. It is classified asa derivative of cellulose with a different chemicalstructure and properties.

Cross and Bevan also worked on the development ofcellulose acetate in 1894. They developed a versionknown as triacetate, as three of the hydroxyl groupsin each unit of the cellulose molecule have beensubstituted with acetate groups. Cellulose triacetateproved to be difficult and expensive to produce as itwas only soluble in a few chemicals and these weretoxic. It was not until the 1950s, when a moresuitable solvent was found for triacetate, that thelatter became commercially important. In 1906scientists discovered that triacetate could bemodified into a substance which could be dissolvedin acetone, a readily available and less toxic solvent.This modified fibre is sometimes referred to asdiacetate but it actually has an average of two and a half acetate groups per unit. During the yearspreceding the First World War cellulose acetate wasdeveloped as a fibre and also as a lacquer. In 1916 theBritish government sponsored two Swiss brothers,Henri and Camille Dreyfus, to open a factory producingcellulose acetate lacquer to coat the fabric wings ofaircraft. At the end of the war they turned theirattention to producing fibres and were manufacturingCelanese by 1921. Cellulose acetate was alsodeveloped for use in a ‘plastic’ form like celluloid but was not in production until the late 1920s.

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Table 1. Results of Material AnalysisCellulose nitrate plastic• S.361&A-1985 ‘Fate’ ballet costume, ball shaped eyes on

hood, 1933• T.36-1964 Schiaparelli ‘Etruscan’ dress zip fastener,

1935/6Viscose rayon blended with silk• T.393-1974 Schiaparelli ‘Tear’ dress, 1938 • S.860-1980 ‘The General’ ballet costume appliquè trim,

1929Viscose rayon filament• T.335-1987 Schiaparelli ‘Column’ dress, 1938Cuprammonium rayon blended with silk• T.46-1965 Schiaparelli ‘Spine’ dress, 1945 (also a close

match for viscose rayon/silk blend)• T.46-1974 Madame Grès dress, 1971Cuprammonium rayon weft with silk warp• T.335-1987 Schiaparelli ‘Column’ dress, 1938Cellulose acetate fibre• T.385-1977 Charles James jacket, 1937Cellulose acetate plastic • T.393-1974 Schiaparelli ‘Tear’ dress zip fastener, 1938• T.394-1974 Schiaparelli ‘Skeleton’ dress zip fastener, 1938

Table 1. Results of material analysis.

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Elsa Schiaparelli was one of the first couturiers to use zip fasteners in her garments and both she andCharles James were paid by ‘zipper’ manufacturers touse and promote them. There are early versions ofthe zip but the design we know today was patentedin 1913. Early zips were made of metal teeth but whenthe patent ran out in the early 1930s several companiesbegan experimenting with producing plastic zips.Schiaparelli is known to have used differentcompanies’ zips depending on where her clotheswere to be sold. In London she used zips from theLightening Fastener Company of Great Britain, inParis she used zips made by Éclair and for export tothe USA, Hookless Fastener Company zips producedin the USA. Three of the Schiaparelli costumes haveplastic zips. Two Éclair zips are made from celluloseacetate, one zip, which has no maker’s mark, is madefrom cellulose nitrate (Figures 3-5). The costume withthe unmarked zip has a label for Schiaparelli’s Parisshowroom so it is possible that this is an earlier zipby Éclair. It predates the other marked zips by twoyears but the design is similar to the ‘Skeleton’ dresszip suggesting that the company was experimentingwith both materials and design. Alternatively it couldhave been made by another manufacturer. It isinteresting to note that the cellulose nitrate zip stillfunctions but the cellulose acetate zips are broken.

Surreal Things has provided an ideal opportunity toinvestigate exactly what these fabulous couturecreations are made from and expand our knowledgeof the V&A’s collections. It is also particularlyimportant to identify man-made fabrics prior toconservation treatment as they often cannot betreated in the same manner as natural materials. AsSusannah Handley dramatically states: ‘it was a riskybusiness making couture garments from theseuntried chemical fabrics, as Vogue’s editor DianaVreeland found when she sent her Schiaparelli gownto the dry cleaners: it reverted to an oily sludge whenit came into contact with the dry cleaning fluids andended up in a bucket’.

2Thankfully many other

Schiaparelli costumes survived.

References1. Richardson, E. ‘Towards on-site collections

management: NIR characterisation and conditionmonitoring of textiles’, V&A Conservation Journal,no 54 (Autumn 2006), p. 12

2. Handley, Susannah. Nylon, The Manmade FashionRevolution, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc (1999), p.27

Blum, Dilys, E., Schocking! The Art and Fashion ofElsa Schiaparelli, Philadelphia Museum of Art,(2003)

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Figure 2. T.335-1987 ‘Column’ dress by Elsa Schiaparelli, 1938

Figure 3. T.36-1964 'Etruscan' dress by Elsa Schiaparelli,1935/6, cellulose nitrate zip

Figure 4. T.394-1974 ‘Skeleton’ dress by ElsaSchiaparelli, 1938, cellulose acetate ‘Éclair’ zip

Figure 5. T.393-1974 ‘Tear’ dress by Elsa Schiaparelli,1938, cellulose acetate ‘Éclair’ zip

AcknowledgementsWith thanks to my colleagues in the TextileConservation Studio who have worked on SurrealThings: Surrealism and design and to Brenda Keneghanand Emma Richardson, Science Section, and V&Acurators, Ghislaine Wood, Alexander Klar, SonnetStanfill and Jenny Lister, and to Dilys Blum, PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art.

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The name given to the Indian metalwork, Bidri, isderived from the city of Bidar, where it has beenproduced since at least the seventeenth century.It is composed of an alloy of zinc (~95%) and copper(~5%) and is heavily inlaid or overlaid with silver andpossibly gold or brass to produce an intricate designbefore it is finally polished. The metalwork is unusualin that the Bidri alloy is patinated, forming a deepblack surface that contrasts with the various metalinlays (Figure 1). Although there have been a fewstudies of Bidri

1,2,3,there has, as yet, been no full

characterisation of the patina. The aim of thispreliminary study of two expendable pieces of Bidriwas to gather information about the patina usingadvanced surface analysis techniques. Literaturestudies provided evidence for the chemical processesundertaken to produce a matt black patina, which is unusual for a zinc based alloy. Patina thicknessmeasurements were undertaken to determine itsuniformity. The chemical composition of the patinaand the zinc/copper alloy was also analysed. Inaddition, it was of interest to locate an individualwho had workshop experience of Bidri.

metal which had been inlayed on the surface of theBidri box was silver. More unexpectedly, it was foundthat the Bidri box contained quantities of nickel andthe disc showed small traces of arsenic on the patina.

In order to manipulate the quantitative dataproduced by EDXRF spectrometry, zinc and copperalloy standards were examined using this techniqueto produce calibration curves. The curves show therelationship between the abundance of an element(percent) in a sample, and the number of times it wasdetected using the EDXRF. This allowed an estimationto be made about the percentage composition of zinc and copper in the Bidri samples – without anysample surface preparation. It was found that theBidri box was approximately 85% zinc and 4% copper,whilst the Bidri disc was in the magnitude of 90%zinc and 3% copper, which are near the expectedvalues. It would appear that the EDXRF underestimatesthe abundance of zinc in the samples but doesconfirm that zinc is the major component and coppera significant trace element. More work is required tomake the EDXRF more accurate.

A small disc was cut from the underside of the Bidribox to be viewed at high magnification using thescanning electron microscope (SEM). The generalstructure found was as expected for a metal alloy,however many linear features, about five microns inwidth, were observed on the surface of the patina(Figure 3). Operating the electron microscope enableda technique called X-ray mapping to be used. Thisapproach shows the elemental composition of asample in more detail, showing the regions whereeach element is present at high concentrations. Thistechnique confirmed again that the Bidri was a zincand copper alloy, containing traces of silicon, carbon,oxygen and chlorine, but the imaging also revealedcalcium traces (Figure 4) which were found in thelinear features in much higher abundance thanelsewhere on the patina suggesting a calcium richdeposit had been laid down during polishing orthrough scratching.

The techniques employed in the analysis of the Bidri were chosen to minimise any permanent effect.The most destructive technique employed, SIMS(Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry), was used toexamine the circular sample cut from the undersideof the Bidri box. A focused ion beam (FIB) SIMSinstrument (FEI-FIB200 SIMS) was used. This techniqueenabled the thickness of the patina to be found byusing ion beam milling to create several smalltrenches (Figure 5), not visible to the naked eye, onthe surface of the Bidri. The ion beam used, gallium,can be focused to a few tens of nanometres and itsscan pattern controlled to produce a wide variety ofgeometries. By ion-milling a ‘swimming pool’geometry a vertical cross-section is produced in thematerial, and this cross-section can be subsequentlyimaged using the same highly focused gallium ionbeam. Both secondary ion and secondary electronimages can be viewed. The great strength of thisanalytical approach is that the material processingand imaging are conducted in the same instrument;furthermore the position of the cross-section istotally under the control of the operator. In thisexample a patinated layer could be seen on top of themetal alloy with a reasonably uniform thickness ofabout 3 µm. SIMS also allowed a depth profile to bemade of the patina. Depth profiling was used to findthe elemental abundance at different depths.

The SIMS technique removes atoms from the surface,so by recording the elemental composition of thesample as a function of time, the variation ofelements with depth can be found. It took threescans before the depth profile detected any elements,suggesting there may be some type of polish or layerof wax protecting the top of the patina. The depthprofile also revealed that the proportions of zinc andcopper increased with depth, and elements likecalcium and sodium decreased with depth. Thisindicates that the calcium and sodium are surfacecontaminants.

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Investigation of the patina on Bidri usingadvanced surface analysis techniquesEmma Beardmore, Visiting Researcher, Imperial College

Graham Martin, Head of Science Section

David McPhail, Department of Materials, Imperial College

Richard Chater, Department of Materials, Imperial College

As an initial indication of whether Bidri could indeedbe a predominately zinc based alloy, the densities oftwo Bidri objects, acquired solely for the purpose ofresearch, were determined. This simple test is usefulas an initial screening procedure. Calculating theirdensities involved submerging the two objects inwater for a short period of time. One of the testitems, the Bidri disc, exhibited a white corrosionproduct on the surface as a result of this shortexposure to water. However, the surface of the Bidribox inlayed with a white metal exhibited no notabledifference in appearance although it had had thesame exposure time to water. This highlighted adifference between the compositions of the twoobjects and/or a difference in the surface treatment;for example perhaps a waxy polish had been appliedto the box, but not to the disc. The results of thedensity measurements found the Bidri box and discto have mean densities of 6.98g cm

-3and 6.77g cm

-3

respectively, which are comparable to zinc’s densityof 7.14g cm

-3, and sit within a 10% error margin.

Mapping the surface of the Bidri box using a Zygowhite-light optical interferometer enabled theroughness of the patina to be seen. As shown inFigure 2, the patina is somewhat uneven, which isexpected, considering that the Bidri is handmade.The difference in height between the white metalinlay and the matt black surface of the patina varied,however; the black patina tended to be about 2.5µmbelow the inlay. This technique also revealed small,neat, circular indents in the surface of the inlay. Itwas concluded that this could be where the metalhad been hammered into the engravings.

EDXRF (energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence) is anon-destructive, non-intrusive technique that can beused to find the elemental composition of a sample.A Röhntec ArtTax EDXRF was used with an air pathand a 30W molybdenum target X-ray tube. Thisprocedure was employed on the two Bidri objectsand the spectra produced revealed that they wereboth alloys of zinc and copper, and that the white

Figure 1. The Bidri box used for this experimental study

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Figure 2. Surface mapping as produced by a Zygo interferometer,showing the rough surface of the patina with a central elevatedinlay (red) which is relatively smooth and is about two to fourmicrons above the surrounding patina

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These initial experiments have been very useful butit is clear that the characterisation of Bidri is by nomeans complete. Several attempts were made atlocating interested individuals with workshopexperience of Bidri; however this yielded nosuccessful results. A number of experimental advanceshave been made gathering more information aboutthe patina of the Bidri as a material. However, there isstill a mystery surrounding the deep black colour of thepatina and the compound causing it. The projectdescribed here has demonstrated the potential of avariety of surface analysis techniques and furtherstudies are planned during the period 2006/7 tofurther unravel the mystery of Bidri patina.

AcknowledgmentsThe authors are grateful to Magnus Lekstrom andDavid Collins for their contributions to the analysesand to Susan Stronge and Susan La Niece for theirhelpful advice and for donating the samples of Bidriused in this study.

References1. Craddock, Paul. ‘Enigmas of Bidri’, Surface

Engineering, 2005, Vol. 21, pp. 5-6.

2. Stronge, S. Bidri Ware: Inlaid Metalwork from India,(London, 1985).

3. La Niece, S. and Martin, G. ‘The TechnicalExamination of Bidri Ware’, Studies inConservation, (1987), Vol. 32, pp. 97-101.

Joanne HackettTextile Conservator

I originally studied Sculpture and Art History at TheUniversity of Lincoln, graduating in 1989 with a BA(Hons), before emigrating to the United States in1990. I undertook three years of internships at theFine Arts Museums of San Francisco and ColonialWilliamsburg Foundation before entering theWinterthur/University of Delaware Program in ArtConservation. My training at Winterthur includedfurther internships in Detroit, Liverpool and Boston.I graduated with an MS in Art Conservation in 1998with a specialization in textile conservation.

After graduating I returned to the Fine Arts Museumsof San Francisco, working on the collections there andfor other institutions and private individuals inNorthern California. I was fortunate to conserve suchdiverse items as a cosmonaut’s space suit, paintedCivil War flags and Kurt Cobain’s T-shirts.

In 2004 I accepted the position of Associate TextileConservator at the Indianapolis Museum of Art justas the museum was completing a major galleryexpansion and renovation. The expansion includedthe creation of two dedicated textile galleries. I wasresponsible for the conservation and mounting oftheir inaugural exhibition of wedding dresses fromaround the world.

I am delighted to be back in my native country and to be working with my colleagues in the TextileConservation Studio, some of whom I have known fora long time. Initially I will be working on costumeitems for Surreal Things: Surrealism and design andthen on textiles for the Medieval and RenaissanceGalleries.

New Staff

Sarah Healey-DilkesSenior Sculpture Conservator

I graduated from City and Guilds of London ArtSchool in 1990 after which I worked for two years inthe Stone, Wall Paintings and Mosaics Section of theConservation Department at the British Museum.

Since then I have been working independently, on a self employed basis for 12 years. During which time my work has ranged from projects reinstating stuccoand decorative plasterwork schemes, to theconservation of Medieval and Victorian wallpaintings, and to large-scale mortar repair work on an archaeological site in south west Turkey.

I have also worked as a conservator for numerousloan exhibitions of both historic and contemporaryartworks, ranging from archaeological stone objectsto installations at Tate Modern.

More recently I have been involved with the settingup and running of a workshop and my freelance workhas been of a portable nature from both the privateand public sector.

I am happy to join the expanded team of conservatorsin the Sculpture Conservation Studio, to share in theresponsibility of preparing objects for the Dorothyand Michael Hintze Sculpture Galleries and Medievaland Renaissance Galleries, and also to be involvedwith the on-going conservation work for the loansand exhibition programme and maintain thepermanent collection.

Figure 3. A backscattered electron image, produced at a magnification of 200 Xshowing linear features and the general structure of the patina. Darker shadingis indicative of the lower atomic number elements that are present

Figure 4. A backscattered electron image, produced at a magnification of 200 X,showing the abundance of calcium (shaded white) in the linear features

Figure 5. A Secondary Ion (SIM) image of the ion beam milled trench, viewed ata 45° tilt, showing the patinated layer on top of the metal. The trench milledwas 15µm in length, 3µm in width and 5µm in depth

V&A

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New Intern

Roisin Morris Textile Conservator

My introduction to, and interest in, textileconservation began while studying for myundergraduate degree in Textile Design specialisingin embroidery, at The National College of Art andDesign, Dublin. In 1999 I began work with CliodnaDevitt, a private textile conservator in Dublin, beforetraining at The Textile Conservation Centre. Igraduated with an MA in Textile Conservation in2003. After graduation I undertook the HistoricScotland/Scottish Conservation Bureau Internshipbased at The Burrell Collection, Glasgow. During thisone year internship I also undertook two shortplacements elsewhere in Scotland with private andinstitution based conservators. In 2004 I joined TheBritish Museum on a short contract to undertakework on two archaeological textile collections fromJordan and Sudan. Following this I moved toDenmark for a nine month contract with LangelandMuseum Service, which services 16 small museums.This provided me with an interesting insight intoworking practices in Northern Europe. In December2005 I began work for The National Museums ofScotland on the recently acquired Jean Muircollection, and a range of other objects including a seventeenth-century covenanting banner.

I joined the Furniture, Frames and Textiles Section in October 2006, based in the Textile ConservationStudio. I shall be involved in all aspects of theconservation of textile objects in preparation forforthcoming gallery projects, exhibitions and loans.

New Staff RCA/V&A Conservation

Éowyn KerrSamuel H Kress Fellow in the Conservationof Paintings

I will be with the V&A until October 2007 workingwith Nicola Costaras. The Samuel H Kress Foundationfunds the development of the professional expertiseof American art historians, curators and conservatorsworking with European works of art. My Fellowshipposition is related to objects in the new Medieval andRenaissance Galleries, and is focused on theconservation of fifteenth-century Florentine cassoniand painted panels. In addition to assessment andtreatment I have the opportunity to carry out relatedanalytical and materials research on a number of thepaintings.

For the past three years I have been living in Italywhere I am involved with a university programmedesigning the course curriculum for introductorylevel conservation courses. I also work in Rome for adocent group giving in-situ lectures on conservationissues in the Vatican Museum and Villa Borghesecollections. Whenever possible I take on contractwork with a private paintings conservation studio tokeep my hands moving, and stay active in the newlyformed IIC Italy group. My formal training inconservation is through a MA programme at BuffaloState College in New York. I have worked for severalyears in private practice in my native city of Santa Fe,in Florence and Rome, as well as with the Renaissancecollections at the North Carolina Museum of Art.I was also an intern at the V&A in 1998/1999. Mypositive experience during that period was a keyfactor in my decision to return to the Museum!

Agnieszka DeptaHLF/ICON Preventive Conservation Intern

In 2001 I graduated from the University of Wales,Aberystwyth after studying fine art, art history andfilm & TV, focusing on photography in my practicalwork. I then moved to London and worked in printing,reprographics and administration before taking theCamberwell PG Diploma in the conservation of paper-based objects in 2004/2005. While studying, Ivolunteered at the Museum of Domestic Design andArchitecture and later at the Royal Institution. Aftergraduating I spent two months on a work experienceplacement at the V&A based in the Paper and BookConservation Studio, where I assisted with surveyingthe Renier Collection and also gaining invaluablepractical experience in paper conservation. I thenworked at Kew Gardens as a project conservator for a year before applying for this HLF/ICON internship.

During my six month internship I will be workingwith Valerie Blyth in the Science Section. I am hopingto acquire practical experience of preventiveconservation and also gain an understanding of awide variety of materials, either through shadowingmembers of staff or participating in suitable projects.Particular areas of interest are: pest management,monitoring and control of the environment, packingfor transport or storage, display and materialstesting. Thus far, I have been assisting within the area of insect pest management and have startedlearning about OCEAN (object centred environmentalanalysis network).

The V&A is a great place to work, with an abundanceof resources, and I am hoping to make the most of itin such a short space of time.

Chris EgertonIn-Post MA for Conservation Professionals –Conservation of Musical Instruments

I originate from Lancashire and my early working lifewas based in structural engineering. Later on I movedinto applied science occupations, namely plastics andadhesive technology, and metallurgy. Making andplaying guitars was my favourite hobby.

When I returned, in the early 1980s, from monasticlife in India I studied musical instrument technologyat the London College of Furniture, specialising in the lute family and early guitars. After graduating, Iestablished myself as an independent luthier, laterdiversifying into the restoration of antique furnitureand the design and construction of furniture, framesand other wooden artefacts.

For the last six years I have concentrated exclusively on restoration and conservation of musicalinstruments and, because more important pieceswere coming to my workshop, I felt the need todevelop my conservation skills and knowledge to thehighest standards. I was delighted to discover that Icould study part-time with the RCA/V&A whilst stilloperating my business.

Despite being occupied with my business and collegestudies I still have time for recreation and leisure andsome of my current interests include: playing avariety of musical instruments, horticulture, cycling,Zen calligraphy and complaining to my local Council.