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University of IowaIowa Research Online
Theses and Dissertations
1920
Johnson's theory of poetry as expressed in his Livesof the English poetsHazel M. RothState University of Iowa
This work has been identified with a Creative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0. Material in thepublic domain. No restrictions on use.
This thesis is available at Iowa Research Online: https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/4185
Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd
Recommended CitationRoth, Hazel M.. "Johnson's theory of poetry as expressed in his Lives of the English poets." MA (Master of Arts) thesis, StateUniversity of Iowa, 1920.https://doi.org/10.17077/etd.sghx24km
J o h n s o n 's T heory o f P o e t r y a s E x p r e s s e d i n h i s
" L iv e s o f t h e E n g l i s h P o e t s "
by
H a z e l M. R o th
A T h e s i s
S u b m it te d to t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e G ra d u a te C o l le g e o f
th e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Iowa i n p a r t i a l f u l
f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e
d e g re e o f M a s te r o f A r t s
Iowa C i ty
1920
CONTENTSPage
INTRODUCTION - Jo h n so n * s D e f i n i t i o n o f P o e t r y . . . . 1
BODY . . . . - J o h n s o n ’ s C r i t i c a l T heory o f P o e t r y . . 2
A. J o h n s o n 's O p in io n R e g a rd in g C o n te n t o f P o e t r y 2
I . As R e s p e c t s ^ r u t h ............................ . . . . . 2
1 . Types o f V e rse E x c lu d e d ....................... 8
a , F i c t i o n .............................................. 8b . M y t h ..................................................... 9c* P a s t o r a l ....................................11d . E n c o m ia s t i c V e r s e . . . . . 15e . O c c a s io n a l V e rse ..................... 18f . E p i t a p h .............................22g . B u r l e s q u e ................................ 24h . Poems W r i t t e n i n
I m i t a t i o n o f O t h e r s . . • 26i . C o n te m p la t iv e S a c re d
V e r s e ........................ ........................26
2 , Types o f V e rse A pproved . . . . 31
a . E p ic . ...................................... . 3 1b . D i d a c t i c P o e t r y . . . . . . 33c . C r i t i c i s m ........................................ 36d . S a t i r e 37 —e* C o n t r o v e r s y . . . . . . . . 39f . T r a n s l a t i o n ................................... 41g . N a r r a t i v e P o e t r y . . . . . .4 3h . D e s c r i p t i v e P o e t r y .....................44i . E l e g y .................................................... 45
Drams.................................................... 46
I I As R e s p e c t s P l e a s u r e .............................................52
1 . P l e a s u r e s o f t h e M i n d . .....................54
a . N o v e l ty ............................................... 55b . V a r i e t y ............................................... 58
Page
2* P l e a s u r e s o f th e H e a r t ..........................58
a . I n t h e Drama......................................59b* I n t h e L y r i c ................................. . 6 1
B. J o h n s o n s O p in io n R e g a rd in g Form o f P o e t r y . • 64
I . As R e s p e c t s S t y l e ...................................... 64
1 . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f S t y l e . . . . 65
a . C o n c is e . . . . . . . . . . 66b . D i f f u s e ............................................... 67c . L o f ty . .............................................71d* Humble . . . . . . . . . . .7 2
2* S o u rc e s o f S t y l i s t i c E f f e c t . • .7 3
a . D i c t i o n - P o e t i c ..........................73
(1) Hot to o F a m i l i a r . . .75(2) Hot to o Remote . . . .75
b . F i g u r e s o f S p e e c h ......................... 76
(1 ) S i m i l e ................................... 77(2 ) M e t a p h o r .............................. 78(3) A l l i t e r a t i o n .....................79(4) O nom atopoeia . . . . .8 0
I I . As R e s p e c t s P ro s o d y . ........................... 81
1 . M e te r ........................................... . . . . . 8 1
a . R e g u la r . .............................. 81o -
2 , Rhyme. . .................................................... 84
a . O r d e r l y . .............................................88b . C o n so n a n t .............................................88
c o n c l u s i o n _ summary..............................................90
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................... 92
JOHNSON 'S THEORY OF POETRY AS EXPRESSED
IN HIS "LIVES OF THE ENGLISH POETS"
I NTRODUCTION
JOHNSON'S DEFINITION OF POETRY
" P o e t r y i s t h e a r t o f u n i t i n g p l e a s u r e w i t h i f
t r u t h , by c a l l i n g i m a g i n a t i o n t o t h e h e l p o f r e a s o n . " 170
I n t h e a b o v e -q u o te d l i n e s , D r. Samuel Jo h n so n
b r i e f l y s t a t e s h i s t h e o r y o f p o e t r y . Good p o e t r y m ust
s e rv e a tw o f o ld p u r p o s e : i t m u s t convey t r u t h t o t h e
r e a d e r ; and i t m ust g iv e him p l e a s u r e . T h e r e fo r e i t s
c o n t e n t m ust b e tw o f o ld : a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e le m e n t , an d an
e m o t io n a l a p p e a l . I t i s J o h n s o n 's o p i n i o n t h a t t h e
r e g u l a r v e r s e form i s b e s t a d a p te d t o comply w i t h t h e s e
demands; f o r " t h e g r e a t p l e a s u r e o f v e r s e a r i s e s from I ,
t h e known m easu re o f t h e l i n e s an d u n i fo rm s t r u c t u r e o f 47
t h e s t a n z a s . " T h e r e f o r e , a c c o r d in g t o J o h n s o n 's
t h e o r y , t h e k e y n o te o f p o e t i c c o n t e n t i s t r u t h ; o f
p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e , i s r e g u l a r i t y .
* The e d i t i o n r e f e r r e d t o i n ' t h e s e a n d f o l l o w i n g p a g e s i s t h a t by George B i r k b e c k H i l l , C la re n d o n P r e s s , O xfo rd , 1905
BODY
JOHNSON'S CRITICAL THEORY OF POETRY
A. JOHNSON'S OPINION REGARDING
CONTENT OF POETRY
I
AS RESPECTS TRUTH
The k e y n o te o f t h e c o n te n t i s t r u t h . "The I I I ,
h e a r t n a t u r a l l y l o v e s t r u t h . " The s u b j e c t - m a t t e r 235
m ust be t r u t h ; - n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f a c t , b u t u n i v e r s a l
t r u t h . "On g r e a t o c c a s i o n s and on s m a l l t h e m ind I I ,
i s r e p e l l e d by u s e l e s s and a p p a r e n t f a l s e h o o d . " 284
"Where t r u t h i s s u f f i c i e n t t o f i l l t h e m in d , f i c t i o n I I I ,
i s w orse t h a n u s e l e s s ; t h e c o u n t e r f e i t d e b a s e s t h e 437-8
g e n u in e . " " S u b t i l t y and harmony u n i t e d a r e s t i l l I ,
f e e b l e , when oppo sed t o t r u t h . " 380
T h e r e f o r e , b e f o r e w r i t i n g upon any s u b j e c t ,
i t i s th e p o e t ' s f i r s t d u ty t o make a s e r i o u s s e a r c h
f o r t r u t h i n e a c h o f t h e f o l lo w in g t h r e e w ays: f i r s t ,
by a s tu d y o f t h e m o ra l law ; s e c o n d ly , by a s tu d y o f
hum an ity ; an d f i n a l l y , b y a s tu d y o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r
s u b j e c t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . "B ut t h e t r u t h i s t h a t I ,
t h e knowledge o f e x t e r n a l n a t u r e , a n d th e s c i e n c e s 99-
w h ich t h a t knowledge r e q u i r e s o r i n c l u d e s , a r e n o t
t h e g r e a t o r th e f r e q u e n t b u s i n e s s o f t h e human m ind .
3
W hether we p r o v id e f o r a c t i o n o r c o n v e r s a t i o n , w h e th e r
we w is h t o be u s e f u l o r p l e a s i n g , t h e f i r s t r e q u i s i t e
i s th e r e l i g i o u s and m o ra l know ledge o f r i g h t and wrong;
th e n e x t i s an a c q u a in t a n c e w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f m ank ind ,
and w i t h t h o s e e x am p les w h ic h may b e s a i d t o embody
t r u t h and p ro v e by e v e n t s t h e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s o f o p i n i o n s .
P ru d e n ce and J u s t i c e a r e v i r t u e s an d e x c e l l e n c e s o f a l l
t im e s and o f a l l p l a c e s ; we a r e p e r p e t u a l l y m o r a l i s t s ,
b u t we a r e g e o m e t r i c i a n s o n ly b y c h a n c e . . . . L e t me
n o t be c e n s u r e d f o r t h i s d i g r e s s i o n a s p e d a n t i c k or
p a r a d o x i c a l , f o r i f I have M i l t o n a g a i n s t me I have
S o c r a t e s on my s i d e . I t was h i s l a b o u r t o t u r n p h i lo s o p h y
from t h e s tu d y o f n a t u r e t o s p e c u l a t i o n s u pon l i f e , b u t
t h e i n n o v a t o r s whom I oppose a r e t u r n i n g o f f a t t e n t i o n
from l i f e t o n a t u r e . They seem t o t h i n k t h a t we a r e
p l a c e d h e r e t o w a tc h t h e g ro w th o f p l a n t s , o r th e m o t io n s
o f t h e s t a r s . S o c r a t e s was r a t h e r o f o p i n io n t h a t
w hat we h a d t o l e a r n w a s , how t o do good and a v o id e v i l . "
Thus Jo h n s o n d e c l a r e s t h a t , i n h i s q u e s t f o r
u n i v e r s a l t r u t h , t h e p o e t ' s f i r s t d u ty i s t o o b t a i n a
r e l i g i o u s a n d m o ra l know ledge o f r i g h t and w ro n g . He
p r a i s e s h i g h l y A d d i s o n 's w r i t i n g s , b o t h p r o s e and p o e t r y ;
f o r " a l l t h e e n ch a n tm e n t o f f a n c y and a l l t h e cogency o f
4
a rgum en t a r e em ployed t o recommend t o t h e r e a d e r h i s I I ,
r e a l i n t e r e s t , t h e c a r e o f p l e a s i n g t h e A u thor o f h i s 149
■be in g . T ru th i s shewn som etim es a s t h e phantom o f a
v i s i o n , som etim es a p p e a r s h a l f - v e i l e d i n a n a l l e g o r y ,
som etim es a t t r a c t s r e g a r d i n t h e r o b e s o f f a n c y , and
som etim es s t e p s f o r t h i n t h e c o n f id e n c e o f r e a s o n . She
w e a rs a th o u s a n d d r e s s e s , an d i n a l l i s p l e a s i n g . "
T h e r e f o r e t h e h i g h e s t p r a i s e i s due t o A d d iso n ,
b e c a u s e "he h a s d i s s i p a t e d th e p r e j u d i c e t h a t h a d lo n g I I ,
c o n n e c te d g a i e t y w i t h v i c e , and e a s i n e s s o f m anners 125
w i th l a x i t y o f p r i n c i p l e s . He h a s r e s t o r e d v i r t u e t o
i t s d i g n i t y and t a u g h t in n o c e n c e n o t t o be asham ed.
T h is i s an e l e v a t i o n o f l i t e r a r y c h a r a c t e r ’ above a l l
G reek , above a l l Homan f a m e . ’ "
Among th o s e who have s t r i v e n a f t e r t r u t h by
a t t e m p t i n g to g iv e a m o ra l know ledge o f r i g h t and w rong ,
Jo h n so n r e c o g n i z e s e s p e c i a l l y B lac k m o re , Savage , and
Jam es Thomson. "B lackm ore . . . was made a p o e t n o t I**—
by n e c e s s i t y b u t i n c l i n a t i o n , and w ro te n o t f o r a
l i v e l i h o o d t u t . . . f o r a n o b l e r p u r p o s e , t o engage
'p o e t r y i n t h e c a u se o f v i r t u e . ’ " S a v a g e 's poem,
"The W a n d e re r ," h a s one c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h ich "o u g h t t o I I ,
be th o u g h t e q u i v a l e n t t o many o t h e r e x c e l l e n c e s , t h a t 336
t h i s poem c a n p rom ote no o t h e r p u r p o s e s t h a n t h o s e o f
5
v i r t u e , a n d t h a t i t i s w r i t t e n w i t h a v e r y s t r o n g s e n se
o f t h e e f f i c a c y o f r e l i g i o n . " The h i g h e s t p r a i s e w h ich I I I ,
Jam es Thomson h a s r e c e i v e d , "o u g h t n o t t o he s u p p r e s t ; 301
i t i s s a i d by L o rd L y t t e l t o n i n t h e P ro lo g u e t o h i s p o s t
humous p l a y t h a t h i s w o rk s c o n ta i n e d
'No l i n e w h ich d y in g , he c o u ld w ish t o b l o t . 111f
B e s i d e s h a v in g a m o ra l knowledge o f r i g h t and
w rong , a p o e t m ust a l s o have a s y m p a th e t ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f h u m a n i ty . Jo h n so n a t t r i b u t e s much o f A d d i s o n 's
s u c c e s s t o h i s k e e n i n s i g h t i n t o human n a t u r e , f o r "he I I ,
r e a d w i t h c r i t i c a l e y e s t h e im p o r ta n t volume o f human 121
l i f e , and knew t h e h e a r t o f man from t h e d e p th s o f
s t r a t a g e m t o t h e s u r f a c e o f a f f e c t a t i o n . " S av ag e , t o o ,
was an o b s e r v a n t s t u d e n t o f l i f e , and h e n ce he was a b le
t o p o r t r a y i t t r u l y , a t l e a s t when he chose t o do s o .
"As he n e v e r s u f f e r e d any sc en e t o p a s s b e f o r e h i s e y e s I I ,
w i th o u t n o t i c e , he h a d t r e a s u r e d i n h i s m ind a l l t h e 358
d i f f e r e n t c o m b in a t io n s o f p a s s i o n s an d t h e in n u m e ra b le
m ix t u r e s o f v i c e and v i r t u e , w h ic h d i s t i n g u i s h one
c h a r a c t e r from a n o t h e r . " "The knowledge o f l i f e was I I ,
in d e e d h i s c h i e f a t t a i n m e n t . " 430
However, a p o e t m ust n o t f a i l t o s tu d y h i m s e l f ,
a s w e l l ; o th e r w i s e he w i l l n o t be a b l e t o convey t r u t h
6
w i t h o u t b i a s . A lth o u g h Jo h n so n som etim es c e n s u r e s
P o p e , y e t he g i v e s him c r e d i t f o r h i s e a r n e s t s e l f - I I I ,
c r i t i c i s m . "He i s s a i d t o have s e n t n o t h in g t o t h e 220
p r e s s t i l l i t h a d l a i n two y e a r s u n d e r h i s i n s p e c t i o n .
. . . He s u f f e r e d t h e tu m u l t o f i m a g i n a t i o n t o s u b s i d e ,
and th e n o v e l t i e s o f i n v e n t i o n t o grow f a m i l i a r . He
knew t h a t t h e m ind i s a lw ay s enam oured o f i t s own p r o
d u c t i o n s , and d i d n o t t r u s t h i s f i r s t f o n d n e s s . He
c o n s u l t e d h i s f r i e n d s ; . . . and , w ha t was o f more
im p o r ta n c e , he c o n s u l t e d h i m s e l f , a n d l e t n o t h in g p a s s
a g a i n s t h i s own ju d g e m e n t ."
A lth o u g h Jo h n s o n s a y s t h a t " t h e know ledge o f I ,
e x t e r n a l n a t u r e , and th e s c i e n c e s w h ic h t h a t know ledge 99
r e q u i r e s o r i n c l u d e s , a r e n o t th e g r e a t o r t h e f r e q u e n t
b u s i n e s s o f th e human m in d " ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , i f o c c a s i o n a l l y
t h e p o e t c h o o s e s t o w r i t e upon su c h a s u b j e c t , Jo h n so n
i n s i s t s t h a t he have a t h o r o u g h know ledge o f t h a t s u b j e c t -
m a t t e r . "Knowledge o f t h e s u b j e c t IS t o t h e p o e t w hat I ,
d u r a b le m a t e r i a l s a r e t o t h e a r c h i t e c t . " J o h n s o n 442
a d m i ts t h a t P r i o r e x c e l l e d B u t l e r i n v e r s i f i c a t i o n ; y e t
he c a l l s P r i o r an " i n v e n t o r e m in o r , " b e c a u s e "he h ad I I ,
n o t B u t l e r ' s e x u b e ra n c e o f m a t t e r and v a r i e t y o f 205
i l l u s t r a t i o n . The s p a n g l e s o f w i t w h ich he c o u ld
a f f o r d he knew how t o p o l i s h ; b u t he w a n te d t h e b u l l i o n
7
o f h i s m a s t e r . " He c r e d i t s S o ra e rv i le w i t h w r i t i n g i n
"The C h a se ," " # i t h g r e a t i n t e l l i g e n c e o f h i s s u b j e c t , I I ,
w h ich i s th e f i r s t r e q u i s i t e o f e x c e l l e n c e . " 319
He c r i t i c i s e s s e v e r e l y , h o w e v e r , any p o e t who
p resu m es t o w r i t e u p o n a s u b j e c t o f w h ich he i s n o t
m a s t e r . " I m a g i n a t i o n i s u s e l e s s w i t h o u t know ledge; I ,
n a t u r e g i v e s i n v a i n t h e power o f c o m b in a t io n , u n l e s s 212
s tu d y and o b s e r v a t i o n su p p ly m a t e r i a l s t o be co m b in e d ."
A l th o u g h he r e c o g n i z e s D r y d e n 's g e n iu s a s s u p e r i o r e v e n t o
P o p e ' s , y e t he f i n d s f a u l t w i t h D ryden f o r d e l i g h t i n g
" t o t r e a d upon t h e b r i n k o f m ea n in g , where l i g h t and d a rk - I ,
n e s s b e g i n t o m in g le ; t o a p p ro a c h t h e p r e c i p i c e o f a b - 460
s u r d i t y , and h o v e r ove r t h e a b y s s o f u n i d e a l v a c a n c y .
T h is i n c l i n a t i o n som etim es p ro d u c e d n o n s e n s e , . . . and
som etim es i t i s s u e d i n a b s u r d i t i e s , o f w h ich p e rh a p s he
was n o t c o n s c i o u s . " E ven P o p e , d e s p i t e h i s c a r e f u l p r e
p a r a t i o n , does n o t e n t i r e l y e s c a p e ; f o r when he s t u d i e d
m e ta p h y s i c a l m o r a l i t y , "he was p ro u d o f h i s a c q u i s i t i o n s , I I I ,
and s u p p o s in g h i m s e l f m a s te r o f g r e a t s e c r e t s , was i n 242-
h a s t e t o t e a c h w hat he h a d n o t l e a r n e d . " "The E ssa y 243
on Man was a w ork o f g r e a t l a b o u r and lo n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n , I I I ,
b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e h a p p i e s t o f P o p e ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s . 242
The s u b j e c t i s p e rh a p s n o t v e r y p r o p e r f o r p o e t r y , and
8
t h e p o e t was n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y m a s te r o f h i s s u b j e c t . "
Thus t h e p o e t , whose d u ty i t i s t o convey t r u t h
t o t h e m ind o f t h e r e a d e r , m ust be p r e p a r e d t o t e l l
t h i s same t r u t h : f i r s t , r e g a r d i n g t h e m o ra l law ; s e c o n d ly ,
r e g a r d i n g h u m an ity ; and f i n a l l y , r e g a r d i n g any p a r t i c u l a r
s u b j e c t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
a .F i c t i o n
1 . TYPES OF TERSE EXCLUDED
B ecau se o f t h e i r i n h e r e n t l a c k o f t r u t h , Jo h n so n c e r t a i n
e x c l u d e s * s u b j e c t s from t h e r e a lm o f p o e t r y * F i c t i o n ,
when i t s p o s s i b i l i t y i s no l o n g e r c r e d i b l e , i s n o t
t o be t r e a t e d i n p o e t r y . Jo h n so n c e n s u r e s G ray f o r
i n t r o d u c i n g i n c r e d i b l e f i c t i o n i n t o "The B a r d . " "The I I I ,
f i c t i o n o f H orace was t o t h e Romans c r e d i b l e ; b u t i t s 438
r e v i v a l d i s g u s t s u s w i t h a p p a r e n t and u n c o n q u e ra b le f a l s e
hood . . . . To s e l e c t a s i n g u l a r e v e n t , a n d s w e l l i t t o
a g i a n t ' s b u l k by f a b u l o u s a p p e n d a g e s o f s p e c t r e s a n d
p r e d i c t i o n s , h a s l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y , f o r he t h a t f o r s a k e s
t h e p ro b a b le may a lw a y s f i n d t h e m a r v e l l o u s . And i t h a s
l i t t l e u s e ; we a r e a f f e c t e d o n ly a s we b e l i e v e ; we a r e
im proved o n ly a s we f i n d so m e th in g t o be i m i t a t e d o r d e
c l i n e d . I do n o t s e e t h a t The B a rd p ro m o te s any t r u t h ,
m o ra l o r p o l i t i c a l . "
Jo h n so n a d m i t s , h o w e v er , t h a t f i c t i o n may be u s e d
9
a s a means o f e x p r e s s i n g u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s : " P o e t s , i n - I ,
d eed , p r o f e s s f i c t i o n , b u t t h e l e g i t i m a t e end o f f i c t i o n 271
i s t h e conveyance o f t r u t h ; an d he t h a t h a s f l a t t e r y
r e a d y f o r a l l whom t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f t h e w o r ld h a p p en
t o e x a l t m ust b e s c o r n e d a s a p r o s t i t u t e d m ind t h a t may
r e t a i n t h e g l i t t e r o f w i t , b u t h a s l o s t th e d i g n i t y o f
v i r t u e . "
b .Myth T h ere i s a n o th e r e x t e n s i v e f i e l d o f s u b j e c t -
m a t t e r w h ich Jo h n so n b a r s from t h e r e a lm s o f p o e t r y ; name
l y , m y th o lo g y . He s p a r e s no p o e t who i s g u i l t y o f t h e
c h o ic e o f such a s u b j e e t ; i t m a t t e r n o t w h e th e r i t i s
Gray whom he s u b j e c t s t o r a t h e r h a r s h c r i t i c i s m , o r Pope
whom he a d m ire s g r e a t l y . I n f a c t , he p r e f e r s D ry den 1 s
"Ode on S t . C e c i l i a ' s B ay ," t o P o p e ' s "O d e ," b e c a u s e t h e
c o n te n t o f th e fo rm er i s b a s e d upon h i s t o r y , v /h i le t h a t
o f t h e l a t t e r i s i n i t s n a t u r e m y t h o l o g i c a l . "D ryden*s I I I ,
p l a n i s b e t t e r c h o se n ; h i s t o r y w i l l a lw ay s t a k e s t r o n g e r 227
h o ld o f th e a t t e n t i o n t h a n f a b l e ; t h e p a s s i o n s e x c i t e d
by B fyden a r e t h e p l e a s u r e s and p a i n s o f r e a l l i f e , t h e
scen e o f Pope i s l a i d i n im a g in a ry e x i s t e n c e . Pope i s
r e a d w i t h calm a c q u i e s c e n c e , D ryden w i t h t u r b u l e n t de
l i g h t ; Pope h a n g s upon th e e a r , and D ryden f i n d s th e
p a s s e s o f t h e m in d ."
I n c r i t i c i s i n g P o p e ' s "O d e ," Jo h n s o n f u r t h e r
10
la m e n ts t h e c h o ic e o f a m y th o l o g i c a l s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , ev en
th o u g h p r e s e n t e d i n a p l e a s i n g form : "The n e x t s t a n z a s I I I ,
p l a c e and d e t a i n u s i n t h e d a rk an d d is m a l r e g i o n s o f 228
m y th o lo g y , w here n e i t h e r hope n o r f e a r , n e i t h e r jo y n o r
so rrow c a n be fo u n d : th e p o e t however f a i t h f u l l y a t t e n d s
u s ; we have a l l t h a t c a n be p e r fo rm e d by e l e g a n c e o f d i c
t i o n o r s w e e tn e s s o f v e r s i f i c a t i o n ; b u t w ha t c a n form
a v a i l w i t h o u t b e t t e r m a t t e r ? "
On a n o th e r o c c a s i o n , J o h n s o n d o es n o t f a i l t o
c e n s u re D r y d e n 's " I h r e n o d i a , " b e c a u s e t h e a u th o r was n o t I ,
s e r i o u s enough t o keep h e a t h e n f a b l e s o u t o f h i s r e l i g i o n . "439
I n a s i m i l a r m anner he c e n s u r e s ^ a l l e r , b e c a u s e "he I ,
b o r ro w s t o o many o f h i s s e n t i m e n t s and i l l u s t r a t i o n s 295
from t h e o ld m y th o lo g y , f o r w h ich i t i s v a i n t o p l e a d
th e example o f a n c i e n t p o e t s : t h e d e i t i e s w h ich t h e y i n t r o
duced so f r e q u e n t l y w ere c o n s i d e r e d a s r e a l i t i e s , so f a r
a s t o be r e c e i v e d by t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , w h a te v e r so b e r
r e a s o n m ig h t e v e n t h e n d e t e r m i n e . B ut o f t h e s e im ages
t im e h a s t a r n i s h e d t h e s p l e n d o r . " He a l s o c o n s i d e r s "The
Fan" by Gay a m in o r poem, b e c a u s e " i t i s one o f t h o s e I I ,
m y th o lo g ic a l f i c t i o n s w h ich a n t i q u i t y d e l i v e r s r e a d y t o 283
th e hand; b u t w h ic h , l i k e o t h e r t h i n g s t h a t l i e open
t o e v e ry o n e ' s u s e , a r e o f l i t t l e v a l u e . "
H ence, a c c o r d in g t o J o h n s o n , m y th o l o g i c a l poems
11
c a n n o t c la im more t h a n a p a s s i n g i n t e r e s t , e v e n th o u g h
th e y may be s u p p o r t e d by t h e p r a i s e o f men o f g e n i u s .
C r a n v i l l e ' s " H e ro ic k Love" i s a " m y th o lo g ic a l t r a g e d y , I I ,
upon th e lo v e o f Agamemnon and C h r y s e i s , and t h e r e - 290
f o r e sunk e a s i l y i n t o n e g l e c t , th o u g h p r a i s e d i n v e r s e
by L ry d en , and i n p r o s e by P o p e ." Jam es T hom son 's
"Agamemnon" a l s o h a d t h e f a t e w h ich "m ost commonly I I I ,
a t t e n d s m y th o l o g i c a l s t o r i e s , a n d was o n ly e n d u re d , 291
b u t n o t f a v o u r e d . "
Jo h n so n a c c u s e s T i c k e l l o f u n s k i l f u l l y com
p o u n d in g h i s " K e n s in g to n G a rd e n s” o f G r e c i a n d e i t i e s I I ,
and G o th ic f a i r i e s . " H e i t h e r s p e c i e s o f t h o s e e x - 311
p lo d e d b e i n g s c o u ld have done much; and when t h e y
a r e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t h e y o n ly make e a c h o t h e r con
t e m p t i b l e . " F i n a l l y he c r i t i c i s e s t h e t h i r d s t a n z a
o f G r a y 's poem "The B a r d , " b e c a u s e o f t h e " p u e r i l i t i e s I I I ,
o f o b s o l e t e m y th o lo g y . When we a r e t o l d t h a t C adw allo 439
'h u s h 'd th e s to rm y m ain ,* and t h a t Modred* made huge
P l in l im m o n bow h i s c l o u d - t o p 'd h e a d , ' a t t e n t i o n r e c o i l s
from th e r e p e t i t i o n o f a t a l e t h a t , even when i t was
f i r s t h e a r d , was h e a r d w i t h s c o r n . "
o •P a s t o r a l s B ecau se t h e r e a d e r r e c e i v e s a wrong i m p r e s s io n
o f t h e p a s t t h r o u g h m y th i c a l n a r r a t i v e s , Jo h n s o n does
12
n o t c o n s i d e r m y th o lo g y a s a p r o p e r s u b j e c t f o r p o e t r y .*
S i m i l a r l y , b e c a u s e i n p a s t o r a l s th e r e a d e r i s m is in fo rm e d
a b o u t r u r a l l i f e , Jo h n so n condemns t h i s form o f
p o e t r y . "T here i s so m e th in g i n th e p o e t i c a l A r c a d ia I I ,
so rem o te from known r e a l i t y and s p e c u l a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t y , 284
t h a t we c a n n e v e r s u p p o r t i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n th r o u g h
a lo n g w o rk . A P a s t o r a l o f a n h u n d re d l i n e s may be
e n d u re d ; b u t who w i l l h e a r o f sh e ep an d g o a t s a n d m y r t l e
t o w e r s and p u r l i n g r i v u l e t s , t h r o u g h f i v e a c t s ? Such
s c e n e s p l e a s e b a r b a r i a n s i n t h e dawn o f l i t e r a t u r e , and
c h i l d r e n i n t h e dawn o f l i f e ; b u t w i l l be f o r th e m ost
p a r t th ro w n away a s men grow w i s e , an d n a t i o n s grow
l e a r n e d . ”
S in ce p a s t o r a l s " p l e a s e b a r b a r i a n s i n t h e dawn
o f l i t e r a t u r e , and c h i l d r e n i n t h e dawn o f l i f e , "
Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s t h e w r i t i n g o f p a s t o r a l s a s a n i n i
t i a t o r y s t e p f o r young a u t h o r s . " I t seems n a t u r a l f o r I I I ,
a young p o e t t o i n i t i a t e h i m s e l f by P a s t o r a l s , w h ic h , 224
n o t p r o f e s s i n g t o i m i t a t e r e a l l i f e , r e q u i r e no e x
p e r i e n c e , and e x h i b i t i n g o n ly t h e s im p le o p e r a t i o n o f
u n m in g led p a s s i o n s , a d m it no s u b t l e r e a s o n i n g o r deep
e n q u i r y . " "At t h e r e v i v a l o f l e a r n i n g i n I t a l y i t I I I ,
was so o n d i s c o v e r e d t h a t a d i a l o g u e o f im a g in a ry 316
sw a in s m ig h t be composed w i t h l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y , b e -
13
ca u se th e c o n v e r s a t i o n o f s h e p h e rd s e x c lu d e s p r o fo u n d
or r e f i n e d s e n t im e n t ; a n d , f o r im ages and d e s c r i p t i o n s ,
S a t y r s and F a u n s , and N a ia d s and D ry ad s , were a lw a y s
w i t h i n c a l l , and woods and meadows, and h i l l s and
r i v e r s , s u p p l i e d v a r i e t y o f m a t t e r , w h ic h , h a v in g a
n a t u r a l power t o s o o th e th e m in d , d i d n o t q u i c k l y c lo y
i t . "
Jo h n so n s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i s e s M i l t o n ' s " L y c id a s "
b e c a u se o f l a c k o f t r u t h . " I n t h i s poem t h e r e i s no I ,
n a t u r e , f o r t h e r e i s no t r u t h ; t h e r e i s no a r t , f o r 163
t h e r e i s n o th in g new. I t s form i s t h a t o f a p a s t o r a l ,
e a s y , v u l g a r , and t h e r e f o r e d i s g u s t i n g ; w h a te v e r im ages
i t c a n su p p ly a r e l o n g ago e x h a u s te d ; and i t s i n h e r e n t
i m p r o b a b i l i t y a lw a y s f o r c e s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n on th e m in d ."
"N o th in g c a n l e s s d i s p l a y know ledge or l e s s e x e r c i s e I ,
i n v e n t i o n t h a n t o t e l l how a s h e p h e rd h a s l o s t h i s com- 164
p a n io n an d m u st now f e e d h i s f l o c k s a l o n e , w i t h o u t any
ju d g e o f h i s s k i l l i n p i p i n g . . . . He who t h u s g r i e v e s
w i l l e x c i t e no sym pathy; and he who t h u s p r a i s e s w i l l con
f e r no h o n o u r . "
S t i l l " L y c id a s " h a s s to o d t h e t e s t o f t im e ; a n d
Jo h n so n h i m s e l f d e c l a r e s t h a t " a b o u t t h i n g s on w hich t h e I I ,
p u b l i c t h i n k s so lo n g i t commonly a t t a i n s t o t h i n k r i g h t . "132
Y e t , s t r a n g e t o s a y , J o h n s o n do es n o t a t t r i b u t e t h e co n -
14
t i n n e d p o p u l a r i t y o f " L y c id a s " t o i t s own i n t r i n s i c
w o r th , b u t r a t h e r t o th e r e p u t a t i o n o f i t s a u t h o r . "Such I ,
i s t h e power o f r e p u t a t i o n j u s t l y a c q u i r e d t h a t i t s
b l a z e d r i v e s away t h e eye from n i c e e x a m in a t io n . S u r e ly
no man c o u ld have f a n c i e d t h a t he r e a d L y c id a s w i t h
p l e a s u r e h a d he n o t known i t s a i t h o r . "
Jo h n so n a l s o i m p a r t i a l l y c r i t i c i s e s s e v e r a l m inor
p o e t s f o r t h e i r f o l l y i n w r i t i n g p a s t o r a l s . Queen
Mary h a d e n c o u ra g e d C o n g r e v e 's d r a m a t i c e f f o r t s by a t t e n d
in g two o f h i s p l a y s . "When she d i e d soon a f t e r Congreve I I ,
t e s t i f i e d h i s g r a t i t u d e by a d e s p i c a b l e e f f u s i o n o f 2 1 7 -
e l e g i a c k p a s t o r a l ; a c o m p o s i t io n i n w h ich a l l i s u n n a t u r - 218
a l , and y e t n o t h in g i s new ." I n s p e a k in g o f F e n t o n ' s
" F l o r e l l o , " Jo h n so n c u r t l y s a y s t h a t " i t i s s u f f i c i e n t to S I ,
say t h a t i t i s a n o c c a s i o n a l p a s t o r a l , w h ich i m p l i e s 263
som e th in g n e i t h e r n a t u r a l n o r a r t i f i c i a l , n e i t h e r com iek
n o r s e r i o u s . " I n com m enting up on S h e n s t o n e 's " P a s t o r a l
B a l l a d , " he c a n d i d l y a d m i t s : " I c a n n o t b u t r e g r e t t h a t I I I ,
i t i s p a s t o r a l ; a n i n t e l l i g e n t r e a d e r a c q u a i n t e d w i t h 356
th e s c e n e s o f r e a l l i f e s i c k e n s a t t h e m e n t io n o f th e
c r o o k , t h e n i n e , t h e s h e e p , and t h e k i d s . " H is c r i t i
c ism o f L y t t e l t o n ' s p a s t o r a l i s d e c i d e d l y to t h e p o i n t :
"Of h i s P r o g r e s s o f Love i t i s s u f f i c i e n t b lam e t o say I I I ,
t h a t i t i s p a s t o r a l . " 456
T here i s one s e t o f p a s t o r a l s , how ev er , w h ic h
15
Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s t r u e t o l i f e ; and t h a t i s "The S h e p h e r d 's
W eek," w r i t t e n by Gay p re s u m a b ly a t t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f
P o p e . The l a t t e r was a n x io u s t o e x c e l Ambrose P h i l i p s ,
whom S t e e l e h a d p r a i s e d a s th e p a s t o r a l w r i t e r t h a t y i e l d
ed o n ly t o T h e o c r i t u s , V i r g i l , and S p e n c e r . T h e r e f o r e ,
P ope , b e s i d e s d raw ing up a c o m p a r is o n o f h i s own p a s t o r a l s
w i th t h o s e o f P h i l i p s , i s su p p o se d to have i n c i t e d Gay
t o w r i t e t h e " S h e p h e r d ' s Week" t o shew, t h a t i f i t be
n e c e s s a r y t o copy n a t u r e w i t h m in u t e n e s s , " r u r a l l i f e m ust I I ,
be e x h i b i t e d such a s g r o s s n e s s and ig n o r a n c e have made i t . 269
. . . B u t t h e e f f e c t o f r e a l i t y an d t r u t h became c o n s p ic u o u s ,
ev en when t h e i n t e n t i o n was t o shew them g r o v e l i n g and
d e g ra d e d . These P a s t o r a l s became p o p u l a r , a n d w ere r e a d
w i t h d e l i g h t , a s j u s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f r u r a l m an ne rs
an d o c c u p a t i o n s , by t h o s e who h a d no i n t e r e s t i n th e r i v a l r y
o f t h e p o e t s , n o r knowledge o f t h e c r i t i c a l d i s p u t e . "
d.E n c o m ia s t ic
VerseThere i s a n o th e r g ro u p o f v e r s e w h ich J o h n s o n ex
c lu d e s from good p o e t r y , b e c a u s e i t d o es n o t s t a n d th e
s e a r c h i n g t e s t o f t r u t h ; and t h a t i s e n c o m ia s t i c v e r s e .
" P r a i s e m u s t n o t be to o r i g o r o u s l y e x a m in e d ," f o r " p o e t s I I ,8 5 ’
a r e som etim es i n to o much h a s t e t o p r a i s e . " I I ,289
R ic h a r d Savage i s an exam ple o f a p o e t , h a s t y
16
and im p e tu o u s i n l a v i s h i n g p r a i s e upon h i s f r i e n d s and
b e n e f a c t o r s , and so o n j u s t a s e a g e r i n a t t e m p t i n g t o
r e t r a c t h i s f o o l i s h f l a t t e r y , "The P r e f a c e of S i r I I ,
Thomas O verbu ry c o n t a i n s a v e ry l i b e r a l encomium on 341
th e b lo o m in g e x c e l l e n c e s o f M r, T h e q p h i lu s C ib b e r , w hich
Mr. Savage c o u ld n o t , i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f h i s l i f e ,
see h i s f r i e n d s a b o u t t o r e a d w i th o u t s n a t c h i n g th e p l a y
o u t o f t h e i r h a n d s , " "The W anderer" was d e d i c a t e d t o
L o rd T y rc o n n e l i n t e r m s o f h i g h e s t p r a i s e w i t h w arm est
p r o f e s s i o n s o f g r a t i t u d e . "T hese p r a i s e s i n a s h o r t t i m e I I ,
hej^Savagej fo u n d h i m s e l f i n c l i n e d t o r e t r a c t , b e in g d i s - 368
c a rd e d by t h e man on whom he h a d b e s to w e d them , and
whom he t h e n im m e d ia te ly d i s c o v e r e d n o t t o have d e s e r v e d
th em ." I n h i s " M i s c e l l a n y , " ’" t h e d e d i c a t i o n i s a d d r e s s e d I I
t o t h e Lady Mary W o rt le y M ontague, whom he f l a t t e r s w i t h - 343
o u t r e s e r v e , a n d , t o c o n f e s s t h e t r u t h , w i t h v e r y l i t t l e
a r t . The same o b s e r v a t i o n may be e x te n d e d t o a l l h i s
D e d i c a t i o n s ; h i s c o m p lim en ts a r e c o n s t r a i n e d an d v i o l e n t ,
heap e d t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t t h e g r a c e o f o r d e r , o r t h e d ecen cy
o f i n t r o d u c t i o n . "
Jo h n so n c r i t i c i s e s B ryden s e v e r e l y f o r h i s e x t r a v a
gance i n p r a i s e and f l a t t e r y , w h ich i n t im e became c h e a p ,
b e c a u se i t was l a v i s h e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y . "The S t a t e o f
In n o c e n c e and F a l l o f Man" i s a d d r e s s e d to th e p r i n c e s s o f
17
Modena" i n a s t r a i n o f f l a t t e r y w h ich d i s g r a c e s g e n i u s , I ,
and w h ich i t was w o n d e r fu l t h a t agy man t h a t knew t h e 359
m ean ing o f h i s own w ords c o u ld u s e w i th o u t s e l f - d e t e s t a
t i o n . " "A lm ost e v e r y p i e c e h a d a d e d i c a t i o n , w r i t t e n
w i t h such e le g a n c e and l u x u r i a n c e o f p r a i s e a s n e i t h e r I ,
h a u g h t i n e s s n o r a v a r i c e c o u ld be im a g in ed a b l e to r e s i s t . 366
B u t he seems t o have made f l a t t e r y to o cheap : T hat
p r a i s e i s w o r th n o t h i n g o f w h ic h th e p r i c e i s know n."
Jo h n so n condemns e v e n P r i o r f o r w r i t i n g i n t h e
e n c o m ia s t i c s t r a i n ; f o r th o u g h he no d o u b t m ean t t o be
t r u t h f u l , y e t h i s a d m i r a t i o n n e c e s s a r i l y l e d him a s t r a y *
" T h is y e a r (1700) p ro d u c e d one o f h i s l o n g e s t and m o s t I I ,
s p l e n d i d c o m p o s i t i o n s , t h e Carmen S e c u l a r e . . i n w h ich he 184
e x h a u s t s a l l h i s p ow ers o f c e l e b r a t i o n . I mean n o t t o
a c c u s e him o f f l a t t e r y ; he p r o b a b ly t h o u g h t a l l t h a t
he w r i t , and r e t a i n e d a s much v e r a c i t y a s c a n be p r o p e r l y
e x a c te d from a p o e t p r o f e s s e d l y e n c o m i a s t i c k . K ing
W il l ia m s u p p l i e d c o p iu u s m a t e r i a l s f o r e i t h e r v e r s e or
p r o s e . . . . To P r i o r g r a t i t u d e w ou ld d i c t a t e p r a i s e ; w h ich
r e a s o n w ould n o t r e f u s e . "
The a u th o r o f f i c t i o n or m y th o lo g y a lw a y s r e a l i z e s
t h a t he i s m i s r e p r e s e n t i n g th e c o n d i t i o n s and f a c t s o f
fo rm er d a y s . The w r i t e r o f p a s t o r a l s p u r p o s e l y p i c t u r e s
r u r a l l i f e i n f l a t t e r i n g c o l o r s , t h u s c r e a t i n g a n A rc a d ia
18
w hich does n o t e x i s t . B u t t h e g r e a t d a n g e r i n w r i t i n g
e n c o m ia s t i c v e r s e l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t ev en th e m ost
e a r n e s t a u th o r i s b e t r a y e d i n t o e x p r e s s i n g i n g lo w in g
t e r m s , s e n t im e n t s w h ich c a n n o t e n d u r e . "To c h a rg e a l l I I ,
u n m e r i t e d p r a i s e w i t h t h e g u i l t o f f l a t t e r ^ and t o 47
suppose t h a t t h e e n c o m ia s t a lw ay s knows and f e e l s t h e
f a l s e h o o d o f h i s a s s e r t i o n s i s s u r e l y t o d i s c o v e r g r e a t
i g n o ra n c e o f human n a t u r e and human l i f e . I n d e te r m in a
t i o n s d e p en d in g n o t on r u l e s , b u t on e x p e r i e n c e an d com
p a r i s o n , judgem en t i s a lw a y s i n some d e g re e s u b j e c t t o
a f f e c t i o n . V ery n e a r t o a d m i r a t i o n i s t h e w is h t o a d
m i r e . . . . We ad m ire i n a f r i e n d t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t
s e l e c t e d u s f o r c o n f id e n c e ; we a d m ire more i n a p a t r o n
t h a t judgem en t w h ic h , i n s t e a d o f s c a t t e r i n g b o u n ty i n
d i s c r i m i n a t e l y , d i r e c t e d i t t o u s ; a n d , i f t h e p a t r o n be
a n a u t h o r , t h o s e p e r fo r m a n c e s w h ic h g r a t i t u d e f o r b i d s
u s t o b la m e , a f f e c t i o n w i l l e a s i l y d i s p o s e u s t o e x a l t .
To t h e s e p r e j u d i c e s , h a r d l y c u l p a b l e , i n t e r e s t a d d s a
power a lw a y s o p e r a t i n g , th o u g h n o t a lw a y s , b e c a u s e n o t
w i l l i n g l y , p e r c e i v e d . The m o d es ty o f p r a i s e w e a rs g r a d
u a l l y away; and p e r h a p s t h e p r i d e o f p a t r o n a g e may be i n
t im e so i n c r e a s e d t h a t m odes t p r a i s e w i l l ho l o n g e r p l e a s e . "
e .O ccas ion
a lV erse
Very c l o s e l y a l l i e d t o e n c o m ia s t i c v e r s e i s o c c a s i o n a l
19
p o e t r y , w r i t t e n i n c e l e b r a t i o n o f a b i r t h , o r m a r r i a g e ,
i n comm emoration o f a d e a t h , i n c o n g r a t u l a t i o n upon a
v i c t o r y , o r i n r e j o i c i n g upon a c o r o n a t i o n . These a n d
s i m i l a r e v e n t s s u p p ly f a c t s f o r t h e p o e t ; b u t t h e a u th o r
o f o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e t r e a t s them , n o t a s u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s ,
b u t m e re ly a s i n c i d e n t s o f l o c a l and te m p o ra ry i n t e r e s t .
He i s h a n d ic a p p e d i n s e v e r a l w a y s . He h a s no c h o ic e o f
s u b j e c t - m a t t e r ; t h e o c c a s io n p r e s e n t s t o him a s u b j e c t ,
w h ich he m u s t t r e a t i n a f a v o r a b l e way, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f
w h e th e r he r e j o i c e s and a p p r o v e s , o r n o t . I t i s n o t a
q u e s t i o n o f p r e s e n t i n g t h e t r u t h , t h e w hole t r u t h , and
n o th in g b u t t h e t r u t h ; b u t r a t h e r a q u e s t i o n o f p r e s e n t
i n g a n o f t - o c c u r r i n g i n c i d e n t i n a new and s t r i k i n g way.
"The o c c a s i o n a l p o e t i s c i r c u m s c r i b e d by t h e n a r ro w n e s s I ,
o f h i s s u b j e c t ; w h a te v e r c a n h a p p e n t o man h a s h a p p e n e d 424^.
so o f t e n t h a t l i t t l e r e m a in s f o r f a n c y or i n v e n t i o n . We 425
have a l l b e e n b o r n ; we h ave m ost o f u s b e e n m a r r i e d ; and
so many have d i e d b e f o r e u s t h a t ou r d e a t h s c a n s u p p ly
b u t few m a t e r i a l s f o r a p o e t . . . . E ven war and c o n q u e s t ,
however s p l e n d i d , s u g g e s t no new im ag es ; th e t r i u m p h a l%
c h a r i o t o f a v i c t o r i o u s m onarch c a n be d ecked o n ly w i t h
t h o s e o rn am e n ts t h a t have g r a c e d h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s . "
"Not o n ly m a t t e r b u t t im e i s w a n t in g . The poem I ,
m ust n o t be d e la y e d t i l l t h e o c c a s io n i s f o r g o t t e n . . . . 425
20
The c o m p o s i t io n m ust b e d i s p a t c h e d w h i l e c o n v e r s a t i o n i s
y e t b u s y and a d m i r a t i o n f r e s h ; and h a s t e i s t o be made
l e s t some o t h e r e v e n t s h o u ld l a y h o ld u p o n m a n k in d ."
B ecau se o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e i n t e r e s t s o n ly c e r t a i n
p e o p le a t c e r t a i n t i m e s , i t c a n n e v e r hope t o be a d d e d
t o th e w o r l d 1s t r e a s u r y o f p o e t r y . I t t h e r e f o r e s in k s
i n t o o b l i v i o n when t h e e v e n t w h ich h a s o c c a s io n e d i t , h a s
b e e n f o r g o t t e n . P r i o r ' s o c c a s i o n a l poems " n e c e s s a r i l y I I ,
l o s t p a r t o f t h e i r v a l u e , a s t h e i r o c c a s i o n s , b e i n g l e s s 203
rem em bered , r a i s e d l e s s e m o t io n ."
Jo h n so n c i t e s S a v a g e 's y e a r l y p a n e g y r i c t o th e
q ueen a s an exam ple o f o c c a s i o n a l p o e t r y whose w o r t h l e s s
n e s s was r e c o g n i z e d l a t e r on e v e n by t h e a u th o r h i m s e l f .
"O f some o f them he h a d h i m s e l f so low an o p i n io n t h a t he I I ,
i n t e n d e d t o om it them i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f poem s, f o r 384
w hich he p r i n t e d p r o p o s a l s an d s o l i c i t e d s u b s c r i p t i o n s . "
P o l i t i c a l e v e n t s a l s o s e r v e a s o c c a s io n s f o r
l i t e r a r y c o n t e s t . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d th e e n t i r e
t r u t h i n poems o c c a s io n e d by su c h e v e n t s , f o r two f a c t o r s
s e rv e t o b i a s t h e a u t h o r ' s m ind: p a r t y p r e j u d i c e , and
p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t . Jo h n so n s e v e r e l y b la m e s M i l t o n f o r
h i s a t t i t u d e d u r in g t h e P u r i t a n r e v o l u t i o n ; f o r a man
a s k e e n a s M i l t o n s h o u ld have s e e n t h e i n j u s t i c e o f Cromwell's
c la im s ; b u t " M i l to n , h a v in g now t a s t e d t h e honey o f p u b l i c k
21
em ploym ent, w ou ld n o t r e t u r n t o h u n g e r and p h i l o s o p h y . " 1 -116
I t i s n o t s t r a n g e , t h e r e f o r e , i f many men o f l e s s m o ra l
co u ra g e t h a n M i l t o n , t r y t o a t t r a c t p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n and
t o w in p o l i t i c a l f a v o r .
W ith a change o f g o v e rn m e n t, comes a change o f
s u b j e c t - m a t t e r f o r o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e . "When t h e k in g was I ,
r e s t o r e d D ryden , l i k e t h e o t h e r p a n e g y r i s t s o f u s u r p a t i o n , 334
changed h i s o p i n io n , o r h i s p r o f e s s i o n , an d p u b l i s h e d
A u t r e a R edux. a poem on t h e happy r e s t o r a t i o n and r e t u r n
o f h i s m ost s a c r e d M a je s ty King C h a r l e s t h e S e c o n d ."
Jo h n so n s c o r n s a u t h o r s who a r e s e r v i l e enough to
t r y t h u s t o i n g r a t i a t e th e m s e lv e s w i t h p o t e n t a t e s , i n s t e a d
o f b e in g g u id e d by th e maxims o f t r u t h . " I t i s n o t
p o s s i b l e t o r e a d , w i t h o u t some c on tem p t and i n d i g n a t i o n , I ,
poems o f t h e same a u t h o r , a s c r i b i n g t h e h i g h e s t d e g re e 270-
o f 'pow er and p i e t y ' t o C h a r le s th e F i r s t , t h e n t r a n s f e r - 271
r i n g th e same 'p o w er an d p i e t y ' t o O l i v e r Crom well; now
i n v i t i n g O l iv e r t o t a k e t h e Crown, and t h e n c o n g r a t u l a t i n g
C h a r le s th e Second on h i s r e c o v e r e d r i g h t . N e i th e r
Cromwell n o r C h a r l e s c o u ld v a lu e h i s t e s t i m o n y a s t h e
e f f e c t o f c o n v i c t i o n , o r r e c e i v e h i s p r a i s e s a s e f f u s i o n s*
o f r e v e r e n c e ; t h e y c o u ld c o n s i d e r them b u t a s t h e l a b o u r
o f i n v e n t i o n and t h e t r i b u t e o f d e p e n d e n c e ."
Jo h n so n p a y s h i g h t r i b u t e to P ope , f o r r e f u s i n g t o
2 2
s to o p t o th e w r i t i n g o f o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e . "H is e f f u - I I I ,
s i o n s w ere a lw a y s v o l u n t a r y , a n d h i s s u b j e c t s c h o se n 219
by h i m s e l f . H is in d e p e n d e n c e s e c u r e d him from d ru d g in g
a t a t a s k , and l a b o u r i n g upon a b a r r e n t o p i c k : he n e v e r
e x changed p r a i s e f o r money, n o r o pen ed a shop o f
co n d o le n ce or c o n g r a t u l a t i o n . H is poem s, t h e r e f o r e ,
were p o a rc e e v e r y t e m p o r a r y . He s u f f e r e d c o r o n a t i o n s
an d r o y a l m a r r i a g e s t o p a s s w i t h o u t a so n g , and d e r i v e d
no o p p o r t u n i t i e s from r e c e n t e v e n t s , n o r any p o p u l a r i t y
from t h e a c c i d e n t a l d i s p o s i t i o n o f h i s r e a d e r s . "
f .E p i t a p h A lm ost a k i n t o t h e com posing o f e n c o m i a s t i c and
o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e s , i s t h e w r i t i n g o f e p i t a p h s . Jo h n so n
s a y s i t i s u s e l e s s t o d e f i n e a n e p i t a p h ; f o r " e v e r y one I I I ,
knows t h a t i t i s an i n s c r i p t i o n o f a tom b. . . . I t i s 254
in d e e d commonly p a n e g y r i c a l , b e c a u s e we a r e se ldom d i s
t i n g u i s h e d w i t h a s to n e b u t by our f r i e n d s . " The f i r s t
r e q u i s i t e t h a t Jo h n so n i n s i s t s u p o n , i s t h a t an e p i t a p h
sh o u ld c o n t a i n t h e name o f t h e d e c e a s e d . He c r i t i c i s e s
P o p e ' s e p i t a p h s on S i r W il l ia m Trum bal and on M rs . C o rb e t ,
b e c a u s e i n e a c h c a s e t h e name i s o m i t t e d . "The end o f I I I ,
a n e p i t a p h i s t o convey some a c c o u n t o f t h e dead; a n d 257
t o w hat p u rp o s e i s a n y th in g t o l d o f him whose name i s
c o n c e a le d ? " He p r a i s e s th e f o l l o w i n g l i n e from P o p e 's
e p i t a p h on t h e Hon. Simon H a r c o u r t , b e c a u s e o f t h e " a r t -
23
f i l l i n t r o d u c t i o n o f th e name, w h ic h i s i n s e r t e d w i t h a I I I ,
p e c u l i a r f e l i c i t y . " 259
" I f Pope m ust t e l l w h a t H a r c o u r t c a n n o t s p e a k ."
B e s i d e s i n s i s t i n g t h a t th e name o f t h e d e c e a s e d
m ust h e c o n ta i n e d i n t h e e p i t a p h , Jo h n so n s t r e n u o u s l y
o b j e c t s t o any s u p e r f l u o u s m a t t e r , i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e sake
o f s u p p ly in g a rhyme o r o f f i l l i n g i n a l i n e . He c r i t i
c i s e s P o p e 's e p i t a p h on C h a r le s E a r l o f D o r s e t , b e c a u s e
" th e f i r s t d i s t i c h c o n t a i n s a k i n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n w h ich I I I ,
few w ould w a n t , t h a t t h e man f o r whom t h e tomb was 255
e r e c t e d ' d i e d ' . " I n t h e e p i t a p h on S i r W il l ia m Trum bal,
he o b j e c t s t o th e l i n e ;
"An h o n e s t c o u r t i e r , y e t a p a t r i o t t o o " ;
b e c a u s e " t h e r e i s no o p p o s i t i o n b e tw e e n an h o n e s t c o u r t i e r
an d a - p a t r i o t : f o r an h o n e s t c o u r t i e r c a n n o t b u t be I I I ,
• p a t r i o t . " £58
S i m i l a r l y he f i n d s f a u l t w i t h th e e p i t a p h on I I I ,
Jam es C c ra g g s , E s q . , b e c a u s e " t h e r e i s a r e d u n d a n c y o f 260
w ard s i n th e f i r s t c o u p l e t : i t i s s u p e r f l u o u s t o t e l l
o f him who was s i n c e r e , t r u e , a n d f a i t h f u l , t h a t he was
i n honour c l e a r . "
He a l s o c r i t i c i s e s t h e above e p i t a p h f o r j o i n i n g
i n t h e same i n s c r i p t i o n L a t i n an d E n g l i s h . " I f e i t h e r
la n g u a g e be p r e f e r a b l e t o t h e o t h e r , l e t t h a t o n ly be u s e d ,
24
f o r no r e a s o n c a n be g iv e n why p a r t o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n H I ,
s h o u ld be g iv e n i n one to n g u e and p a r t i n a n o t h e r . . . . 260
Such a n e p i t a p h r e s e m b l e s th e c o n v e r s a t i o n o f a f o r e i g n e r ,
who t e l l s p a r t o f h i s m ean ing b y w o rd s , and c o n v ey s p a r t
by s i g n s . "
F i n a l l y , Jo h n so n b a r s m y th o l o g i c a l a l l u s i o n s from
e p i t a p h s . P o p e ' s i n s c r i p t i o n f o r t h e tomb o f Mr. Rowe
c o n t a i n s t h e w o rd s : "P eace t o t h y sh a d e " ; w h ic h Jo h n s o n I I I ,
c o n s i d e r s " to o m y th o l o g i c a l t o be a d m i t t e d i n t o a 261
C h r i s t i a n t e m p le . . . . L e t f i c t i o n , a t l e a s t , c e a s e w i t h
l i f e , and l e t u s be s e r i o u s over t h e g r a v e . "
Jo h n so n s a y s t h a t an e p i t a p h "o u g h t n o t t o be H I ,b e -
l o n g e r t h a n com m on^holders may be e x p e c te d t o h ave 264
l e i s u r e and p a t i e n c e t o p e r u s e . " I n th e above few s h o r t
e p i t a p h s w r i t t e n b y P o p e , he f i n d s so many f a u l t s , c h i e f l y
b e c a u s e th e a u th o r was l a b o r i n g upon b a r r e n t o p i c s .
Jo h n so n c a n d id ly a d m i t s t h a t e p i t a p h s a r e , h ow ev er , "n o t
th e p r o p e r s u b j e c t s o f p o e t r y , and w henever f r i e n d s h i p I I I ,
o r any o th e r m o tiv e o b l i g e s a p o e t t o w r i t e on such 264
s u b j e c t s , he m ust be f o r g i v e n i f he som etim es w a n d ers
i n g e n e r a l i t i e s and u t t e r s t h e same p r a i s e s o v e r d i f f e r e n t
to m b s ."
g .Burle s q u e
I n th e w r i t i n g o f e n c o m i a s t i c and o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e s ,
a s w e l l a s i n t h e com posing o f e p i t a p h s , t h e a u th o r e i t h e r
25
c o n s c i o u s ly or u n c o n s c i o u s ly w a n d e rs from t h e t r u t h
i n a n e n d ea v o r to p l e a s e . The s i t u a t i o n i s q u i t e th e
o p p o s i t e i n t h e w r i t i n g o f b u r l e s q u e , i n w h ic h t h e a u th o r
p u r p o s e l y v i o l a t e s t r u t h , b y e x a g g e r a t i n g c e r t a i n c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s , i n o r d e r t o b r i n g them i n t o p ro m in e n t n o t i c e .
"Burles-que c o n s i s t s i n a d i s p r o p o r t i o n b e tw e e n t h e s t y l e I ,
and t h e s e n t i m e n t s , o r b e tw e e n t h e a d v e n t i t i o u s s e n t i - 218
m en ts and th e fu n d a m e n ta l s u b j e c t . I t t h e r e f o r e , l i k e
a l l b o d i e s compounded o f h e te r o g e n e o u s p a r t s , c o n t a i n s
i n i t a p r i n c i p l e o f c o r r u p t i o n . A l l d i s p r o p o r t i o n i s
u n n a t u r a l ; an d from w hat i s u n n a t u r a l we c a n d e r i v e
o n ly th e p l e a s u r e w h ich n o v e l t y p r o d u c e s . We a d m ire i t
a w h i le a s a s t r a n g e t h i n g ; b u t when i t i s no l o n g e r s t r a n g e ,
we p e r c e i v e i t s d e f o r m i t y . "
B ecau se o f i t s v e r y n a t u r e , b u r l e s q u e g e n e r a l l y
d e a l s w i t h s u b j e c t s o f l o c a l and te m p o ra ry i n t e r e s t .
T h e r e f o r e , i t c a n n o t hope t o be p e r p e t u a t e d t o p o s t e r i t y
th e same a s a r e poems d e a l i n g w i t h u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s . Be
cau se o f t h i s f a c t , Jo h n so n r e c o g n i z e s t h e p e r i s h a b l e n e s s
o f B u t l e r ' s " H u d ib r a s , " i n w h ich " t h e m a n n e rs , b e in g I ,
fo u n d ed on o p i n i o n s , a r e t e m p o r a r y and l o c a l , an d t h e r e - 2 1 3 -
f o r e become e v e r y day l e s s i n t e l l i g i b l e and l e s s s t r i k i n g , 214
. . . Such m anne rs a s depend upon s t a n d i n g r e l a t i o n s and
g e n e r a l p a s s i o n s a r e c o - e x te n d e d w i t h t h e r a c e o f man; t u t
t h o s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f l i f e a n d p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f p r a c t i c e
w h ich a r e t h e p ro g e n y o f e r r o r and p e r v e r s e n e s s , o r a t
b e s t o f some a c c i d e n t a l i n f l u e n c e or t r a n s i e n t p e r s u a s i o n ,
m ust p e r i s h w i t h t h e i r p a r e n t s . "
h.Poems W r i t
t e n i n I m i t a t i o n
S i m i l a r l y p a r o d i e s , o r v e r s e s w r i t t e n i n i m i t a t i o n
o f o t h e r poems, c a n n o t e n d u r e . Jo h n so n s a y s t h a t com posi te
t i o n s l i k e W e s t ' s I m i t a t i o n s o f S p e n se r a r e n o t t o be I I I ,
r e c k o n e d among t h e g r e a t a c h ie v e m e n ts o f i n t e l l e c t , b e - 332
c a u se t h e i r e f f e c t i s l o c a l a n d te m p o ra ry ; t h e y a p p e a l
n o t t o r e a s o n or p a s s i o n , b u t t o memory, a n d p r e s u p p o s e
a n a c c i d e n t a l o r a r t i f i c i a l s t a t e o f m in d ."
Contemp l a t i v eS a c re d
V erse
Jo h n so n e x c l u d e s from t h e r e a l m s o f t r u e p o e t r y
t h e a b o v e -m e n t io n e d t y p e s o f v e r s e , b e c a u s e t h e i r c o n te n t
i s a d e v i a t i o n from t h e t r u t h . T here i s a n o th e r o l a s s
o f l i t e r a t u r e , how ever , w h ich he t h i n k s u n s u i t e d t o p o e t r y ,
n o t b e c a u s e i t s s u b j e c t - m a t t e r i s f a l s e h o o d , b u t b e c a u s e
t h e t r u t h c o n t a i n e d t h e r e i n i s so g r a n d and m a j e s t i c , t h a t
i t s u r p a s s e s a l l a t t e m p t s a t p o e t i c e x p r e s s i o n and i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n . T h is c l a s s i n c l u d e s a l l c o n te m p la t iv e s a c r e d
v e r s e . " S a c re d H i s t o r y h a s b e e n a lw a y s r e a d w i t h s u b - X,
m is s i v e r e v e r e n c e , and a n i m a g i n a t i o n o v e r-a w e d a n d con- 49-
t r o i l e d . . . . We go w i th t h e h i s t o r i a n a s he g o e s , and 5(5
27
s to p w i t h him when he s to p s * A l l a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s
f r i v o l o u s and v a i n : a l l a d d i t i o n t o t h a t w h ich i s a l
r e a d y s u f f i c i e n t f o r th e p u r p o s e s o f r e l i g i o n seem s n o t
o n ly u s e l e s s , b u t i n some d e g re e p ro f a n e # • • • The m i r a c l e
o f C re a t iQ n , how ever i t may teem w i t h im a g e s , i s b e s t
d e s c r i b e d w i th l i t t l e d i f f u s i o n o f l a n g u a g e : 'He spake
th e w o rd , and t h e y w ere m a d e .1"
"L e t no p i o u s e a r b e o f f e n d e d i f I a d v a n c e , i n I ,
o p p o s i t i o n t o many a u t h o r i t i e s , t h a t p o e t i c a l d e v o t i o n 291
c a n n o t o f t e n p l e a s e . . . . C o n te m p la t iv e p i e t y , o r t h e
i n t e r c o u r s e b e tw e e n God an d t h e human s o u l , c a n n o t bef
p o e t i c a l . Man a d m i t t e d t o im p lo re t h e m ercy o f h i s
C r e a to r an d p l e a d th e m e r i t s o f h i s Redeemer i s a l r e a d y
i n a h i g h e r s t a t e t h a n p o e t r y c a n c o n f e r . "
The t r u t h s convey ed by p o e t r y m ust p l e a s e t h e
r e a d e r by th e n o v e l way i n w h ic h th e y a r e p r e s e n t e d , a s
w e l l a s by th e p o e t i c s e l e c t i o n o f d e t a i l s . "The I ,
t o p i c k s o f d e v o t i o n a r e few , an d b e in g few a r e u n i v e r s a l l y 291
known; b u t few a s t h e y a r e , t h e y c a n be made no m ore;
t h e y c an r e c e i v e no g ra c e from n o v e l t y o f s e n t i m e n t , and
v e ry l i t t l e from n o v e l t y o f e x p r e s s i o n .
" P o e t r y p l e a s e s b y e x h i b i t i n g a n i d e a more
g r a t e f u l t o t h e m ind t h a n t h i n g s th e m s e lv e s a f f o r d . T h is
e f f e c t p r o c e e d s from t h e d i s p l a y o f t h o s e p a r t s o f
28
n a t u r e w h ich a t t r a c t , and t h e c o n c e a lm e n t o f t h o s e w hich
r e p e l , th e im a g in a t io n : b u t r e l i g i o n m ust be shewn a s i t
i s ; s u p p r e s s i o n an d a d d i t i o n e q u a l l y c o r r u p t i t , and su ch
a s i t i s , i t i s known a l r e a d y . . . . O m nipotence o a n n o t
be e x a l t e d ; I n f i n i t y c a n n o t be a m p l i f i e d ; P e r f e c t i o n can
n o t be im p ro v e d . . . . The i d e a s o f C h r i s t i a n T heology
a r e to o s im p le f o r e lo q u e n c e , to o s a c r e d f o r f i c t i o n , and to o
m a j e s t i c k f o r o rnam en t; t o recommend them b y t r o p e s a n d
f i g u r e s i s t o m a g n ify by a concave m i r r o r t h e s i d e r e a l
h e m is p h e r e ."
Jo h n so n r e c o g n i z e s t h e e a r n e s t e f f o r t s o f a u t h o r s
who have a t t e m p t e d t o w r i t e c o n te m p la t iv e w o rk s o f p i e t y
i n v e r s e ; and he r e g r e t s t h a t t h e i r z e a l h a s b e e n so m is
d i r e c t e d . Denham, "a man o f p i e t y , . . . c o n s e c r a t e d I ,
h i s p o e t i c a l pow ers t o r e l i g i o n , and made a m e t r i c a l 75
v e r s i o n o f t h e p s a lm s o f D av id . I n t h i s a t t e m p t he h a s
f a i l e d ; t u t i n s a c r e d p o e t r y who h a s s u c c e e d e d ? "
B lackm ore w ish e d to g r a t i f y t h e d e s i r e o f t h e l o v e r s o f
m u s ic a l , d e v o t io n , and so he p ro d u c e d "A new V e r s io n o f I I ,
t h e P sa lm s o f D av id , f i t t e d t o t h e Tunes u s e d i n C hurchesl ,S49
Jo h n so n r e m a rk s t h a t "B lac k m o re 1 s name m ust be a d d ed t o
th o s e o f many o t h e r s who, b y t h e same a t t e m p t , have
o b t a i n e d o n ly t h e p r a i s e o f m ean ing w e l l . " R e g a rd in g
F e n t o n ' s " P a r a p h r a s e on I s a i a h , " he s a y s t h a t " n o t h in g v e r y
29
f a v o u r a b l e c a n be s a id # Sublim e and so lem n p r o s e I I ,
g a in s l i t t l e by a change t o b l a n k v e r s e . " 264
As much a s Jo h n s o n a d m ire s D r. I s a a c W a t t s , y e t
he i n c l u d e s t h e l a t t e r 1s d e v o t i o n a l v e r s e i n t h e g roup
o f u n s a t i s f a c t o r y p o e t r y ; f o r th e " p a u c i t y o f i t s I I I ,
t o p i c k s e n f o r c e s p e r p e t u a l r e p e t i t i o n , and t h e s a n c t i t y 310
o f th e m a t t e r r e j e c t s th e o rn am e n ts o f f i g u r a t i v e d i c t i o n .
I t i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r W a t ts t o have done b e t t e r t h a n o t h e r s
w hat no man h a s done w e l l . "
Jo h n so n c r i t i c i s e s Jo h n P h i l i p s f o r p l a n n i n g a
poem on "The L a s t D ay ," - " a s u b j e c t on w h ich no m ind I ,
can hope to e q u a l e x p e c t a t i o n . " I n d i s c u s s i n g Y o u n g 's 314
f i r s t g r e a t p e r fo rm a n c e on t h e same th em e , "The L a s t
D ay ," Jo h n s o n a d m i t s t h a t many p a r a g r a p h s a r e n o b le and
t h a t few a r e mean; y e t , he s a y s , t h e r e a d e r i s d i s a p p o i n t
e d b e c a u s e " th e th o u g h t o f t h e L a s t Day makes e v e r y man I I I
more t h a n p o e t i c a l by s p r e a d i n g o v e r h i s m ind a g e n e r a l 393
o b s c u r i t y o f s a c r e d h o r r o r , t h a t o p p r e s s e s d i s t i n c t i o n
a n d d i s d a i n s e x p r e s s i o n . "
Jo h n so n h a s no p a t i e n c e , w h a te v e r , w i t h a u t h o r s
who t o u c h upon s a c r e d s u b j e c t s i n a * f a m i l i a r and t r i f l i n g
m an n e r . He c e n s u r e s b o t h Donne and Cowley f o r " t h a t I ,
f a m i l i a r i t y w i th r e l i g i o u s im a g e s , and t h a t l i g h t a l l u - 58
s i o n t o s a c r e d t h i n g s , b y w h ich r e a d e r s f a r s h o r t
30
o f s a n c t i t y a r e f r e q u e n t l y o f f e n d e d ; and w h ich w ould n o t
he b o rn e i n t h e p r e s e n t a g e , when d e v o t i o n , p e rh a p s n o t
more f e r v e n t i s more d e l i c a t e . " He s t o u t l y r e f u s e s t o
t o l e r a t e any m in g l in g o f m y th o lo g y and r e l i g i o n . He
b lam e s M i l t o n s e v e r e l y f o r b e i n g g u i l t y o f t h i s g r o s s f a u l t
i n h i s " L y c i d a s . " "W ith t h e s e t r i f l i n g f i c t i o n s a r e I ,
m in g le d th e m o s t a w fu l and s a c r e d t r u t h s , su c h a s o u g h t 165
n e v e r t o be p o l l u t e d w i th such i r r e v e r e n t c o m b in a t io n s .
The sh e p h e rd l i k e w i s e i s now a f e e d e r o f s h e e p , and a f t e r
w a rd s a n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l p a s t o r , a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f a
C h r i s t i a n f l o c k . Such e q u i v o c a t i o n s a r e a lw a y s u n s k i l f u l ;
b u t t h e y a r e i n d e c e n t , and a t l e a s t a p p ro a c h t o i m p i e ty ,
o f w h ic h , h o w ev er , I b e l i e v e t h e w r i t e r n o t t o have b e e n
c o n s c io u s . " B ryden , t o o , i s c e n s u re d b e c a u s e he "some- I ,
t im e s c o n n e c t s r e l i g i o n and f a b l e to o c l o s e l y w i t h o u t 462
d i s t i n c t i o n . " S i m i l a r l y , some o f Y a l d e n 's hymns a r e
c t i t i c i s e d b e c a u s e t h e y " a r e p a r t l y m y th o l o g i c a l and
p a r t l y r e l i g i o u s , an d t h e r e f o r e n o t s u i t a b l e to e a c h o t h e r . "
E ven Pope d o e s n o t e sc a p e th e s e v e r i t y o f J o h n s o n 's c e n s u r e . H
I n h i s w orks a r e fo u n d "many i d l e a n d in d e c e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s 3oi
o f s e n t e n c e s t a k e n from t h e S c r i p t u r e s ; a mode o f m e r r i - 11^
ment w h ich a good man d r e a d s f o r i t s p r o f a n e n e s s , and a 215
w i t t y man d i s d a i n s f o r i t s e a s i n e s s an d v u l g a r i t y . "
T h e r e f o r e , b e c a u s e t h e y do n o t convey t h e s im p le
31
and e n t i r e t r u t h t o t h e m ind o f t h e r e a d e r , Jo h n so n ex
c lu d e s from t r u e p o e t r y , a s we have s e e n , t h e f o l lo w in g>
t y p e s o f v e r s e ; f i c t i o n , m yth , p a s t o r a l s , e n c o m i a s t i c and
o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e s , e p i t a p h s , b u r l e s q u e s , poems w r i t t e n i n
i m i t a t i o n o f o t h e r a u t h o r s , and c o n te m p la t iv e s a c r e d v e r s e .
2 . TYPES OF Vr£SE APPROVED
8. •E p ic Hot a l l o f J o h n s o n 's c r i t i c i s m o f p o e t i c a l t y p e s ,
how ever, i s d i s p a r a g i n g and co n d em n a to ry . On t h e o t h e r
h a n d , Jo h n so n h i g h l y a p p ro v e s o f p o e t r y w h ich t e a c h e s
u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s d e r i v e d from a deep u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
m o r a l i t y , a s y m p a th e t ic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h u m a n i ty , and
a th o ro u g h know ledge o f e x t e r n a l n a t u r e . I t i s J o h n s o n 's
o p in io n t h a t t h e t y p e o f l i t e r a t u r e t h a t m o st n e a r l y
a p p ro a c h e s t h i s i d e a l o f p o e t i c p e r f e c t i o n , i s t h e e p i c .
"By t h e g e n e r a l c o n s e n t o f e r i t i c k s t h e f i r s t p r a i s e o f I ,
g e n iu s i s due t o t h e w r i t e r o f a n e p i c k poem, a s i t 170
r e q u i r e s a n a s se m b la g e o f a l l t h e pow ers w h ic h a r e s i n g l y
s u f f i c i e n t f o r o t h e r c o m p o s i t i o n s . . . . E p ic k p o e t r y
u n d e r t a k e s t o t e a c h t h e m ost i m p o r t a n t t r u t h s by t h e
m ost p l e a s i n g p r e c e p t s , a n d t h e r e f o r e r e l a t e s some g r e a t
e v e n t i n t h e m ost a f f e c t i n g m anner . H i s t o r y m ust
s t ipp ly t h e w r i t e r w i t h t h e r u d im e n t s o f n a r r a t i o n , w hich
he m ust im prove and e x a l t by a n o b l e r a r t , m ust
a n im a te by d r a m a t i c k e n e rg y , and d i v e r s i f y by
32
r e t r o s p e c t i o n an d a n t i c i p a t i o n ; m o r a l i t y m u st teach , him
th e e x a c t b ounds and d i f f e r e n t s h a d e s o f v i c e and v i r t u e ;
from p o l i c y an d t h e p r a c t i c e o f l i f e he h a s t o l e a r n t h e
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s o f c h a r a c t e r an d t h e t e n d e n c y o f th e
p a s s i o n s , e i t h e r s i n g l e o r com bined . . . . To p u t t h e s e
m a t e r i a l s t o p o e t i c a l u se i s r e q u i r e d a n i m a g i n a t i o n
c a p a b le o f p a i n t i n g n a t u r e an d r e a l i z i n g f i c t i o n . "
The g r e a t e s t e p ic i n t h e E n g l i s h la n g u a g e i s M i l t o n ' s
" P a r a d i s e L o s t " ; a n d , a c c o r d in g t o J o h n s o n 's e s t i m a t e , i t
i s se co n d to H o m e r 's , o n ly b e c a u s e i t d o es n o t p r e c e d e
th e G reek e p i c . " P a r a d i s e L o s t . " . . . c o n s i d e r e d w i t h r e - I ,
s p e c t t o d e s ig n , may c la im t h e f i r s t p l a c e , and w i t h 170
r e s p e c t t o p e r fo rm a n c e t h e s e c o n d , among t h e p r o d u c t i o n s
o f th e human m in d ." " M i l to n c a n n o t be s a i d t o have con- I ,
t r i v e d th e s t r u c t u r e o f a n e p i c k poem. . . . B ut o f a l l 194
b o r r o w e r s from Homer H i l t o n i s p e r h a p s t h e l e a s t i n d e b t e d ;
. . . and h i s w ork i s n o t t h e g r e a t e s t o f h e r o i c k poems,
o n ly b e c a u s e i t i s n o t t h e f i r s t . "
M i l t o n ' s e p ic c o n v ey s t r u t h b a s e d upon m o r a l i t y ,
h u m a n ity , and s a c r e d h i s t o r y . As a n a u t h o r , he w as w e l l
q u a l i f i e d t o d i s c u s s e a c h ; f o r by c a r e f u l s tu d y he had
become m a s te r o f h i s s u b j e c t . "Of h i s m o ra l s e n t im e n t s I ,
i t i s h a r d l y p r a i s e t o a f f i r m t h a t t h e y e x c e l t h o s e o f 179
a l l o th e r p o e t s ; f o r t h i s s u p e r i o r i t y he was i n d e b t e d t o
h i s a c q u a in t a n c e w i t h t h e s a c r e d w r i t i n g s . The a n c i e n t
33
e p ic k p o e t s , w a n t in g th e l i g h t o f R e v e l a t i o n , w ere v e ry
u n s k i l f u l t e a c h e r s o f v i r t u e ; t h e i r p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r s
may be g r e a t , b u t t h e y a r e n o t a m i a b le . . . . I n M i l t o n
e v e ry l i n e b r e a t h e s s a n c t i t y o f t h o u g h t an d p u r i t y o f
m an n e rs , e x c e p t when t h e t r a i n o f n a r r a t i o n r e q u i r e s th e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e r e b e l l i o u s s p i r i t s ; and ev en t h e y a r e
c o m p e l le d t o acknow ledge t h e i r s u b j e c t i o n t o God."
H is c h a r a c t e r - s t u d y i s t r u t h f u l * " G r e a t e v e n t s I ,
c an be h a s t e n e d or r e t a r d e d o n ly by p e r s o n s o f e l e v a t e d 172
d i g n i t y . B e fo re th e g r e a t n e s s d i s p l a y e d i n M i l t o n ' s
poem a l l o t h e r g r e a t n e s s s h r i n k s away. The w e a k e s t o f
h i s a g e n t s a r e t h e h i g h e s t and n o b l e s t o f human b e i n g s , th e
o r i g i n a l p a r e n t s o f m a n k in d ."
The s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f " P a r a d i s e L o s t " i s " t h e
h i s t o r y o f a m i r a c l e , o f C r e a t i o n and R ed em ption ; i t d i s - I ,
p l a y s th e power and t h e m ercy o f t h e Supreme B e in g : t h e 174
p r o b a b le t h e r e f o r e i s m a r v e l l o u s , and th e m a r v e l l o u s i s
p r o b a b l e . The s u b s ta n c e o f t h e n a r r a t i v e i s t r u t h ; and
a s t r u t h a l l o w s no c h o ic e , i t i s , l i k e n e c e s s i t y , s u p e r i o r
t o r u l e . To t h e a c c i d e n t a l o r a d v e n t i t i o u s p a r t s , a s t o
e v e ry t h i n g human, some s l i g h t e x c e p t i o n s may be m ade.
B u t th e m a in f a b r i c k i s immovably s u p p o r t e d . "
b .D id a c t i c
P o e t ry
A no the r ty p e o f p o e t r y w h ich J o h n s o n commends, i s
34
d i d a c t i c p o e t r y , " o f w h ich t h e g r e a t p u rp o s e i s i n - I I I ,
s t r u c t i o n . " Of c o u r s e , he c o n s i d e r s i t f a r i n f e r i o r 229
to t h e e p i c f o r t h e f i e l d o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l poem i s
v e ry l i m i t e d ; how ever , w i t h i n t h a t l i m i t e d f i e l d , t h e
p o e t m ust be m a s te r o f h i s s u b j e c t . On t h e o t h e r
h an d , t h e r e i s s c a r c e l y any s u b j e c t c o n c e rn in g w h ic h lire
human m ind w is h e s i n f o r m a t i o n , w h ich Jo h n so n do es n o t
t h i n k a d a p te d t o d i d a c t i c p o e t r y . He p r a i s e s d i d a c t i c
poems d i s c u s s i n g th e a r t o f c r i t i c i s m , s c i e n c e , and
ev en r e l i g i o u s o r t h e o l o g i c a l p r e c e p t s ; b u t i n e a c h c a s e ,
he i n s i s t s t h a t t h e a u th o r m u s t g iv e t r u t h f u l i n f o r m a t i o n
on th e s u b j e c t . The poem w h ich he c o n s i d e r s a m odel
example o f d i d a c t i c p o e t r y , i s P o p e ' s " E ssa y on C r i t i c i s m " ;
f o r " i f he h a d w r i t t e n n o t h in g e l s e i t w ou ld have I I I
p l a c e d him among t h e f i r s t c r i t i c k s and t h e f i r s t p o e t s , 228
a s i t e x h i b i t s e v e ry mode o f e x c e l l e n c e t h a t c a n em
b e l l i s h o r d i g n i f y d i d a c t i c k c o m p o s i t io n , s e l e c t i o n o f
m a t t e r , n o v e l t y o f a r r a n g e m e n t , j u s t n e s s o f p r e c e p t ,
s p le n d o u r o f i l l u s t r a t i o n , an d p r o p r i e t y o f d i g r e s s i o n ; "
Jo h n so n does n o t s p a r e P o p e ' s d i d a c t i c p o e t r y ,
how ever, when th e l a t t e r a t t e m p t s t o t e a c h so m e th ing w h ich
he h i m s e l f does n o t t h o r o u g h ly u n d e r s t a n d . He c r i t i c i s e ®
P o p e 's "E ssa y on M an," w h ic h " a f f o r d s a n e g r e g i o u s i n - I I I ,
s t a n c e o f th e p red o m in an ce o f g e n i u s , th e d a z z l i n g 243
s p le n d o u r o f im a g e ry , an d t h e s e d u c t i v e pow ers o f e lo q u e n c e .
35
Never was p e n u ry o f knowledge and v u l g a r i t y o f s e n t im e n t
so h a p p i l y d i s g u i s e d . " "Thus he t e l l s u s , i n t h e f i r s t I I I ,
E p i s t l e , t h a t from t h e n a t u r e o f t h e Supreme B e in g may 243
be deduced a n o r d e r o f b e i n g s su c h a s m an k in d . . . . He
f i n d s o u t t h a t t h e s e b e i n g s m u st be 'so m ew here ,* and t h a t
' a l l t h e q u e s t i o n i s w h e th e r man be i n a w rong p l a c e . ' . . .
But w hat i s m ean t by 'somewhere* and ' p l a c e ' and 'w ro n g
p l a c e ' i t h a d b e e n v a i n t o a s k P ope , who p r o b a b ly had
n e v e r a s k e d h i m s e l f . "
M odern c r i t i c s may be te m p te d t o e x c lu d e from p o e t i c
r e c o g n i t i o n such a w ork a s J . P h i l i p s ' s " C i d e r , " b e
ca u se o f th e c h o ic e o f su ch a m a t t e r - o f - f a c t s u b j e c t .
However, b e c a u s e i t s p u rp o s e i s t o g iv e t r u t h f u l i n s t r u c t i o n ,
Jo h n so n g i v e s i t " t h i s p e c u l i a r p r a i s e , t h a t i t i s g ro u n d - I ,
ed i n t r u t h ; t h a t t h e p r e c e p t s w h ic h i t c o n t a i n s a r e 319’
e x a c t and j u s t , and t h a t i t i s t h e r e f o r e a t once a b o o k
o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t and o f s c i e n c e . " He a l s o q u o te s M i l l e r ,
" th e g r e a t g a r d e n e r and b o t a n i s t whose e x p r e s s i o n w a s , I ,
t h a t t h e r e w ere many b o o k s w r i t t e n on th e same s u b j e c t 319
i n p r o s e , w h ic h do n o t c o n t a i n so much t r u t h a s t h a t poem ."
S i m i l a r l y he a p p ro v e s o f S o m e r v i l l e ' s d i d a c t i c poem,
The C h a se ," f o r s p o r ts m e n d e c l a r e t h a t t h e a u th o r w ro te
" w i th g r e a t i n t e l l i g e n c e on h i s s u b j e c t , w h ic h i s t h e I I ,
f i r s t r e q u i s i t e t o e x c e l l e n c e . " 319
36
A lth o u g h Jo h n so n s t r e n u o u s l y o p p o se s t h e w r i t i n g
o f c o n te m p la t iv e s a c r e d v e r s e , b e c a u s e t h e m a j e s t y and
a w fu l g r e a t n e s s o f s a c r e d t r u t h s a r e b e y o n d p o e t i c
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , he a p p ro v e s o f d i d a c t i c poems
d e a l in g w i t h r e l i g i o u s t r u t h s . "The d o c t r i n e s o f r e - I ,
l i g i o n may in d e e d be d e fe n d e d i n a d i d a c t i c k poem. . . . 291
The s u b j e c t o f t h e d i s p u t a t i o n i s n o t p i e t y , b u t t h e
m o t iv e s to p i e t y . "
c .
C r i t i c i s m C lo s e ly a l l i e d t o t h e d i d a c t i c poem i s c r i t i c i s m .
The p u rp o s e o f e ac h i s t o i n s t r u c t . The s u b j e c t - m a t t e r
o f t h e fo rm e r may be a r t , s c i e n c e , o r t h e o lo g y ; t h a t
o f th e l a t t e r i s t h e s tu d y and a p p r e c i a t i o n o f l i t e r a r y
c o m p o s i t io n . C r i t i c i s m , a s a s tu d y o f c o m p o s i t io n ,
p r e s c r i b e s r u l e s and th e o re m s ; a s an a p p r e c i a t i o n
o f l i t e r a t u r e , i t r e c o g n i z e s b e a u t i e s a s w e l l a s d e t e c t s
f a u l t s # Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s Dry den a s t h e f a t h e r o f
E n g l i s h c r i t i c i s m , f o r he i s t h e w r i t e r "who f i r s t I ,
t a u g h t u s t o d e te rm in e upon p r i n c i p l e s t h e m e r i t o f 140
c o m p o s i t i o n ." "The c r i t i c i s m o f Dryden i s t h e c r i t i c i s m I ,
o f a p o e t ; n o t a d u l l c o l l e c t i o n o f th e o re m s , n o r a r u d e 412
d e t e c t i o n o f f a u l t s , w h ich p e r h a p s th e c e n s o r was n o t a b l e
to have com m itted ; b u t a gay an d v ig o r o u s d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
where d e l i g h t i s m in g le d w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n , and w here t h e a u
t h o r p r o v e s h i s r i g h t o f ju d gem en t by h i s power o f p e r f o r m a n c e ."
37
I n d e e d , h i s c r i t i c i s m s w ere so e f f e c t i v e , t h a t i n a
c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h S w i f t , D ryden s a i d " t h a t he r e - I ,
g r e t t e d t h e s u c c e s s o f h i s own i n s t r u c t i o n s , and fo und 366
h i s r e a d e r s made sxiddenly to o s k i l f u l t o be e a s i l y
s a t i s f i e d . "
A p o e t , i n o r d e r t o make a t r u t h f u l c r i t i c i s m ,
m ust have a th o ro u g h know ledge o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r w ork
u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n , a s w e l l a s a s y m p a th e t ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e a u th o r and o f h i s t i m e s . Jo h n s o n c r i t i c i s e s
A d d i s o n 's "Musae A n g l i c a n a e , " b e c a u s e " i n t h i s poem
t h e r e i s a v e ry c o n f i d e n t and d i s c r i m i n a t i v e c h a r a c t e r I I ,
o f S p e n s e r , whose w ork he h a d t h e n n e v e r r e a d . So 84
l i t t l e som etim es i s c r i t i c i s m t h e e f f e c t o f ju d g e m e n t ."
F u r th e r m o r e , Jo h n so n d e c l a r e s t h a t " t o jud g e r i g h t l y o f I,"
a n a u th o r we m ust t r a n s p o r t o u r s e l v e s t o h i s t i m e , an d 411
examine w ha t w ere t h e w a n ts o f h i s c o n te m p o r a r i e s , and
w hat were h i s means o f s u p p ly in g th e m ."
a.S a t i r e The c r i t i c e x p r e s s e s w i t h o u t m a le v o le n c e , h i s
j u s t o p in io n s o f l i t e r a r y c o m p o s i t i o n s . The s a t i r i s t ,
on t h e o t h e r h a n d , h o l d s up a b u s e s and e r r o r t o r e p r o b a t i o n
and r i d i c u l e . J o h n s o n d o e s n o t a p p ro v e o f a l l k i n d s o f
s a t i r e , f o r he r e c o g n i z e s t h e s e l f i s h an d r e v e n g e f u l u s e
some a u t h o r s make o f t h i s w eapon . However, he d o es
38
ad m it t h a t u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s e v e n s a t i r e may he
u s e f u l and e f f e c t i v e . " A l l t r u t h i s v a l u a b l e , and
s a t i r i c a l c r i t i c i s m may b e c o n s i d e r e d a s u s e f u l when i t I I I ,
r e c t i f i e s e r r o r and im p ro v es ju d g em e n t: he t h a t r e f i n e s 242
th e p u b l i c k t a s t e i s a p u b l i c k b e n e f a c t o r . "
U n u su a l a s i t may seem , Jo h n s o n f i n d s t h a t Pope
made an e f f e c t i v e u se o f s a t i r e i n t h e "Rape o f t h e L ock" ;
f o r " th e p u rp o s e o f t h e P o e t i s , a s he t e l l s u s , t o I I I f
l a u g h a t ' t h e l i t t l e u n g u a rd e d f o l l i e s o f t h e fe m a le 234
s e x . ' . . . The f r e a k s , and h um ors , and s p l e e n , and v a n i t y
o f women. . . . e m b ro i l f a m i l i e s i n d i s c o r d and f i l l h o u s e s
w i t h d i s q u i e t . . . . I t h a s b e e n w e l l o b s e rv e d t h a t th e
m is e r y o f man p r o c e e d s n o t f rom any s i n g l e c r u s h o f o v e r
w helm ing e v i l , b u t from s m a l l v e x a t i o n s c o n t i n u a l l y
r e p e a t e d . "
J o h n so n , how ever , c i t e s more i n s t a n c e s o f t h e a b u se
o f s a t i r e t h a n o f i t s e f f e c t i v e u s e . E ven th o u g h Pope
a s s u r e s b o t h h i s r e a d e r s and h i m s e l f t h a t t h e d e s i g n o f
"The D unciad" was m o r a l , y e t Jo h n so n r e m a in s u n c o n v in c e d .
"The f i r s t m o t iv e was th e d e s i r e o f r e v e n g i n g t h e con tem pt I I I
w i t h w h ic h T h e o b a ld h a d t r e a t e d h i s S h a k e s p e a r e , and 241
r e g a i n i n g t h e ho n o u r w h ich he h a d l o s t , by c r u s h i n g h i s
o p p o n e n t . T h e o b a ld was n o t o f b u l k enough t o f i l l a
poem, and t h e r e f o r e i t was n e c e s s a r y t o f i n d o t h e r
39
enem ies w i t h o t h e r nam es, a t whose expence he m ig h t
d i v e r t t h e p u b l i c k . "
Jo h n so n does n o t t o l e r a t e th e r i d i c u l e o f any
m is f o r tu n e o r d i s t r e s s . He s e v e r e l y c e n s u r e s B u t l e r
f o r lam poon ing Denham b e c a u s e o f te m p o ra ry l u n a c y .
" I know n o t . . . w ha t p r o v o c a t i o n i n c i t e d B u t l e r t o do I ,
t h a t w h ich no p r o v o c a t i o n c a n e x c u s e . " When M i l l e r 75
r i d i c u l e d S a v a g e 's m i s f o r t u n e s , and d e p i c t e d him a s
th e d i s t r e s s e d p o e t who h a d b u t one c o a t , Jo h n so n
s c o rn e d t h i s t a u n t a s " a mean i n s u l t " ; ev en th o u g h I I ,
Savage i n h i s more p r o s p e r o u s d a y s , h a d h i m s e l f 402
s a t i r i z e d o t h e r s l e s s f o r t u n a t e t h a n h i m s e l f . How
Savage " v e ry e a s i l y d i s c o v e r e d t h a t d i s t r e s s was n o t a I I ,
p r o p e r s u b j e c t f o r m e r r im e n t , o r t o p i c k o f i n v e c t i v e . 374
He was t h e n a b l e t o d i s c e r n t h a t , i f m is e r y be th e
e f f e c t o f v i r t u e , i t o u g h t t o be r e v e r e n c e d ; i f o f i l l -
f o r t u n e , t o be p i t i e d ; and i f o f v i c e , n o t t o be i n
s u l t e d , b e c a u s e i t i s p e rh a p s i t s e l f a p u n ish m en t a d e q u a te
t o t h e c rim e by w h ic h i t was p ro d u c e d . And t h e h u m an ity
o f t h a t man c a n d e s e r v e no p a n e g y r i c k who i s c a p a b le o f
r e p r o a c h in g a c r i m i n a l i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e e x e c u t i o n e r . "
e .C on tro v e r s y
J u s t a s Jo h n s o n c o n s i d e r s s a t i r e a p r o p e r weapon
i f em ployed i n t h e c a u se o f m o ra l t r u t h , so he l i k e w i s e
40
a p p ro v e s o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l v e r s e i f i t i s u s e d t o r e f u t e
e r r o r . He h a s e n u m e ra te d th e u s u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
a w r i t e r a r g u in g i n v e r s e , i n t h e f o l lo w in g d e s c r i p t i o n
o f C o l l i e r : "He was form ed a c o h t r o v e r t i s t w i t h I I ,
d i c t i o n vehem ent and p o i n t e d ; . . . w i t h u n c o n q u e ra b le 221
p e r t i n a c i t y ; w i t h w i t i n t h e h i g h e s t d e g re e k e e n and
s a r c a s t i c k ; an d w i t h a l l t h o s e pow ers e x a l t e d and i n
v i g o r a t e d by j u s t c o n f id e n c e i n h i s c a u s e . "
L e a r n in g i s th e f i r s t r e q u i s i t e o f a c o n t r o -
v e r t i s t ; f o r th e t r u t h o f any c a s e c a n n o t b e p r e s e n t e d ,
u n l e s s t h e w r i t e r i s t h o r o u g h ly a c q u a i n t e d w i t h b o th
s i d e s o f th e q u e s t i o n . Jo h n so n c e n s u r e s W il l ia m K in g ,
who m in g le d i n t h e c o n t r o v e r s y b e tw e e n B o y le a n d B e n t l e y ,
b e c a u s e he was "one o f t h o s e who t r i e d w hat Wit c o u ld 1^
p e r fo rm i n o p p o s i t i o n t o L e a r n i n g , on a q u e s t i o n w h ich 27
L e a r n in g a lo n e c o u ld d e c i d e . " A lth o u g h S h e n s t o n e 's
" R u ra l E le g a n c e " h a s i r r e g u l a r l i n e s , and a l t h o u g h
t h o u g h t s a r e d i f f u s e d w i t h t o o much v e r b o s i t y , y e t Jo h n so n
sa y s t h a t i t c a n n o t b e d e n ie d " t o c o n t a i n b o t h p h i l o s o p h i c a l I I I
a rgum ent an d p o e t i c a l s p i r i t . " 356
Jo h n so n s e e s t h e d a n g e r , h o w ev er , o f g iv in g e x p r e s
s i o n t o p e r s o n a l g r i e v a n c e s d u r in g a c o n t r o v e r s y ; f o r
" c o n t r o v e r t i s t s c a n n o t l o n g r e t a i n t h e i r k i n d n e s s f o r e a c h I I ,
o t h e r . " C o n t ro v e r s y t h e n l o s e s i t s d i g n i t y , and c a n no 115
41
lo n g e r be a p p ro v e d ; f o r i t do es n o t f u l f i l l i t s m o ra l
p u rp o s e o f r e f u t i n g e r r o r and o f s u p p o r t i n g t r u t h . An
i l l u s t r i o u s exam ple o f t h i s , i s t h e c o n t r o v e r s y b e tw e e n
M i l to n and S a lm a s iu s , who w ro te r e s p e c t i v e l y th e "D efence
o f t h e P e o p l e , " and t h e "D efence o f t h e K in g ." A f t e r
t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t a r t i c l e s , M i l t o n ' s supreme
p l e a s u r e was t o " t a x h i s a d v e r s a r y , so renow ned f o r c r i t i - I ,
c ism , w i t h v i t i o u s L a t i n . " Then f o l lo w e d a c o n t r o v e r s y 113
on th e u se o f t h e L a t i n w ord " P e r s o n a . " F i n a l l y , " a s I ,
S a lm a s iu s r e p r o a c h e d M i l t o n w i t h l o s i n g h i s e y e s i n t h e 115
q u a r r e l , M i l t o n d e l i g h t e d h i m s e l f w i t h t h e b e l i e f t h a t he
had s h o r t e n e d S a lm a s iu s * s l i f e ; an d b o t h p e r h a p s w i t h
more m a l i g n i t y t h a n r e a s o n . S a lm a s iu s d i e d a t t h e Spa ,
S e p t . 3 , 1653; an d , a s c o n t r o v e r t i s t s a r e commonly s a i d t o
be k i l l e d by t h e i r l a s t d i s p u t e , M i l t o n was f l a t t e r e d w i t h
th e c r e d i t o f d e s t r o y i n g h im ."
A t b e s t , c o n t r o v e r s i a l p o e t r y r e c e i v e s o n ly t r a n
s i e n t r e c o g n i t i o n . A lth o u g h Jo h n so n a p p ro v e s o f i t when
i t i s u s e d t o r e f u t e e r r o r , y e t he h i m s e l f a d m i t s t h a t
"books o f t h i s k i n d se ldom l i v e l o n g , when i n t e r e s t a n d I I
r e s e n tm e n t h av e c e a s e d . " 27
f .T ran s l a t i o n
Many c r i t i c s do n o t a t t r i b u t e p o e t i c g e n iu s to
a t r a n s l a t o r , b e c a u s e th e a r t o f t r a n s l a t i n g do es n o t demand
42
d f t h e w r i t e r t h e same d e g re e o f o r i g i n a l i t y a s t h e a r t
o f w r i t i n g p o e t r y . Jo h n so n t a k e s i s s u e w i t h su ch i n
c o n s i d e r i n g t r a n s l a t i o n a l e g i t i m a t e f i e l d o f p o e t r y .
I n d i s c u s s i n g P o p e ' s v e r s i o n o f th e " I l i a d , " he s a y s t h a t I I I ,
i f Pope h a d g i v e n t h e w o r ld n o t h in g e l s e , " th e name o f £52
p o e t m ust have b e e n a l lo w e d him; i f t h e w r i t e r o f t h e
I l i a d w ere t o c l a s s h i s s u c c e s s o r s he w ould a s s i g n a
v e ry h ig h p l a c e t o h i s t r a n s l a t o r , w i t h o u t r e q u i r i n g any
o t h e r e v id e n c e o f g e n i u s . "
A t r a n s l a t i o n m ust s a t i s f y c e r t a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
how ever , t o be p o e t i c : i t m ust be t r u t h f u l b o t h i n r e g a r d
t o c o n te n t and to s t y l e . B u t f i r s t o f a l l , t h e o r i g i n a l
p o e t s h o u ld be such " a s may d e s e r v e a t r a n s l a t i o n ; t h e n I ,
he who i n t e n d s t o t r a n s l a t e h im s h o u ld e n d eav o r t o u n d e r - 236
s t a n d him; . . . and f i n a l l y th e s t y l e o f t h e o r i g i n a l
sh o u ld be c o p ie d i n i t s e l e v a t i o n and d e p r e s s i o n . " I n
o rd e r t o g iv e a t r u t h f u l r e n d e r i n g o f t h e o r i g i n a l , t h e
f i r s t t r a n s l a t o r s c o p ie d word f o r w ord , an d l i n e f o r l i n e .
"Ben J o n s o n th o u g h t i t n e c e s s a r y t o copy H orace a lm o s t I ’"
word by w ord ; F e l th a m , h i s c o n te m p o ra ry an d a d v e r s a r y , 421 -
c o n s i d e r s i t a s i n d i s p e n s a b l y r e q u i s i t e i n a t r a n s l a t i o n 422
t o g ive l i n e f o r l i n e . I t i s s a i d t h a t Sandys . . . h a s
s t r u g g l e d h a r d t o co m p r ise e v e r y book o f h i s E n g l i s h
M etam orphoses i n t h e same number o f v e r s e s w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l . "
43
Then t h e t r a n s l a t o r s , d e s i r o u s o f f r e e i n g t h e m s e lv e s from
t h i s s e r v i l e d r u d g e r y , w en t t o t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , and
gave m e re ly t h e l o o s e s t p a r a p h r a s e o f t h e o r i g i n a l . I ,
"H olyday had h a d n o t h i n g i n v iew b u t t o shew t h a t he u n d e r - 422
s to o d h i s a u t h o r . . . . Oowley . . . a s s e r t e d h i s l i b e r t y , and
s p re a d h i s w in g s so b o l d l y t h a t he l e f t h i s a u t h o r s . "
Jo h n so n does n o t a p p ro v e o f e i t h e r e x t r e m e , b u t a g r e e s w i t h
D ryden , who f i x e d t h e l i m i t s o f p o e t i c a l l i b e r t y i n t h e
f o l lo w in g r u l e : " T r a n s l a t i o n . . . i s n o t so l o o s e a s I ,
p a r a p h r a s e , n o r so c lo s e a s m e t a p h r a s e . " ■ 422
Hot o n ly does Jo h n so n demand t h a t t h e t r a n s l a t o r
r e n d e r t r u t h f u l l y t h e a u t h o r ' s t h o u g h t , b u t he i n s i s t s t h a t
t h e fo rm er e x h i b i t f a i t h f u l l y t h e s t y l e o f t h e o r i g i n a l .
"He i s t o e x h i b i t h i s a u t h o r ' s t h o u g h t s i n such a d r e s s o f I ,
d i c t i o n a s t h e a u th o r w ou ld h av e g iv e n th em , h ad h i s 423
la n g u a g e b e e n E n g l i s h : r u g g e d m a g n i f i c e n c e i s n o t t o be
s o f t e n e d ; h y p e r b o l i c a l o s t e n t a t i o n i s n o t t o b e r e p r e s s e d ,
n o r s e n t e n t i o u s a f f e c t a t i o n t o have i t s p o i n t s b l u n t e d . A
t r a n s l a t o r i s to be l i k e h i s a u t h o r ; i t i s n o t h i s b u s i n e s s
t o e x c e l h im ."
g-n a r r a t i o n
Jo h n so n a p p ro v e s o f t h o s e t y p e s o f p o e t r y w h ic h con
vey t r u t h s to t h e m ind o f t h e r e a d e r . I n a s much a s
n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y som etim es co n v ey s a m o ra l t r u t h , Jo h n so n
44
p e r m i t s i t s u se e i t h e r a s a f a b l e o r a s a t a l e . He
d i s t i n g u i s h e s a f a b l e from a t a l e a s f o l l o w s : "A F a b l e . . . H f
seems t o be i n i t s g e n u in e s t a t e a n a r r a t i v e i n w h ich 283
b e i n g s i r r a t i o n a l , an d som etim es in a n i m a t e , . . . a r e f o r
t h e p u rp o se o f m o ra l i n s t r u c t i o n f e i g n e d t o a c t an d sp e ak
w i t h human i n t e r e s t s and p a s s i o n s . " The o n ly r e q u i s i t e
o f a n a r r a t i v e poem t h a t Jo h n so n m e n t io n s , i s r a p i d i t y o f
a c t i o n .
h .D e s c r ip
t i o nA n o th e r t y p e o f p o e t r y w h ic h Jo h n so n b a r e l y s u g g e s t s
i s d e s c r i p t i v e v e r s e . He a p p ro v e s o f su ch d e s c r i p t i o n s
a s convey i n f o r m a t i o n ; and s t r a n g e t o s a y , he d o e s n o t
o b j e c t t o t h e s c i e n t i s t ' s accom pany ing th e p o e t on a r a m b le .
He a p p ro v e s o f James Thom son 's d e s c r i p t i o n s i n "The S e a s o n s ,"
w here b o th t h e p o e t and th e s c i e n t i s t d e s c r i b e " t h e w hole
m a g n i f i c e n c e o f N a tu r e , w h e th e r p l e a s i n g cor d r e a d f u l . . . . 299
The p o e t l e a d s u s t h r o u g h t h e a p p e a r a n c e s o f t h i n g s a s
th e y a r e s u c c e s s i v e l y v a r i e d by t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f t h e y e a r ,
and i m p a r t s t o u s so much o f h i s own e n th u s ia s m t h a t our
th o u g h t s expand w i t h h i s im agery and k i n d l e w i t h h i s
s e n t i m e n t s . Nor i s t h e n a t u r a l i s t w i t h o u t h i s p a r t i n
t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t ; f o r he i s a s s i s t e d t o r e c o l l e c t and t o
com bine , and t o a r r a n g e h i s d i s c o v e r i e s , and t o a m p l i f y th e
sp h e re o f h i s c o n t e m p l a t i o n . "
45
Jo h n so n c e n s u r e s Cowley f o r g i v i n g i n f e r e n c e s , I ,
i n s t e a d o f im ag es , an d f o r show ing " n o t w hat may be 51
su p p o sed t o have b e e n s e e n , b u t w ha t t h o u g h t s t h e s i g h t
m ig h t have s u g g e s t e d . " He a l s o c r i t i c i s e s M i l t o n ' s
d e s c r i p t i o n s b e c a u s e th e y w ere n o t c o p ie d from t h e o r i g i n a l
fo rm . "He saw N a tu re , a s D ryden e x p r e s s e s i t , ' t h r o u g h I ,
t h e s p e c t a c l e s o f b o o k s ' ; and on m ost o c c a s i o n s c a l l s 178
l e a r n i n g t o h i s a s s i s t a n c e . "
D e s c r i p t i v e p o e t r y , t h e n , a c c o r d in g t o J o h n s o n 's
t h e o r y , s h o u ld be s c i e n t i f i c , - a t l e a s t i n s t r u c t i v e ; i t
sh o u ld n o t be im a g in a t iv e n o r c o n t e m p l a t i v e .
i .E leg y One ty p e o f c o n te m p la t iv e p o e t r y m e e ts w i t h
J o h n s o n 's a p p r o v a l , how ever , b e c a u s e i t h a s a u n i v e r s a l
a p p e a l ; and t h a t i s t h e e l e g y . He p r a i s e s S h e n s t o n e 's
c o n c e p t io n o f an e l e g y a s v e r y j u d i c i o u s and d i s c r i m i n a t i n g .
The e l e g y i s , a c c o r d in g to S h e n s t o n e ' s a c c o u n t , " t h e I I I
e f f u s i o n o f a c o n te m p la t iv e m in d , som etim es p l a i n t i v e , 355
and a lw ay s s e r i o u s , and t h e r e f o r e s u p e r i o r to t h e
g l i t t e r o f s l i g h t o r n a m e n ts . " Jo h n so n i n s i s t s t h a t u n i v e r s a l
t u r t h i s a lw ay s a s u i t a b l e s u b j e c t f o r p o e t r y ; h ence t h e
e le g y i s a n a p p ro v e d p o e t i c fo rm . "The C h u rc h -y a rd abounds
w i th im ages w h ich f i n d a m i r r o u r i n e v e r y m in d , and w i t h
s e n t im e n t s t o w h ich e v e ry bosom r e t u r n s an e c h o ." 441
46
He p r a i s e s e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y e v e n G r a y ' s " E le g y ,"
a l th o u g h he i s none to o k i n d l y d isposed , to w a rd G ray ;
and he g e n e r o u s ly s a y s : "Had Gray w r i t t e n o f t e n t h u s I I I ,
i t h a d b e e n v a i n t o b la m e , and u s e l e s s t o p r a i s e h im ." 442
Jo h n so n b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e " c h a r a c t e r o f th e I I ,
e l e g y i s g e n t l e n e s s and t e n u i t y . " T h e r e f o r e he warm ly 316
commends Edmund S m i t h 's e l e g y on t h e d e a th o f Jo h n I I
P h i l i p s , "w hich j u s t i c e m u s t p l a c e among t h e b e s t 16
e l e g i e s w h ich our l a n g u a g e c a n shew, a n e l e g a n t m ix tu r e
o f fo n d n e s s and a d m i r a t i o n , o f d i g n i t y and s o f t n e s s . "
D e s p i t e h i s a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e fo rm , Jo h n so n d o es
n o t r a n k t h e e le g y a s t h e h i g h e s t k i n d o f p o e t r y , f o r
t h e f i e l d i s so n a rro w and so f a m i l i a r , t h a t " i t i s I I , '
im p o s s ib l e t o t r a v e l i n i t w i t h o u t t r e a d i n g i n t h e f o o t - 407
s t e p s o f t h o s e who have gone b e f o r e . "
5 •Drama
■ f
T here s t i l l r e m a in s a l a r g e f i e l d o f p o e t r y , t h e
dram a, w h ich Jo h n so n d i s c u s s e s ; n o t , ho w ev er , a t so
g r e a t a l e n g t h a s m ost r e a d e r s m ig h t e x p e c t . E v en when
he does c r i t i c i s e th e dram a, he do es so d e s t r u c t i v e l y
r a t h e r t h a n c o n s t r u c t i v e l y , a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e e p i c .
J o h n s o n 's age was n o t a d r a m a t ic a g e ; m o re o v e r , t h e
R e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g J o h n s o n 's t im e p ro d u c e d so
many l i c e n t i o u s p l a y s , t h a t Jo h n so n h a s no sym pathy w h a t-
47
e v e r w i t h t h e m ass o f d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n .
J u s t a s i n o th e r p o e t r y , so h e r e a l s o Jo h n so nt
demands t h a t t r u t h be t h e k e y n o te o f th e dram a. I n
a h i s t o r i c a l p l a y , he d o e s n o t i n s i s t upon f i d e l i t y
t o m in o r f a c t s and d e t a i l s , b u t r a t h e r a l l o w s t h e d r a m a t i s t
a c e r t a i n amount o f p o e t i c l i b e r t y . He g o e s on t o a d v i s e
th e p l a y w r i g h t , h o w ev er , t o choose f o r h i s s u b j e c t - m a t t e r ,
c h a r a c t e r s and e v e n t s f a r rem oved i n p o i n t o f t im e ; o t h e r
w ise any d e v i a t i o n from f a i t h f u l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f ev en
th e s l i g h t e s t d e t a i l s w i l l o f f e n d t h e r e a d e r a c q u a i n t e d
w i t h t h e f a c t s . He d i s a p p r o v e s o f S a v a g e 's c h o ic e o f
c o n te n t i n " S i r Thomas O v e rb u ry ," " a s t o r y w e l l a d a p te d I I ,
t o t h e s t a g e , though p e r h a p s n o t f a r enough rem oved 338
from t h e p r e s e n t a g e , to a d m i t p r o p e r l y t h e f i c t i o n s
n e c e s s a r y t o c o m p le te th e p l a n ; f o r th e m in d , w h ich
n a t u r a l l y l o v e s t r u t h , i s a lw a y s m ost o f f e n d e d w i t h t h e
v i o l a t i o n o f t h o s e t r u t h s o f w h ic h we a r e m o s t c e r t a i n ,
and we, o f c o u r s e , c o n c e iv e t h o s e f a c t s m o s t c e r t a i n w hich
a p p ro a c h n e a r e s t t o ou r own t i m e . "
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , Jo h n so n a l l o w s no e x c e p t i o n
t o h i s demands f o r m o r a l t r u t h . F o r t h i s r e a s o n he
c e n s t i r e s D ryden m o st s e v e r e l y ; a l t h o u g h he r e c o g n i z e s
F ry d en a s th e g r e a t e s t p o e t o f h i s a g e , and e s te e m s h i s
g e n iu s e v e n above t h a t o f P o p e ' s . The dram a, " A l l f o r L o v e ,"
48
m e e ts w i t h d i s a p p r o v a l , b e c a u s e o f t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h i s
p l a y Dryden h a s com m itted "one f a u l t e q u a l t o many, th o u g h I ,
r a t h e r m o ra l t h a n c r i t i c a l , t h a t by a d m i t t i n g t h e rom an- 361
t i c k o m nipo tence o f L ove, he h a s recommended a s l a u d a b l e
and w o r th y o f i m i t a t i o n t h a t co n d u c t w h ic h th r o u g h a l l
a g e s t h e good have c e n s u r e d a s v i c i o u s , and t h e b a d d e s p i s e d
a s f o o l i s h . "
He d i s a p p r o v e s o f D ry den1s c o m e d ie s , an d he does
n o t f o r g i v e D ryden when t h e l a t t e r t r i e s t o e x c u se h i m s e l f ;
f o r "when he c a n n o t d isow n t h e g r o s s n e s s o f one o f h i s I ,
p l a y s , he d e c l a r e s t h a t he knows n o t any law t h a t 415
p r e s c r i b e s m o r a l i t y t o a com ick p o e t . " J o h n s o n v e r y
s t e r n l y r e p r o v e s him i n th e f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : "Of t h e I ,
m ind t h a t c an t r a d e i n c o r r u p t i o n , a n d c a n d e l i b e r a t e l y 3 9 8 -
p o l l u t e i t s e l f w i t h i d e a l w ic k e d n e s s f o r t h e sak e o f 399
s p r e a d in g th e c o n ta g i o n i n s o c i e t y , I w is h n o t t o c o n c e a l
o r e x cu se t h e d e p r a v i t y . - S u c h d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e d i g n i t y
o f g e n iu s , su ch a b u se o f s u p e r l a t i v e a b i l i t i e s , c a n n o t
be c o n te m p la te d b u t w i t h g r i e f and i n d i g n a t i o n . What
c o n s o l a t i o n c a n be h a d Dryden h a s a f f o r d e d , by l i v i n g
t o r e p e n t , and t o t e s t i f y h i s r e p e n t a n c e . "
I n a s i m i l a r way Jo h n so n condemns C o n g re v e 's p l a y s ,
s i n c e i t " i s a ck now ledg ed w i t h u n i v e r s a l c o n v i c t i o n t h a t I I ,
th e p e r u s a l o f h i s w orks w i l l make no man b e t t e r ; and 222
49
t h a t t h e i r u l t i m a t e e f f e c t i s t o r e p r e s e n t p l e a s u r e i n
a l l i a n c e w i t h v i c e , an d t o r e l a x t h o s e o b l i g a t i o n s b y
w hich l i f e o ug h t t o be r e g u l a t e d . "
Jo h n so n d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e tw e e n s e v e r a l t y p e s o f
drama: t r a g e d y , comedy, o p e r a , an d m asqu e . I n t r a g e d y ,
Jo h n so n d o e s n o t i n s i s t upon t h e o b s e rv a n c e o f t h e u n i t i e s
o f t im e and p l a c e , s i n c e i n r e a l l i f e su ch c r u c i a l e v e n t s
do n o t g e n e r a l l y h a p p en i n t h e same p l a c e and on t h e
same d a y . On th e w h o le , he does n o t a g re e w i t h D e n n i s ' s
c r i t i c i s m o f A& ctison 's t r a g e d y " C a to " ; b u t when t h e
fo rm er a t t a c k s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e a c t i o n an d t h e r e a s o n
a b l e n e s s o f t h e p l a n , b e c a u s e o f th e s t r i c t a d h e re n c e t o
t im e and p l a c e r e g u l a t i o n s , Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s him l e a s t
r e s i s t i b l e . "E very c r i t i c a l r e a d e r m ust r e m a rk t h a t I I
A dd ison h a s , w i t h a s c r u p u l o s i t y a lm o s t u nexam pled on t h e 136
E n g l i s h s t a g e , c o n f in e d h i m s e l f i n t im e t o a s i n g l e day ,
and i n p l a c e t o r i g o r o u s u n i t y . The sc e n e n e v e r c h a n g e s ,
and t h e w hole a c t i o n o f t h e p l a y p a s s e s i n t h e g c e a t h a l l
o f C a t o ' s h o use a t U t i c a . Much t h e r e f o r e i s done i n t h e
h a l l , f o r w h ich an y o t h e r p l a c e h a d b e e n more f i t ; an d
t h i s i m p r o p r i e t y a f f o r d s D en n is many h i n t s o f m e r r im e n t a n d
o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f t r i u m p h ."
Jo h n so n does i n s i s t n e v e r t h e l e s s , upon u n i t y o f
a c t i o n . He c r i t i c i s e s C o n g r e v e 's t r a g e d y , "The M ourn ing
50
B r i d e , " b e c a u s e " th e p l o t i s b u sy and i n t r i c a t e and t h e I I ,
e v e n t s t a k e h o l d on t h e a t t e n t i o n , t u t , e x c e p t a v e r y 219
few p a s s a g e s , we a r e r a t h e r amused w i t h n o i s e and p e r
p l e x e d w i t h s t r a t a g e m t h a n e n t e r t a i n e d w i t h any t r u e
d e l i n e a t i o n o f n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r s . "
I n comedy, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , Jo h n so n makes b u t
few demands. "As t h e l i g h t e r s p e c i e s o f d r a m a t i c k p o e t r y II,'
p r o f e s s e s t h e i m i t a t i o n o f common l i f e , o f r e a l m a n n e rs , 216
and d a i l y i n c i d e n t s , i t a p p a r e n t l y p r e s u p p o s e s a f a m i l i a r
know ledge o f many c h a r a c t e r s and e x a c t o b s e r v a t i o n o f
th e p a s s i n g w o r l d . "
Jo h n so n does n o t c o n s i d e r t h e o p e ra o f a v e r y h ig h
o rd e r o f l i t e r a r y m e r i t . He t o l e r a t e s t h e b a l l a d o p e ra
b e c a u s e i t h a s p r o v e d i t s own m e r i t by c o n t i n u e d p o p u l a r i t y .
"Much, h o w ev er , m ust be a l lo w e d t o t h e a u th o r o f a new I I ,
s p e c i e s o f c o m p o s i t io n , th o u g h i t be n o t o f t h e h i g h e s t 282-
k i n d . We owe t o Gay t h e B a l l a d O pera; a mode o f comedy 283
w hich a t f i r s t was su p p o sed t o d e l i g h t o n ly by i t s
n o v e l t y , b u t h a s now b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f h a l f a c e n t u r y
b e e n fo und so w e l l accom oda ted t o t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f a
p o p u la r a u d ie n c e t h a t i t i s l i k e l y t o keep lo n g p o s s e s s i o n
o f t h e s t a g e . " He do es n o t even t o l e r a t e t h e I t a l i a n
o p e ra , b u t c a l l s i t " a n e x o t i c k and i r r a t i o n a l e n t e r t a i n m e n t , I I ,
w h ich h a s b e e n a lw a y s com bated and a lw ay s h a s p r e v a i l e d . " 160
51
A no th e r one o f t h e l i g h t e r s p e c i e s o f d r a m a t ic
p o e t r y i s t h e m asque . S in c e by i t s v e r y n a t u r e i t i s
l i g h t and a i r y , Jo h n so n i n s i s t s t h a t i t be t r e a t e d a c c o r d
i n g l y . He f i n d s M i l t o n ' s "Comus" t o o h e av y ; " i t i s a I ,
drama i n t h e e p ic k s t y l e , i n e l e g a n t l y s p l e n d i d , and 169
t e d i o u s l y i n s t r u c t i v e . " However, e v e n th o u g h i t i s a
l e s s e r ty p e o f d ram a, y e t t r u t h m u s t be t h e k e y n o te .
A g a in Jo h n so n c r i t i c i s e s "Comus," b e c a u s e a s " a drama i t I ,
i s d e f i c i e n t . The a c t i o n i s n o t p r o b a b l e . A M asque, 168
i n t h o s e p a r t s where s u p e r n a t u r a l i n t e r v e n t i o n i s a d m i t t e d ,
m ust in d e e d b e g i v e n up t o a l l t h e f r e a k s o f im a g in a t io n ;
b u t so f a r a s t h e a c t i o n i s m e re ly human i t o ugh t t o
be r e a s o n a b l e . "
True p o e t r y i s t h a t w h ich co nvey s t r u t h t o t h e
m ind o f t h e r e a d e r . I n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y t h i s d e te r m in in g
p o e t i c r e q u i s i t e , Jo h n so n i n s i s t s t h a t i t m ust t e a c h
t r u t h s d e r i v e d from one or a l l o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e s o u r c e s :
a m o ra l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r i g h t and w rong ; a s y m p a th e t ic
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h u m a n ity ; and a t h o r o u g h know ledge o f
e x t e r n a l n a t u r e . S in c e i n t h e e p i c t h e r e a d e r f i n d s t r u t h
from t h e s e t h r e e s o u r c e s m ost e f f e c t u a l l y b l e n d e d , Jo h n so n
c o n s i d e r s t h e e p ic a s t h e h i g h e s t t y p e o f l i t e r a t u r e . I n
d i d a c t i c p o e t r y , i n c r i t i c a l , s a t i r i c a l , and c o n t r o v e r s i a l
v e r s e s , a s w e l l a s i n n a r r a t i v e , d e s c r i p t i v e , an d e l e g i a c
p o e t r y , he f i n d s one or t h e o t h e r s o u rc e p r e d o m in a n t .
52
I n a t r a n s l a t i o n , o f c o u r s e , he f i n d s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f th e o r i g i n a l ; and t h e r e f o r e J o h n s o n 's f i r s t c a u t i o n
t o t h e t r a n s l a t o r , i s t o s e e k a w ork t h a t may d e s e rv e
a t r a n s l a t i o n . I n t h e dram a, t r a g e d y i s g r e a t e r t h a n
comedy o r any o f i t s v a r i e t i e s , b e c a u s e i t a f f o r d s b e t t e r
o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f p r e s e n t i n g t h e t r u t h d e r i v e d from t h e
com bined t h r e e - f o l d s o u r c e . T r u th , t h e r e f o r e , i s th e
t o u c h s to n e by m eans o f w h ich Jo h n so n e s t i m a t e s p o e t i c
m e r i t*
I I
' AS RESPECTS PLEASURE
Not a l o n e , h o w e v er , i s t h e c o n c e rn o f p o e t r y w i t h
t r u t h . Jo h n so n s a y s t h a t " p o e t r y i s t h e a r t o f u n i t i n g I ,
p l e a s u r e w i t h t r u t h " ; f o r "we l o v e t e t t e r t o b e p l e a s e d 170
t h a n t o be t a u g h t . " T h e r e f o r e , " t h a t b o o k i s good i nII,
v a i n w hich t h e r e a d e r th ro w s aw ay . He o n ly i s t h e m a s te r • •144
who k e e p s t h e m ind i n p l e a s i n g c a p t i v i t y ; whose p a g e s I ,
a r e p e r u s e d a g a i n ; and whose c o n c l u s i o n i s p e r c e i v e d w i th 454
an eye o f so r ro w , such a s t h e t r a v e l l e r c a s t s u pon de
p a r t i n g d a y ." "To a t h o u s a n d c a v i l s one answ er i s I I I ,
s u f f i c i e n t ; t h e p u rp o s e o f a w r i t e r i s t o be r e a d , and 24=0
th e c r i t i c i s m w h ich w ould d e s t r o y t h e power o f p l e a s i n g
53
m ust be b low n a s i d e . " "F or t o w h a t u s e c a n th e w ork I I I ,
be c r i t i c i s e d t h a t w i l l n o t be r e a d ? " " I t i s n o t by 420
com paring l i n e w i t h l i n e t h a t t h e m e r i t o f g r e a t w orks
i s to be e s t i m a t e d , b u t by t h e i r g e n e r a l e f f e c t s and I ,
u l t i m a t e r e s u l t . . . . Works o f i m a g i n a t i o n e x c e l by t h e i r 454
a l l u r e m e n t and d e l i g h t ; by t h e i r power o f a t t r a c t i n g and
d e t a i n i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n . " "He who p l e a s e s many m ust I ,
have some s p e c i e s o f m e r i t " , f o r " t h e end o f p o e t r y i s 302
p l e a s u r e . " 1 7 5
I n s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t J o h n s o n a t t r i b u t e s
e v e ry i n t e l l e c t u a l e x c e l l e n c e t o M i l t o n ' s g r e a t e p i c ,
y e t he d e p l o r e s t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e power o f a t t r a c t i n g and
d e t a i n i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n . "The w ant o f human i n t e r e s t I ;
i s a lw ay s f e l t . P a r a d i s e L o s t i s one o f t h e b o o k s 1 8 3 -
w hich t h e r e a d e r a d m ire s and l a y s down, and f o r g e t s t o 184
ta k e up a g a i n . . . . I t s p e r u s a l i s a d u ty r a t h e r t h a n a
p l e a s u r e . We r e a d M i l t o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n , r e t i r e
h a r a s s e d a n d o v e rb u rd e n e d , and lo o k e ls e w h e re f o r r e c
r e a t i o n ; we d e s e r t our m a s t e r , and s e e k f o r c o m p a n io n s ."
However, t h e l i t e r a r y w o r ld h a s b e e n t a u g h t how t o a p p re
c i a t e M i l t o n ' s m a s t e r p i e c e , c h i e f l y th r o u g h t h e c r i t i c i s m s
o f A ddison ; f o r , "by t h e b l a n d i s h m e n t s o f g e n t l e n e s s and I I ,
f a c i l i t y he h a s made M i l t o n an u n i v e r s a l f a v o u r i t e w i t h 147
whom r e a d e r s o f e v e ry c l a s s t h i n k i t n e c e s s a r y t o be
54
p l e a s e d . "
S i m i l a r l y , P r i o r ' s poem "Solomon" c o n t a i n s much
knowledge and much th o u g h t ; i t h a s p o l i s h e d e l e g a n c e ,
d i g n i f i e d w i th s p le n d o r and s u b l i m i t y . To t h i s poem
P r i o r e n t r u s t e d t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f h i s name. He " p e r - I I ,
c e iv e d i n i t many e x c e l l e n c e s , and d i d n o t d i s c o v e r t h a t 206
i t w a n ted t h a t w i t h o u t w h ich a l l o t h e r s a r e o f s m a l l
a v a i l , t h e power o f e n g a g in g a t t e n t i o n and a l l u r i n g
c u r i o s i t y . "
Not o n ly i n o r i g i n a l poem s, b u t i n t r a n s l a t i o n s
a s w e l l , Jo h n so n demands t h i s power o f p l e a s i n g . H ence ,
a l t h o u g h he c a n n o t c a l l A d d i s o n 's t r a n s l a t i o n s s c h o l a r l y
b e c a u s e t h e y a r e to o l i c e n t i o u s l y p a r a p h r a s t i c a l , y e t
he h i g h l y a p p ro v e s o f them . "They a r e . . . f o r t h e m ost H ,
p a r t smooth and e a s y , a n d , w h a t i s th e f i r s t e x c e l l e n c e o f 145
a t r a n s l a t o r , such a s may be r e a d w i t h p l e a s u r e b y t h o s e
who do n o t know t h e o r i g i n a l s . "
1 . PLEASURES OF THE MIND
J o h n s o n d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e tw e e n two k i n d s o f p l e a s u r e s :
t h e p l e a s u r e s o f t h e m ind; an d t h e p l e a s u r e s o f t h e h e a r t .
B e s id e s t h e e p i c , t h e t y p e s o f p o e t r y i n w h ich he i s m ost
i n t e r e s t e d a r e d i d a c t i c , c o n t r o v e r s i a l , and c r i t i c a l v e r s e s .
A l l o f t h e s e a r e p r e d o m in a n t ly i n t e l l e c t u a l i n n a t u r e ;
y e t he i n s i s t s t h a t a l l poems m ust a f f o r d p l e a s u r e t o t h e
55
r e a d e r . How c a n p u r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l poems p l e a s e ?
Jo h n so n s u g g e s t s two s o u r c e s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l p l e a s u r e ,
n o v e l t y and v a r i e t y .
a .N o v e lty "The p l e a s u r e s o f t h e m ind im p ly so m e th in g sudden X,
and u n e x p e c te d ; t h a t w h ich e l e v a t e s m ust a lw a y s s u r p r i s e . 59
What i s p e r c e i v e d b y s low d e g r e e s may g r a t i f y u s w i t h
th e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f im p rov em en t, b u t w i l l n e v e r s t r i k e
w i t h t h e s e n s e o f p l e a s u r e . " " N o v e l ty i s t h e g r e a t I I ,206
s o u rc e o f p l e a s u r e , " and i t i s " a lw a y s g r a t e f u l w here i t I ,317 ’
g i v e s no p a i n . " "The w o r ld h a s b u t l i t t l e new"; and I I I ,271
t h e r e f o r e " t h e h i g h e s t p r a i s e o f g e n iu s i s o r i g i n a l i n - I ■194
v e n t i o n . "
The c h i e f r e a s o n t h a t J o h n s o n p r a i s e s so h i g h l y
P o p e ' s "Rape o f t h e L o c k ," i s b e c a u s e o f t h e t w o f o l d
n o v e l t y e x h i b i t e d i n t h i s poem; f o r i n t h i s w ork "new
t h i n g s a r e made f a m i l i a r , and f a m i l i a r t h i n g s a r e made m ,
new ." Pope " a lw a y s c o n s i d e r e d t h e i n t e r m i x t u r e o f t h e 233,
m a c h in e ry w i t h t h e a c t i o n a s h i s m ost s u c c e s s f u l e x e r t i o n I I I ,
o f p o e t i c a l a r t . He in d e e d c o u ld n e v e r a f t e r w a r d s p r o - 104
duce a n y th in g o f such unexam pled e x c e l l e n c e . Those
p e r fo rm a n c e s , w h ic h s t r i k e w i t h w o n d e r , a r e c o m b in a t io n s
o f s k i l f u l g e n iu s w i t h happy c a s u a l t y ; and i t i s n o t
l i k e l y t h a t any f e l i c i t y , l i k e t h e d i s c o v e r y o f a new r a c e
56
o f p r e t e r n a t u r a l a g e n t s , s h o u ld h a p p en t w i c e t o th e same
m a n ."
S in c e t h e " e s s e n c e o f p o e t r y i s i n v e n t i o n , " I ,
Jo h n so n r e c o g n i z e s p o e t i c g e n iu s i n su c h a u t h o r s a s Denham,291
C ongreve , Gay, S av ag e , Jam es Thomson, and Young. Denham 's
poem " C o o p e r 's H i l l " i s t h e w ork " t h a t c o n f e r s upon him I ,
th e r a n k an d d i g n i t y o f an o r i g i n a l a i t h o r , . . . t h e a u th o r 77
o f a s p e c i e s o f c o m p o s i t io n t h a t may be d e n o m in a te d l o c a l
p o e t r y . . . . To t r a c e a new scheme o f p o e t r y h a s i n i t s e l f
a v e r y h ig h c la im t o p r a i s e , and i t s p r a i s e i s y e t more
when i t i s a p p a r e n t l y c o p ie d b y G a r th and P o p e ."
"C ongreve h a s m e r i t o f t h e h i g h e s t k i n d : he i s IX,
an o r i g i n a l w r i t e r , who b o rro w ed n e i t h e r th e m o d e ls o f 228
h i s p l o t n o r t h e m anner o f h i s d i a l o g u e . "
Gay i s p r a i s e d a s t h e i n v e n t o r o f th e b a l l a d o p e r a .
"W hether t h i s new drama was t h e p r o d u c t o f judgem ent o r I I ,
o f l u c k th e p r a i s e o f i t m ust be g i v e n t o t h e i n v e n t o r ; 283
and t h e r e a r e many w r i t e r s r e a d w i t h more r e v e r e n c e t o
whom such m e r i t o f o r i g i n a l i t y c a n n o t be a t t r i b u t e d . "
Jo h n so n g e n e r a l l y d oes n o t p r a i s e p a n e g y r i c s , f o r
th e p a t h s t h e r e i n a r e so b e a t e n t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o
t r a v e l i n them w i t h o u t t r e a d i n g i n o t h e r s ' f o o t s t e p s .
However, he p l a c e s above c e n s u re S a v a g e 's p a n e g y r i c on t h e
d e a th o f th e queen ; f o r by " t r a n s f e r r i n g th e m e n t io n o f II ,"
57
her death to her birthday he has formed a happy combina- 407
tion of topicks, which any other man would have thought
it very difficult to connect in one view, but whioh he
has united in such a manner that the relation between
them appears natural." Indeed, Johnson ranks Savage's
poem "among the best that the death of princes has II,
produced." 407
One o f th e v e ry few n a t u r e poems t h a t Jo h n so n
m e n t io n s , i s Thom son 's poem, "The S e a s o n s . " B ecau se o f I I I
th e n o v e l t y o f t h i s poem, Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s Thomson"en- 298
t i t l e d t o one p r a i s e o f t h e h i g h e s t k i n d : h i s mode o f 299
t h i n k i n g and o f e x p r e s s i n g h i s t h o u g h t s i s o r i g i n a l . . . .
The r e a d e r o f The S e a so n s w on ders t h a t he n e v e r saw
b e f o r e w ha t Thomson shews h im , and t h a t he n e v e r y e t h a s
f e l t w ha t Thomson i m p r e s s e s . "
A lth o u g h Jo h n so n d o e s n o t g e n e r a l l y app rove o f
b l a n k v e r s e ; y e t he p r a i s e s u n r e s e r v e d l y Y o u n g 's b l a n k
v e r s e and h i s rhym ing l i n e s . "H is v e r s i f i c a t i o n i s h i s H I
own. . . . He p i c k s up no h e m i s t i c h s , he c o p ie s no f a v o u r i t e 399
e x p r e s s i o n s ; he seems t o have l a i d u p no s t o r e s o f th o u g h t
o r d i c t i o n , b u t t o owe a l l t o t h e f o r t u i t o u s s u g g e s t i o n
o f th e p r e s e n t moment. . . . He seem s n e v e r t o have s t u d i e d
p r o s o d y , n o r t o have h a d any d i r e c t i o n b u t from h i s own
e a r . B u t , w i t h a l l h i s d e f e c t s , he was a man o f g e n iu s
58
and a p o e t . "
b .V arie ty - Very c l o s e l y c o n n e c te d w i t h n o v e l t y i s v a r i e t y .
The fo rm er a t t r a c t s t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e r e a d e r ; t h e
l a t t e r r e t a i n s i t . " U n i f o r m i ty m ust t i r e a t l a s t , I ,
th o u g h i t be u n i f o r m i t y o f e x c e l l e n c e . We lo v e t o e x p e c t ; 212
an d when e x p e c t a t i o n i s d i s a p p o i n t e d o r g r a t i f i e d , we w an t
t o be a g a i n e x p e c t i n g . For t h i s im p a t ie n c e o f t h e p r e s e n t ,
whoever w ould p l e a s e m u s t make p r o v i s i o n . "
Whoever do es n o t p r o v id e a g a i n s t t h i s im p a t ie n c e
o f th e p r e s e n t i s g u i l t y o f t e d i o u s n e s s , w h ich i s in d e e d
" t h e m ost f a t a l o f a l l f a u l t s ; n e g l i g e n c e s o r e r r o r s a r e I I ,
s i n g l e and l o c a l , b u t t e d i o u s n e s s p e r v a d e s t h e w ho le . . . . 206
U n h a p p i ly t h i s p e r n i c i o u s f a i l u r e i s t h a t w h ich a n a u th o r
i s l e a s t a b l e t o d i s c o v e r . We a r e se ldom t i r e s o m e t o
o u r s e l v e s ; and th e a c t o f c o m p o s i t io n f i l l s and d e l i g h t s
th e m ind w i t h change o f la n g u a g e an d s u c c e s s i o n o f im a g e s ."
T h e r e f o r e , e v e ry poem, i n o r d e r t o a f f o r d i n t e l l e c t u a l
p l e a s u r e b y a t t r a c t i n g an d d e t a i n i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n , m ust
e x c e l b o t h i n n o v e l t y and i n v a r i e t y .
2 . PLEASURES OF THE HEART
Jo h n so n e n jo y s i n t e l l e c t u a l p o e t r y , su c h a s
d i d a c t i c v e r s e , c r i t i c i s m , o r c o n t r o v e r s y ; t h e r e f o r e he
59
a .In th e Drama
p r e f e r s t h e p l e a s u r e s o f t h e m ind to t h o s e o f t h e h e a r t .
I n t h o s e t y p e s o f p o e t r y , how ever , i n w h ich t h e human
p a s s i o n s a r e p o r t r a y e d o r e x p r e s s e d , su c h a s i n th e
drama and i n th e l y r i c , he d o e s i n s i s t t h a t t h e y be
t r u t h f u l l y p r e s e n t e d . The d ram a, much more t h a n any o t h e r
k in d o f p o e t r y , d e a l s w i t h t h e p a s s i o n s o f t h e human
h e a r t ; and t h e r e f o r e i t s s u c c e s s depends u p o n a s t r o n g
e m o t io n a l a p p e a l . Deep t h o u g h t and c a r e f u l r e a s o n i n g
may be l a c k i n g ; b u t an a p p e a l t o t h e e m o t io n s i s i n
d i s p e n s a b l e . O tw a y 's p l a y , "The O rp h a n ," was e x h i b i t e d I ,
i n 1680 . " T h is i s one o f t h e few p l a y s t h a t keep 245
p o s s e s s i o n o f th e s t a g e , and h a s p l e a s e d f o r a lm o s t a
c e n tu r y t h r o u g h a l l t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f d r a m a t i c k
f a s h i o n . . . . I t s w hole power i s u pon t h e a f f e c t i o n s , f o r
i t i s n o t w r i t t e n w i t h much c o m p re h e n s io n o f th o u g h t o r
e le g a n c e o f e x p r e s s i o n . B u t i f t h e h e a r t i s i n t e r e s t e d ,
many o t h e r b e a u t i e s may be w a n t in g , y e t n o t be m i s s e d . "
A no th e r s u c c e s s f u l drama i s R ow e 's p l a y , " J a n e S h o r e ."
" T h is p l a y , c o n s i s t i n g c h i e f l y o f d o m e s t ic k s c e n e s a n d H ,
p r i v a t e d i s t r e s s , l a y s h o l d upon t h e h e a r t . . . . T h is 6 9 -
t h e r e f o r e i s one o f t h o s e p i e c e s w h ich we s t i l l 70
welcome on t h e s t a g e . "
On th e o t h e r h a n d , c e r t a i n d ram as have f a i l e d
b e c a u s e t h e y p r e s e n t e d r a t h e r a s u c c e s s i o n o f s e n t im e n t s
60
t h a n a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f n a t u r a l a f f e c t i o n s , o r o f any
s t a t e p ro b a b le o r p o s s i b l e i n t h i s l i f e ; f o r " p o e t i c a l I,
p l e a s u r e m ust b e such a s human i m a g i n a t i o n can a t l e a s t 182
c o n c e iv e , an d p o e t i c a l t e r r o u r such a s human s t r e n g t h
and f o r t i t u d e c a n c o m b a t ." A d d i s o n 's t r a g e d y " C a to , "
w hich Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s t h e n o b l e s t p r o d u c t i o n o f h i s
g e n iu s , h a s b e e n s t y l e d r a t h e r a poem i n d i a lo g u e t h a n
a dram a. "N o th in g h e r e ' e x c i t e s o r a s s u a g e s e m o t i o n ; 1 I I ,
h e re i s 'n o m a g ic a l power o f r a i s i n g p h a n t a s t i c k t e r r o r 132
or w i l d a n x i e t y . 1 The e v e n t s a r e e x p e c te d w i th o u t
s o l i c i t u d e , an d a r e rem em bered w i t h o u t jo y o r so r ro w . . . .
N e i th e r gods n o r men c a n have much a t t e n t i o n ; f o r t h e r e
i s n o t one am ongst them t h a t s t r o n g l y a t t r a c t s e i t h e r<
a f f e c t i o n o r e s t e e m ."
I n l i k e m an n e r , Jo h n so n d e p l o r e s D r y d e n 's d e f i
c i e n t d r a m a t i c f a c u l t i e s , a l t h o u g h he r e c o g n i z e s t h e
w ide r a n g e o f t h e l a t t e r ' s p o e t i c a b i l i t i e s . " P e rh a p s I ,
no n a t i o n e v e r p ro d u c e d a w r i t e r t h a t e n r i c h e d h i s 469
la n g u a g e w i t h su c h v a r i e t y o f m o d e l s . " Y e t , "upon I
o c c a s io n s t h a t w ere p r e s e n t e d he s t u d i e d r a t h e r t h a n f e l t , 457
and p ro d u c e d s e n t im e n t s n o t su ch a s N a tu re e n f o r c e s ,
b u t m e d i t a t i o n s u p p l i e s . W ith t h e s im p le and e l e m e n ta l
p a s s i o n s , a s t h e y s p r i n g s e p a r a t e i n th e m in d , h e seems
n o t much a c q u a i n t e d . " He n e i t h e r u n d e r s t o o d n o r a p p r e -
61
c i a t e d lo v e a n a p a t h o s , - t h e two fu n d a m e n ta l e m o tio n s
upon w h ich t h e drama i s b a s e d . " D r y d e n 's was n o t I ,
one o f th e ' g e n t l e b o s o m s : ' L ov e , a s i t s u b s i s t s i n 458
i t s e l f , w i t h no te n d e n c y b u t t o t h e p e r s o n lo v e d a n d
w is h in g o n ly f o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g k i n d n e s s ; such lo v e a s
s h u t s o u t a l l o t h e r i n t e r e s t . . . was t o o s o f t a n d s u b t l e
t o p u t h i s f a c u l t i e s i n m o t io n . . . . He i s t h e r e f o r e ,
w i th a l l h i s v a r i e t y o f e x c e l l e n c e , n o t o f t e n p a t h e t i c k ;
and h a d so l i t t l e s e n s i b i l i t y o f t h e power o f e f f u s i o n s
p -urely n a t u r a l , t h a t he d id n o t e s te e m them i n o t h e r s .
S i m p l i c i t y gave him no p l e a s u r e ; and f o r th e f i r s t p a r t
o f h i s l i f e he lo o k e d on Otway w i t h c o n te m p t , th o u g h
a t l a s t , in d e e d v e ry l a t e , he c o n f e s s e d t h a t i n h i s p l a y
' t h e r e w as N a tu r e , Which i s t h e c h i e f b e a u t y . " '
S i m i l a r l y i t may be d o u b te d w h e th e r Jam es Thomson was
much q u a l i f i e d f o r t r a g e d y ; f o r i t " d o e s n o t a p p e a r t h a t I I I
he h a d much s e n se o f t h e p a t h e t i c k . " H ence , t h e s u c c e s s 293
o f a t r a g e d y dep en d s upon th e c o n v in c in g p o r t r a y a l o f
g e n u in e e m o t io n s .
b .I n t h e L y r ic
I n l y r i c p o e t r y , w h ich i s e n t i r e l y s u b j e c t i v e ,
t h e p o e t m ust e x p e r i e n c e t h e e m o t io n s w h ic h he p r o f e s s e s
t o e x p r e s s ; o th e r w is e h i s v e r s e s do n o t s a t i s f y t h e f i r s t
r e q u i s i t e o f p o e t r y , s i n c e t h e y a r e n o t b a s e d upon t r u t h :
62
n o r , where t h e r e i s no p l e a s u r e i n t h e w r i t e r , w i l l any
be found i n h im who r e a d s t h e w ork . For " t h e b a s i s o f I ,
a l l e x c e l l e n c e i s t r u t h ; he t h a t p r o f e s s e s l o v e o u g h t 6
t o f e e l i t s po w er . P e t r a r c h was a r e a l l o v e r , an d
L a u ra d o u b t l e s s d e s e r v e d h i s t e n d e r n e s s . Of Cowley
we a r e t o l d b y B a r n e s , . . . he i n r e a l i t y was i n lo v e
b u t onoe , an d t h e n n e v e r h a d r e s o l u t i o n t o t e l l h i s
p a s s i o n . " T h e r e f o r e , Jo h n so n does n o t v a lu e h i g h l y
C o w le y 's l y r i c , t h e " M i s t r e s s , " s in c e th e a u th o r h i m s e l f
d e c l a r e d t h a t he w ro te l o v e poems o n ly t o be c o n s i d e r e d
a f reem an among p o e t s , who m ust so o n e r o r l a t e r p le d g e
th e m s e lv e s t o be t r u e t o L o v e .
L y r i c p o e t r y m ust be b a s e d upon a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e s
o f an o r d e r c a l c u l a t e d t o p l e a s e . P r i o r , a l s o , was
u n s u c c e s s f u l i n h i s am orous e f f u s i o n s ; " f o r t h e y a r e n o t I I ,
d i c t a t e d by n a t u r e o r by p a s s i o n , and have n e i t h e r 202
g a l l a n t r y n o r t e n d e r n e s s . They h ave t h e c o ld n e s s o f
Cowley w i t h o u t h i s w i t ; t h e d u l l e x e r c i s e s o f a s k i l f u l
v e r s i f i e r r e s o l v e d a t a l l a d v e n t u r e s t o w r i t e som e th in g
a b o u t C h lo e , and t r y i n g t o be am orous by d i n t o f s t u d y . "
Jo h n so n i n s i s t s t h a t l o v e - l y r i e s m u s t be
e m o t io n a l ; he condemns them i f t h e y a r e c o ld and p a s s i o n
l e s s , b e c a u s e t h e n th e y a r e n o t g e n u in e e f f u s i o n s o f t h e
h e a r t . However, he condemns ev en more s e v e r e l y t h o s e
63
l y r i c s w h ich v i o l a t e t r u t h by e x a g g e r a t i o n . W a l l e r ' s
am orous v e r s e s he c o n s i d e r s s e n t i m e n t a l , f o r t h e y c o n t a i n
" to o much lo v e an d to o many t r i f l e s . L i t t l e t h i n g s a r e I ,
made to o i m p o r t a n t ; an d t h e E m pire o f B e a u ty i s r e p r e s e n t e d 287
a s e x e r t i n g i t s i n f l u e n c e f u r t h e r t h a n c a n be a l lo w e d by
th e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f human p a s s i o n s an d t h e v a r i e t y o f human
w a n ts . Such b o o k s t h e r e f o r e may be c o n s i d e r e d a s shew ing
t h e w o r ld u n d e r a f a l s e a p p e a r a n c e , a n d , so f a r a s t h e y
o b t a i n c r e d i t from t h e young and u n e x p e r i e n c e d , a s m i s l e a d
in g e x p e c t a t i o n and m is g u id in g p r a c t i c e . "
Y e t , s t r a n g e a s i t may seem , Jo h n so n d o es n o t
b e l i e v e i n " p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n . " He i s s u r p r i s e d t h a t so
g r e a t a g e n iu s a s M i l t o n s h o u ld have d e c l a r e d t h a t w i t h th e
advance o f t h e s p r i n g he f e l t t h e i n c r e a s e o f h i s p o e t i c a l
f o r c e . " T h is dependance o f t h e s o u l u p o n th e s e a s o n s , I ,
t h o s e te m p o ra ry and p e r i o d i c a l e b b s an d f lo w s o f i n t e l l e c t , 136
may, I su p p o s e , j u s t l y be d e r i d e d a s t h e fum es o f v a i n 137
i m a g i n a t i o n . • • • Our po w ers owe much o f t h e i r e n e rg y to
our h o p e s ; 'p o s s u n t q u ia p o s s e v i d e n t u r . 1" A lth o u g h
Jo h n so n p r a i s e s h i g h l y G r a y ' s " E le g y , " b e c a u s e i t makes such
a g e n u in e and u n i v e r s a l a p p e a l t o t h e human h e a r t , y e t he
c r i t i c i s e s t h e a u th o r f o r h a v in g t h i s p e c u l i a r i t y , " t h a t
he had a n o t i o n . . . t h a t he c o u ld n o t w r i t e b u t a t c e r t a i n I I I
t im e s , o r a t happy moments; a f a n t a s t i c k f o p p e r y , t o 433
64
which, my k i n d n e s s f o r a man o f l e a r n i n g and o f v i r t u el . «t
w is h e s ^ to h ave b e e n s u p e r i o r . "
B . JOHNSON'S OPINION REGARDING
FORM OF POETRY
I
AS RESPECTS STYLE
• •
" P o e t r y i s th e a r t o f u n i t i n g p l e a s u r e w i t h t r u t h , I ,
by c a l l i n g i m a g i n a t i o n to t h e h e l p o f r e a s o n . " For a l l 170
t h i s , Jo h n so n m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f p o e t r y
m ust be d i s t i n g u i s h e d , n o t o n ly b y i t s c o n t e n t , b u t b y i t s
form a s w e l l . F o r " t r u t h in d e e d i s a lw a y s t r u t h , and I ,
r e a s o n i s a lw a y s r e a s o n ; t h e y have a n i n t r i n s i c k and 59
u n a l t e r a b l e v a l u e , a n d c o n s t i t u t e t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l g o ld
w hich d e f i e s d e s t r u c t i o n : b u t g o ld may be so c o n c e a l e d i n
b a s e r m a t t e r t h a t o n ly a c h y m is t c a n r e c o v e r i t ; s e n se may
be so h id d e n i n u n r e f i n e d and p l e b e i a n w ords t h a t none
b u t p h i l o s o p h e r s c a n d i s t i n g u i s h i t ; and b o t h may be so
b u r i e d i n i m p u r i t i e s a s n o t t o pay t h e c o s t o f t h e i r ex
t r a c t i o n . "
I n D ry d e n 's c r i t i c a l w o rk s , a s w e l l a s i n R y m er 's
p e r f o r m a n c e s , t h e c o n t e n t m a t t e r i s t r u t h ; b u t each w r i t e r
p r e s e n t s t r u t h i n a d i f f e r e n t way. "W ith D ryden we a r e I ,
w a n d e r in g i n q u e s t o f T r u th , whom we f i n d , i f we f i n d h e r
65
a t a l l , d r e s t i n th e g r a c e s o f e le g a n c e ; and i f we m is s 413
h e r , t h e l a b o u r o f t h e p u r s u i t r e w a r d s i t s e l f : we a r e
l e d on ly t h r o u g h f r a g r a n c e an d f l o w e r s . Rymer, w i th o u t
t a k i n g a n e a r e r , t a k e s a r o u g h e r way; e v e ry s t e p i s to
be made th r o u g h t h o r n s and b r a m b le s , a n d T r u th , i f we m eet
h e r , a p p e a r s r e p u l s i v e b y h e r m ie n and u n g r a c e f u l by
h e r h a b i t . D ryden1s c r i t i c i s m h a s t h e m a je s ty o f a queen ;
R y m er 's h a s th e f e r o c i t y o f a t y r a n t . "
B la c k m o r e 's poem on " C r e a t io n " h a s two c o n s t i t u e n t
p a r t s : r a t i o c i n a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n . Jo h n so n a d m i t s t h a t
i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e a s o n i n v e r s e , b u t he m a i n t a i n s
t h a t B lackm ore n o t o n ly r e a s o n s w e l l , b u t v e r y o f t e n r e a s o n s
p o e t i c a l l y . M o reo v er , i n h i s d e s c r i p t i v e p a s s a g e s , b o t h
o f l i f e and o f n a t u r e , " th e p o e t and th e p h i lo s o p h e r h a p p i l y I I
c o - o p e r a t e ; t r u t h i s recommended by e l e g a n c e , and e l e g a n c e 254
s u s t a i n e d by t r u t h . "
1 . CLASSIFICATION OF STYLE
T here a r e two p h a s e s o f p o e t i c form w hich Jo h n so n
c o n s i d e r s : s t y l e and v e r s i f i c a t i o n . " A l l p o l i s h e d
l a n g u a g e s have d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s : t h e c o n c i s e , t h e d i f f u s e , I ,
t h e l o f t y , and th e h u m b le ." The c o n c i s e a n d th e d i f f u s e 422
a r e t h e a n t i t h e s e s o f e a c h o t h e r , w h i l e th e l o f t y and t h e
humble a r e o pposed t o e ac h o t h e r . I n p o i n t o f t i m e , t h e
66
a .C onciseS ty le
c o n c i s e p r e c e d e s t h e d i f f u s e . "T here i s a t im e when I I I ,
n a t i o n s em erg ing from b a r b a r i t y , an d f a l l i n g i n t o r e g u l a r 239
s u b o r d i n a t i o n , g a i n l e i s u r e t o grow w i s e , and f e e l t h e
shame o f ig n o ra n c e and th e c r a v i n g p a i n o r u n s a t i s f i e d
c u r i o s i t y . To t h i s h u n g e r o f t h e m ind p l a i n s e n s e i s
g r a t e f u l ; t h a t w h ich f i l l s t h e v o i d rem oves u n e a s i n e s s ,
and t o be f r e e from p a i n f o r a w h i l e i s p l e a s u r e ; b u t r e p l e
t i o n g e n e r a t e s f a s t i d i o u s n e s s , a s a t u r a t e d I n t e l l e c t soon
becom es l u x u r i o u s , an d know ledge f i n d s no w i l l i n g r e c e p t i o n
t i l l i t i s recommended by a r t i f i c i a l d i c t i o n . Thus i t
w i l l be found i n t h e p r o g r e s s o f l e a r n i n g t h a t i n a l l
n a t i o n s t h e f i r s t w r i t e r s a r e s im p le , and t h a t e v e r y age
im p ro v es i n e l e g a n c e . "
The c o n c i s e s t y l e , t h e n , i s p e c u l i a r l y a d a p te d
t o poems c o n v ey in g i n f o r m a t i o n . Jo h n so n m e n t io n s D ryden
and S w if t a s p o e t s who w r i t e i n t h i s s i m p l e , d i r e c t way.
D ry den 1s s t y l e i s a lw a y s c l e a r and v i g o r o u s , y e t i t i s
a lw ay s v a r i e d . "D ryden i s a lw a y s ' a n o t h e r and th e same;* I,
he d oes n o t . . . a p p e a r t o h av e any a r t o t h e r t h a n t h a t 418
o f e x p r e s s in g w i t h c l e a r n e s s w h a t he t h i n k s w i t h v i g o u r . "
STJrift, a l s o fo u n d d e l i g h t i n s i m p l i c i t y . He s t u d i e d
p u r i t y ; and i t was h i s d e s i r e t o a t t a i n a n e a s y and s a f e
conveyance o f m ea n in g . " A l l h i s v e r s e s e x e m p l i fy h i s I I I ,
own d e f i n i t i o n o f a good s t y l e , t h e y c o n s i s t o f ’p r o p e r 65
w ords i n p r o p e r p l a c e s . ' " For p u r p o s e s m e re ly d i d a c t i c ,
67
when so m e th in g i s t o b e t o l d t h a t was n o t known b e f o r e ,
Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s th e c o n c i s e s t y l e th e b e s t mode o f ex
p r e s s i n g th o u g h t : ""but a g a i n s t t h a t i n a t t e n t i o n by w h ich I I I ,
known t r u t h s a r e s u f f e r e d t o l i e n e g l e c t e d i t makes no 52
p r o v i s i o n ; i t i n s t r u c t s , b u t do es n o t p e r s u a d e . "
b .D i f fu s e
S ty le T h e r e f o r e , a s n a t i o n s become more f a s t i d i o u s ,
p o e t s add t o u c h e s o f l u x u r y and e le g a n c e t o t h e i r p o e t r y .
B ecau se o f t h i s i n c r e a s e d l i t e r a r y demand f o r p o e t i c
b e a u t i e s , Jo h n so n a p p ro v e s o f and a p p la u d s P o p e ' s v e r s i o n
o f t h e " I l i a d . " " I suppose many r e a d e r s o f t h e E n g l i s h I I I ,
I l i a d , when t h e y have b e e n to u c h e d w i t h some u n e x p e c te d 239
b e a u ty o f th e l i g h t e r k i n d , have t r i e d t o e n jo y i t i n th e
o r i g i n a l , w h e re , a l a s l i t was n o t t o b e fo u n d . Homer
d o u b t l e s s owes t o h i s t r a n s l a t o r many O v id ia n g r a c e s n o t
e x a c t l y s u i t a b l e t o h i s c h a r a c t e r ; b u t t o have ad d ed can
be no g r e a t c r im e i f n o th in g be t a k e n away. E le g a n c e i s
s u r e l y t o b e d e s i r e d i f i t b e n o t g a in e d a t t h e expence
o f d i g n i t y . "
Here many p o e t s , ho w ev er , make t h e i r f a t a l m is t a k e ;
f o r t h e y g a i n e l e g a n c e a t th e e x p e n s e , n o t o n ly o f d i g n i t y ,
b u t ev en o f l u c i d i t y and o f p e r s p i c u i t y . I n James
Thom son 's poem, "The S e a s o n s , " t h e g r e a t d e f e c t i s w an t o f
m ethod . Jo h n so n f i n d s some e x cu se f o r i t i n t h i s poem,
68
how ever: b e c a u s e , " o f many a p p e a r a n c e s s u b s i s t i n g a l l I I I ,
a t o n c e , no r u l e c a n be g i v e n why one sh o u ld be m e n t io n e d 299 -
b e f o r e a n o th e r ; y e t t h e memory w a n ts t h e h e l p o f o r d e r , and 300
t h e c u r i o s i t y i s n o t e x c i t e d by su s p e n s e o r e x p e c t a t i o n . "
I n W e s t 's " I n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e G a r t e r , " t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t
knowledge o f t h e m an n e rs t h a t p r e v a i l e d i n t h e age t o
w h ich i t r e f e r r e d , a s w e l l a s g r e a t e le g a n c e o f d i c t i o n ;
" b u t , f o r w an t o f a p r o c e s s o f e v e n t s , n e i t h e r know ledge I I I ,
n o r e le g a n c e p r e s e r v e t h e r e a d e r from w e a r i n e s s . " 332
S i m i l a r l y , r e a d e r s o f S a v a g e 's poem, "The W a n d e re r ," have
g e n e r a l l y o b j e c t e d " t h a t t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e p a r t s i s H ,
i r r e g u l a r ; t h a t t h e d e s i g n i s o b s c u r e , and t h e p l a n p e r - 365
p le x e d ; t h a t t h e im a g e s , however b e a u t i f u l , su c c e e d e a c h
o t h e r w i t h o u t o r d e r ; and t h a t t h e w ho le p e r fo rm a n c e i s
n o t so much a r e g u l a r f a b r i o k a s a h e ap o f s h i n i n g m a t e r i a l s
th row n t o g e t h e r b y a c c i d e n t , w h ich s t r i k e s r a t h e r w i t h
th e so lem n m a g n i f i c e n c e o f a s tu p e n d o u s r u i n t h a n th e
e l e g a n t g ra n d e u r o f a f i n i s h e d p i l e . "
Y o u n g 's s t y l e i s so m e tim es d i f f u s i v e an d som etim es
c o n c i s e . Jo h n so n c r i t i c i s e s h i s m ethod o f c o m p o s i t io n .
"H is p l a n seems t o have s t a r t e d i n h i s m ind a t t h e p r e s e n t I I I , '
moment, a n d h i s t h o u g h t s a p p e a r t h e e f f e c t s o f c h a n o e , 393
som etim es a d v e r s e an d som etim es l u c k y , w i t h v e ry l i t t l e
o p e r a t i o n o f ju d g e m e n t ." I n h i s f i r s t g r e a t p e r fo rm a n c e ,
69
"The L a s t L a y ," many p a r a g r a p h s a r e n o b l e , an d few a r e
mean, " y e t t h e w hole i s l a n g u i d ; t h e p l a n i s to o much H I ,
e x te n d e d , an d a s u c c e s s i o n o f im ages d i v i d e s and w eak- 393
e n s th e g e n e r a l c o n c e p t i o n . "
Of a l l w r i t e r s o f t h e d i f f u s e s t y l e , Jo h n so n
f i n d s none who u s e s i t more s u c c e s s f u l l y t h a n Cowley does
i n h i s poem, "The C h r o n i c l e , " w h ic h Jo h n s o n c o n s i d e r s "a
c o m p o s i t io n u n r i v a l l e d and a lo n e : such g a i e t y o f f a n c y , I ,
such f a c i l i t y o f e x p r e s s i o n , such a s u c c e s s i o n o f im a g e s ,37
and su ch a dance o f w o rd s , i t i s v a i n t o e x p e c t e x c e p t
from Cowley. H is s t r e n g t h a lw a y s a p p e a r s i n h i s a g i l i t y ;
h i s v o l a t i l i t y i s n o t t h e f l u t t e r o f a l i g h t , b u t th e
bound o f an e l a s t i c m in d . H is l e v i t y n e v e r l e a v e s h i s
l e a r n i n g b e h in d i t ; t h e m o r a l i s t , t h e p o l i t i c i a n , and th e
c r i t i c k , m in g le t h e i r i n f l u e n c e ev en i n t h i s a i r y f r o l i c k
o f g e n iu s * "
H is " D a v i d e i s , " h o w ever , i s n o t so s u c c e s s f u l ;
f o r h e r e "we f i n d w i t and l e a r n i n g u n p r o f i t a b l y s q u a n d e re d . I ,
A t t e n t i o n h a s no r e l i e f ; t h e a f f e c t i o n s a r e n e v e r moved; 55
we a r e som etim es s u r p r i s e d , b u t n e v e r d e l i g h t e d , and f i n d
much t o a d m i re , b u t l i t t l e t o a p p r o v e . " "The f a u l t o f I ,
Cowley . . . i s t h a t o f p u r s u i n g h i s t h o u g h t s t o t h e i r 45
l a s t r a m i f i c a t i o n s , by w h ich he l o s e s t h e g r a n d e u r o f
g e n e r a l i t y , f o r o f th e g r e a t e s t t h i n g s t h e p a r t s a r e l i t t l e . "
70
Cowley i s a p o e t who u s e d th e d i f f u s e s t y l e , - s o m e
t im e s h a p p i l y , som etim es d i s a s t r o u s l y . He i s one o f t h e
m ost s u c c e s s f u l e x p o n e n ts o f a g roup o f a u t h o r s known a s
m e ta p h y s i c a l p o e t s . Jo h n so n a d m i t s t h a t t h e s e w ere men
o f l e a r n i n g , b u t he c e n s u r e s them b e e a u s e i t was t h e i r
w hole e n d ea v o r t o show t h e i r l e a r n i n g . He r e f u s e s t o
r e c o g n iz e m ost o f t h e i r v e r s e s a s p o e t r y , b e c a u s e t h e y f a i l
t o s a t i s t y h i s p o e t i c demands b o t h i n r e g a r d t o c o n t e n t/
and t o form . These a u t h o r s v i o l a t e d t r u t h b y t h e i r su p p ly
o f h y p e r b o l e , a s w e l l a s by t h e i r v i o l e n t an d u n n a t u r a l
f i c t i o n . They a f f o r d e d no p l e a s u r e , f o r t h e y l a c k e d w i t
and e m o t io n . T h e i r t h o u g h t s w ere " o f t e n new, b u t se ldom
n a t u r a l . . . . T h e i r c o u r t s h i p was v o i d o f f o n d n e s s and I ,
t h e i r l a m e n t a t i o n s o f so r ro w . T h e i r w is h was o n ly t o 20
say w hat t h e y hoped h a d n e v e r b e e n s a i d b e f o r e . "
The m e t a p h y s i c a l p o e t s e x a g g e r a t e d i n form a s
much a s i n c o n t e n t ; t h e y u s e d t h e d i f f u s e s t y l e , a s t h e i r I ,
" a t t e m p t s w ere a lw ay s a n a l y t i c k : t h e y b ro k e e v e r y image 21
i n t o f r a g m e n t s , and c o u ld no more r e p r e s e n t by t h e i r
s l e n d e r c o n c e i t s and l a b o u r e d p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s th e p r o s p e c t s
o f n a t u r e o r t h e s c e n e s o f l i f e , t h a n he who d i s s e o t s a
sunbeam w i t h a p r i s m oan e x h i b i t t h e w ide e f f u l g e n c e o f a
summer n o o n ." They c o u ld n o t r e a c h t h e l o f t y s t y l e ; f o r
" s u b l i m i t y i s p ro d u c e d b y a g g r e g a t i o n , and l i t t l e n e s s I ,
71
by d i s p e r s i o n . G r e a t t h o u g h t s a r e a lw a y s g e n e r a l , a n d 21
c o n s i s t i n p o s i t i o n s n o t l i m i t e d by e x c e p t i o n s , and i n
d e s c r i p t i o n s n o t d e s c e n d in g t o m i n u t e n e s s . "
o.L o f ty
S ty l eThe l o f t y s t y l e Jo h n so n t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r s s u p e r i o r
t o th e d i f f u s e s t y l e . The g r e a t e s t exam ple o f t h i s mode I ,
o f w r i t i n g , i s M i l t o n ' s " P a r a d i s e L o s t . " " I t s end i s t o 177
r a i s e th e t h o u g h t s above s u b lu n a r y c a r e s o r p l e a s u r e s . . . .
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c k q u a l i t y o f t h i s poem i s s u b l i m i t y .
M i l t o n som etim es d e s c e n d s t o t h e e l e g a n t , b u t h i s e le m e n t
i s t h e g r e a t . He c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y i n v e s t h i m s e l f w i t h
g r a c e , b u t h i s n a t u r a l p o r t i s g i g a n t i c k l o f t i n e s s . He
c an p l e a s e when p l e a s u r e i s r e q u i r e d ; b u t i t i s h i s p e c u l i a r
power t o a s t o n i s h . He e e a n s t o h ave b e e n w e l l a c q u a i n t e d
w i t h h i s own g e n i u s , an d t o know w hat i t was t h a t N a tu re h a d
b e s to w e d upon him more b o u n t i f u l l y t h a n upon o t h e r s ; t h e
power o f d i s p l a y i n g t h e v a s t , i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e s p l e n d i d ,
e n f o r c i n g t h e a w f u l , d a rk e n in g t h e g loom y, and a g g r a v a t i n g
th e d r e a d f u l : he t h e r e f o r e chose a s u b j e c t on w h ich he m ig h t
t i r e h i s f a n c y w i t h o u t t h e c e n s u r e o f e x t r a v a g a n c e . "
Not e v e ry a u t h o r , h o w e v er , c a n r e a c h a l o f t y s t y l e
o f w r i t i n g . C e r t a i n t y p e s o f p o e t r y demand s u b l i m i t y ;
an d t h e r e f o r e t h e w r i t e r t r i e s t o i n v e s t suoh poems w i t h
t h i s l o f t y q u a l i t y . I f he i s u h a b le t o do t h i s n a t u r a l l y ,
72
h i s v e r s e s a r e l a b o r e d . Jo h n so n f i n d s G r a y ' s poem,
"The B a r d , " u n p l e a s a n t , b e c a u s e i t f a i l s t o r e a c h t h e
s u b l i m i t y f o r w h ic h i t s t r i v e s . "The m ind o f t h e w r i t e r I I I #U
seems t o w ork w i t h u n n a t u r a l v i o l e n c e . . . . He h a s a 440
k in d o f s t r u t t i n g d i g n i t y , and i s t a l l b y w a lk in g on
t i p t o e . H is a r t and h i s s t r u g g l e a r e t o o v i s i b l e , and
t h e r e i s to o l i t t l e a p p e a r a n c e o f e a s e and n a t u r e . "
a.RambleS ty le
Thus t h e l o f t y s t y l e i s u s e d o n ly by a g r e a t p o e t i c
g e n i u s . B u t n o t e v e ry p o e t i c g e n iu s c a n d e s c e n d t o
t h e humble s t y l e . " M i l to n n e v e r l e a r n e d t h e a r t o f d o in g I ,
l i t t l e t h i n g s w i th g r a c e ; he o v e r lo o k e d th e m i l d e r e x - 163
c e l l e n c e o f s u a v i t y a n d s o f t n e s s : he was a 'L io n * t h a t
h ad no s k i l l 1 i n d a n d l i n g t h e K i d i 1" T h e r e f o r e , t h e
humble s t y l e h a s i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i t s charm s q u i t e
a s d i s t i n c t a s any o t h e r mode o f w r i t i n g , ev en i f i t i s
u s e d b y l e s s e r p o e t s t h a n t h o s e who a r e m a s t e r s o f t h e
sub lim e s t y l e .
Jo h n so n c h o o s e s t o t e rm t h e v e r s e s w r i t t e n in . t h e
humble s t y l e a s " p r e t t y p o e m s ." "What i s l i t t l e c a n I ,
be b u t p r e t t y , and by c l a im in g d i g n i t y beoomes r i d i c u l o u s . " 45
W a ls h 's poems have more e le g a n c e t h a n v i g o r , and so t h e y I ,
seldom r i s e h i g h e r " t h a n t o be p r e t t y . " I n l i k e m anner , 330
S h e f f i e l d i s " a t b e s t b u t p r e t t y . H is so n g s a r e upon
73
common t o p i c k s ; he h o p e s , and g r i e v e s , and r e p e n t s , and II,
d e s p a i r s , and r e j o i c e s , l i k e any o t h e r m aker o f l i t t l e 175
s ta n z a s ? t o b e g r e a t he h a r d l y t r i e s ; t o be gay i s h a r d l y
i n h i s p o w e r .”
Humble poems a r e u s u a l l y w r i t t e n by p o e t s n o t o f
t h e f i r s t r a n k . B u t g e n iu s "now and t h e n p r o d u c e s a I ,
l u c k y t r i f l e . We s t i l l r e a d t h e Dove o f A n acreon 284
and Sparrow o f C a t u l l u s , an d a w r i t e r n a t u r a l l y p l e a s e s
h i m s e l f w i t h a p e r fo rm a n c e w h ich owes n o t h in g t o th e s u b j e c t .
B ut c o m p o s i t io n s m e r e ly p r e t t y have t h e f a t e o f o th e r
p r e t t y t h i n g s , and a r e q u i t t e d i n t im e f o r so m e th in g u s e f u l ;
t h e y a r e f l o w e r s f r a g r a n t and f a i r , b u t o f s h o r t d u r a t i o n ;
o r t h e y a r e b lo s s o m s t o be v a lu e d o n ly a s t h e y f o r e t e l l
f r u i t s . "
2 . SOURCES OF STYLISTIC EFFECT
a .D ic t io n
A p o e t , t h e r e f o r e , may ohoose any one o f f o u r s t y l e s ?
th e c o n c i s e , t h e d i f f u s e , t h e l o f t y , and t h e h u m ble . I n
e ac h c a s e , t h e r e a r e two s o u r c e s o f s t y l e : d i c t i o n and
f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h . J o h n s o n i s a c l a s s i c i s t ; he b e l i e v e s i n
a p o e t i c d i c t i o n , b o t h g ra v e and e l e g a n t . "E v ery l a n g u a g e I ,
o f a l e a r n e d n a t i o n n e c e s s a r i l y d i v i d e s i t s e l f i n t o d i e - 420
t i o n s c h o l a s t i c k and p o p u l a r , g ra v e an d f a m i l i a r , e l e g a n t
and g r o s s ; an d from a n i c e d i s t i n c t i o n o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t
p a r t s a r i s e s a g r e a t p a r t o f t h e b e a u t y o f s t y l e . " J o h n s o n
74
la m e n ts t h a t t h e r e was l i t t l e d e l i c a c y o f s e l e c t i o n among
e a r l y a u t h o r s . W ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f a few f a v o r i t e s
o f n a t u r e , p o e t s d id n o t d i s c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n w ords
s c h o l a s t i c k and p o p u l a r ; "o u r sp e e c h l a y b e f o r e them i n a I ,
heap o f c o n f u s i o n , an d e v e r y man to o k f o r e v e ry p u rp o s e 480
w hat chance m ig h t o f f e r h im . T here was t h e r e f o r e b e f o r e
th e t im e o f D ryden no p o e t i c a l d i c t i o n : no sy s te m o f
w ords a t once r e f i n e d from t h e g r o s s n e s s o f d o m e s t ic k u s e
and f r e e from t h e h a r s h n e s s o f t e r m s , a p p r o p r i a t e d t o
p a r t i c u l a r a r t s . Words to o f a m i l i a r o r to o re m o te d e f e a t
th e p u rp o se o f a p o e t . From t h o s e so unds w h ic h we h e a r
on s m a l l or on c o a r s e o c c a s i o n s , we do n o t e a s i l y r e c e i v e
s t r o n g i m p r e s s io n s o r d e l i g h t f u l im a g e s ; and w o rd s t o
w hich we a r e n e a r l y s t r a n g e r s , w henever t h e y o c c u r , draw
t h a t a t t e n t i o n on t h e m s e lv e s w h ich t h e y s h o u ld t r a n s m i t
t o t h i n g s . "
D ryden and Pope u s e d such c h o ic e p o e t i c d i c t i o n ,
t h a t t h e e n t i r e E n g l i s h w o r ld awoke t o a new l i t e r a r y
a p p r e c i a t i o n . Pope s a i d t h a t he c o u ld s e l e c t from I ;
D ryden1s w orks " b e t t e r sp e c im en s o f e v e ry mode o f p o e t r y 469
th a n any o t h e r E n g l i s h w r i t e r c o u ld s u p p l y . " J o h n s o n
i n t u r n s a y s t h a t P o p e ' s v e r s i o n o f th e " I l i a d " may
be s a i d " t o have t u n e d th e E n g l i s h t o n g u e , f o r s i n c e i t s m ,
238
75
a p p e a ra n c e no w r i t e r , : how ever d e f i c i e n t i n o t h e r p o w e rs ,
h a s w an ted m e lo S y ."
P o e t i c d i c t i o n e x c lu d e s w o rds to o f a m i l i a r a s
w e l l a s w ords to o r e m o te . "Language i s th e d r e s s o f I ,
t h o u g h t and a s t h e n o b l e s t m ien o r m o s t g r a c e f u l a c t i o n 58 -
w ould be d e g ra d e d and o b s c u re d by a g a rb a p p r o p r i a t e d 59
t o t h e em ploym ents o f r u s t i c k s and m e e h a n ic k s , so t h e
m ost h e r o i c k s e n t im e n t s w i l l l o s e t h e i r e f f i c a c y , and
th e m ost s p l e n d i d i d e a s d ro p t h e i r m a g n i f i c e n c e , i f t h e y
a r e conveyed by w ords u s e d commonly upo n low an d t r i v i a l
o c c a s i o n s , d e b a se d by v u l g a r m o u th s , and c o n ta m in a te d by
i n e l e g a n t a p p l i c a t i o n s . "
Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s e x p l e t i v e s , and such s m a l l
v e r b s a s "do" and " d i d , " e n t i r e l y t o o f a m i l i a r f o r p o e t i c
u s e . " E x c la m a t io n seldom s u c c e e d s i n our l a x g u a g e , and I I I ,
I t h i n k i t may be o b s e rv e d t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e 0! u s e d a t 266
th e b e g in n i n g o f a s e n te n c e a lw ay s o f f e n d s . " He a l s o
e x c lu d e s " t h e w ord s do an d d i d , w h ich so much d e g ra d e i n I ,
p r e s e n t e s t i m a t i o n t h e l i n e t h a t a d m i t s th e m ." 60
M o reover , Jo h n so n e x c lu d e s from p o e t i c d i c t i o n ,
a lo n g w i th w o rd s to o f a m i l i a r , th o s e t h a t a r e to o re m o te ;
f o r i n s t a n c e , f o r e i g n w ords an d id io m s , o b s o l e t e la n g u a g e ,
n e w ly -c o in e d w o rd s , an d t e c h n i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s . He d i s
a p p ro v e s o f some o f P o p e ' s l a t t e r p r o d u c t i o n s , i n w h ich
76
" th e d i c t i o n i s som etim es v i t i a t e d by F re n c h i d io m s . " I l l ,
He c r i t i c i s e s theB roem e t o G a y 's p a s t o r a l s , b e c a u s e i t 250
i s w r i t t e n i n su ch o b s o l e t e l a n g u a g e and i n su ch a
s t y l e a s w as " n e v e r spok en n o r w r i t t e n i n any age o r i n I I ,
any p l a c e . " He condemns G r a y ' s u s e o f n e w ly -c o in e d 269
w ords ; f o r t h e l a t t e r was " to o fo n d o f w o rds a r b i t r a r i l y I I I ,
compounded. 'M a n y - tw in k l in g ' was c e n s u r e d a s n o t 437
a n a l o g i c a l ; we may sa y m a n y - s p o t t e d , b u t s c a r c e l y many-
sp o t t i n g . " And f i n a l l y he e x c lu d e s su c h t e c h n i c a l te rm s
a s " d i a p a s o n , " w h ich L ry d en u s e s i n t h e "Ode f o r S t .
C e c i l i a ' s L a y ," a s w e l l a s a l l w ords o r p h r a s e s u s e d
e x c l u s i v e l y i n any a r t , s c i e n c e , o r t r a d e . " I t i s a I ,
g e n e r a l r u l e i n p o e t r y t h a t a l l a p p r o p r i a t e d t e r m s o f 433
a r t s h o u ld be sunk i n g e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n s , b e c a u s e
p o e t r y i s t o sp e a k an u n i v e r s a l l a n g u a g e . T h is r a l e
i s s t i l l s t r o n g e r w i t h r e g a r d t o a r t s n o t l i b e r a l o r
c o n f in e d t o few , an d t h e r e f o r e f a r rem oved from common
k n o w le d g e ."
b .Figuresof
Speech
P o e t i c d i c t i o n t h e n , by e x c l u d i n g w o rd s to o f a m i l i a r
and w ords t o o r e m o te , e n h a n c e s p o e t i c s t y l e . A no the r
m eans o f s e c u r i n g a d i s t i n c t l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t y l e i s
th e c a r e f u l u se o f f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h . Jo h n so n m e n t io n s
and c r i t i c i s e s f o u r t y p e s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d b y p o e t s :
77
s i m i l e , m e ta p h o r , a l l i t e r a t i o n , an d o n o m a to p o e ia . "A
p o e t i c a l s i m i l e i s t h e d i s c o v e r y o f l i k e n e s s b e tw e e n I I ,
two a c t i o n s i n t h e i r g e n e r a l n a t u r e d i s s i m i l a r , o r 129 ~
o f c a u s e s t e r m i n a t i n g by d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i o n s i n some I 30
re s e m b la n c e o f e f f e c t . B u t t h e m e n t io n o f a n o th e r
l i k e co n seq u e n c e from a l i k e c a u s e , o r o f a l i k e p e r
fo rm ance by a l i k e a g e n c y , i s n o t a s i m i l e , b u t a n
e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n . I t i s n o t a s i m i l e t o s a y t h a t th e
Thames w a t e r s f i e l d s a s t h e Po w a t e r s f i e l d s . . . . When
H orace s a y s o f P i n d a r , t h a t he p o u r s h i s v i o l e n c e and
r a p i d i t y o f v e r s e , a s a r i v e r sw o ln w i t h r a i n r u s h e s
from th e m o u n ta in ; . . . he . . . p ro d u c e s a s i m i l e : t h e
m ind i s im p re s s e d w i t h th e re s e m b la n c e o f t h i n g s g e n e r a l l y
u n l i k e , a s u n l i k e a s i n t e l l e c t an d b o d y . . . . A s i m i l e
may be com pared t o l i n e s c o n v e rg in g a t a p o i n t and i s
more e x c e l l e n t a s th e l i n e s a p p ro a c h from g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e :
an e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n may be c o n s i d e r e d a s two p a r a l l e l
l i n e s w h ich r u n on t o g e t h e r w i th o u t a p p r o x im a t io n , n e v e r
f a r s e p a r a t e d , and n e v e r j o i n e d . "
"A s i m i l e , t o be p e r f e c t , m ust b o t h i l l u s t r a t e I I I ,
and e n n o b le t h e s u b j e c t ; . . . b u t e i t h e r o f t h e s e q u a l i t i e s 229-
may be s u f f i c i e n t t o recommend i t . I n d i d a c t i c k p o e t r y , 230
o f w h ich t h e g r e a t p u rp o s e i s i n s t r u c t i o n , a s i m i l e may
be p r a i s e d w h ich i l l u s t r a t e s , th o u g h i t does n o t e n n o b le ;
78
i n h e r o i c k s , t h a t may be a d m i t t e d w h ic h e n n o b le s th o u g h
i t does n o t i l l u s t r a t e . T h a t i t may be c o m p le te i t i s
r e q u i r e d to e x h i b i t , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f i t s r e f e r e n c e s , a
p l e a s i n g im age; f o r a s i m i l e i s s a i d t o be a s h o r t
e p i s o d e . "
Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s P o p e ' s c o m p a r is o n o f a s t u d e n t ' s
p r o g r e s s i n th e s c i e n c e s w i th t h e jo u r n e y o f a t r a v e l e r
i n t h e A lp s , ( a s found i n t h e " E ssa y on C r i t i c i s m , " ) a s
t h e b e s t s i m i l e t h a t E n g l i s h p o e t r y c an show; f o r i t b o th
i l l u s t r a t e s an d e n n o b le s th e s u b j e c t , w h i le t h e image i n
i t s e l f i s p l e a s i n g . Not a l l o f P o p e ' s s i m i l e s , h o w ev er ,
a r e p l e a s i n g ; f o r Jo h n s o n c r i t i c i s e s Pope f o r t h e g r o s s n e s s
o f h i s im ages i n "The D u n c ia d ."
Jo h n so n b lam e s p o e t s , n o t o n ly f o r f a u l t y s i m i l e s ,
b u t a l s o f o r m ixed m e ta p h o r s . I n A d d i s o n 's " L e t t e r from
I t a l y , ” t h e r e i s a n o t e d exam ple o f a b o r k e n m e ta p h o r :
" F i r ' d w i t h t h a t name -
I b r i d l e i n my s t r u g g l i n g Muse w i t h p a i n ,
T hat l o n g s t o l a u n c h i n t o a n o b l e r s t r a i n . "
Jo h n so n t a r t l y r e m a r k s : "To b r i d l e a g o d d e ss i s no v e r y 11,"
d e l i c a t e i d e a ; b u t why m ust she be b r i d l e d ? b e c a u s e 128
she lo n g s to l a u n c h : a n a c t w h ich w as n e v e r h i n d e r e d by
a b r i d l e : and w h i t h e r w i l l s h e l a u n c h ? i n t o a n o b le r
s t r a i n . She i s i n t h e f i r s t l i n e a h o r s e , i n t h e se co n d
79
a b o a t ; and t h e c a r e o f t h e p o e t i s t o k e ep h i s h o r s e
o r h i s b o a t from s i n g i n g . "
I n P o p e ' s p o e t r y , t o o ,m ix e d m e ta p h o rs a r e o c ca
s i o n a l l y fo u n d .
"The w e l l - s u n g woes s h a l l s o o th e my Cpensive^ g h o s t ;
He b e s t c a n p a i n t them who s h a l l f e e l them m o s t . "
R e g a rd in g th e above f i g u r e , Jo h n so n s a y s : " M a r t i a l ex
p l o i t s may b e p a i n t e d : p e r h a p s w oes may be p a i n t e d ; b u t II,
t h e y a r e s u r e l y n o t p a i n t e d by b e in g w e l l - s u n g : i t 129
i s n o t e a s y t o p a i n t i n song o r t o s i n g i n c o l o u r s . "
G ray , a l s o , "seem s i n h i s r a p t u r e t o c o n fo u n d t h e H I
im ages o f ' s p r e a d i n g so u n d ' and ' r u n n i n g w a t e r . ' A 436
's t r e a m o f m u s ic k ' may be a l lo w e d ; b u t w here does M us ick ,
however 's m o o th and s t r o n g , ' a f t e r h a v in g v i s i t e d th e
'v e r d a n t v a l e s , ' ' r o w l down t h e s t e e p am ain ,* so a s t h a t
' r o c k s and n o d d in g g r o v e s r e b e l l o w t o th e r a o r ' ? I f
t h i s be s a i d o f M usick , i t i s n o n s e n s e ; i f i t be s a i d o f
W ate r , i t i s n o t h in g t o t h e p u r p o s e . "
Jo h n so n recommends t h e u s e o f b o t h s i m i l e and
m e ta p h o r , i f c a r e and c o n s i s t e n c y a r e shown. He d o e s n o t ,
how ever, a p p ro v e o f th e u s e o f a l l i t e r a t i o n , " o f u s i n g I ,
i n th e same v e r s e many w ords b e g in n in g w i t h t h e same l e t t e r .295
B u t t h i s k n a ck , w h a te v e r be i t s v a l u e , was so f r e q u e n t
among e a r l y w r i t e r s , t h a t G a sc o ig n , a w r i t e r o f th e s i x t e e n t h
80
c e n t u r y ,A w a rn s t h e young p o e t a g a i n s t a f f e c t i n g i t . " He r e g r e t s
G r a y 's u se o f i t i n "The B a rd " ; f o r t h e " i n i t i a l r e - H I ,
se m b la n c e s , or a l l i t e r a t i o n s , ' r u i n , * ' r u t h l e s s , * 439
'h e lm no r h a u b e rk , * a r e be low th e g r a n d e u r o f a poem
t h a t e n d e a v o rs a t s u b l i m i t y . "
Jo h n so n d i s a p p r o v e s , n o t o n ly o f a l l i t e r a t i o n ,
b u t a l s o o f o n o m ato p o e ia , o r " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e h a rm o n y ,"
a s he c h o o se s t o te rm i t . " B e a u t i e s o f t h i s k i n d a r e I I I ,
commonly f a n c i e d ; an d when r e a l a r e t e c h n i c a l and n u g a to r y , 232
n o t t o be r e j e c t e d and n o t t o be s o l i c i t e d . " "V erse can
i m i t a t e o n ly sound and m o t i o n . " " T h is n o t i o n o f 1 ,62
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e m e t r e , an d t h e d e s i r e o f d i s c o v e r i n g f r e - I I I ,
q u e n t a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e sound t o t h e s e n s e , have p ro d u c e d , 230-
i n my o p in io n , many w i l d c o n c e i t s and im a g in a ry b e a u t i e s . 231
A l l t h a t c a n f u r n i s h t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a r e t h e sound s
o f t h e w ords c o n s i d e r e d s i n g l y , an d t h e t im e i n w h ich th e y
a r e p ro n o u n c e d . E v e ry la n g u a g e h a s some w o rds fram ed t o
e x h i b i t t h e n o i s e s w h ic h th e y e x p r e s s , a s thum p, r a t t l e .
g r o w l , h i s s . T h e se , h o w ever , a r e b u t few , and t h e p o e t
c a n n o t make them m ore, n o r c a n t h e y be o f any u se b u t when
sound i s t o be m e n t io n e d . The t im e o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n was
i n t h e d a c t y l i c k m e a s u re s o f t h e l e a r n e d l a n g u a g e s c a p a b le
o f c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i e t y ; . . . b u t o u r l a n g u a g e h a v in g l i t t l e
f l e x i b i l i t y our v e r s e s can d i f f e r v e r y l i t t l e i n t h e i r
c a d e n c e . The f a n c i e d r e s e m b l a n c e s , I f e a r , a r i s e som etim es
81
m e re ly from t h e a m b ig u i ty o f w ords ; t h e r e i s sup p o sed
t o be some r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n a s o f t l i n e a n d a s o f t couch ,
or b e tw e e n h a r d s y l l a b l e s a n d h a r d f o r t u n e . "
I I
AS RESPECTS PROSODY
1 . METER
a .R e g u la r
M eter
S t y l e , t h e n , h a s two l e a d i n g s o u r c e s , d i c t i o n and
f i g u r e s o f sp e e c h ; w h ic h , by a v a r i e t y o f u s e s , c h a r a c t e r i z e
s t y l e e i t h e r a s c o n c i s e , d i f f u s e , l o f t y , o r h u m ble . B u t
i n c o n s i d e r i n g p o e t r y , J o h n s o n d i s c u s s e s a n o th e r p h a se
o f p o e t i c form b e s i d e s s t y l e ; nam ely , v e r s i f i c a t i o n . J u s t
a s Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s t r u t h a s t h e k e y n o te o f p o e t l e c o n t e n t ,
w h e th e r i n t e l l e c t u a l o r e m o t io n a l ; so he a l s o c o n s i d e r s
r e g u l a r i t y a s t h e k e y n o te o f p o e t i c fo rm . "The e s s e n c e
o f v e r s e i s r e g u l a r i t y , and i t s o rnam ent i s v a r i e t y . " I ,
T h is r e g u l a r i t y Jo h n so n f i n d s more i n P o p e ' s v e r s e s t h a n 467
i n any o t h e r p o e t r y ; henoe he c o n s i d e r s P o p e 's p o e t r y a s
th e acme o f p e r f e c t i o n . "New s e n t im e n t s and new im ages
o t h e r s may p ro d u c e , b u t t o a t t e m p t any f u r t h e r im provem ent 251
o f v e r s i f i c a t i o n w i l l be d a n g e r o u s . . . . I f Pope be
n o t a p o e t , where i s p o e t r y t o be fo u n d ?" P o p e 's c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c form i s t h e h e r o i c c o u p l e t ; h e n c e , Jo h n so n
p r a i s e s t h e p r e d e c e s s o r s o f Pope who have a t t e m p t e d t o u se
82
t h e c o u p l e t . " A f t e r a b o u t h a l f a c e n t u r y o f f o r c e d I ,
th o u g h t s and r u g g e d m e tr e some a d v a n c e s to w a rd n a t u r e 419
and harmony h ad b e e n a l r e a d y made by W a l le r and Denham;
t h e y h a d shewn t h a t l o n g d i s c o u r s e s i n rhyme grew more
p l e a s i n g when t h e y WBre b r o k e n i n t o c o u p l e t s , and t h a t
v e r s e c o n s i s t e d n o t o n ly i n t h e number b u t t h e a r r a n g e m e n t
o f s y l l a b l e s . " Jo h n s o n , h ow ever , c r e d i t s D ryden w i t h
e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s new v e r s i f i c a t i o n ; f o r , from h i s t im e
" i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t E n g l i s h p o e t r y h a s h a d no te n d e n c y t o I ,
r e l a p s e t o i t s fo rm e r s a v a g e n e s s . " 421
Jo h n so n names s e v e r a l ex am p les o f t h i s " fo rm e r
s a v a g e n e s s " o f v e r s e ; f o r i n s t a n c e : P i n d a r i c o d e s , s o n n e t s ,
t r i p l e t s , a l e x a n d r i n e s , a s w e l l a s h e m i s t i c h s and r u n -
over l i n e s . He i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t r e s s e d b y t h e " P i n d a r i c
i n f a t u a t i o n " o r " m a d n e s s ," w h ich h a d t a k e n p o s s e s s i o n
o f t h e l i t e r a r y w o r ld . " T h is l a x a n d l a w l e s s v e r s i f i c a t i o n I , '
so much c o n c e a le d t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e b a r r e n an d 48
f l a t t e r e d t h e l a z i n e s s o f t h e i d l e , t h a t i t im m e d ia te ly
o v e r s p r e a d our b o o k s o f p o e t r y ; a l l t h e b o y s and g i r l s
c a u g h t t h e p l e a s i n g f a s h i o n , and t h e y t h a t c o u ld do n o th
i n g e l s e o o u ld w r i t e l i k e P i n d a r . " Jo h n so n f a i l s t o se e
any b e a u ty i n t h a t s t y l e o f p o e t r y , w h ich c o n s i d e r s " i t s I ,
n e a r a f f i n i t y t o p r o s e " a s t h e h i g h e s t k in d o f p r a i s e . 48
He c o n s i d e r s some o f W a t t s ' s o d e s "defo rm ed by t h e P i n d a r i c k
83
f o l l y t h e n p r e v a i l i n g , " To C o n greve , ho w ev er , " i t I I I ;
m ust be c o n f e s s e d t h a t we a r e i n d e b t e d f o r t h e c o r r e c t i o n 303
o f a n a t i o n a l e r r o r , an d f o r t h e c u re o f our P i n d a r i c k
m a d n e ss . He f i r s t t a u g h t t h e E n g l i s h w r i t e r s t h a t
P i n d a r ' s o d e s w ere r e g u l a r . "
A no the r im p o r te d v e r s e o f w h ic h Jo h n so n d i s a p p r o v e s ,
i s t h e s o n n e t ; f o r " th e f a b r i c k o f a s o n n e t , how ever a d a p t e d I ,
t o t h e I t a l i a n l a n g u a g e , h a s n e v e r su c c e e d e d i n o u r s , w h ic h , 169-
h a v in g g r e a t e r v a r i e t y o f t e r m i n a t i o n , r e q u i r e s th e rhym es 170
t o h© o f t e n c h a n g e d ."
S in c e th e e s s e n c e o f v e r s e i s r e g u l a r i t y , Jo h n so n
c o n s i d e r s a l e x a n d r i n e s and t r i p l e t s a s v i o l a t i o n s to o
g r e a t t o be a d m i t t e d i n t o a p p ro v e d v e r s e . "To w r i t e v e r s e I ,
i s t o d i s p o s e s y l l a b l e s an d so un ds h a r m o n i c a l ly by some 467-
known a n d s e t t l e d r u l e - a r u l e how ever l a x enough t o 468
s u b s t i t u t e s i m i l i t u d e f o r i d e n t i t y . . . . The E n g l i s h h e r o i c k
a d m i t s o f a c u t e o r g ra v e s y l l a b l e s v a r i o u s l y d i s p o s e d ; . . .
b u t t h e E n g l i s h a l e x a n d r i n e b r e a k s t h e l a w f u l b o u n d s , and
s u r p r i s e s t h e r e a d e r w i t h two s y l l a b l e s more t h a n he ex
p e c t e d . The e f f e c t o f t h e t r i p l e t i s t h e same: t h e e a r
h a s b e e n a c c u s to m e d to e x p e c t a new rhyme i n e v e ry c o u p le t ;
b u t i s on a sudden s u r p r i s e d w i t h t h r e e rhym es t o g e t h e r ,
t o w h ich t h e r e a d e r c o u ld n o t accom odate h i s v o i c e d i d he
n o t o b t a i n n o t i c e o f t h e change from t h e b r a c e s o f t h e m a r g in s .
84
Surely there is something unskilful in the necessity
of such mechanical direction."
A noth e r i r r e g u l a r i t y o f w h ich Jo h n so n d i s a p p r o v e sII
i s th e h e m i s t i c h . He c r i t i c i s e s C o w le y 's " D a v id e i s ,
b e c a u s e t h e a u th o r i n t r o d u c e d some v e r s e s l e f t i m p e r f e c t ,
i n i m i t a t i o n o f V i r g i l , whom Cowley e v i d e n t l y su p p o se d
" n o t t o have i n t e n d e d t o c o m p le te them : t h a t t h i s o p i n io n I ,
i s e r r o n e o u s may be p r o b a b ly c o n c lu d e d , b e c a u s e t h i s 63
t r u n c a t i o n i s i m i t a t e d by no s u b s e q u e n t Roman p o e t ; b e
cau se V i r g i l h i m s e l f f i l l e d up one b r o k e n l i n e i n th e h e a t
o f r e c i t a t i o n ; b e c a u s e i n one t h e s e n se i s now u n f i n i s h e d ;
and b e c a u s e a l l t h a t c a n be done by a b ro k e n v e r s e , a
l i n e i n t e r s e c t e d by a c a e s u r a an d a f u l l s t o p w i l l e q u a l l y
e f f e c t . "
Not o n ly in c o m p le te l i n e s , b u t a l s o r u n - o v e r
l i n e s o f f e n d , by g i v in g t o t h e r e a d e r a rhy th m d i f f e r e n t
from t h a t w h ic h he e x p e c te d . P r i o r , i n h i s " p r e f a c e t o I I ,
Solomon . . . p r o p o s e s some im p ro v e m en ts , by e x te n d in g 209
t h e se n se from one c o u p le t t o a n o t h e r , w i t h v a r i e t y o f
p a u s e s . T h is he h a s a t t e m p t e d , b u t w i t h o u t s u c c e s s ; h i s
i n t e r r u p t e d l i n e s a r e u n p l e a s i n g , and h i s s e n s e a s l e s s
d i s t i n c t i s l e s s s t r i k i n g . "
2. RHYME
Thus Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s r e g u l a r m e te r a r e q u i s i t e
85
o f v e r s e ; b u t i t i s n o t t h e o n ly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h ich
he demands o f v e r s i f i c a t i o n s , f o r " th e e s s e n c e o f v e r s e I I ,
i s o r d e r and c o n s o n a n c e ." H ence, he i n s i s t s t h a t 210
p o e t r y have rhyme a s w e l l a s m e t r i c a l rh y th m . B ecau se
o f t h i s demand, he f a i l s t o a p p r e c i a t e much t h a t i s p o e t i c ,
s in c e b l a n k v e r s e o c c u p ie s a n i m p o r t a n t p l a c e i n E n g l i s h
l i t e r a t u r e . Jo h n so n a d m i ts t h a t p o e t r y "may s u b s i s t I ,
w i t h o u t rhym e, b u t E n g l i s h p o e t r y w i l l n o t o f t e n p l e a s e ; 193
n o r c a n rhyme e v e r be s a f e l y s p a r e d b u t w here t h e s u b j e c t
i s a b l e t o s u p p o r t i t s e l f . B la n k v e r s e . . . h a s n e i t h e r
th e e a s i n e s s o f p r o s e n o r t h e m elody o f n u m b ers ." He
c o n s i d e r s b l a n k v e r s e a n i m p o r t a t i o n , p r o b a b ly from t h e
I t a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e ; and he m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e E n g l i s h
h e r o i c l i n e i s u n s u i t e d t o b l a n k v e r s e , b e c a u s e i t s m usic
s t r i k e s th e e a r so f a i n t l y t h a t i t i s e a s i l y l o s t , " u n l e s s I ,
a l l th e s y l l a b l e s o f e v e ry l i n e c o - o p e r a t e t o g e t h e r ; t h i s 192
c o - o p e r a t i o n c a n be o n ly o b t a i n e d by t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f
ev e ry v e r s e u n m in g le d w i t h a n o th e r a s a d i s t i n c t sy s te m
o f so u n d s , a n d t h i s d i s t i n c t n e s s i s o b t a i n e d and p r e s e r v e d
by t h e a r t i f i c e o f rhy iS e ."
Among a l l E n g l i s h p o e t s , from Cowley t o L y t t l e t o n ,
Jo h n so n f i n d s o n ly t h r e e whom he c o n s i d e r s t o have u s e d
b l a n k v e r s e e f f e c t i v e l y : M i l t o n , Thomson, and Young.
R e g a rd in g M i l t o n ' s e p i c , Jo h n so n s a y s : "W hatever be t h e I ,
86
a d v a n ta g e o f rhyme I c a n n o t p r e v a i l on m y s e l f t o w is h 194
t h a t M i l t o n h a d b e e n a rh y m e r , f o r I c a n n o t w is h h i s
w ork t o be o t h e r t h a n i t i s ; y e t l i k e o t h e r h e r o e s he i s
t o be a d m ire d r a t h e r t h a n i m i t a t e d . He t h a t t h i n k s
h i m s e l f c a p a b le o f a s t o n i s h i n g may w r i t e b l a n k v e r s e ,
b u t t h o s e t h a t hope o n ly t o p l e a s e m ust c o n d e sc e n d t o
rh y m e ." S i m i l a r l y he f i n d s "The S e a so n s" one o f t h e I I I ,
w o r k s " in w h ich b l a n k v e r s e seems p r o p e r l y u s e d ; Thom son 's299
w ide e x p a n s io n o f g e n e r a l v ie w s , and h i s e n u m e ra t io n
o f c i r c u m s t a n t i a l v a r i e t i e s , w ould have b e e n o b s t r u c t e d
and e m b a r ra s s e d by t h e f r e q u e n t i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e s e n s e ,
w h ich a r e th e n e c e s s a r y e f f e c t s o f rh y m e ." And f i n a l l y ,
Y o u n g 's "N ig h t T h o u g h ts" i s a l s o "one o f t h e few poems I I I ,
i n w hich b l a n k v e r s e c o u ld n o t be changed f o r rhyme b u t 395
w i th d i s a d v a n t a g e . The w i l d d i f f u s s i o n o f t h e s e n t im e n t s
and th e d i g r e s s i v e s a l l i e s o f i m a g i n a t i o n w ould have b e e n
co m pressed a n d r e s t r a i n e d by c o n f in e m e n t t o rh y m e ."
However, " i f b l a n k v e r s e be n o t tu m id and g o rg e o u s , I I ,
i t i s c r i p p l e d p r o s e ; " a n d Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s t h e g r e a t e r 319-
p a r t o f b l a n k v e r s e a s c r i p p l e d p r o s e . "B lan k v e r s e 320
l e f t m e re ly t o i t s num bers h a s l i t t l e o p e r a t i o n e i t h e r I ,
on t h e e a r o r m ind : i t c a n h a r d l y s u p p o r t i t s e l f w i t h o u t 237
b o l d f i g u r e s and s t r i k i n g im a g e s . A poem f r i g i d l y
d i d a c t i c k w i t h o u t rhyme i s so n e a r t o p r o s e t h a t t h e r e a d e r
87
o n ly s c o r n s i t f o r p r e t e n d i n g t o be v e r s e . " As an
example o f such, v e r s e , he m e n t io n s Roscommon's " E s s a y , "
i n w h ich t h e r e i s a n i n t e r p o s i t i o n o f a lo n g p a r a g r a p h
o f b l a n k v e r s e , w h ich Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s a s " u n w a r r a n t a b ly I ,
l i c e n t i o u s . " I n l i k e m anner J . P h i l i p s " u n h a p p i ly 237
p l e a s e d h i m s e l f w i t h b l a n k v e r s e ; " w h i l e F e n t o n ' s I ,
" t r a n s l a t i o n from Homer i n t o b l a n k v e r s e w i l l f i n d few 319
r e a d e r s w h i l e a n o th e r c a n be h a d i n rh y m e ." Jo h n s o n does I I ,
n o t a p p ro v e o f th e c h o ic e o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n I y e r ' s 264
poem, "The F l e e c e " ; " a n d t h e d i s g u s t w h ich b l a n k v e r s e .
encum bering an d encum bered , s u p e r a d d s t o a n u n p l e a s i n g 346
s u b j e c t , soon r e p e l s th e r e a d e r , how ever w i l l i n g t o be
p l e a s e d . " Of M a l l e t ' s "Amyntor and T h e o d o ra ," J o h n s o n 's
comment i s e f f e c t i v e , th o u g h b r i e f : "B u t i t i s b l a n k I I I ,
v e r s e . " A k en s id e i s commended f o r h a v in g " fe w e r 406
a r t i f i c e s o f d i s g u s t t h a n m o st o f h i s b r e t h r e n o f t h e I I I ,
b l a n k s o n g ." Y e t , ev en A k ensid e do es n o t e sc a p e c e n s u r e , 418
f o r th e p e d a n t i n t r u d e s i n t o t h i s w ork; - " t u t when was I I I ,
b l a n k v e r s e w i t h o u t p e d a n t r y ? " "The e x e m p tio n w h ich 418
b la n k v e r s e a f f o r d s from t h e n e c e s s i t y o f c l o s i n g t h e I I I ,
t h e se n se w i t h t h e c o u p l e t , b e t r a y s l u x u r i a n t and a c t i v e 417-
m inds i n t o such s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e t h a t t h e y p i l e image upon 418
im age , o rnam ent upon o rn am en t, and a r e n o t e a s i l y p e r s u a d e d
t o c lo s e th e se n se a t a l l . B la n k v e r s e w i l l t h e r e f o r e ,
88
I f e a r , be to o o f t e n fo u n d i n d e s c r i p t i o n e x u b e r a n t ,
i n a rgum en t l o q u a c i o u s , an d i n n a r r a t i o n t i r e s o m e . "
C o n s e q u e n t ly , u n l e s s th e s u b j e c t c a n s u p p o r t i t s e l f ,
Jo h n so n p r e f e r s rhymed m e te r t o b l a n k v e r s e .
B u t ev en i n rhyme Jo h n so n l a y s down c e r t a i n r u l e s .
I n t h e f i r s t p l a o e , rhyme m u st a lw a y s b e s u b s e r v i e n t to
s e n s e ; no w o rds m ust be t o l e r a t e d w h ich a r e i n t r o d u c e d
m e re ly f o r t h e sake o f rhym e. He o b j e c t s t o S a v a g e ’ s
f r a g m e n t , "London and B r i s t o l d e l i n e a t e d , " b e c a u s e "some I I ,
o f th e l i n e s a r e r a t h e r i n s e r t e d t o rhyme t o o t h e r s t h a n 426
t o s u p p o r t b r im prove t h e s e n s e . " S i m i l a r l y , P o p e ’ s
e p i t a p h on th e Duke o f Buckingham i s w eak, b e c a u s e "a r t I I I ,
i s . . . u s e d f o r a r t s t h a t a rhyme may be h a d t o h e a r t . " 271
8 •O rd e r lyRhyme
B e s i d e s s u p p o r t in g t h e s e n s e , J o h n s o n demands
t h a t rhyme have b o t h o r d e r and c o n so n a n c e . He a d v o c a te s
r e g u l a r i t y a s t h e k e y - n o te o f rhy m e-sch em e , a s w e l l a s
o f m e t e r . T h e r e f o r e he p r e f e r s t h e rhym ed c o u p l e t , i n
w h ich t h e rhym es s u c c e e d e ac h o t h e r r e g u l a r l y ; and he
d i s a p p r o v e s o f D ryden’ s "Ode f o r S t . C e c i l i a ’ s D ay ," I ,
b e c a u se " th e rhym es a r e to o re m o te from one a n o t h e r . " 440
A nother d e f e c t o f th e rhym e-schem e o f t h i s poem, i s t h a t I ,456-
"some o f t h e l i n e s a r e w i t h o u t c o r r e s p o n d e n t r h y m e s ." 457
b .Conson a n tRhyme
Thus Jo h n so n demands o r d e r l y a r r a n g e m e n t o f rhyme;
b u t he a l s o i n s i s t s upon t h e co n sonance o f t h e w ords them -
89
s e l v e s . Rhyming w ords m u s t n o t he to o s i m i l a r a s
" n i g h t ” and " l i g h t " ; n e i t h e r may th e y he t o o d i s s i m i l a r H I ,
a s " b r e a t h " and " b i r t h . " They m ust b e v a r i e d , f o r 270
v a r i e t y i s one o f t h e s o u r c e s o f p l e a s u r e . Jo h n so n m ,
c r i t i c i s e s Denham f o r u s i n g t h e w ord " d i e " t o rhyme 80
t h r e e c o u p l e t s i n s i x . F i n a l l y , t h e w o rds th e m s e lv e s I ,
m ust be i m p o r t a n t , s u g g e s t i v e w ords ; o th e r w i s e t h e 82
rhyme w eak en s , r a t h e r t h a n s t r e n g t h e n s t h e l i n e . "E very I I I ,
rhyme s h o u ld b e a w ord o f e m p h a s is , no r oan t h i s r u l e 258
be s a f e l y n e g l e c t e d , e x c e p t w here t h e l e n g t h o f th e
poem m akes s l i g h t i n a c c u r a c i e s e x c u s a b l e , o r a l lo w s
room f o r b e a u t i e s s u f f i c i e n t to overpow er t h e e f f e c t s o f
p e t t y f a u l t s . " T h e r e fo r e he d i s a p p r o v e s o f P o p e ' s I I I ,
u se o f t h e w ord " to o " i n h i s e p i t a p h on S i r W il l ia m 258
Trum bal; o f W a l l e r ' s u s e o f t h e word " s o , " tw ic e w i t h i n I ,
t e n l i n e s ; o f D ryden*s p r a c t i c e o f e n d in g t h e f i r s t l i n e 294
o f a c o u p l e t w i t h a weak o r g ra v e s y l l a b l e , t h u s rhym ing I ,
such w ords a s " ty r a n n y " and " s k y ; " and f i n a l l y o f 468
C o w le y 's f r e q u e n t u s e o f " p ro n o u n s o r p a r t i c l e s , o r t h e I ,
l i k e u n im p o r ta n t w o rd s , w h ic h d i s a p p o i n t t h e e a r and 60
d e s t r o y t h e e n e rg y o f t h e l i n e . "
Thus Jo h n so n b r i e f l y s t a t e s h i s t h e o r y o f v e r s i
f i c a t i o n i n t h e s e w o rd s : " th e e s s e n c e o f v e r s e i s o r d e r I I ,
and c o n s o n a n c e ." B o th m e te r and rhym e-schem e m ust b e 210
90
t e g u l a r , w h i l e th e rhym es th e m s e lv e s m u st be c o n s o n a n t . "
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
To c o n c lu d e , we have n o te d t h a t Jo h n s o n d e f i n e s I ,
p o e t r y a s " th e a r t o f u n i t i n g p l e a s u r e w i t h t r u t h , by 170
c a l l i n g i m a g i n a t i o n t o t h e h e l p o f r e a s o n . " T h e r e f o r e ,
p o e t i c t r u t h an d p o e t i c p l e a s u r e d e te rm in e a tw o f o ld
c o n te n t o f p o e t r y : an i n t e l l e c t u a l e le m e n t and a n e m o t io n a l
a p p e a l .
I n o r d e r t o b e c o m p le te , p o e t i o t r u t h m ust p r e s e n t
a r e l i g i o u s and m o ra l know ledge o f r i g h t an d w rong; a sym
p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h u m a n ity ; or a th o ro u g h s tu d y o f
e x t e r n a l n a t u r e . B ecau se t h e y f a i l t o p r e s e n t p o e t i c
t r u t h , Jo h n so n e x c lu d e s from th e r e a lm o f t r u e p o e t r y , t h e
f o l lo w in g t y p e s o f v e r s e : f i c t i o n , m y th , p a s t o r a l , en co
m i a s t i c and o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e s , e p i t a p h , b u r l e s q u e , and v e r s e s
w r i t t e n i n i m i t a t i o n o f o t h e r s . He a l s o e x c lu d e s contem -*
p l a t i v e s a c r e d v e r s e b e c a u s e t h e t r u t h s c o n ta i n e d t h e r e i n
a r e beyo nd t h e d i g n i t y and g ra n d e u r o f p o e t r y . On th e
o t h e r h a n d , b e c a u s e t h e f o l lo w in g p r e s e n t a t l e a s t some
p h a se o f p o e t i o t r u t h , Jo h n so n a p p ro v e s o f o t h e r t y p e s
o f p o e t r y ; ' nam ely: e p i c , d i d a c t i c , c r i t i c a l a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l
w o rk s , s a t i r e , t r a n s l a t i o n , n a r r a t i v e , d e s c r i p t i v e , e l e g i a c ,
and d ra m a t ic p o e t r y .
91
A no th e r r e q u i s i t e r e m a in s . P o e t r y i s th e a r t o f
p r e s e n t i n g t r u t h p l e a s i t r a b l y . A poem t h e r e f o r e , b e s i d e s
a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e le m e n t , m ust c o n t a i n an e m o t io n a l a p p e a l .
Jo h n so n , h o w ev er , d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e tw e e n two k i n d s o f p l e a s
u r e s : th o s e o f th e m ind , and t h o s e o f t h e h e a r t . The
s o u rc e s o f t h e fo rm er a r e t w o f o l d , - n o v e l t y and v a r i e t y ;
w h i le th e s o u r c e s o f t h e l a t t e r c o n s i s t i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n
and p o r t r a y a l o f th e p a s s i o n s o f th e human h e a r t , a s found
c h i e f l y i n t h e drama and i n th e l y r i c .
M o reover , a lo n g w i t h i t s c o n t e n t , p o e t r y m ust have
fo rm . Jo h n so n d i s c u s s e s two p h a s e s o f f o r m , - s t y l e and
p ro s o d y . Of s t y l e , he names f o u r k i n d s : t h e c o n c i s e ,
th e d i f f u s e , t h e l o f t y , and t h e h u m ble . Of e a c h o f t h e s e
t h e s o u r c e s a r e d i c t i o n and f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h . P ro so d y
t r e a t s o f m e te r and rhym e; w i t h t h e l a t t e r Jo h n so n d i s p e n s e s
on ly when t h e s u b j e c t i s a b l e t o s u p p o r t i t s e l f .
Jo h n so n e x p r e s s e s h i s i d e a s r e g a r d i n g p o e t r y i n
f o u r d i f f e r e n t w o rk s : "The R a m b le r ," " R a s s e l a s , " t h e S hak es
p e a r e " P r e f a c e , " and th e " L iv e s o f t h e E n g l i s h P o e t s . " I n
th e t h r e e f i r s t - m e n t i o n e d w orks t h e s e c r i t i c i s m s a r e
o c c a s i o n a l and i n c o m p le te . I n t h e " L iv e s o f t h e E n g l i s h
P o e t s , " how ever , Jo h n so n p r e s e n t s h i s m a tu re c r i t i c a l
d o c t r i n e i n i t s f u l l e s t fo rm . I t may be summed up i n two
s t a t e m e n t s : t h e k e y n o te o f p o e t i c c o n t e n t i s t r u t h ; o f p o e t i c
s t r u c t u r e , i s r e g u l a r i t y .
92
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. A rn o ld , M atthew : P r e f a c e and n o t e s o f e d i t i o no f " C h ie f L iv e s o f th e P o e t s "
2 . A rn o ld , M atthew : " E s s a y s i n C r i t i c i s m "
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