Jnanadeva

Jnanadeva and the Warkari Movement

Prof. Fred Dallmayr, Ph.D.

Introduction

By Katerina Wolf, Ph.D.

The transition between the first and the second millennium was a turning point in Indian history. The Muslim invasions, which started 712 AD with Ya'qub-ibn-Lais' occupation of the north Indian province Sindh and spread in the following centuries over most parts of the Indian continent, marked a time, that was characterized by social change. Almost all realms of society were affected by this process.

The Hindu society reacted to this changing conditions in many different ways, the most predominant reaction being to my opinion a kind of 'power-struggle' between orthodox (brahmin) and progressive (religious reformers) forces. It was a time of many conflicts. On one side the society tried to maintain their cultural identity, a process leading to an intensification of the Hindu caste system, on the other side there was a tendency to adapt themselves to the changing patterns, a process leading to a relaxation of the social system. The interrelation between Hindu and Moslem society of that time as well as the interrelation between the members within these groups was characterized by various tensions.

Undergoing times of crisis, every society tries to find conflict solutions. One dominant feature of that period was the rise of different regional religious movements, which can be summed up as bhakti movement. All these movements had one common aim: the religious and ethical reformation of society. We know very well, that the concept of bhakti, the loving devotion towards a personal god, can be traced back to much older times than this, but the increasing rise at that particular time can be without any doubt looked upon as a direct reaction to the prevalent social conditions.

Jnaneshvara, who was a popular representative of this movement in early medieval Maharashtra, left a deep impact on the social, religious and cultural life of Maharashtra, its effects being well visible up to now.

Fred Dallmayr, the author of this article approaches the phenomenon Jnaneshvara from three different point of views. The central subject of his research is the analysis of Jnaneshvara's personal life experiences, posing the question, in how far this influenced his particular way of life. Another point of interest is the central direction of his philosophical thought, as revealed chiefly in his Amritanubhava. And finally he explores the visual manifestation of Jnaneshvara's life and doctrine - the Warkari Movement. Dallmayr achieves a kind of a small miracle. Reading this article, one becomes aware, that Dallmayr on one side never gives up his critical and western point of view, on the other side he creates such an intimate relation to the subject, narrating many different episodes out of Jnaneshvaras life in a very particular distant but lovingly way, that the reader gets naturally involved into it. The combination of the narrative sequences, philosophical explications and the introduction into the Warkari Movement provides the reader with a deep insight into social, religious and cultural life of a very fascinating era of Indian history. Coming to the end of the article, the reader yearns for more.

Jnanadeva and the Warkari Movement

Prof. Fred Dallmayr, Ph.D.

Coming from the west, the contemporary traveller to India often has the sense of visiting another planet or galaxy. Many customs of practices seem alien or remote, as do their underlying beliefs and motives. If this is true of contemporary India, how much more must this sense of distance be enhanced by a visit to medieval India, its philosophy, literature and religion – a place which, like a lost city, seems surrounded by a nearly impenetrable underbrush. How to approach such a place or region, from our modern angle, without disrupting or violating its intrinsic order or measure? Clearly, if a visit is attempted, our approach must not be that of a conquistador but rather that of a student or novice eager not so much to impart as to receive instruction. In the following, these considerations will guide my steps as I shall seek to encounter and interrogate one of the great and justly revered figures of medieval India; the Marathi poet-saint and thinker Jnanadeva (whose name is often also rendered as Dnyanadeva or Dnyaneshwar). The occasion for my visit is the 700th anniversary of Jnanadeva's death (he lived from 1275 to 1296). Expressed in the Indian idiom, the occasion is the poet-saint's "sanjivan samadhi " anniversary (he took voluntary samadhi at the young age of barely 22). Accordingly, the tenor of my comments throughout will be that of a commemorative search – a search for whatever Jnanadeva may have to impart or teach to a visitor coming from afar, from my time and place.

Even at an initial glance, Jnanadeva's life-work is enticing and impressive. In his short life-span he managed to compose a major philosophical treatise (the Amritanubhava), a large number of religious poems (so-called abhangas), and an extensive poetic commentary on the Bhagavad Gita (titled, after his name, Jnaneshvari or Dnyaneshvari) – not to mention a number of shorter works. Appreciation and admiration are bound to deepen by a closer reading of these texts. As it seems to me, despite a diversity of genres, Jnanadeva's writings are held together or animated by a common concern or theme. This theme – which may well be Jnanadeva's chief legacy or message to modern visitors like us – is the centrality of love or bhakti, where bhakti does not mean an emotive sentimentalism but rather a genuine turning-about of the whole being (including mind, heart, and senses). In this respect, Jnanadeva's outlook stands in sharp contrast to that of Western modernity. In large measure, modern Western thought has been wedded to a "cognitive" project, chiefly under scientific auspices: the project of rendering everything "known" and hence amenable to (technical) control. Without in any way spurning knowledge, Jnanadeva's voice reaches us on a different level. Faithful to the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, he gives pride of place to bhakti marga without dismissing the other paths or margas. Although a subtle mind (and despite his given name), Jnanadeva is not primarily a devotee of jnana – if by that term we mean an abstract reasoning seeking to gain universal knowledge of things. Similarly, he is not simply a "doer" or political activist in the manner of a Napoleon or Lenin – if (for the moment) we translate karma yoga in that sense. Still, over the centuries, his life and work have inspired in his homeland a large group of followers – with quite concrete

practical consequences. For present purposes, I shall focus my discussion on three main topics: first, the "life-world" of life experience of Jnanadeva as the nourishing soil of his writings; secondly, the central direction of his philosophical thought, as revealed chiefly in the Amritanubhava; and finally, the popular movement inspired largely by his work: the so-called 'Warkari Panth" centered around periodic pilgrimages to the sacred city of Pandharpur.

I

Although distant in time and place, Jnanadeva's work seems not entirely inaccessible to us – for a reason: his thought and poetry, according to his own admission, have always been anchored in concrete life experience of an ordinary human not given to exotic flights of fancy. Hence, no visit to this medieval saint could be fruitful without some acquaintance with the concrete circumstance, the fortunes and misfortunes, of his life. Although surrounded by legend, much his actual life story – including his genealogy – has been transmitted to us over the centuries more or less intact, with only minor variations. My point here is not to recount in detail this life story, and the story of his ancestry – something which has been done repeatedly by competent experts on medieval India. Instead, I want to recall to our memory – in the spirit of this commemorative search – some particularly striking or revealing aspects of this story, points which may also harbour a lesson for us and our time.

As we know, Jnanadeva's life was marked by much agony and suffering. In large measure, this suffering had to do with his family situation and its disjointed place in society. James Edwards calls him an "out-caste Brahmin" – which in many ways seems an apt description. This status as an "out-caste" derived basically from certain actions of his father, a Brahmin named Vithalpant from the Deccan village of Alandi – actions which came to overshadow the entire family, including his four children (of which Jnanadeva was the second). these actions, though unconventional, were neither criminal nor (in the main) morally reprehensible; in fact, they remain religiously and existentially properly "memorable." As the story goes, Vithalpant got married at a young age to a woman named Rukmini (or Rakhumabai) who loved him dearly and in due course bore him three sons and one daughter, Of a somewhat melancholy disposition and uncomfortable with ordinary family duties – the life of "householder" – Vithalpant at one point left his family and travelled north to Banares where he joined a community or ashram of ascetic sannyasins. As it happened, however, the chief pandit or guru of that ashram – a wise man called Ramananda (or Ramashram) – shortly afterwards went on a pilgrimage through the south of India, a journey which also brought him to Alandi. There, by chance, he also met Rukmini who, in tears and great desolation, reported to him the departure of her husband. Quickly discerning the identity of that husband, Ramananda instantly returned to Banares where he ordered Vithalpant to move back to Alandi and rejoin his family. Obedient to the instruction of his guru, Vithalpant did as he was told and resumed the "householder's" life – in full awareness of the dire consequences of this move. Once back in Alandi, he and his wife were outcast or excommunicated by the ruling Brahmin elite who denounced him for mixing up "life stages" and for contaminating sannyasa with worldly family concerns. As a result of this ostracism, he and his family – as Edwards reports – spent the rest of their lives "amid persecution, ridicule, and poverty." What was most painful was the fact that the ostracism extended from the parents to their offspring – who were now literally children of nobody (as a sannyasin could not have children). Despairing of any earthly remedy for their ills, Vithalpant and his wife committed suicide by jumping into the river Ganges – in

Edwards' account, they "sought penance and oblivion by drowning" – when Jnanadeva was just eight years of age. (1)

What I want to lift up from this story is neither the beginning (Vithalpant's departure from home) nor the ending (the joint suicide) – aspects which may raise mixed reactions. Instead, what I want to recall or commemorate here is the central drama of the story: Rukmini's unwavering love, the wisdom of the Banares guru, and Vithalpant's return to his family. As it seems to me, what the story brings into view are two radically different and conflicting conceptions of religion or religiosity and of paths to salvation. On the one side, religion denotes surrender to a distant and forbidding overlord demanding complete denial of early bonds; on the other side, it means precisely the practice – indeed the loving practice – of concrete human relations, including family or household obligations. The contrast also involves conflicting images of the divine or the deity: on the one side, God is an external overseer forever uncontaminated by human concerns and agonies; on the other side, the divine is intimately involved and actively present in worldly affairs – a presence which can be discerned with the help of a loving heart. To this extent, Vithalpant's story illustrates a central point of bhakti religiosity: that the path to God leads through the world, in an ascent of love. (2) The bifurcation of religious views – one should add – also implies a social bifurcation or stratification. Whereas a remote or shrouded God is held to be accessible only to a small elite of pandits or gurus, or else to a privileged priestly caste, bhakti religiosity is available to everyone in all walks of life. While the Alandi priests, in their arrogance, claimed to "possess" God by virtue of their Vedic knowledge (jnana) and rituals, Vithalpant learned that the divine can never be possessed and can be pursued or intimated through a life of giving service. (3)

The lesson of Vithalpant's experience is further underscored and corroborated by another story dear to bhakti religiosity: a story having to do with the very origin and religious significance of the city of Pandharpur. Although not directly a part of Jnanadeva's biography, the story is more than incidentally related to the saint's life – given the fact that Pandharpur was visited in pilgrimage both by Vithalpant and his son (and also serves as permanent point of destination for all warkari pilgrims). The central figure of the story is a saint or muni (sage) named Pundalik as a young man led a very dissolute and self-indulgent life, and his behaviour showed no concern and in effect great disrespect, for both his parent. and other relatives. Later on, however, his heart was turned around and he developed into a very caring son always eager to help his aging and ailing parents. At this point in his life, a great deity – the god Vithoba – came to visit Pandharpur and on this occasion also Pundalik's home. As it happened, Pundalik at that moment was busily caring for his father, massaging his feet; noticing the approach of the deity, he did not interrupt his action but only paused long enough to throw a brick (now the heart of the main temple in Pandharpur) – teaching us that love of God is not separate from love of family, friends, and fellow-beings. In fact, to love God means precisely to love fellow-beings (beginning with those close to us). (4)

Returning to Jnanadeva, I want to lift up a few instructive episodes of his life. One such episode is the story of the "Veda-reciting buffalo." Following the voluntary death of their parents, the children decided to approach the highest ranking priests in the Deccan with a plea for mercy. Thus, Jnanadeva and his older brother journeyed from Alandi to the priests in Paithan; according to the historian Mahipati, Jnanadeva was then about twelve years of age. Instead of showing sympathy and

mercy, however, the Brahmins only heaped insult and ridicule on the orphaned boys, calling them ignorant beggars and illegitimate offspring of a sannyasin. At this point (according to Mahipati), a man was leading an old, worn-out buffalo on the road near the Pandits, with waterskins strapped to the animal's back. As the animal was barely able to move, its master urged it forward with violent lashings – which caused it nearly to collapse in a flood of tears. Viewing this sense, Jnanadeva – filled with pity and himself in tears – pleaded with the man to desist. Far from sharing his pity, the Brahmins only intensified their ridicule, chiding Jnanadeva for showing concern for a dumb brute while being unconcerned with higher learning, especially the teachings of the Vedas, The young boy, however, fully rose to the occasion by posing a question to the priests. Was it not precisely the teaching of the Vedas, he asked, that all life is sacred as being a manifestation of Brahman or the divine? Dumbfounded and outraged, the priests retorted that, by Jnanadeva's logic, Vedic learning should be accessible not only to Brahmins but to a brute beast like the buffalo on the road. Undismayed, Jnanadeva placed his hand on the animal's forehead and "Io! (says Mahipati) there was a deep utterance of a Vedic song coming from its mouth." (5)I am not concerned here about historical accuracy but rather about symbolic significance. What the story teaches, I believe, is (again) that the divine is not the property of a learned elite, but that it is spread out as a gift. a largesse, all over creation. A Christian may recall that Jesus is reported as having told the priests in Jerusalem that God is able "from these very stones to raise up children to Abraham." (6)

Another episode involves Jnanadeva's encounter with a mighty yogi named Changdeva (or Changadeva), a man reportedly endowed with uncanny magical powers – and intensely proud of these powers. As the story goes, Changdeva – whose magic enabled him to ride on a tiger with a snake for a whip – was prodded by Jnanadeva's fiercest enemy in Alandi, a fellow named Visoba Chatty, to square off against Jnanadeva in order to squash the young man's spreading reputation of saintliness. Spurred on by his numerous disciples, Changdeva decided to come to Alandi and challenge Jnanadeva to a contest of yogic powers. In response, Jnanadeva sent to Changdeva a poem of sixty-five verses, known as the Changdeva

Pasashthi, a poem which – instead of dazzling the reader with exotic insights or magical tricks – simply celebrated God's infinite love for his creatures, a love humans should reciprocate with a gentle heart and in generous fellowship. On reading this poem, Changdeva felt ashamed of his conceit and self-importance. Hence, descending from his tiger he bowed before Jnanadeva and placed his head on his feet – indicating the surrender of magic to Bhakti. Again, my concern here is not with historical detail but with the story's lesson. As we know, there are today many conceited yogis in the Western world, people who have parlayed their yogic powers often into huge financial empires, Here, Jnanadeva cautions us to be on our guard. As he writes eloquently in his Jnaneshvari:

"Like a foolish farmer giving up his old business and beginning something new every day, the man overpowered by ignorance installs new images of gods often and again, and worships them with the same intensity. He becomes disciple of a guru who is surrounded by worldly pomp, gets himself initiated by him and is unwilling to see any other person who has got real spiritual dignity. He is cruel to every being, worships various stone images and has no consistency of heart."

For a reader coming from the west, these lines from Jnaneshvari as well as the Changdeva story are liable to evoke the memory of another biblical passage –

Micah's pithy and timeless standard of true religiosity: "to do justice, love kindness, and walk humbly with your God." (7)

There is another, final aspect of Jnanadeva's biography which deserves to be mentioned here: his own relation with his fellow-beings. Throughout his life, Jnanadeva's attitude was exemplary in its display of gentleness and forbearance, even and especially towards his heart. According to some accounts, Jnanadeva was linked in affection and perhaps love with the daughter of his archenemy in Alandi, Visoba Chati. But the story is too apocryphal, and also too much patterned on well-known romantic models, to deserve much credence. Another linkage, however, is amply attested to by historical records: Jnanadeva's friendship with the poet-saint Namadeva who was by some five years his senior. According to these accounts, the two saints first met in Pandharpur and immediately struck up a close inner companionship. While in Pandharpur, Jnanadeva became a devotee of the god Vithoba – the deity whom Pundalik had induced to stay in that city – and also commended Namadeva to the God's care. Subsequently, the two saints went together on a prolonged pilgrimage, visiting most of the holy places in northern India, including Bansres and Delhi. Following this journey, they returned to Pandharpur (in 1296) where a great festival was held in their honour, a festival – Bahirat reports – in which many contemporary saints "like Goroba the potter, Sanvata the gardener, Chokhoba the untouchable, Parisa Bhagavat the Brahmin, and others took part." It was at the end of this festival that Jnanadeva expressed the wish to return to Alandi and to enter sanjivan samadhi. On hearing this, Namadeva was desolate and in tears – but followed his friend's wish. Back in Alandi, the sons of Namadeva first swept clean the place of burial. Then, Bahirat reports: "Namadeva besmeared the body of Jnanadeva with the sandalpaste, marked his forehead with the pigment of musk, waved sacred lights and paid homage to the dearest of his heart." At the completion of the samadhi – and here I follow Mahipati's account – all bystanders were gripped by deep sorrow remembering the "sweet company" of the saint. Namadeva himself was inconsolable and requested god Vithoba to allow Jnanadeva to return to life for another meeting. And "tradition says that Namadeva and Jnanadeva again met in loving conversation" – testifying to the immortality of genuine friendship, the companionship of noble and loving hearts. (8)

II

In light of his life story and especially its ending – complete absorption into the divine – it is clear why Jnanadeva is celebrated chiefly as a saint, a person whose devotion offered inspiration both to his contemporaries and to centuries to come. Still, an appreciation of his life's impact would be truncated without attention to his written works and the intellectual or philosophical outlook displayed therein. As previously indicated, Jnanadeva's writings are not esoteric treatises addressed to a small elite of Pandits (they are composed not in Sanskrit but in popular Marathi). Rather, they were nurtured by, and continually harking back to, his concrete life experience, thus giving evidence of a life reflectively lived. (9) An exemplar of humble devotion, Jnanadeva – one must note – was also a thinking saint and, moreover, an imaginatively poetic thinker, as is manifest both in his Jnaneshvari and his Amritanubhava – works which are justly famous both for their searching insights and their poetic style (and thus confound the rigid compartmentalisation of philosophy, poetry, and theology). For present purposes, I shall center my attention chiefly on the Amritanubhava, a philosophical poem written

at the behest of his elder brother and guru, Nivrittinath, at a time when Jnanadeva was probably in his late teens.

In the philosophical literature, Jnanadeva is sometimes compared with the great intellectual acharyas of medieval India. Thus, according to some interpreters, Jnanadeva's thought is akin to the outlook of the philosopher-saint Shankaracharya – even to the point (as some hold) of providing nothing but a poetic decoration or embellishment of Shankara's views. Stressing the devotional or Bhakti element, other interpreters have likened his thought to the modified nondualism (vishisht-

advaita) of Ramanuja, or else (though less frequently) to the strict dualism of Madhva or pure monism of Vallabha. Although suggestive, these interpretations need all to be taken with a grain of salt. On the positive side, such comparisons evince a willingness to treat Jnanadeva on a par with India's great philosophical teachers or achmyas. On the downside, however, these readings also tend to shortchange the originality or distinctiveness of Jnanadeva's view – thus also depriving modern readers of a distinct learning experience. For these and other reasons, I am inclined to agree with Bahirat when he writes that prevalent interpretations have on the whole "underestimated the distinct individuality of Jnanadeva" and that there is, hence, a need of "re-examining his philosophy independently and to set in clear relief his views on the ultimate problems of life." I also concur with his statement that Jnanadeva's opus is a living thought and not "a matter of mere antiquity or a dry skeleton of speculative games." (10) His writings have provided inspiration not only for Bhakti movements in his native Maharashtra; they also offer food for thought for contemporary philosophy in general.

As its title indicates, the Amritanubhava is meant to be a "nectar of wisdom" by offering readers a glimpse into the nature of ultimate experience." In the language of the Upanishads and also of much of Western philosophy, the text is meant to serve as a guide to the understanding of "Brahman" or "being" (although Jnanadeva refrains from using the term Brahman). Here a first crucial distinctiveness of his thought emerges: being for Jnanadeva is not an object of thought, but what allows thought to happen in the first place. Differently phrased: being precedes and enables acts of cognition; in a way, it operates always already "behind our backs" and even during our attempt to approach and formulate its nature. To this extent, being is not a concept but preconceptual; it is also not just a category of reason (in the sense of a Kantian "condition of possibility") but a presupposition of thinking as such. In a similar vein, being antedates method and epistemology rather than being grounded in them; in Gadamerian language, Jnanadeva foregrounds the "truth" of being over the "method" or methodology of its philosophical analysis. His text, in fact, is somewhat cavalier about the traditional methods or epistemologies (pranamas)

sanctioned by classical Indian philosophy. Without dismissing them completely, he finds their validity limited and experientially limiting. Thus, sense (or sensory) experience only '"makes sense" in light of another, deeper understanding; likewise, reason is "rational" only through excess or by exceeding itself. Jnanadeva is cautious even about exclusive reliance on classical scriptural authority – a pramana strongly accentuated by the school of Vedanta and also by adhcrents of Mimamsa and Purvamimamsa. For Jnanadeva, the truth of experience is not so much validated or authenticated by scriptures; rather, scriptures gain their authoritative standing through their congruence with experiential truth. In the term of his text: "The absolute does not prove or disprove itself with the help of any norms or methods of knowledge.... The lamp lit up at midday neither dispels darkness nor spreads light." (11)

Operating behind our backs, ultimate experience antedates the division between subject and object and also the dualities of experience and non-experience and of knowledge and non-knowledge (or ignorance). For Jnanadeva, the division between knower and known is not so much a warrant of correctness or objective truth; rather, it is the derivative outgrowth of an experience which ultimately confounds and contaminates both. In the fifth chapter of Amritanubhava, Jnanadeva comments on the classical designation of being as "sat-chit-ananda", (or reality), consciousness (or knowledge), and bliss. According to Jnanadeva, these terms offer at best suggestive guideposts or clues; but they cannot be used (either singly or in combination) as objective descriptions of being – without becoming intrinsically incoherent. None of the terms is properly self-contained, since each points beyond itself (towards its other), In Jnanadeva's words: "The poisonousness of the poison is no poison to itself." In a similar way, the terms existence and consciousness (or knowledge) gain meaning and contours only by reference to their counter-terms non-existence and non-consciousness (or non-knowledge). Hence, the expression sat-chit-ananda should be seen not as offering an objective or exhaustive definition of being, but rather as a stand-in or place-holder for reflection to ward off affirmation of its opposites. For Jnanadeva, the term existence, consciousness and bliss – as used in classical scriptures – were not meant descriptively but rather as vehicles to shield being from its identification with non-existence, unconscious materiality, and pain (dukkha). To cite the Amritanubhava gain: "Being by itself, the absolute is beyond the ordinary conceptions of existence and non-existence." Such terms as non-existence, non-bliss are counter-terms or "counter-correlations" of the scriptural terms, and needed to profile the latter. Properly construed, the expression sat-chit-

ananda does not "denote the nature (of being), but differentiates it from its a opposites." Looked at from this angle, the scriptural words appear as "the residues of our thought"; in the light of being itself, "they vanish like the clouds that shower rain, or like the streams that flow into the sea or the paths that reach their goal." (12)

In these lines of his text, Jnanadeva clearly distances himself from an essentialist metaphysics – but without lapsing into anti-essentialism or a bland negativism. Influenced perhaps by Buddhist teachings, his text steers clear of positive affirmation – but remains equally on guard against an extreme form of "shunyavada" where "shunya" (emptiness) is reduced to a sheer vacuum or radical negativity. As is well known, a turn to emptiness in this sense is sometimes – though probably incorrectly – ascribed to Madhyamika Buddhism as inaugurated or formulated by Nagarjuna. More recently, in the context of Western thought, the critique of "foundational" (or essential) metaphysics has encouraged – in some quarters – a irritation or infatuation with a radical "antifoundationalism," where the latter term is meant to single the triumph of absence over presence, of contingency over necessity, and of artefact over (stable) nature. For Jnanadeva, the exchange of foundation for non-foundation is a bad and unwarranted bargain. As indicated, the absolute in his view cannot be definitely grasped either by affirmation or negation nor by a bland synthesis of the two. (Nor, one should add, can being be stylized into a pale ambivalence or an "undecidable" tension – to be resolved by arbitrary choice.) In the fourth chapter of Amritanubhava, Jnanadeva offers a strong and persuasive indictment of the retreat into negativism, or a purely negative "anti-foundationalism". If one asserts that the absolute "neither exists nor non-exists," he writes, one seems to allow the possibility of its non-existence. But he adds, "if the situation is such that nothing at all exists, who then knows [and can say] that there is nothing? Hence, the theory of emptiness (as nothing) appears as an "unjust imputation" to being: For, "if the extinguisher of a light is extinguished along with the light, who knows that there is no light?" (13)

Shying away from epistemic description, Jnanadeva (rightly) prefers the use of poetic religious language. Regarding the relation between being and world – a relation sometimes termed "ontic-ontological difference" – his text avoids both duality and coincidence, invoking instead the image of parenting. The opening chapter of the Amritanubhava pays tribute to the loving union of Shiva and Shakti seen as "the limitless primal parents of the universe." The two deities are mutually lover and beloved, in an unending sport of love. In their loving embrace, the two are "neither completely identical nor completely different"; while trying to maintain duality for the sake of allowing embrace, their difference is "abashed to see their intimacy merging itself in sweet union." Thus, Jnanadeva says, "it is through God (Shiva) that the other is Goddess (Shakti), and without her the lord is nowhere." Just as "two lips utter but one word and two eyes give one vision," in the same way "the two (Shiva and Shakti) engender one world." (14) Here (I believe) it is important to pay attention to the image of parenting or engendering, as distinct from the images of emanation, on the one hand, and instrumental creation of fabrication, on the other. As presented by Jnanadeva, parenting involves a creative act whereby the union of parents gives birth to their offspring in a manner which allows the latter to be (on their own). Seen as parents, Shiva and Shakti are not abstract transcendental principles from which the world could emanate or be derived through a process of "transcendental deduction" – a process where the derivative is always already contained fully in its premises, thus being deprived of autonomous being or life. Likewise in the case of fabrication, the product is always already pre-shaped in the mind of the producer – like the shoe in the head of the shoemaker (which again denies life to the shoe). Parenting, however, implies the joining of partners, male and female, in a life-giving and sustaining union.

Jnanadeva's portrayal of divine parenting differs not only from general cosmological theories but also from more specific doctrines indigenous of the Indian tradition. One such view is the conception of "purusha" and "prakriti" as formulated chiefly by the Sankhya school of philosophy. In this view, purusha denotes something like "spirit" or "transcendental spectator," while prakriti means "matter" or "material energy." Carried to its logical conclusion, this Samkhya doctrine implies the thesis of two ultimate principles constantly at odds with each other. In his account of divine parenting and the loving embrace of Shiva and Shakti, Jnanadeva completely rejects this Manichean view with its bent toward schizophrenia as a universal pathology. A modified version of the Samkhya outlook can be found in Advaita Vedanta – provided the latter is interpreted as an essentialist metaphysics along quasi Platonic lines. In the eyes of some interpreters, Shankara's thought can be reduced (perhaps rashly) to a stark "two-world" formula, that is, to an outlook separating a realm of essences from that of appearances, a true world (Brahman) from a merely illusory world (Maya), and genuine knowledge from a spurious claim to knowledge arising from ignorance (mayavada, ajnanavada, avidya). In this reading of Vedanta, the ordinary world of human experience is merely an illusory figment of imagination which must be discarded in order to break through to true (epistemic) insight. Leaving aside the correctness of this construal, it is clear that Jnanadeva's experimental approach to thinking clashes sharply with any two-world formula. In fact, the seventh chapter of the Amritanubhava (the longest on the text) is entirely devoted to a refutation of ajnanavada or mayavada – though without any mention of Shankara (which may be telling). As Jnanadeva shows persuasively, the bifurcation between essence and appearance, knowledge and illusion is deeply incoherent and contradictory. For, if' the "true" world is really the only valid and comprehensive one, how can an apparent world even arise – without disrupting the former's truth and comprehensiveness? Moreover, banished from knowledge, how can ignorance be "known" to be illusory?

In Jnanadeva's words: "How can ignorance that pales before inquiring thought, get eye-sight and see itself in the form of the visible world in front of it?" (15)

In rejecting the two-world formula, Jnanadeva restores dignity and integrity to ordinary life experience – but without allowing it to drift into pure contingency and avidya. Faithful to his image of parenting, his text presents the ordinary world (or life-world) as the living offspring of divine union – and as such neither completely subsumed under, nor divorced from or cut adrift from, that union. In this portrayal, what links offspring and parents is neither logical derivation nor empirical causation but rather mutual love and devotion (Bhakti) – where loving care is not simply a subjective feeling but the very core of being itself. In the ninth (and next to last) chapter of his Amritanubhava, Jnanadeva describes the relation between offspring and parents in terms of "natural devotion" which is said to be a "wonderful secret" – without demanding esoteric knowledge. Commentators have linked this devotion with the doctrine of "sphurtivada," meaning devotional or mystical insight, or else the theory of "chidvilasa" which regards the world as the "sport" of being or as the sporting delight of divine union. What these concepts suggest is some kind of pantheism or (better) Pan-en-theis – but the character of the latter needs to be carefully pondered. Jnanadeva does not claim that the world, or everything in the world, is divine as such or by itself (which would be a form of immanentism), but only that it is divine "secretly" or "wondrously" – in the sense that the secret is manifest to loving eyes (which can release in things the divine power, that is, Shakti or shekinah). Without Bhakti, the world may seem to tumble into darkness and despair, but in fact, the eyes of love are never really shut – since knower and known, seer and seen are always already held in caring embrace. In Jnanadeva's words: "the non-dual enters of its own accord the courtyard of duality; and the unity deepens along with the growth of difference." (16)

For Jnanadeva, natural devotion is an ordinary experience available to every human being, in fact to every being in the world; but it is also a "wondrous secret" deserving to be tented by a caring or loving heart. In its continually sustaining power, devotional care is not so much a distant goal which needs to be deliberately pursued or implemented; rather, it is always already there, lying in wait for humans – inviting them to settle down in its comfort. Viewed in terms of the traditional purusharthas (goals of life), Bhakti is a peculiar kind of non-goal – without being negligible or marginal to human life. Compared with the supreme goal of moksha,

Bhakti offers a unique mode of liberation or emancipation: a liberation not from, but in the world, allowing humans to live freely and caringly. Here is how Jnanadeva expresses this point: for the bhakta "the enjoyment of sense objects becomes sweeter than the bliss of emancipation (moksha), and in the home of loving devotion, the devotee and god experience their sweet union." At this juncture, the glory of liberating emancipation simply serves as a sitting carpet for the bhakta's

condition." Seated on this carpet – Jnanadeva concludes his poem – every human being can enjoy arnritanubhava, that is, "the festival of this nectar of spiritual experience." (17)

III

Jnanadeva's thought, as reflected in his writings, has not been consigned to library archives. As previously indicated, his work still provides living inspiration to Bhakti

religiosity both in his native Maharashtra and on the Indian subcontinent in general. The closest linkage, however, persists between his thought and a particular Bhakti

movement, the so-called Warkaris, whose devotion centres around periodic pilgrimages to Pandharpur. As also stated, this linkage goes back to Jnanadeva's own pilgrimage to that city in the company of his friend Namadeva. At that time, Jnanadeva became himself a devotee of Vithoba and also was introduced to the ongoing practices of Warkari pilgrims, Following his Samadhi, both his life and writings developed in turn into primary exemplars of genuine religiosity for the Warkari movement, and also into crucial sources and focal points of Bhakti devotion. Throughout ensuing centuries and down to the present, Jnanadeva's poems or Abhangas have continued to be remembered and chanted by pilgrims in the form of popular bhajans, just as his teachings are transmitted in kirtans which combine song and dance with exegetic commentary and instruction.

Given its deep linkage with the poet-saint, the character and distinctive practices of the Warkari movement closely emulate the former's legacy. Throughout his short life, Jnanadeva was always at the mercy of the arrogance and vindictiveness of the ruling priestly caste which reduced him and his family to outcast status. Without ever reciprocating harshly or in kind, Jnanadeva's life clearly was animated by a completely different standard of castelessness, non-hierarchy, and caring human fellowship. Congruent with Bhakti devotion, this standard became a model for the entire Warkari movement. In the account of Eleanor Zelliot, there were three main features of Jnanadeva's life that carried over into the Warkari movement: "implicit criticism of Brahmanical narrowness, egalitarianism in spiritual matters, and family-centered life." These features were thoroughly embraced by his friend Namadeva who, in many ways, was instrumental in shaping the outlook and living ethos of the movement. Under Namadeva's guidance, the movement gathered in its fold an extraordinary company of saints and poets, a company which – I am still following Zelliot – reflected "almost the complete range of the populace of Maharashtra" at the time. Among others, the group included: Parisa Bhagavata, a Vaishnava Brahmin; Changdeva, the yogi turned saint; Visoba Khechara, a Shaivite and guru of Namadeva; Gora the potter who used to evaluate saints as "baked" or "half-baked"; Savata the gardener; Sena the barber; Jagamitra Naga, the banker turned beggar; Janabai, the serving maid of Namadeva; and above all, Chokhamela the Untouchable Mahar whose wife, son, and sister all wrote abhangas to Vithoba. Later, according to Zelliot, the movement even included a number of Muslims, most importantly Shekh Muhammad, the Muslim Bhakti and saint. Among later followers, mention must also be made of Ekanath, the householder Brahmin and editor of Jnaneshvari; and the Shudra poet-saint Tukaram, the contemporary of Shivaji.' (18)

The cross-cast and socially non-exclusive character of the movement also carries over into a kind of religious non-sectarianism. Although organized in local or neighbourhood sections or dindis, the Warkaris quite freely welcome into their procession (to Pandharpur) non-members or fellow-travellers of diverse sectarian and religious backgrounds (as illustrated in Mokashi's Palkhi). This open attitude – not to be confused with syncretism – seems at least indirectly connected with the non- or multi-sectarian character of Pandharpur as a place of worship. Etymologically, the name of the city seems to go back to "Pandurang," a name of Shiva – the deity originally worshipped at that place. Arriving in the city at a later date, the god Vithoba never completely erased the earlier tradition. Theologically, Vithoba (or Vitthal) is viewed as not just an avatar but a svarup (or original form) of Vishnu-Krishna. In bhakti literature, following the god's arrival, Vithoba also was given the epithet "Pandurang". However, as Zelliot notes, the usage is perplexing: for literally, "Panduranga means the White One – a strange epithet for a black god." The perplexity persists in present-day Pandharpur, she adds, where "the temple of

god Vithoba, a svarup or original Vishnu, is surrounded by temples of Shaivite gods." The situation is even more complex, however, as the manifest images of deities – Shiva and Vishnu- Krishna – appear overshadowed by awareness of the formless or hidden "otherness" of the divine. In Zelliot's words, Vithoba is "an almost quality-less god," curiously distanced from the luxuriant mythological narratives usually surrounding Hindu gods. To this extent, the reigning deity in Pandharpur, and the sacredness of the city itself, seem intriguingly placed at the crossroads between the manifest and the non-manifest, between revealment and concealment, familiarity and non-familiarity – or in Indian terminology between "saguna" and "nirguna"

conceptions – which again fittingly reflects Jnanadeva's legacy. To quote Charlotte Vaudeville on this point:

"The spiritual attitude [of the poet-saints or sants] tends to blur not only the distinction between nirguna and saguna, but also the traditional distinction between Shaivism and Vaishnavism. In Maharashtra – as well as Gujrat and later on in Karnataka – it is possible to follow step by step the gradual merging of Shiva faith into the nonsectarian Vaishnava Bhakti of the sants." (19)

The unusual character of Warkari religiosity is also reflected in the movement's relation to pilgrimage. As mentioned, central to the Warkaris' life are periodic pilgrimages to Pandharpur – but not in the same way as pilgrims travel to other holy places like Banares or Dwarka. In the general Hindu tradition, the focus is typically placed on the goal point of pilgrimage, the sacred center of worship. In the case of the Warkaris, by contrast, the situation is nearly reversed: the accent is not so much on the goal point as on the journey itself. Differently phrased: sacredness is not an extrinsic end beyond, but rather the very heart of the pilgrimage; Pandharpur inhabits the journey from beginning to end. In the words of Philip Engblom, the Warkaris' journey is "more than just a means to attain the goal of darshan of Vitthal in Pandharpur"; it carries significance itself "as a spiritual discipline." As Engblom also comments, the term Warkari comes from the root "wari" which means journeying or "coming and going." Hence, a Warkari basically (and not just occasionally) is a wayfarer or pilgrim. However, the character of this wayfaring or journeying needs to be carefully noted – especially in our age of jet travel and restless migration in the "global village." Obviously, Warkaris are not tourists or vacationers travelling to distant places for fun and exotic thrills. Nor are they simply vagabonds or aimless nomads, moving about for no particular purpose at all, except for the point of being "on the road." Although not governed by an external goal or destination – and insofar going "nowhere" – the Warkaris' journeying is not just a pointless drifting, but rather displays a kind of "discipline" by being undertaken as an act of devotion (or Bhakti). To this extent, the Warkari is a Homo vintor (in the sense of Gabriel Marcel), a wayfarer whose main concern is the search for the proper "way," and the proper manner of being "on the way." (20)

This kind of search is manifest in the general conduct of the Warkaris – which is an ordinary life conduct, though suffused with an ear for the more-than-ordinary or divine. Throughout the centuries, from the time of Jnanadeva, one of the main attractions of the Warkari Panth has been its non-esoteric and non-elitist quality and its opcnness to all walks of life. Emulating Vithalpant, most of the great poet-saints of the movement have not been sannyasins but family people or householders. As Engblom says, "they advocated the practice of the path of devotion (bhaktimarga)

even while living within the entanglements and responsibilities of life in the family and in society (samsara)." Perhaps one might rephrase this statement to the effect

that, precisely by leading their ordinary lives, they followed the path of devotion. Being "worldly" – though in a peculiarly non-worldly way – the Warkaris' conduct in ethical terms cannot be reduced to either transcendental or empirical (or naturalist) formulas. Journeying along the path of Bhakti cannot be captured in transcendental imperatives (along Kantian lines) from which individual steps could be deductively derived. Nor is pursuit of the path governed purely by instinct or subliminal drives. As formulated by Jnanadeva, "natural devotion" implies indeed a certain trust in human inclinations – as against their stark suppression (under the auspices of duty or sannyasa). However, instead of being geared toward vain self-gratification, inclinations here have a transformative quality – by serving as vehicles on the ascending path of love. In the words of S. V. Dandekar, a leading figure in the Warkari movement in recent times (specifically its Jnanadeva section): "Instead of killing the passions – lust, anger, etc. – one simply turns them over to Hari." (21)

In our secularist age – averse to absolute principles or vistas – the distinctive worldliness of Jnanadeva and the Warkaris still deserves to be commemorated – and emulated. Especially to Western readers floundering in the wasteland of possessiveness and abstract knowledge, the journeying of the Warkaris may still convey a lesson as to how it is possible to "walk humbly with our God." Jnanadeva's short life was in its entirety such a humble walk with God. The legacy of his example has radiated through the centuries, down to our day – as only a message of love can. It is fitting to conclude these pages with lines from the closing prayer which he attached to his Jnanesvari:

And now may God, the soul of universe, Be pleased with this my offering of words. And being pleased may he give me This favour in return: That the crookedness of evil-doers may cease, And that the love of goodness may grow in them. May all beings experience from each other the friendship of the heart. (22)

Jnaneshvara In The Indian Context

Chandrakant B. Bandiwadekar Retired Professor of Hindi, University of Pune and University of Bombay.

Saint Jnaneshvara has tremendously influenced culture, literature and language of Maharashtra. For six hundred years (from 13th century to 18th century) the Varkari sect made all-pervading impact on the life of the common people. This impact reformed the psyche of Maharashtra. Ultimately human life achieves its goal and significance only when it realizes that the world of living and non-living beings is an expression of the play of the Brahman and that the existence, progress and prosperity of life became significant when this knowledge is gained. This knowledge can be gained in many ways such as Yoga, Bhakti, action without any desire for result, asceticism, self- realization and perception of the Ultimate Reality. Even though the ultimate goal of the Truth is determined, the process of life striving towards it is very long. For this process the creation of values and their implementation in life on individual and social levels is very much essential. The Varkari sect has looked upon God as the Ultimate Truth and has ascertained grades of values in social life and insisted upon each man's inculcating them in him. The sect has accepted ultimate equality among men. It lays stress on values such as individual sacrifice, forgiveness, simplicity, overcoming passions, peaceful co-existence, compassion, non-violence, love, humility in social life.

All these values were the thrust of all indian saints. The Varkari sect tried to mould the attitude of the common people (including Sudras and women) towards life. As far as possible, it inspired people to live according to high ideals of life. Jnaneshvara and Jnanadevi that he preached are important because they formed the attitude and the way of life of Maharashtrian masses. A person must have a kind of detachment while living his life and he must have the courage of his convictions in the face of evil forces that deform life and dreadful death. Jnaneshvari helped common man to inculcate these qualities in him.

The oral tradition directly and effectively influenced the audience. Moreover, the sacrificial lives of Jnaneshvara and his brothers and sisters were a revealing experience for the common people. At that time, the facilities of information media were not at all available. But the impact of the saints' ideal lives and their expressions was surprisingly large and tremendous on the minds of the common people. While translating the store of knowledge in Sanskrit into Marathi and making it easily accessible to the common people, Jnaneshvara chose Bhagavadgeeta and wrote his commentary on it. Why did he select Bhagavadgeeta?

It is obvious that the essence of Indian culture is found in Bhagavadgeeta, which is in a way the complete thought about religion in the broadest way. Bhagavadgeeta teaches reason to distinguish between a right action and a wrong action. It places before us the ideal human life based on the conception of the best (uttama) man. It places before us the ideal of the man whose mind is ever tranquil and it justifies this great attitude towards life. It is the result of mature Indian outlook towards human life. Jnaneshvara's life may tell us something more as to why he chose Bhagavadgeeta.

Jnaneshvara underwent many sufferings because of the high-caste people. In fact, any individual or a group of people did not inflict sufferings on an individual. The Brahmins of that period accepted Jnaneshvara's greatness; but they were at the mercy of the traditions and rituals of their religion. An individual was not so much responsible for his sufferings but the custom-bound religion was. Jnaneshvara, a great soul, had in mind a universal religion full of higher ideals and significance which is expressed very poetically in his Pasayadana. There was a great conflict between universal religion and custom-bound religion of the people. He considered Geeta as a proper medium to propound his conception of universal religion (vishvadharma). His imagination as well as his poetic power that expounded the all-pervading and mysterious (deep) nature of the universal religion was at its highest. In his personality there was a wonderful confluence of a philosopher, a saint and a poet. So the choice of Bhagvadgeeta was appropriate for his highest purpose.

Jnaneshvari has deeply influenced the people of Maharashtra. But so far there has not been a detailed analytical study and evaluation of its influence. Shri. M. P. Pethe, the chief librarian of Poona University has prepared a bibliography of books, articles and critical essays on Jnaneshvari published so far. The bibliography includes nearly 2500 entries. There is a long tradition of keertankars who preach the teachings of Jnaneshvari. This tradition has left a deep impact on the people of Maharashtra. In Maharashtra, there do exist caste-differences. Still there are people considerate to one another. The high class is sympathetic and just towards Dalits. The high castes do actively participate in the works for the uplift of the Dalits. The Dalits have been encouraged and helped to educate themselves. All this has been possible because of the foundation laid by the Varkari sect. The spiritual equality has been strengthened by Jnaneshvara and other saint-poets.

The Varkari sect has impressed the sanctities of the society on the minds of farmers and other working classes. The very name of Jnaneshvara brings people of far away villages together, even though he passed away seven hundred years ago. These people try their best to live peaceful and virtuous life. Jnaneshvara has impressed upon the minds of people of Maharashtra, except some educated people, that devotion is a way to God.

Jnaneshvara endowed Marathi language which had been a folk-language till that day with great literary qualities. Jnaneshvari is rich in many figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, drstanta. Its influence on Marathi language is still to be seen. Jnaneshvari made Marathi speaking world confident of the strength of the language. Jnaneshvari has shown how ably he expressed the complex meaning in the most subtle ways. If a Sanskrit scholar does not write a commentary on Prasthanatravi, he is not considered a scholar. So also a Marathi scholar cannot be a scholar in the true sense of the term if he has not expressed his views and reflections on Jnaneshvari. We are confronting tremendous forces of Western culture. Still our life-values arc shaped and directed by Jnaneshvari. Jnaneshvara looked upon Geeta as the foundation of formation of ideal life.

Tilak's Geeta-rahasya tried to coordinate action, devotion and knowledge. It is difficult to find as to how much impact of Jnaneshvari was there on the mind of Lokamanya Tilak. Both Mardhekar, the pioneer of new poetry and Vinda Karandikar were inspired by Saints' literature. This is evident not only from their use of oviand abhanga but from their vocabulary also. Karandikar has rendered Jnaneshvara's Amritanubhava into modern Marathi language. Dilip Chitre who translated important

abhangas of Tukaram has recently translated Amritanabhava into English. We find new poets in Marathi are much inclined to the study of Jnaneshvara and Tukaram. Out of three works on the life of Jnaneshvara, the novel Mogara Fulala by G. N. Dandekar is the masterpiece. There are some dramas and films also available in Marathi. The life of the people of Maharashtra is not falling victim to the extremities of individualism, hedonism and materialism. This was only because Jnaneshvara impressed the importance of a particular way of life on their mind.

Saints like Jnaneshvara were born in other parts of India. The influence on the people in these parts varied according to the personalities of those saints. Since the eighth century, the Indian languages were developing as well as communicating with one another. Many Marathi saints composed devotional songs in Hindi. Namadev and Ramadas came into contact with the saints of other provinces. In spite of this, there is no proof that other provinces were acquainted with books such as Jnaneshvari till the end of the 19th century. There is no evidence that Marathi saints except Ramadas and Namadev were acquainted with the works in other regional languages.

The cultural heritage of all the regional languages was the same as they had imbibed the cultural, religious and literary influence from Sanskrit and had drawn upon the vocabulary in Sanskrit. Their philosophical attitudes were not at all different. Their religious values were alike. Still their knowledge of each other's literary works was as good as nothing. Ovi and abhang (Marathi metres) in Marathi possess resonance which is rarely heard in other languages. The peculiarity of dohas and kavitta

savaiyya of Hindi cannot be found in other languages. The gulf between Indian languages and their literatures began to widen particularly in poetry which clings to language intimately.

In the modem age, the means of transport as well as facilities for communication have increased and improved. Inspite of diversity of languages, one is aware of contemporary cultural unity. Politics wants the cultural unity to be strengthened. The importance of translation was fully realized and now the works are being translated from one language into another. Naturally Jnaneshvari, a classic work, was translated in most of the Indian languages.

In Maharashtra Jnaneshvara has influenced people on a large scale. From generation to generation, Jnaneshvari has been read and recited in many houses, though such houses might have gone for livelihood to other provinces. They might have carried this tradition of reading Jnaneshvari. But its influence is not much felt in other societies. Babu Ramchandra Varma translated Jnaneshvari into Hindi in 1937. It was published by Hindi Sahitya Kuteer, Varanasi. Varma translated Jnaneshvari edited by Balkrishna Anant Bhide. The translation is simple, lucid and fluent prose. The translation has run into more than twelve editions. This shows how popular the translation has been. The translation by Pandit Raghunath Madhav Bhagade was published in 1940. The translator humbly requested the readers to point out defects if they were found. And some readers did respond. Taking into account suggestions made and defects shown by the readers, the publisher published the revised edition in 1955. As far as possible, the translator tried to keep the original meaning unchanged. Perhaps because of the prose translation, meaning did not suffer.

Shri Ganesh Prasad Agarwal was the first translator to publish his translation of Jnaneshvari in verse in 1967. Sant Gulabrao Maharaj had given a copy of Jnaneshvari to Agarwal and asked him to read it everyday. Agarwal translated some

ovis (stanzas) into Hindi dohas and read them out to Gulabrao Maharaj who asked Agarwal to translate the whole book in verse. Agarwal was too busy to do the work. Gulabrao appeared in his dream and putting his finger on 66th stanza of 18th adhyaya (chapter) ordered him to start translating Jnaneshvari. Agarwal began his work and completed his translation within two and a half years. It was translated into dohas and sorathas in Avadhi language. This reminds one of the dream Eknath had: Jnaneshvara told him in his dream to research into the manuscript of his book and decide upon the original copy.

Shri Bapurao Kumathekar's attempt was more ambitious. He translated Jnaneshvari into Hindi using ovimetre of the original work. The translation was published in 1970. (In Sant Jnaneshvara: Jeewan Aur Karya, Editor Chandrakant Bandiwadekar, Vani Prakashan, Delhi, 1988, two articles entitled Hindime Jnaneshvara have been published. One is by Dr. N. G. Sathe and another by Dr. M. D. Paradkar. I have drawn upon that material.) In 1995, Shri. M. G. Tapaswi translated Jnaneshvari in Hindi: using the original metre (i. e. ovi). The translation is smooth, lucid and has a good flow.

In fact, the prose rendering of Jnaneshvari in Hindi has become much popular. And this was natural. It is not possible for Hindi readers to be aware of the complete poetic power and beauty of the original work.

Gujarat is the land of emotional people. In some ways Gujarati and Marathi languages are similar. Shri Chakradhar Swami, the founder of Mahanubhav sect of Maharashtra hailed from Gujarat. He carried on his mission in Maharashtra. "Sastu Sahitya Wardhak Karyalay" founded by Bhikku Akhandanand published Jnaneshvari

Bhagavadgeeta which ran into 16 editions. It was translated by Ratnasinha Deepsinha Parmar and Gowardhandas Kahandas Ameen. It was published towards the end of the 19th century. Vamanrao Patel published Jnaneshvara and Changdev. While describing Changdev episode he translated Changdev Pasashthi into Gujarati. Vimalbai translated in verse two books of Jnaneshvara entitled Amritanubhav and

Changdev Pasashti in 1979.

Two sisters "Harishchandra" translated Vinobaji Bhave's Jnanadeva Chintanika into Gujarati. It ran into two editions till 1966. Under the guidance of Vimalatai, Shri Kishan Sinha Chawda has freely translated some stanzas written in the praise of Guru from the early parts of the adhyayas of Jnaneshvari This book has included a small biography of Jnaneshvara and preface by modern Gujarati saint (late) Mota. This book (Jnaneshvari ki Guru Upasano: Bhavartha Nandini) was published in 1970. In 1978 Shri Kishan Sinha translated Jnaneshvari keeping ovi metre of the original book. While translating the work, Kishan Sinha took the help of all criticism and commentaries on Jnaneshvari. Mrs. Smita Bhagwat has written a novel Tejaswini,

the central character of which is Muktabai. It was published in 1982. As children's literature in Gujarati included Jnaneshvara's biography, most Gujarati people are well acquainted with his life.

The information given above has been taken from the article written by Dr. Jayendra Trivedi published in the above mentioned book, "Sant Jnaneshvara: Jeevan aur

Karya" Dr. Jayendra Trivedi has written this article, namely, "Gujarati ma Jnanamrit

Varsha" in a language soaked in emotion. The article ends with a remarkable note. "If in the literature of any language, the translations of Geeta, Anubhavamrit and Jnaneshvari are not available, the Indianness of the people speaking that language

cannot be deemed complete." The ardour with which this article has been written shows how dearly the Gujarati readers have owned Jnaneshvari. We should not forget that this became possible only in the modern age.

The situation in Bengal is totally different. The great scholar of Bengali, Shri Kshitimohan Sen, has published a book, namely, Bharatiya Madhye Uge Sadhanar

Dhara, in which only the name of Jnaneshvara has occurred. The translation of Jnaneshvari was published in 1963. The translation by Shri Girishchandra Sen was published by Sabitya Akademi. It seems that Shri Girishchandra Sen had studied the commentaries on Jnaneshvari. He translated Amritanabhav and Changdev Pasashti in 1965. As there is very thin evidence of the impact of Jnaneshvari on Bengali language, it is very difficult to say how much acquaintance Bengali literary class has gained from the translation.

Jnaneshvari is translated into Oriya language also. It was published in 1978 and republished in 1983 by Gauravchandra Mishra.

In the languages of southern part of India, in Kannada and Telugu there is some literature about Jnaneshvara. Some Chitpavan Brahmin families settled in Karnataka and devotedly read or recited some part of Jnaneshvari everyday. Raghavendra Subbarao, the devotee of God Dattatreya was ordered by his teacher (Guru) Vishnupant to translate Jnaneshvari into Kannada. He translated the book in Yamini

Shatpadi metre of Kannada language. He has been faithful to the original meaning. In the post- independence days, Kashinath Kurdi Keri, A. K. Kulkami, B. N. Deshpande and Swami Krishna Bharati translated Jnaneshvari in Kannada.

As Kannada language had developed and found its identity earlier compared to Marathi and as there was indifference towards Geeta and as Jain and Shaiva literatures impact on Kannada was more powerful, the books like Jnaneshvari were not considered for translation in Kannada. Dr. Shrinivas Havnoor has shown that Marathi was influenced by Kannada and that many Kannada words are found in Jnaneshvari. He has cited the article by Adya Rangacharya. The article, "The

grammar of Jnaneshvari", written by Shri Ederat and published in 1927 had given inspiration to Adya Rangacharya. The translation of Jnaneshvari in Kannada was looked upon mainly as a religious book and was read devotedly by Kannada-speakers. Not much attention was paid to the richness of meaning and beauties of expression in it.

Jnaneshvari was translated into Telugu during post-independence period. Shri Digavalli Sheshagiri Ray translated Jnaneshvari into sophisticated Telugu prose. It should be borne in mind that he translated the Hindi translation of the original. It was published under the title Jnaneshvari Bhagavadgeeta in 1949. It ran into a second edition in 1972. The book consists of the biography of Jnaneshvara. Dr. Narasi Reddy has said that other compositions by Jnaneshvara have not been translated into Telugu. The Maratha kings ruled over Telugu province till 1855. Shivaji's brother Ekoji was the first among them. All the Marathi kings helped Telugu language, culture and literature develop. According to Dr. Narasi Reddy, this is the splendid example of Indian tradition.

Dr. Sadanand Moray has written a scholarly article, "Jnaneshvara in Indian English" (Bharatiya Angrejime Jnaneshvara) in Sant Jnaneshvara Jeevan aur Karya. "Geeta

explained by Jnaneshvara Maharaj" is the translation by Manu Subedar, of Shri

Govind Moghe's original book in Marathi (Subodhini Chhaya). Manu Subedar has freely rendered the book into Marathi in 1932. It ran into a second edition in 1942 and a third one in 1972. The translator himself is not satisfied with his own work. He holds that English is a weak language to fully communicate the message and poetry of Jnaneshvari. Ramchandra Keshav Bhagwat was the first to translate complete Jnaneshvari into English. It was published in two volumes. The first volume was published in 1952 and the second in 1954. The book ran into second edition in 1974. In the seventh decade, UNESCO published the translation by Shri. B. G. Pradhan. Thus the Jnaneshvari was introduced to the whole world. Swami Umanand translated Jnaneshvari under the title "Shri Jnaneshvari as understood by Swami Umanand". It was published in three volumes in 1980. He has called Jnaneshvari "Siddhayoga".

Some adhyayas (chapters) have been translated by some other writers. J. F. Edward wrote a book, Jnaneshvara, the outcast Brahmin, in Dr. Justice Amber's series named "The poet saints of Maharashtra". The book includes the translation of the 18th adhyaya (chapter). J. F. Edward has made use of N. R. Godbole's translation. Shri. V. S. Upalekar translated into English Govind Maharaj's Marathi book Jnaneshvari Subodhini with the help of its Hindi translation by Barsavade.

Shri. K. R. Kulkami translated Amritanubhava into English. The second translation of Amritanubhava was done by Shri Madhav under the title The New Nectar of Divine

Experience. It was published in 1918 by Ajay Prakashan, Pune. Both these translators have translated Changdev Pasashti also. Recently the well-known new poet of Marathi, Shri Dilip Chitre, has translated Amritanubhava into English published by Sahitya Akademi.

Jnaneshvara's abhangas have not been translated. Shri K.R. Kulkarni has translated 28 abhangas from Haripath in 1968.

In R. G. Ranade's The History of Indian Philosophy one finds fine interpretation of Jnaneshvara's philosophical thoughts. Shri Bahirat has written The Philosophy of

Jnaneshvara which was first published in 1954. Many writers have laid stress on Chidrilasavada of Amritanubhava.

Apart from the books mentioned above there are books such as "Dnyandeo" (1982), a biography of Jnaneshvara by Prof. S. B. Dandekar. "Jnaneshvara, the Superman"

(1973), a monograph by P. Y. Deshpande. It is heard that Dr. Ravi Thatte, a renowned expert in plastic surgery, is deeply interested and engaged in translating Jnaneshvari into English.

All the discussion above highlights the fact that other languages were ignorant of Jnaneshvara and his works till the end of the 19th century. The acquaintance with him and his work is the result of exchange of thoughts and works during the post-independence days. Have these translations been at least partial inspiration to the non Marathi readers? The original book has been a constant inspiration to Marathi mind. The prose rendering of Jnaneshvari in Hindi has run into twelve editions whereas the one in Gujarati has run into 16 editions. Sentimental Gujarati people basked in the showers of the nectar of Jnaneshvari. Other parts of the country did not experience such a spiritual thrill. There may be cultural as well as literary reasons for this.

Every region has its own literary and cultural tradition with which people identify themselves. Under such circumstances it becomes difficult for them to greet and digest the impact of others. Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas that has impressed the minds of people of Northern India as a devotional book, cannot directly appeal to Marathi, Gujarati or Telugu readers. Jnaneshvari moves the heart of Marathi people. It cannot appeal in that degree to the other people. Till the movement for freedom, it was necessary to show and declare that India is one. That there was a cultural unity among the people is beyond doubt, but it was a sort of national necessity to show or restore the unity among diversity. That was why activists like Senapati Bapat and Sane Guruji translated works of other languages into Marathi in the belief that it was a service to nation.

To some extent, translation influenced the psyche of the country. In the exchange of literary and other works in post-independence days, the academic view became more prominent than any other view. The scholar took the advantage of publication facilities. Their works were limited to and influenced only the literary coterie or the esoteric.

In what ways can/should Jnaneshvaribe received and interpreted in other Indian languages?

In Maharashtra there are many factors that have made Jnaneshvari great. In the beginning, I have shown how he had culturally united the people. This historical importance has just been the simple matter of information for a non-Marathi reader. Jnaneshvari has greatly influenced and shaped the psyche of Marathi people. Historically speaking, he did a great service to Marathi language. The glorious identity of Maharashtra consists in the tradition of Bhakti as well as in the great achievement of Shivaji. Jnaneshvara was the founder of Bhakti sect. So he is looked upon as mother of Maharashtra. People of Maharashtra call him Mäuli with great reverence This feeling will be the object of admiration, respect and curiosity for non-Marathi people.

Study of linguistic influence of Jnaneshvari on Marathi in the following periods will be revealing. The importance of philosophical views in Jnaneshvari and Amritanubhava will be limited. In a way, this philosophical approach is the extension of the great Indian philosophical tradition expressed in a regional language. In this context, Jnaneshvara does not claim to be original. It is impossible and unnecessary to show the difference in the life views in Geeta with those revealed in Jnaneshvari.

There is another way to approach Jnaneshvari. It is to study Jnaneshvari along with Amritanubhava and abhangas from the purely aesthetic point of view. To see how the philosophical work with a certain view towards human life becomes intensely poetic will be a rewarding study. A critic will explore new fields if he tries to find out how philosophy without foregoing its theoretical stand expresses itself through images and very rich poetic language. In his book Jnaneshvariteel Vidagatha

Rasovritti, Dr. R. S. Walimbe has discussed rasas in Jnaneshvari. He has shown many poetic beauties in Jnaneshvari. At least some part of his book should be translated into other languages, without losing one's critical sight. Some people well-versed in criticism of Marathi poetry have expressed their emotional involvement with poetic beauties of Amritanubhava and Jnaneshvari. They have their own attitudes towards these books. Among such writers are P. Y. Deshpande, Baba Maharaj Pundit, Dr. V. N. Pundit etc.

With devotion and analytical ability, one can draw upon the works of many scholars on Jnaneshvari. The translation of these views can prove the greatness of Jnaneshvara in its varied aspects. Leaving aside the attitude of a commentator of Geeta, Jnaneshvara expresses himself as a creative poet of extraordinary ability. The analysis of philosophical insight that expresses into poetic images and poetic language will be important not only to Marathi language but to other Indian languages also. If the gifted critic applies his mind to various places in Jnaneshvari where his poetic abundance overflows and analyses his poetic concerns, it will be a great tribute to the literature of the world.

Jnaneshvari: The Philosophy of Universal Harmony

Bhaskar E. Avhad Advocate and Founder Trustee of MAEER‘s MIT, Pune, India

Jnaneshvara(1) and his philosophy have proved to be a landmark in Indian Vedic philosophy. The Vedanta in its pure and puritan form is more akin to principles of science than dogmatic beliefs. The philosophy that lends foundations to the Hindu religious scriptures claims its origin in the Vedas, further culminating into Upanishads and critically commented upon and supplemented to by the Smritis had nevertheless remained a treasure accessible to only the very learned and those having special learning in Sanskrit which common men were never supposed to learn. Bhagwat Gita is perhaps the only scripture of this system which in a nutshell or in a capsulised form presents the essence of total Vedantic philosophy and hence has for millenniums continued to be considered the sheet anchor of the Hindu philosophy and religion alike. The Marathi Saint Jnaneshvara at an early age of eighteen had undertaken the task of explaining and commnenting upon the Bhagwat Gita in Marathi. Jnaneshvara's exemplary personal life was full of traumatic experiences and social indignities meted out to him by others but Jnaneshvara with his philosophical determination and supreme knowledge converted these into an opportunity of social reform. The dogmatic stigma offensively attached to Jnaneshvara and his sister and two brothers was that they were outcast Brahmins being the children of an ascetic who was not supposcd to resume household once having renounced this world. It is a matter of common experience that such unjust treatment is meted out to the innocent ones and particularly the knowledgeable ones cause sometimes revolt and most of the times extreme bitterness in the outlook of the subject. However surprisingly enough in the case of Jnaneshvara his depth of understanding, generosity and the divine approach had instead made him more concerned about those who attacked him. World knows of Jesus Christ who instead of cursing was praying for the well-being of his killers knowing that they did not know what they were doing and similar is the reaction of Saint Jnaneshvara.

Saint Jnaneshvara was for certain perfectly seized of the subject matter of Bhagwat Gita and the transcendent Vedic philosophy underlying it when he embarked upon the task of writing the commentary. The Vedic scriptures perhaps in the most scientific manner deal with the religious philosophy. The personification of the Almighty is something unknown to the pure theory of Hindu philosophy and Jnaneshvara very meticulously takes care not to deviate from it. Jnaneshvari (2), the treatise written by Jnaneshvara, is not only a running commentary or clause-by-clause commentary on Bhagwat Gita but also a self-realisation by Jnaneshvara of the Vedic at large and it is for this reason that time and again in Jnaneshvari one finds that Jnaneshvara's commentary takes the subject matter much the Bhagwat Gita. The dogmatism of religion had never restricted Jnaneshvara's philosophical approach to the religion as was practised and understood at the time. One does really wonder when one considers the generous approach of Jnaneshvara in condoning the wrongs done by others but this surprise subsides when one studies in right perspective the mind of Jnaneshvara. Jnaneshvara was not only a great poet, a great lyricist, a great literary master, a great pandit or a scholar of religious philosophy but also a great social reformer, a great sociologist, a great logician and above all a great divine soul.

As is customary for religious authorities to start any discourse or writing of scriptures with various prayers of Gods and Goddesses, Jnaneshvara, too, proceeds with prayers of Almighty, however, right from the beginning of Jnaneshvari one starts noting the marked difference in approach. Jnaneshvara starts with prayer of Shree Ganesha, the God of learning and wisdom. However, his Ganesha is not an idol of a particular size or shape. He considers Ganesha to be a nomenclature or a common description describing the whole Vedantic knowledge and in the first chapter of Jnaneshvari first part makes it clear that the Aum is the Brahman and it is also the Atman and Adwait or the monism of Vedanta is personified here by Shree Jnaneshvara. He considers the Vedas to be the body or trunk of Shree Ganesha while the Smritis to be the limbs and the Puranas to be the jewellery; the Vedantic literature is the costume and the learning of the various jewels put on by Shree Ganesha; the six sciences are considered to be the hands and the differences of opinions the weapons in the hands and so on.

He also refers with respect to the philosophy of Buddhism instead of attacking the Shunjavad propounded by the Buddhism. Likewise, he refers with respect to the theism of Sankhyas. Jnaneshvara making it all inclusive, considers that even the branches of Hinduism put into the mainstream together make the total knowledge of the system and this total system when personifed becomes Shree Ganesha and this Shree Ganesha is represented by Aum which in a sense is representing all that human beings can express and speak, since it is a combination of the human voice in its all the three forms i.e. Kanthya, Talya, and Osthya.

Dealing with the never changing basic principles governing the universe Jnaneshvara all along also kept in mind that the universe of animate beings was ever changing and hence very skilfully and wisely struck a golden mean between these never changing basic principles of Vedanta and their application to the ever changing needs of day-to-day human life. Jnaneshvara's approach to life is not one of asceticism or retirement. He doesn't propagate or preach shunning the worldly affairs, nor does even desire one to be an impractical being. On the contrary he does propound the theory of being a practical man taking care of day-to-day life and day-to-day duties.

His is philosophy that doesn't preach the concept of retirement and concept of detachment in an absolute sense. His is a relative detachment, his is an approach that aims at equipping the common than in his ordinary pursuit of life. He very ably makes one understand the vainness in the mad struggle for materialism and deprecates the addiction to the aggrandisement of self by exploiting others at the same time. His religion is practical and real. Jnaneshvara's exhilarating learning, erudition and literary mastery is evident all throughout the Jnaneshvari. He wrought poetry in silver and gold studded with the symphony of jewels, the maze of marble wonders and hued with the mosaic of colours and woven with the fine fabrics which belong to the fairy lands. Jnaneshvara carves with a mass of poetical conceptions not only the arts and sciences but also, the realities of domestic life. And this his poetic conception is pressed forward till the sensuous touches the super-sensuous and the real gets the rose-hue of the unreal.

His observations of nature and human nature are of exceptionally high order and exceedingly incongruent with his age. Jnaneshvari teaches a man to lead a good and successful social life by living in and interacting with society. Not seclusion but society and not only sacrifices but the worldly adjustments are underlying his treatise. Jnaneshvara looks at Dharma as social ethics and instrumentality for

establishing the society at peace and harmony. The samatvam or equanimity are the rock bottom of his philosophy. Considering the concept of Atman Jnaneshvara's emphasis is mainly on self-realisation through knowledge and it is this quality of this philosopher-saint that has made it easy for him to combine the concepts of pleasure and pain, evil and good and spiritual and secular knowledge and metaphysical entities.

But to him the knowledge was not the mere information put into one's brain and allowed to run riot there, without being digested. Nor did his philosophy give place to imbecility, superstition, pettiness of mind, infights or bickering about trivial things. The all-knowing or omniscient Atman is really the subject matter of human knowledge all along and this understanding of Atman and its correlation with Brahman was so perfect with Jnaneshvara that not only that he preached it but also that he practised it.

At the time of the Dharma Peethas or the seats of Religious Authority was at Paithan and these children of an ascetic were told to obtain a Shuddi Patra from the Dharma Peetha, to obtain which they had gone to Paithan. There too the congregation of the religious head men presiding over the Dharma Peetha, in a very mean manner, insulted them, tried to belittle them. However Jnaneshvara did not lose his calm, temper and sobriety and dealt with the situation in such graceful manner that the so-called religious scholars realised their own hollowness and mistake and were sorry for what they did. Though now they were at his feet, Jnaneshvara did not dethrone them. Jnaneshvara perhaps knew that to regulate a society a system is a must and you can improve, purify, modify or better a system but you can never do away with the system itself simply because it happens to be spoilt with the wrong approach of the persons manning the system. Jnaneshvara didn't allow the social bond to weaken at any time.

Jnaneshvara is a strange combination of humility and self-assertiveness, decency and aggressiveness and simplicity and learning. In a very humble way he gives all the credit of his achievements to the Almighty and to his preceptor, elder brother, Nivruttinath. He respects tradition, he acknowledges his indebtedness to Bhagwat Gita and at the same the asserts that having studied the things properly he won't go wrong and very confidently assures his readers and followers that the treatise he is presenting would be effective and of a very high order. Nay he goes to the extent of saying that his words would win even against the nectar. This jurisprudential approach of Saint Jnaneshvara is in consonance with the very approach of Vedic system. It may be noted that Vedic system was more akin to the modern theories of jurisprudence. Even the sovereigns at war did respect the rules of war which are quite analogous to the ones today to be found in the Public International Law or the or rules concerning diplomatic relations were also likewise advanced and even the wars were fought as per the rules of war. The war-fields on which the wars were fought were Dharma Kshetras (3) and the warriors who fought there were going by Kshatra Niti or War Ethics (4) and these rules though difficult to explain Jnaneshvara makes them very simple and self evident.

It is rather the very merit of Jnaneshvara. He is speaking about very serious philosophy with inapt depth and yet when one reads his treatise one simply wonders as to how he could make it so simple, self revealing and self explanatory. It may also be noted that the ancient Indian scholars had made a lot of progress in astronomy, astrophysics, cosmology, physics, mathematics, chemistry and medicine and other

sciences and Jnaneshvara was a scholar in these very sciences too. His similes every now and then make it evident that he knew the scientific truths underlying his facts. The scientific approach though requires respect for truth does not necessarily demand arriving at the eternal truth. If the system is open to logical corrections then even if its findings of the day are falsified in future its claim to be a science cannot be taken away. Therefore, though thus like all other eastern and western scholars and scientists Jnaneshvara, too, was wrongly considering the earth to be at the centre of the universe yet his observations regarding universe are otherwise near perfection (5).

He describes the hydrogen in water in such poetic way that his conception of the fire residing in water gives us a new approach to the whole thing (6). Saint Jnaneshvara recognises the need for change in Dharma with the passage of time and growing complexity of life that the old doctrine of factum valet is better stated by him when he says that whatever is done by forefathers and allowed by tradition is Dharma. This makes it possible for the system to adjust itself to changing times (7). Jnaneshvara considers human life in a wider or cosmic perspective. The order and the cosmic or the entropy arc nicely explained by him. Yet it must be seen that the cosmic entropy could very well be considered to be the order of making the existence of animate beings possible.

Normally philosophers abhor spiritual experiences holding that those retain outside the logical enquiry. Philosophers further believe only in dispassionate analysis of principles and that too only at the touchstone of knowledge and logic. Therefore, ordinarily self consciousness and logical thinking may not be considered to be likely to go together. However, such is not the case with Saint Jnaneshvara. His spiritual experiences remain within the domain of logic and his self consciousness does not conflict with the logical thinking. His analytical keenness covered in a velvet sheath uncovers the true philosophy of life laid in a flower-bed of poetic image(7).

Though basically Jnaneshvara adopts Adwait philosophy or Monism. His Monism is not declaring philosophy of his own religion as the only valid philosophy. On the contrary, his Adwait or monism is all inclusive and all pervading and with equal affection his philosophy is ready to include Gond Padiya, Shankariya and the philosophy of the Nath sect. He himself belonged to the Nath Sect and he himself claims that he got all the knowledge he possessed from his brother-preceptor Nivrutti and the tradition of the Sect. However, once we pierce this veil of humility we find that the abundant quantum of knowledge that Jnaneshvara had possessed had gone beyond all the traditional boundaries of the Nath Sect. He was a philosopher of highest order and was not actuated by the motives of dogmatic insistence in believing and preaching only what one's sect believes in. Though the Nath Sect goes more by Raja Yoga and though Jnaneshvara's strength is basically to be found in Jnana Yoga here he is mainly advocating the Kharma Yoga. He treats the shunyavad of Buddhism and the ajneyavad of Jainism with respect. He also doesn't abuse the atheism and grants due respect to extreme realism of the great realist Charvak. He doesn't allow himself to be lost in the mysticism, a pitfall in which most of the religious scholars are prone to fall, and the realism always remains to be the sheet anchor of his philosophy.

Jnaneshvara is at his best in explaining the relation between knowledge, ignorance, wisdom, sciences and learning. His God is universal and yet universe is not the God to him. He would not like the God to be limited by the materialism or the Jadatva of

the universe rather he would like the God to be the universe. Though Eshwar or Brahman is the sole foundation of the universe yet Eshwar or the Brahman and Shristhi or the universe are two parallel things simultaneously and independently co-existing (8).

His passion for truth and human welfare would really compel me to call him a scientist though his thinking is rooted in Vedic and Upanishadic traditions. His inferences and reason is self searching. When Saint Jnaneshvara expresses it, the religion becomes science. And is it not true that even a science would note its own religion? It is an all round expression of human genius prompted by total contentment of fulfilment. Jnaneshvara with simplicity very nicely goes into the spirit, temper and the objective of Vedanta. The Brahman as presented by him gives us not only the manifestation or creation of the Almighty but also a spiritual experience in the scientific world-picture.

To him the 'Vedant within' (Pratyak rupa) and the 'Vedanta without' (Parak rupa) do not mean two extremely divergent things but he can with ease and masterly convenience unify them. His comments of samyak-jnana or comprehensive knowledge of total reality are unfailingly exhibiting Saint Jnaneshvara's spiritual orientation. When Jnaneshvara explains Karma Yoga it is really a treat and perhaps his comnentary on that famous Shloka of Gita Karmanyevadhikaraste ma phaleshu

kudachan ismore sweet and more deep that the shloka commented upon (9). His way of explaining the Nishkama Karma Yoga is such that with ease and effectiveness it reaches the common man. Jnaneshvaras writings were basically meant for common man. The religious scholars hither to fore always addressed themselves to the scholars and men of authority while Jnaneshvara though challenging these scholars had never allowed to be alienated from his target group, i.e. the common man.

When Jnaneshvara comments upon the indestructibility of the matter his explanation about the form that matter takes and the change of the form reveal amazing scientific knowledge of Saint Jnaneshvara (10). It will have to be borne in mind that Jnaneshvara was a very young man in his twenties when he was writing this treatise. It may also be taken into account that even in those days a scholar respecting a scholar would be a rare thing and this arrogance of knowledge could be even more with the other saints and religious scholars. Jnaneshvara used to give his religious discourses at various places and all the religious scholars, saints, learned people and the people in authority of the day, without exception, followed Jnaneshvara. That is the real test of his greatness. His very cordial relationship with them and though they were quite elder to him their regarding Jnaneshvara as the supreme authority itself goes a long way in telling us about the learning, decency, love and affection that marked Jnaneshvara distinctly from others.

Jnaneshvara ends Jnaneshvari in a befitting unique manner. Those were the days when the spiritual and religious rites and ceremonies would be considered to be necessary for initiating any religious project and also for marking the end or conclusion of the project. We have seen that the prayers in the beginning offered by Jnaneshvara were most philosophical while equally good or even better philosophy is to be found at the end in the epilogue what is popularly known as Pasayadana(12).For pleasing the universal or cosmic God Jnaneshvara does not need performing of a Yajna and doesn't believe in making offerings in the said Yajna to the Brahman. Rather he knows that his offerings of knowledge which he has made in the

treatise Jnaneshvari are the best form of offerings that can be made to the Almighty and his is the Yajna of words and knowledge. Thus he offers Jnaneshvari as an offering in the yajna to the cosmic God and being sure that this should be sufficient to please the Almighty in return he asks for a Pasayadana or the Prasadam. In the Pasayadana too Saint Jnaneshvara doesn't stoop down to the level of asking for personal gains like multi or salvation or even gains of religion. He in fact claims nothing for himself, on the contrary he prays for all and his all include not only the human beings but also the lower animals and other forms of life. When claims or prays that the evilness or the wickedness of the wicked people be lost and the man out of them be salvaged the jurist in him guides our present day theories of punishment. He further prays that each one of the animate beings should become knowledgeable and should be free from the unholy elements. On this earth the good people should frequent everywhere and they should make others to be good. He prays that let the good people, who are better than moon as they are spotless and better than sun as their brightness does not scorch, become beloved on the earth and he further prays that this universe he filled up with happiness and joy. He ends his prayer with a confidence that he would get the Pasayadana prayed for by him.

The very task of composing Jnaneshvari had been undertaken by Jnaneshvara with determination to make available the Vedic philosophy to the common man in his language and in this his task Jnaneshvara succeeds to such an extent that a competing similar commentary cannot be found in any other Indian language to this date. Jnaneshvari has become a treatise equally charming and attracting the philosophers, the scientists and the religious people alike over seven hundred years and the passage of time has only revealed its growing strength. And this is so because his heart expanded to include not only the human but the birds, beasts and plants and his total concern for ecology, and the orderly existence of all the Cosmic Objects aims at establishing and ensuring Universal Harmony.

Notes

1. , 2. In Marathi 'Jnana' is also spelt as 'Dnyana'. However their phonetic spelling has been retained for consistency.

2. Jnaneshvari 1/1, 2/63

3. Ibid., 1/86,1/96,1/1 1 3

4. Ibid., 4/99

5. Ibid., 1/90

6. Ibid., 1/57

7. Ibid., 2/95

8. Ibid., 3/71

9. Ibid., 2/105

10. Ibid., 3/159

11. Ibid., 18/1792 to 18/1801

Man and the Word

R. C. Sinha Professor of Philosophy, Patna Universit

In this paper, I have made an attempt to streamline the views of Jnanadeva on 'Man and the word'. My treatment is based on his chief philosophical work entitled 'Amritanubhava'. This work sets forth clearly the philosophical point of views on 'man and the word'. I am fully conscious of the fact that Jnanadeva is not a technical philosopher who uses rigorous logical rules and fallacies. He has utilised his earthly logic and used regional language to expound his philosophical views. He is a saint, poet and philosopher. His contribution has not been fully worked out, while writing this paper, my ideas have been largely shaped on the basis of the study of 'Bharatha Dipika' popularly known as 'Janeshwari' and 'Amritanubhava', 'Amritanubhava' is not based on ancient scriptures like Vedas, Upanishads and Vedanta sutras. Jnanadeva develops his philosophical views on the basis of his philosophical insight. Before I should dwell upon his philosophical views on 'Man and the word', I will state his philosophical position in the background of Indian Philosophy.

I understand Jnanadeva as an idealist. Ragnathananda observes, "Like Sri Shankaracharya, he was an advaita vedantin, a non-dualist" (Yardi, M. R., Jnaneshwari, Foreword by Swami Ragnathananda, p. VII).

Jnanadeva refuses to accept the dualism of Sankhya, the subjective idealism and nihilism of Buddha and Ajnanavada or the theory of ignorance supported by Shankaracharya. He is non-dualist like Shankaracharya but he does not fully subscribe to Shankara's contra on that 'Brahma Satyam Jagan Mithya'. Jnanadeva accepts the first dictum, 'Brahma Satyam' but rejects the other part i.e. Jagan Mithya. The development of Jnanadeva's philosophical deliberation will help us to understand his conceptions of 'Man and the word'. I think that Jnanadeva is the exponent of 'Integral Advaitism'. The doctrine of 'Integral Advaitism' does not reject existence of world. It also considers ignorance as partial knowledge or concealed knowledge.

After ascertaining the philosophical position in the setting of Indian thought, I will proceed to deal with Jnanadeva's Philosophy of word. His Philosophy of language derives its inspiration from classical Indian theory of linguistic analysis. If Philosophy is an attempt to understand man and the world around us and if it is in terms of our language, that we apprehend the man and the world, then an analysis of how our language works would be almost the first step in studying Philosophy. I will first of all explain Jnanadeva's views on 'words'. Jnanadeva admits that word is at the realm of ignorance. Language is intimately connected with 'Avidya'. This stand of Jnanadeva is quite different from classical grammarian school of Indian Philosophy. Bhratrihari, the propounder of 'Vyakaran Darshan' holds that the 'Sabda' is Brahman. His theory of language is known as 'Sphotavada'. The four-fold levels of speech viz, para, pasyanti, madhyama and Vaikharihave been described and explained in his book entitled 'Vakyapadiam'. The theory of 'Akhanda Vakya' or Sphota has been expounded by Bhratrihari. He has identified 'Sabda' with 'Brahma'. 'Sabda' is the creative principle. The 'para' level of speech is transcendental. Jnanadeva says that these levels of speech operate at the level of ignorance. Even 'para' Sabda is at the level of ignorance. Jnanadeva observes, "Therefore, the four kinds of speech, which

are ornaments of four bodies vanish along with Avidya when egoism of the individual self is destroyed" (Bhratrihari, Vakyapadiyam 1.124). The essence of word according to Jnanadeva is 'Avidya' but Bhratrihari thinks that the essence of word is knowledge. The word-essence or 'Sabda-tattva'has been described by Bharatrihari as 'Sabda-Brahman'. The 'Sabda-Brahman'is described as the consciousness in all living beings. There is no idea says Bhratrihari, which is not embodied in word. "All knowledge is manifested by word". In classical Indian thought, Philosophy occupies an important place. Philosophizing is just analysing words. The classical Indian philosophy of language is metaphysical in nature. Bhratrihari propounded the metaphysical theory of language. But the concern with 'man and the word' is starting point of Philosophy in India.

In India, analysis of language has been a significant philosophical activity. The analysis components the relationship between word and meaning, classification of words, according to semantic contributions, division of word with reference to the division of ontological categories, logical and psychological factors in knowledge, have always engaged the minds of Indian Rishis. The meaning of sentence and its philosophical analysis and principles of language have been discussed in India over the centuries. The discussion institutes the vast literature which we can very profitably explore to talk about the classical Indian Philosophy of language, while discussing Jnanadeva's conceptions of man and the word, we are tempted to understand the problems in the background of classical Indian Philosophy of language, writing in 1969 on "Sanskrit Philosophy of language", F. Staal commented that at times almost excessive pre-occupation with language on the one hand and with Philosophy on the other, may indeed be regarded as a characteristic of Indian civilization" (F. Staal, Sanskrit Philosophy of Language, 1969, p 463). what Staal has called 'Sanskrit Philosophy of language' is identical with what B. K. Matilal calls "Indian Philosophy of Language" (Matilal, B.K.; The word and the world, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, p. 5).

Since Indian Philosophy of language has largely been written in Sanskrit, Matilal is right to call it "Indian philosophy of language". Prof. H. M. Jha has called it 'linguistic analysis in Indian philosophy'. Keeping the long Indian tradition, Jnanadeva expressed his views on the word. His views on language is not a technical one but it reflects his concern about words and its functions. His reflections on word have prominently figured in his 'Amritanubhava' and have tried to work out and develop his philosophy of language in the background of classical Indian philosophy of language. I have used 'Sabda' and also translated it into 'word' as and when the context requires.

True, language is a complex phenomenon. But its supreme relevance lies in the recognition of the fact that philosophizing is almost impossible without language. Hence, by analysing language, we can analyse concepts. Our concepts are communicable by means of language. This is not an accidental connection between concept and language. We use language to communicate thought because we have an implicit understanding of how our language works. Those principles governing the use of language are shared though implicitly by all language users. In fact, word and thought are indistinguishable. One contemporary Philosopher Michel Dummett believes that the philosophy of language is the basis of the entire structure, we call philosophy. Dummett argues that there is a very general aspect of our concern with language and the concern is with the fundamental outlines of an account of how language functions. It is in thin sense that the philosophy of language is to be

regarded as the foundation of all the rest in Philosophy. Bhratrihari and the post-Bharatrihari grammarians give importance to metaphysical conception of language. This metaphysical conception of language does not attract the attention of the post-Fregean contemporary Philosophers of language. The contemporary analytic philosophers are not concerned with the answers given by Bhratrihari since he has expounded metaphysical theory of language. Russell, Ryle, Wittgenstein, Austin and Strawson are well known contemporary philosophers of language. They are not interested in metaphysical conception of linguistic analysis. Similarly, those western and Indian philosophers of linguistic analysis hardly take interest in Jnanadeva's analysis of words.

The fundamental contention of Bhratrihari is that 'language is eternal'. But this contention is not tenable to Jnanadeva. He does not subscribe to the views that 'language is eternal', Bhratrihari's conception of the origin of the word from 'Brahma' is not acceptable to Jnanadeva. He upholds that the word originates from ignorance. Jnanadeva holds that with 'Avidya', the word dies. Jnanadeva's conception of language is also quite different from Wittgenstein's picture-theory of language, appropriate to which we form pictures of facts. The emphasis laid on this statement implies that it is of fundamental philosophical importance. The question is what Wittgenstein means by a picture when we call something a picture. We do not always imply that it represents or depicts something - there are also non-representational pictures. But Wittgenstein, when he speaks of a picture always thinks of it as a picture of something. The picture depicts state-of-affairs, a picture is always a genuine representation only if it represents a fact. By 'reality' Wittgenstein means ' a real state of affairs'. True, Wittgenstein in his "Logico Philosophicus Fractatus" upholds that language pictures 'reality'. Jnanadeva does not agree with the contention of Wittgenstein. Language does not picture the reality but they picture something different from reality. He considers reality in two senses, one is the 'Ultimate Reality' and the other is 'reality' of the world. According to Jnanadeva, reality is the manifestations of the 'Reality'. The 'Reality' is invisible, the realities are visible. The 'Ultimate Reality' is the Reality of all realities. The reality of the world is changing. The word can neither picture the Reality nor ever-changing realities. Jnanadeva raises a question :"Is it not a mirror that reflects the formless?" (Jnanadeva, Amritanubhava, Chap. VI, 1). In reply to the question he observes, "It is no wonder that the visible is seen in a mirror, but that which is invisible is seen in this mirror of the word" (Ibid., 2). Ordinarily, mirror reflects our face which is visible. But Jnanadeva holds that the word mirrors the invisible. Words mirror thought or concepts and not things or reality.

When I talk of Jnanadeva's contribution to the Philosophy of language, I must talk of slightly different approach. In a specific sense, the Philosophy of language is a part of Indian Philosophical activity from the beginning of the history of Indian Philosophy. One reason was to recognise the scriptures (Vedas) authority in certain areas of our belief system.

Jnanadeva makes a significant departure from Nyaya theory of 'Sabda'. 'Sabda' is not a source of knowledge. Different schools of Indian Philosophy emphasises 'Sabda' as a valid source of knowledge. Vedanta emphasises the testimony of the Vedas. Shankara regards word as the most important pramana which is philosophically valid. The perception and inference are on empirical level. Vedanta Texts reveal the true and ultimate nature of the Reality while all the other sources of knowledge are useful in our ordinary life. According to Jnanadeva, the "word can't

give us knowledge of the Reality". The scriptures were regarded by tradition as embodying certain truths derived from the revealed insights of the sages. The linguistic nature of the scriptures reveals gradually the fact that verbal testimony is an important source of knowledge like perception and inference. This has led to the inquiry about 'Sabda'. How 'Sabda' imparts knowledge ? As a matter of fact, what we call the Philosophy of language in India has in one sense a part of the classical theory of 'Pramana Shastra'. Jnanadeva's basic attitude towards 'Sabda' is quite different from the most of the orthodox Indian schools which consider 'Sabda' as a source of knowledge. Jnanadeva sharply differs from classical Indian view and asserts that 'Sabda' is not a source of valid knowledge. The word is not a praman by destroying that which does not exist. He observes, " This word cannot be a praman by destroying that which does not exist as the darkness cannot determine the nature of the darkness" (Jnanadeva, Amritanubhava, 56). In this context, it may be clarified that ignorance is partial knowledge. Thus ignorance is non-existence, so the word can't destroy that which is non-existence.

According to dominant classical Indian philosophy 'Sabda' as pramana is not subsumed under perception or inference. It is an independent source of knowledge. For example, my brother tells me that the grandfather was a good hunter. My knowledge derived from his statement unique in the sense that it is not perceptually observed. My brother can't transmit his perception to me. It is also not derived on the basis of a 'mark' of an evidence. But my brother's words generate knowledge in me. I simply trust that my grand father was a good hunter. I have not seen my grandfather but I trust the words of my brother who has seen him. In order to introduce the problem of deriving knowledge from linguistic utterances, I will refer to 'Aksapada', the author of the Nyaya-Sutra. According to him, the word is a pramana. The word is a means of knowledge. He defines the word in the Nyaya-Sutra as follows: 'Sabda or word is what is instructed by a trust worthy person (apta) (Aksapada, Nyaya-Sutra, 117). Here 'Sabda' stands for 'Sabda-parman' i.e. the means of knowledge called 'word'. 'Apta' stands for a trustworthy or a reliable person. It is important to note that Aksapada did not identify 'Sabda' with scriptures. Vatsyayana's comment here is more interesting. First, he defines the word apta. "An apta is one who is in a possession to instruct or command. He has realised or perceived the 'dharma'and he is engaged in making a statement with a desire to communicate the objects or facts he has perceived them. Vatsyayana explains perception of facts as having complete knowledge of the facts (apta). The element of trust is an important constituent when we take a linguistic utterance of a person to be a source of knowledge.

Though Jnanadeva differs from the clerical Indian contention yet he does not undermine the importance of language. Language is the essence of man and his world. Man is linguistic animal. Language distinguishes man from animal. Languages facilitate transition of man from its natural existence to cultural existence. Language is of two kinds. One is the language of recognition and the other is language of philosophical thinking. Language alone makes me capable to say, 'I am' and facilitates recognition of what 'I am'. My identity is because I am endowed with language. It alone checks me to become other than man. If man transcends himself, then he enters into imaginary world. The existent man is always with language. If man transcends his existence, he also transcends language. The changing human existence can be grasped only in recognition. Man can't grasp his fleeting existence with the help of recognition. Language can depict the past recalled through memory. Language relates man to other man. The word is means to grasp the other man. It

facilitates inter-cultural communication. Jnanadeva says that though language can't fathom the depths of human existence yet it is important factor in human life.

The words can't picture the flecting and changing reality. The function of word is quite limited. It pictures thought and not things. The word doss not give us true knowledge. It moves in the realm of ignorance. The word mirrors concepts and not things or objects. Conceptual analysis is always inferential activity. Conceptual analysis is means to investigate the reality. Concepts are not facts, words do not mirror facts but concepts. Conceptual analysis is cut off from the concrete human existence. Concepts are cut off from hard realities. Concepts are imaginary. Philosophizing is conceptualizing. Conceptualizing is just going away from realities. Thus, Philosophizing cuts off man from the living realities. Philosophizing is just forgetting his own concrete human existence. Plato calls Philosopher as spectator. Spectator is visionary. Speculation affects the real nature of man. Speculation disfigures the real essence of man. He becomes stranger to himself. Man is born, he lives and at last he dies. He does not realise his own self. He neither desires to know about himself nor he knows. He looses his own self. He destroys his identify as well as the identify of other human beings.

Language is cultural phenomenon. Jnanadeva rightly observes that nobody can deny the importance of the word. The word gives shape to sound which is formless, thus, it helps to give form to the formless. The mirror reflects our face or something visible, but the word mirrors the faceless. The mirror reflects something which is real or visible, the mirror reflects objects. The word does not reflect the objects, it mirrors that which is not there. The word gives shape to our memory, it is related to the past. The memory is always of that which has happened, though the word creates illusion. Yet man can't deny that the word is a great gift to man. Man's identity is due to words. It connects man with the past which does not exist, it mirrors the past which is not there. It creates false impression. The 'sky flower' is depicted like real flower through words. The word directs us as what to do or not to do. The word is the torch-bearer of human life. The power of word is immense. It creates darkness and claims to illumination. The word determines man's destiny. It pretends to show the right path out of ignorance. Jnanadeva is conscious of paradoxical but magical nature of the word. The word creates ignorance but pretends to shed knowledge. The magical power of the word hypnotises us. The word clues reality. It depicts something as real which is actually unreal. Concepts are not things. The word claims to depict the thing but actually it depicts concepts. According to Jnanadeva, the word lands us in the cobweb of ignorance. We forget the fact due to magical power of this word. The word combined with ignorance becomes emblem of unreal things. Ignorance cultivates false values. The reality is degenerated and becomes valueless and unreality becomes valuable. This function is done by the magical power of the word.

The Reality is the truth, the good and the beautiful. The truth, the good and the beautiful is not living but abstract. The word comes and declares that 'Real' is the true, the good and the beautiful. The word comes and says that 'Real' is the Sat, the Chit and the Ananda. The word comes and declares that this soul is real and the body is unreal. The word has got the magical power. The word makes it possible for us to believe that man is 'soul' and not body. The self-consciousness is expressed in language. The self-identity is established through words. It relates man to man. Jnanadeva is very much conscious about the paradoxical nature and function of words. The word depicts conflicting pictures. The word lands us in paradox. The word

creates confusions and also dispels it. The magical power of the word has been realised by Jnanadeva. Philosophical analysis claims to clarify the concepts. But concepts are mirrored in words. P.F. Strawson in his recent book entitled 'Metaphysics and Analysis' says that concepts are clothed in language. So Philosophical analysis is solely concerned with linguistic analysis.

Jnanadeva also admits the importance of language but he does not consider the word as valid source of knowledge. It is fundamentally wrong to say that 'Sabda' is a source of knowledge. The classical Indian Philosophers like Vyakaran Darshan and Nyaya Darshan consider that the word or 'Sabda' is a source of valid knowledge. According to Jnanadeva, this contention is rejected. The word can't give us reality. The utmost word can do is to help us to remember the past. It can help us to recognize the dead. It helps us to remember the past. The word never prepares man to know the reality. It never helps us to fathom the depth of pure human consciousness. The word is not capable to know the real essence of man's existence.

According Jnanadeva, ignorance is non-existent. The ignorance is like a daughter of barren women. The question of dispelling ignorance does not arise because the non-existent is simply non-existent. To say that ignorance is indefinable, as Vedanta admits, is like saying that unreality can negate itself. The thing which does not exist needs no proof. Ignorance does not exist. It needs no proof. The question of this end of ignorance does not arise as the ignorance is not real. Jnanadeva says that the ignorance is contrivance of word. This is just a figment and imagination created by words. The word originates out of ignorance and ignorance is due to words. This position is conflicting and suffers from the fallacy of petio-principle. The ignorance is ground of the origin of the word and the word becomes ground of the ignorance.

So Jnanadeva points out the contradictory and conflicting nature of word. Thus, it is absurd to talk about the end of ignorance and consider 'Sabda' as a means of knowledge. The word covers knowledge. The word becomes source of ignorance. To get knowledge is to get rid of the lumber load of words. Word creates cobweb of confusions. Wittgenstein says that the function of the Philosopher is to dispel the cobweb of words and clarify the concepts. Jnanadeva says that man has to get out of the cage of words. Reality is not clothed in language. The word is the source of contradiction. Reality is free from contradiction. Philosophizing is conceptualising is wrong notion. Philosophizing is realising. Philosophizing aims at self- realising. Philosopher is to get self consciousness. Self- realization needs no words. It is pure and simple experience. It is self-luminous. Self-consciousness needs no words. The word limits our consciousness. The word moves in the realm of contradictions. It gives the fleeting and contradictory picture of the reality. Man is always changing. The word can't depict the true nature of man. The word clues the essence of man. The essence lies in self consciousness. The knowledge, according to Jnanadeva is 'Atma-Vidya'. The word limits our consciousness and can't give 'Atma-Vidya'.

To say that Philosophical analysis clarifies concepts and paves the path of knowledge is not acceptable to Jnanadeva. To say that word can illumine with self- awareness is mere babbling. It is like saying that let us dispel the darkness of the night and then only sun will rise. The fact is that when sun will rise, the darkness will be dispelled in natural course. The contention that analysis of language alone can clarify the concepts and give us knowledge is not tenable to Jnanadeva. Jnanadeva observes, "The Atman who is knowledge, existence and bliss is self-evident. Now how can the word offer him that is already his own" (Jnanadeva, Amritanubhava, 93).

In conclusion, I, would like to say that Jnanadeva makes a significant departure from Bhratrihari's views on "Sabda is Brahman" but Jnanadeva adheres that Sabda is at the level of ignorance. Bhratrihari says that Sabda is eternal but Jnanadeva contends that the word is not eternal.

Jnanadeva's views on words are not in tune with the classical Indian theories of Sabda Pramana. In classical Indian context, Philosophy of language has been discussed in Pramana Shastra.

Sabda has been considered as significant source of valid knowledge. Jnanadeva rejects the contention of a Nyaya and Vedanta that Sabda is source of knowledge. He categorically rejects Sabda as a pramana or valid source of knowledge.

I have called Jnanadeva's Philosophy of language as "the mirror theory of word". But this mirror theory of word is to distinct from the picture theory of Wittgenstein. Ordinarily, mirror reflects the face or visible. But the mirror theory of word as conceived and expounded by Jnanadeva adheres that invisible is mirrored in the word. The mirror theory of word reflects the faceless of formless. The mirror theory of word' expounded by Jnanadeva, is quite different from the picture theory of language propounded by Wittgenstein. Wittgenstein contends that language pictures the facts. But the mirror theory holds that the word does not mirror the fact, but concepts. This tantamount to saying that the word does not picture the Reality or realities. The word can't group the changing facts or human existence. So the 'mirror theory of word' admits that 'Invisible' is mirrored in the word.

Lastly, Jnanadeva holds that language is a cultural phenomenon. It operates in the word. It relates one man to another. According to Jnanadeva, man is a distinct being because he can use language. The word paves the way for transition from natural existence to cultural existence.

Philosophy of Saint Jnaneshvara "A Path Way to Universal Peace"

VISHWANATH D. KARAD Founder, Director MAEER's MIT, Pune and Managing Trustee, Kshetra Alandi-Dehu Parisar Vikas

Samitee.

Introduction

to Vishwanath D. Karad's: "Philosophy of Saint Jnaneshvara - A Path Way to universal peace"

by Katerina Wolf, Ph.D.

The philosophical approach in India differs in many ways from our western tradition. If we want to attain a proper understanding of the nature of Indian philosophy, we have to think in new patterns. In our philosophical tradition, religion and philosophy are considered to be different from each other, the western outlook being based on perception, inference and logic. Indian philosophy includes this concept as well, but furthermore it provides philosophy with a new component, that is not familiar to western philosophy.

In India the distinction between religion and philosophy is not as clear and sharp as in our tradition. They rather put a high impact on the interdependence between these two disciplines and on their necessity. The rational analysis of philosophical phenomena cannot exist without considering religion. The central and widening motive of Indian philosophy is the concept of anubhati (self-experience with the ultimate reality, or god), the nature of god and the means of salvation being always the central point of interest.

The analysis of this problem is one of the subjects, Vishwanath D. Karad treats in his article. In a very comprehensible way he shows the distinctions and the similarities between the two philosophical traditions. Besides this, he discusses the concept of Indian cosmology, the place of man and his ethical duties in cosmos as well as the importance of religious scriptures like the Upanishads, Vedas, Bhagavat Gita and the like, his main point of interest being the interdependence between man and cosmos and the universal, idealistic concept of the holy scriptures.

The focus of this article is a critical analysis of Jnaneshvaras Philosophy. Jnaneshvara, who lived in the early medieval times in Maharashtra (western India), left a strong impact on the social and religious life of people, which can be seen up to now. Karad gives a deep insight into the central points of his way of thinking, introducing his scriptures Jnaneshvari, Amritanubhava and Changadev Pasashti in a comprehensible and complex way. Besides this, he achieves to demonstrate the very particular features of his philosophy and emphasizes their universal necessity concerning the creation of a holistic, egalitarian and global society, living in harmony. This means the integration of religion, feeling and an emotional relation towards god (bhakti) into life, including the acceptance of god as a manifestation of pure love and his existence in every single being.

Philosophy of Saint Jnaneshvara "A Path Way to Universal Peace"

VISHWANATH D. KARAD Founder, Director MAEER's MIT, Pune and Managing Trustee, Kshetra Alandi-Dehu Parisar Vikas

Samitee.

From times immemorial, a variety of developments, upheavals and changes have been taking place on this planet of earth. Some of them have certainly brought glory to the mankind and helped in improving the quality of human existence. But there have been movements in the history of human civilization, when people have fought against one another, for the smallest of the things and for large empires. Most of such events are disgrace to the humanity. Unfortunately such events have not ceased or decreased, instead now, when the world is bestowed with all the modern sciences, technology, they are on the increase. However, there have been some golden eras in the history of human race, when comparatively people were happy, contented and there was some harmony and peace in the society, possibly, because there was less of jealousy, less of lust and greed for wealth and materialistic pleasures. This must have been possible because the people were not only trained and educated to be more humane but were also spiritually enlightened. The present day conflicts, turmoil, bloodshed and massacre in the name of caste, creed, religion or boundaries of nations are spreading all over the world and they speak volumes of typical human behaviour destructive in nature. All this is taking place in spite of very high level of education, mind boggling scientific developments and economic boom, which was possibly never witnessed in any earlier era in the human history.

This requires introspection, in the context of philosophical thinking of the great men of the past and the present so that we can endeavour for the saner elements to prevail to bring about peace, harmony and universal brotherhood which are totally missing at present.

Before we discuss the ideology or philosophy put forth by Saint Jnaneshvara for the world peace, it will be worthwhile to know something about the very system of universe and the human system on the earth, and the parameters controlling the same.

Earth is one of the most important planets in that is the only known planet as of today, to have life on it, and most important the human beings.

The Universe is a complex system consisting of number of celestial bodies influencing one another and maintaining perfect balance on the one hand and providing opportunities to the human beings to enjoy abundance and beauty of mother nature on the other.

The human species being intelligent is directly or indirectly controlling the other two. The human beings, who constitute this sub-system are under the constant influence of the cosmic forces and they possess the various senses like lust, greed, anger, ego, temptation and jealousy in varying degrees. If the level of these senses exceeds

beyond a particular limit in the human race, it is observed that there is more of turbulence, disorder and chaos. In the whole of human history, the great thinkers, educationists, saints, sages, seers and scientists have always tried to guide or enlighten the human race with their valuable teachings, thereby minimizing the chaos and disorder in the society.

The order and the equilibrium existing in the universe and the influence of the various bodies on each other can be explained through a number of scientific laws and principles. The various celestial bodies like Sun, Moon, Mercury, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, stars and various galaxies influence one another and the earth as well, and the human beings are not immune from it. The force of attraction or repulsion between any two bodies, as we know is directly proportional to the product of the mass of the bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Similarly the universe is governed by some definite principles and laws of nature. Some of these are:

The universe is infinite, so is the space and time. Continuous changes are taking place within the universe. The total mass and energy in the universe are constant, only there are changes in the form of its manifestation. Creation and destruction is the inherent law of nature. No two things or human beings are identical or alike.

All these laws and principles of the universe have been stated by Saint Jnaneshvara in the most poetic language in his scriptures.

It is observed that every human being anywhere in the world, has his own way of thinking and the nature of each individual is different from the other. Further, the behaviour of mind and nature of an individual is influenced by some unknown forces.

Nature always tries to maintain balance and it is the human beings which try to disturb it. All these go to show that there is something Supreme, the Ultimate State of Matter, Ultimate Reality or some Cosmic Force or some unknown Energy called Consciousness which binds the whole Cosmos/Universe and maintains the balance. Thus it is not only the celestial bodies but also the human race, animal and plant life etc. which are influenced by Consciousness. It is rather difficult to understand the process of controlling the behaviour of human mind and achieving the right type of action together with self-realization. In the Indian Philosophy, attempts have been made to find answers to such problems, in the most scientific and logical manner. It is for this reason, the scientific community tries to seek solutions for such problems in the philosophical deliberations of eminent thinkers.

The world has produced eminent philosophers through all the ages. They have left their indelible mark on the human civilization and guided the destinies of the world during their time and even later. The great names include Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Spinoza, Confucious, Kant, Vyasa, Shankaracharya, Madhva, Jnaneshvara and a galaxy of others. Their approach and conceptions may be different but ultimately all of them have forcefully pleaded for human welfare.

The Indian Philosophical thought which has its base in the great Indian books viz. Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagwat Geeta and others was given less than its due importance, possibly because these books were regarded something like religious scriptures, though this is far from the truth. In fact these books are gems of wisdom and knowledge and they explain the cardinal principles of contented life, true love,

affection and universal brotherhood. These holy books are far beyond any caste, creed, race and religion rather they are for the entire human race. They are universal in their appeal and they always dwell on the principles that ensure freedom from suffering and ultimate happiness for humanity. Saint Jnaneshvara, contributed a lot in this direction though he was not taken seriously. Even Indian Philosophers did not take cognizance of him fully, thinking that his teachings are merely religious in nature. Though every philosopher in his own way has thought of human welfare as his ultimate goal, Saint Jnaneshvara has advocated the welfare of not only human beings but even all other living beings on earth. He is possibly the first visionary to pray for harmony, peace, love and universal brotherhood, the world over.

At this juncture it would be more appropriate to contrast the Indian Philosophy in general and that of Jnaneshvara in particular with the other philosophies, specially with the Western. In the West, it is generally observed that there is no relation of philosophy to religion, whereas, the Indian philosophy is very closely related to religion. It dwells on the relationship of human beings with the world around, from the beginning to the end of human life.

The Western philosophy is mostly an intellectual exercise and is linked with social aspects and system of human relationship. The Indian viewpoint is more towards defining relations between the human beings and the Universe. No act of human being, should disturb the balance of nature, otherwise it will adversely affect everything, including human beings. The search of Ultimate Reality is the main aim of Indian philosophy.

Generally, philosophy is considered to be a thinking process involving logical analysis and some times landing in intellectual exercises. Mostly it tries to put forth certain conclusions about the various social systems, prevailing in the world, concerning the socio-economic well being of the people. The Indian philosophy is a living process and is life pervading. It is rational and critical.

The Western outlook of philosophy is based on two points, (i) Religion and Philosophy are considered to be different from each other as mentioned earlier, and (ii) Perception, Inference and logic. Indian philosophy has additional dimension which is Anubhuti - self-experiencing of Ultimate Reality. Further, it does not differentiate between Philosophy and Religion, because religion is nothing but way of life which will ultimately help to build a holistic society. The Western concept of philosophy aims at knowledge and meets the demands of intellectual curiosity. However, it does not provide any solution for everlasting harmony, peace and happiness to the entire mankind. It offers rather a temporary solution and gives momentary pleasure. Indian philosophy dwells, in terms of providing permanent solution for the problems of human existence. It provides living experience and fulfillment, so essential for life. Self-realization, self-enlightenment and contentment are the principal features of Indian philosophy. This is possible only through self-experience i.e. Anubhuti. As these directly affect the human life, they affect all the fields of human activity. They provide answers to all questions the why and the what of human existence.

Further, the main characteristic of Indian Philosophy is Idealism, with its source in Upanishads. It aims at educating the human beings for the well being of the society as a whole. It aims at understanding the nature of Ultimate Reality which is of the nature of Consciousness, that the Upanishads call Brahman or Atman. Consciousness

as the guiding principle of the universe isthe main aspect of Idealism. Jnaneshvara added one more to it i.e. innate affection or Divine Love (Bhakti).

Religion is based on faith, whereas philosophy is based on reason and experience. It is commonly assumed that Indian Philosophy is anti-social and it is termed as religious and spiritual. The hollowness of this notion was demonstrated by Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Aurobindo, and Dr. S. Radhakrishnan.

Jnaneshvara puts forth his philosophy through his three masterly treatises viz. Jnaneshvari, Amritanubhav and Changdev Pasashti.The first one, Jnaneshvari is a beautiful poetic appraisal and commentary on the Indian scripture Bhagwat Geeta. The second one, Amritanubhav, is the greatest philosophical work in Marathi based on Jnaneshvara's own experience. The third one, Changdev Pasashti, which contains only sixty-five verses, was addressed to Changdev, a hathayogi, who had become little egoistic about his own achievements in his life.

It is really amazing to note that Sant Jnaneshvara at the age of only sixteen, wrote Jnaneshvari with an intense passion or quest for the ultimate Creator or God. The following invocation expresses his innate urge to understand the self-conscious Brahman Atman.

Om namoji adya | ved pratipadya

Jai Jai Svasamvedya Atmarupa ||

ln the above verse Jnaneshvara says, I bow and salute the ultimate reality - the ultimate state of matter and the self- consciousness, enunciated in Vedic Sciences.

Whereas Sant Jnaneshvara on completion of the writing of his most famous scripture called Jnaneshvari, humbly says that these philosophical narrations of wisdom and knowledge are written with a hope that they would help the human beings to understand the nature of self- realisation and the ultimate reality, that will help in establishing peace and harmony in the whole world.

Jnaneshvara's above invocation is one of the most scientific and philosophical narrations of the laws and principles of universe and mother nature. This provides scientific exposition of the human life and the universe.

Jnaneshvara, nearly seven hundred years back, came out with his concept of holistic society and social organisation. This speaks about his concern for the common man and his welfare.

A brief narrative of Jnaneshvara's Philosophy will bring out the subtle points inherent in it. Jnaneshvara is spiritually and philosophically a monist. For him the Ultimate Reality is one and only one and it is spiritual. Spirit is nothing but pure

consciousness, the Shakti - or Divine Energy which occupies the entire universe. According to him, knowledge, the known and the knower constitute important aspects of Philosophy. Shiva, the primal spiritual teacher and Shakti, the Divine Energy i.e. consciousness are one. Divine Love/Devotion to them purifies the mind and helps one to minimize all the vices and controls the senses and leads to the realization of the Supreme or the Ultimate Reality.

The purity of mind, the purity of thought and purity of action will lead one to self-realization, which will ultimately help to build healthy and harmonious society.

Further, Saint Jnaneshvara speaks about the strength contained in utterance of the name of God. He prefers this to various other rituals which people follow blindly. He bclieves in prayer which is the supreme mode of realization. It is the most precious divine experience. Jnaneshvara advises the aspirants about the greatness of spiritual teacher and criticises religious superstitions, rituals and the hypocrisy involved in them.

Jnaneshvara propagates the theory of Chidvilas, divine playfulness of consciousness according to which the universe is the expression of supreme Brahma. He believes in Shanti - Peace which, he identifies with Bhakti i.e. feeling of deep divine love. A true devotee is one with God and still able to serve Him, through his service to the humanity.

Jnaneshvara's Amritanubhava is based upon his own conception of religion and philosophical insight. He expounds his theory of Sphurtivada which regards the world as emanating from the Supreme, the Creator, the Brahma. Jnaneshvara refutes other theories like Dualism of Sankhya, the subjective idealism and the nihilism of Buddhism. He has revealed the secret of intense divine love and devotion which forms the philosophical basis of the religion of Bhakti not only in Maharashtra but in the other parts of India as well.

According to Jnaneshvara, Reality is self-evident and self-illuminating. It does not need to be proved by any extraneous means. According to Jnaneshvara, knowledge and ignorance are both relative terms. The Ultimate Reality is pure knowledge or pure intelligence. Jnaneshvara refutes Mayavada. He puts forth various arguments in support of these. He says Maya has no foundation and, is unknowable. It neither can exist independently nor can it co-exist with knowledge. It can not be proved by any method. Maya can not dwell in Atman/self-consciousness in its pure state.

Atman - self-consciousness is beyond description. It is cternal. It can neither be created nor destroyed. The following verse from Geeta aptly, describes this theory:

Atman can neither be cut by a weapon, nor can it be burnt by fire, nor can it be wetted with water nor dried by wind.

God, the Supreme, man and the world are three important issues of philosophy, and the real test of any philosophy consists in finding a satisfactory solution for their balanced, harmonious coexistence. Jnaneshvara has his own conception of philosophy which is rooted in the welfare of the whole of mankind and never in terms of any specific caste, creed or religion. He has always spoken about how the problems of the humanity can be minimised through divine faith and love. He considers every human being and every creature as a part and parcel of the God, and the soul being the same in all living beings one must look to each other as if they are nothing but God. This principle of philosophical thought of Jnaneshvara is revealed in the following verse:

The real nature of an individual is the same as that of God. Jnaneshvara has described this with beautiful similes. He finds the relation between the individual self the world and the God, more intimate, natural and real.

Reality is often taken as Sat, Chit and Ananda - Existence Pure Consciousness and Pure Bliss. This triad denotes only one Reality. Though Ultimate Reality cannot be described as existent or non-existent, it does not mean that it is void. Reality is Pure Existence, Pure consciousness and Pure Bliss. The knower and the known are not two separate entities. They are inseparably united. It is the experience which manifests itself into the manifold objects of the world.

Bhakti or Divine Love has been an important component in the religious and spiritual India. The ideal of life, according to Jnaneshvara is Bhakti or life Divine in this very life. The world being a divine manifestation, Jnaneshvara does not support

renunciation like some others. He advocates that one should carry out one's duties in a spirit of worship. He strongly feels that every act should be performed with a sense of one's duty and with an attitude of prayer. He is a believer in Karma - the Work ethics. One should do one's work without aspiring for its returns for if one works with full faith, he will certainly get the fruits of the same. The following verse reveals this philosophy:

Karmanye vadhikasraste maphaleshu kadachan | According to Jnaneshvara, the Absolute of Philosophy and the God in Religion are identical. The Ultimate Reality is pure consciousness, divine love and creative energy. Love is not something material. It is a living spirit, self-conscious and self-realizing. Every object in the world is significant to a devotee. For him, it is not a mere object of sensual enjoyment as a materialist would think but is the expression of Divine Love which is also the very source of his life. To Jnaneshvara, the Bhakti has the highest value not only from the human point of view but also from the point of Absolute Experience.

Our life is the medium through which Divine Love expresses itself. To realise this will require unifying of our finite self with the Divine. This is the greatest thing to be achieved in life and is within the reach of every human being, irrespective of caste, creed, religion, time and geographical barriers.

The important and dynamic aspect of Jnaneshvara's Philosophy consists in his recognition of the feeling aspect in philosophy, in contrast to its Western counterpart where the emphasis is more on intellectual aspect the Jnaneshvara adopted healthy, positive and realistic outlook in respect of the external world. According to him, God takes delight in manifesting in and realizing Himself through infinite variety of forms of existence. God is regarded as the embodiment of love. Hence, to know Him is to love Him, and this love offers the inspiration for carrying out noble deeds and the significant social service. Thus, Jnaneshvara's Philosophy has a great significance in the present day world.

In Jnaneshvara's Philosophy we find a happy harmony between Bhakti - divine love and Karma - work. Even though it stresses the feeling aspect of philosophy, it does not sacrifice the knowledge part. This is also responsible for a total change in the attitude towards the worldly things.

Jnaneshvari, which is a lucid, poetic, forceful and analytical commentary on Bhagwat Geeta while dealing with Karma Yoga (Work ethics). Jnana Yoga (ethics of knowledge) and Bhakti Yoga (ethics of Divine Love), lays emphasis on the philosophy of Karma Yoga (work ethics), which is an essential component of life for every individual. In fact Jnana and Bhakti (knowledge and divine love) will automatically follow this. It makes people think about the duality between temptation and duty. According to Jnaneshvara any form of work becomes possible if there is an intense passion for it. Anger results because of others, while temptation or attraction takes place, without any awareness or unknowingly. Temptation or greed cannot be got rid of without selfrealization. The lust, greed or temptation which is common to

everyone leads to indecision and ultimately it creates problems for oneself, family and for the society.

Bhagwat Geeta which is nothing but the teaching of the Supreme being Lord Krishna to the King Arjuna who was confused about his duty, because he was engulfed by maya the materialistic love for his kith and kin. Lord Krishna explained the correct picture of knowledge and ignorance in the following verse which is interpreted by Jnaneshvara in the most apt words for the common man:

While explaining the concept of real knowledge and wisdom, Jnaneshvara says that complete understanding of the self, the consciousness, the Ultimate Reality is Jnana - is the true knowledge while acquiring the information of any thing external to the soul - the Atman is the Science-Vijnana. Further, he emphatically states that those who think that the knowledge of external materialistic world is the true knowledge, it speaks of their ignorance of the correct definition of true knowledge. He is a firm believer that unless the human beings have full faith and true knowledge of the Supreme - the Ultimate Brahman, one cannot build a real healthy and holistic family and hence the society.

Jnaneshvara, apart from him insights into various philosophical theories, shows his knowledge of various scientific principles, when he says,

This verse shows his concern and foresight for the town planning aspects the importance of afforestation and creation of water lakes near the towns. This speaks about his understanding and concern for ecology and environment. Similarly, he states that when one sees that sun is moving from East to West, it is illusory. Again this clearly shows his correct perception of the fact that the Sun is steady while the earth is moving around it.

Jnaneshvara gives expression to a number of similar scientific statements in his most poetic and lucid language and gives most befitting examples to explain his scientific concepts. Through these, he speaks about the laws of creation and destruction and the parameters concerning the nature, mind, matter and about the expanse of the Universe. Also he affirms that the universe has emerged out of the absolute zero

(naught-big-bang) and how it will go back into the Absolute again, possibly that is big crunch.

In his other treatise, Changdeva Pasashti, Jnaneshvara asks Changdeva, a great Yogi, who had acquired yogic powers to give up ego. Ego and selfish motives are the basis of practically all the conflicts and evils, which ultimately lead to unrest, instability and finally disorder in one's life.

He who tries to have self realization and is sincere to his own duties and responsibilities can contribute his mite for the welfare of the society. In addition, by controlling his passions like desire, lust, anger, greed, ego, temptation and jealousy, one can lead a happy and contented life. Also it will help to establish peace and harmony in society by reducing the tensions, and violence which have become rampant these days. Such controls help in keeping the family intact, which in turn moulds one's life. The concept of family is closely related with social reconstruction and forms a part of Bhagwat Geeta. This is not spiritual, rather it is down to earth social problem. Jnaneshvara strongly believes in healthy, holistic society through a well knit family system based on mutual understanding and a spirit of sacrifice for one another.

It is further observed that all the thinkers, saints, sages, seers and the scientists have a common goal, i.e. the welfare and happiness of the humanity. All of them have spent their entire life in the quest for understanding the principles and laws of nature, life and ultimate reality. The scientists have always tried to invent and discover solutions to problems concerning the materialistic world and have stated the scientific laws and principles of nature in the form of equations and formulae of mathematical and physical sciences. But the saints, sages and seers who have been equally great visionaries, in their own way, have also expressed the very principles and laws of nature in the form of most poetic and lucid language.

At the end, if we look in retrospect, we find that the rule of law of any society or a nation must run close to the rule of life and the rule of life must run close to rule of Mother nature, because the rule of Mother Nature is the rule of Cosmos, it is the law of the Supreme, the Creator, the Brahman. In fact, this truly reflects the gift of Jnaneshvara's philosophy, which is true universally and at all times.

If one studies Jnaneshvari with full devotion and concentration, one will find that it is one of the master pieces in philosophy, literature, poetry, metaphysics, science, spirituality, Religion, Yoga and a real guide to live a contented life and let others also live happily. If the teachings of Saint Jnaneshvara and those of the Great Masters of the past can form a part of the Education System, then it will help the students, to develop a feeling or a sense of reverence and respect and love in their parents, elderly persons and teachers. Further, it will prevent the disintegration of families and breaking up of homes which has become quite common all over the world. Possibly, union of science and religion alone can bring peace to the world through the medium of education. This will help to build the men of character required for the holistic society.

If the international community of intellectuals, thinkers and leaders who can shape and guide the destiny of the world, decide to take up the task of establishing peace and harmony, then this is the time to put Jnaneshvara's philosophy into practice by incorporating it in the Universal Education system, which is the dire need of the day.

Social Reformation and the Role of Saint Jnaneshvara

S. D. Gokhale Corporate Advisor, 'Sakal' Papers Pvt. Ltd., Pune, India.

Background

The contribution made by the Saints of Maharashtra by their thoughts, their literature and philosophy especially for the period culminating in the 7th century was extremely significant. It will be seen that the social ethos in India during that period was more pathological then reported in chronicles of history. During the period, the typical socio-economic scenario reflected a society divided by castes, social structures, dominated by religious rituals and village system plagued feudal landlords. The average common man stood deprived of status and was denied the opportunities of development.

Religion, political power and wealth was concentrated in the hands of a few. The status of women as well as the status of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes was of sub-citizenship and they were easily and routinely exploited, resulting in bonded labour. Women behind four walls of the house and the scheduled casts in the caste structure. There was no political peace, no economic prosperity and no social integration.

This situation was further aggravated by invasions beyond the boarders of India. One after another, waves of aggressors, exploiters came to this country either through Himalayan passes or they landed from the ships on the coasts in the south. This included the Greeks, the Turks, and Arabs, the Mongols, the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and British. To most of these outsiders, India was land of gold, jewels and condiments. This way a very fertile situation for exploitation of the common man by the upper castes, the poor man by the wealthy feudal landlords and the innocent by the imperialists. The aggressors primarily came in the disguise of traders who wanted to buy or sell the silk, cotton, tobacco, condiments, tea and gold. Those who came to trade stayed to rule and dominate the country. This was the scenario almost pessimistic, resulting in inaction making people chronic dependants on fatalistic attitude.

It did not take a long time for the Saints in India to realise that if the common man has to rise out of this fatalistic and passive slumber, he has to be awakened and made to realise the exploitative situation around him. He has to be educated and made to realise his own potential and arose his sense of duty towards himself his motherland and God. This was indeed a very difficult task since the attack by the aggressors was not very open. They corrupted the minds of the masses by denigrating the religion and uprooting the value system of our country. The first victim of this was the religion and culture. Therefore it was appropriate that efforts were made by the Saints to revive the values and reassure the people that their culture, spiritual strength and religion have stood the test of time and in this adverse period what they need is awakening, self-confidence and Self-realisation so that they need not depend on fate, but can depend on their internal strength.

The Philosophy of Karma Yoga

Whether man works with a hope to achieve the material fruits of his labour or whether he works for the sake of his duty, was the challenging question which was answered by the philosophy of "Karma-Yoga". What should be the real motivation of life? Has it material gains or is leading a good life for the sake of it? This philosophy of Karma Yoga was being preached by the Saints to teach the people to work not for any material gain or loss but as his God's given duty.

Life is divine mission and the motivation is work towards self realisation as preached by Bhagvat Geeta. It was a pity that the common man who could not read and write, did not have access to this philosophy which was imprisoned in Sanskrit classics and was not available in Marathi or in a printed form. It was only the oral tradition that carried this messages from one generation to other. It was only Saint Jnaneshvara who first opened the treasures of this great philosophy to the common man by bringing it into Marathi the language of the people.

Jnaneshvari, the treatise which interpreted Bhagvat Geeta was really a series of discourses given to the public in a temple. These were transcribed and made available to the common people. In fact, Saint Jnaneshvara was the first rebel to break the monopoly of Brahminical tradition and to open to common men and women the pathway to God through Devotion (Bhakti). During this period, similar work was done by Saint Tukaram who wrote in more simple language in the form of Abhanga Verse. Then there was Saint Ramdas who travelled all over India and wrote in very pragmatic terms about the real responsibility of awakened man. There are also others such as Saint Namdev who also travelled all over the country and whose verses are a pare of Guru Granth Sahib in Punjabi. There were ladies like Saint Muktabai, Janabai who wrote in still simpler forms of folklore. These are just a few names of this period of spiritual renaissance through oral tradition. It is extra-ordinary cultural feat that without any facility of print or electronic media, the messages of these Saints reached virtually the entire masses of population and every village in Maharashtra and continues to do so, generation after generation, This tradition is alive and fresh today after 700 years. This speaks volumes for the spiritual strength behind their writings of simple words and verses.

Social Reformation

While one discusses the contribution of literature by the Saints one must underscore the correct meaning of social reformation. In developmental debate some terms are interchangeably used. We must define them accurately before understanding their inter-relationship. Social development consists of welfare services, social services, social security and finally social well being which is a spiritual term.

The terms defined are:

1. Social welfare services for the deprived and disabled individuals and groups.

2. Social services: such as education, housing, employment, communications will make the population receptive to development.

3. Social security provides protection and safety net.

4. Social development: The world bank has defined development as upgrading the quality of life by providing opportunities and qualifications to millions of people who have been denied the same.

5. Social well being: is a philosophical concept. Its roots are to be traced to the Indian Philosophy.

This is modern terminology. The Saints have concentrated on peace, harmony and social well being in a broader sense.

Saints like Jnaneshvara have elaborated all of them, leading to the final goal of spiritual well being.

Knowledge and Faith

The man is defined not only as a social animal but as a planning animal. The capability of planning emerges from his/her ability to distinguish between what is good and what is bad according to his conscience. Therefore the basic reasons of change in society are desires of man to achieve what is good according to him.

This process to decide what is good or what is bad is not merely and emotional response but it is a thought process which begins with his upbringing learning process. Learning is based on faith. The famous psychoanalyst Dr. Sigmund Freud when he gave his lectures in the United States, in his very first lecture he explained the relationship between faith and education. He took a piece of chalk and told his audience that we call this white. We do so because we have been told by our parents or by our teachers in our pre-primary education or in our home up-bringing that this piece has to be called as chalk and its colour is called white. This knowledge is based on our faith in parents or teachers and is not based on any scientific logic. Therefore knowledge and faith cannot be and should not be bifurcated. They are really two sides of the some coin. I have described this process in little more details because the philosophy of the Saints in India created the basis of knowledge and initiated a new thought process.

The Process of Change

The process of social restructuring can only be understood after appreciating the conditions of the lowest of low in the society and relating it to what is the good for all. The status of women and the deprived has been the basis on which in the present century leaders like Dr. Babasahib Ambedkar, the maker of Indian constitution, wanted the equality of opportunities to all to be transformed into political rights. He said that the wheel of change has moved only half way because women and the Dalits are still left behind. Lokamanya Tilak was aware of the fact that gaining independence cannot be achieved in one life time and as a result people are likely to be frustrated; and therefore as a political leader and philosopher he decided to write this famous treatise called "Geeta Rahasys" (The secret of Bhagvat Geeta) to teach Karma Yoga. I have given these contemporary examples only to establish the fact that the process of social change has to begin within the minds of people and this process begins with the charge initiated by the Saints like Jnaneshvara. The oral tradition of the message to masses by the Saints like Jnaneshvara in Maharashtra is responsible for this change in the psyche of the Indian masses. The words with spiritual message were not only meant for one listening

audience but were meant for the masses. This masses were the strength as well as their limitation.

The writings of Jnaneshvara indicate that he was realistically aware of the fragmenting social conditions, Saint Jnaneshvara wanted to plough the minds of common men and women and sow seeds of spirituality and understanding of godliness in them which would blossom into life force he calls "Chaitanya". Saint Jnaneshvara did not want to talk of philosophy and spirituality in terms beyond the understanding of common men and women. He wanted the massage to be translated into actions in their day to day life. Therefore he described the "Saintliness" or "Sadhutva":

"After all what is Saint and what is Saintliness? It is like camphor which is whiteness of purity and transparency of light which bright inside out. It is like a jewel shining from within. It is like the bright sun silently reaching to light every nook and corner."

If this is not so then only exterior Saintliness of saffron attires and beads can be totally superficial and deceptive like.

"Decorating the haunted or deserted house or coating with food the body of the hungry."

Therefore the reform has to begin with once own life. This is not only the view of Saint Jnaneshvara, but of all the Saints of that period. A Saint like Tukaram militating against the caste supremacy, says that "..the real meaning of Vedas is only known to us, the common man and women and dalits". The others are merely like donkeys carrying the physical weight of the scriptures and the holy books. What he indicated was Brahmins only recite Vedas and not practice the high values prescribed by them.

Saint like Ramdas almost picks the quarrel with god and says: "We have heard that in the earlier periods you have demolished the demons and the vicious elements in society. Now looking around us and witnessing the injustice and exploitation we want you to show your concrete strength here and now."

Talking about the social conditions and the inequalities created by caste system, Saint Jnaneshvara says: "The caste, race, colour are absolutely unnecessary. All human being are the forms of god and therefore are equal in every sense of the term."

The literature of the Saints not only thought Bhakti or devotion but initiated the process of social integration and reformation through a change of heart and change in thought. Saint Jnaneshvara even talks of strengthening Lok Sanstha (Social institutions) which is the direct discussion of social institutions like family, marriage and the engineering of the human relationships required for social reforms. There are plenty of references a social researcher can find in support of this.

All these Saints wanted to liberate all human beings from the bondage of caste system and material motivations. Therefore they said: "God does not make a distinction between his children, therefore those who trust God, how can they even think of differentiating among persons?"

This was the message of social integration, reform and mammon and compassionate culture. In fact, the efforts of all these Saints was to give a direction and speed to the process of transformation and social change.

The Grace Asked

The final prayer of the Saint Jnaneshvara at the end of his treatise prays for prasad, the blessings and the grace of god. These part known as Pasay-Dan is really the prayer for human harmony. After all, what Saint Jnaneshvara was asking from God who was present in the form of his audience and at the same time was beyond all audience, was a blessing. The grace he is asking for is: "Now I pray and hope that God, who is at the hear and soul of this universe, may be pleased with this humble oral worship and may God give me his blessings and grace. Let whose with a wicked bend of mind and deed be able to shod it, let people develop delight in kind deeds. Let all humans be bound by love and friendship."

Saint Jnaneshvara talking about his writing says, "..if anyone wants to understand the meaning of my writings, he has not only to read these words but he has to experience them and that too with a very tender heart. With this tender heart any human being can understand the other human being and this is really the basis of transformation in mind and thinking which automatically results in transformed action."

Just like the words of Jnaneshvara, the entire literature of Saints has got to be experienced and not merely to be read. This reformation transgresses the limits of geography and time.

Today rapid urbanisation and industrialization have changed not only the style but the philosophy of life. Science has taken the quantum jump. We are able to understand how the atom is split, but what we are not able to look inward the depth of our minds. In this material development and changing world, let us not loose the basic values of life. The system of family may charge its fact and form but family as a social institution will not wither away. Maybe the present society is split by caste and colour, but as Rabindranath Tagore prays:

"Where the mind is free and the head is held high, where the world has not been broken into fragments by narrow domestic walls; there into the heaven that freedom, father, let my country awake."

This linkage of thought is the direct relationship between Saint Jnaneshvara and Rabindranath Tagore. As long as we are able to search for our spiritual roots, values and understand our own identity with its unity with God, it will be possible for us to get rid of the shackles which separate one human being from another.

Some Reflections On The Influence Of The Jnaneshvari On Bal Gangadhar Tilak's Gita-Rahasya And Its Relevance In Our Time

Hiltrud Rüstau, Ph.D. sc.

More than 35 years ago my teacher Walter Ruben, a well-known Sanskritist and the than director of the Institute for India Studies at the Humboldt University Berlin where I was working as a young research scholar one day very much excited appeared in the Institute telling me that he had come across a very interesting book which I should read immediately. It was the Sri Bhagavadgita Rahasya or Karma-Yoga-Sostra of Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

In those days it was by no means common at German universities to deal with 19th/20th India, but according to Walter Ruben the main aim of studies on ancient India should be to contribute to a better understanding of contemporary India. Therefore besides his special interest in ancient Indian philosophy he was also very much interested in modern Indian philosophical thoughts of which in his opinion the 'Gita-Rahasya' formed a very important specimen.

Of course, I knew Tilak as an outstanding figure of modern Indian history: He belonged to the group of orthodox Chitpavan Brahmins of Maharashtra, was an Indian patriot and a leading politician of his time, closely connected with the slowly originating circles of Indian industrialists and also with the beginning of the Indian trade union movement; a renowned scholar in the field of Indology and a philosopher in his own rights and besides this also a leading journalist and educator. Therefore I followed willingly Walter Ruben's advice and read Tilak's commentary on the Gita and his translation.

It was not at all an easy task for me: the vast knowledge of the author of the 19th century European and North American philosophy, especially in the field of ethics, combined with a comprehensive description and critical evaluation of the Indian philosophical heritage of at least 2 500 years - all this taken together makes the study of the Gita Rahasya a very demanding one. But what struck me most was his interpretation of the Bhagavadgita. It is quite evident that the discussion of morality plays a very important if not the decisive role in the Gita, but to call it a 'a treatise on right or proper action (Karma-Yoga) containing the philosophy of morality, based on brahmavidya as Tilak did seemed to me quite new. But what mattered most was that Tilak did not accept the traditional understanding according to which in the Gita three or four paths to liberation had been discussed and explained, namely Karma Yoga, Raja Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jnana Yoga.

In the opinion of Tilak the crucial question of the Gita was 'to act or not to act', that means whether one should renounce all actions after one had reached the realisation of the Divine or continue to act according one's duty - svadharma - with the aim of lokasa graha - the well-being of the world - which was answered by the Gita in favour of activity.

Tilak's Gita-Rahasya, written in the time between November and April 1910/11 in the Mandalay prison is according to Aurobindo the strongest and most comprehensive work of Indian spirituality in which the importance of human action for the sake of humanity is justified, something which Aurobindo called indispensable to the idealism

of the modern spirit. He wrote on Tilak: 'His work on the Gita, no mere commentary, but an original criticism and presentation of ethical truths, is a monumental work though he did not share Tilak's opinion regarding the general content of the Gita as being a treatise of ethics: '...the Gita is not a book of practical ethics, but of the spiritual life. Tilak in his commentary expressed his conviction that the Gita demands action even if one has reached the supreme unity by jnana or bhakti in order to support the further development of the world. Therefore he wanted to overcome the traditional understanding of the Gita as containing only moksa marga.

In order to be able for unattached action, i.e., to act without being bound by the desire for the fruit of action one should aim at helping the creator and dedicate his action to him as a sacrifice. For illustrating this kind of unattached action Tilak used a simile: you do not plant the trees the fruits of which you eat - this was done by the former generation - just so you do something for the next generation without being able to harvest the fruits of this action.

In the framework of his highly interesting analysis of happiness and suffering Tilak discussed also an important problem of the Gita: Does the demand for unattached action really imply to give up also all desire? There is no doubt upon the question that in the Gita it was convincingly shown that it is impossible to be even for a single moment without any action. Tilak went into further detail and showed that it is not possible to act without motive - every action has a motive and a result - and that the virtue of contentment has its validity for Brahmins, e.g., regarding wealth but not with regard to knowledge. Dissatisfaction in general has not to be condemned: 'But not the dissatisfaction which is at the root of the desire not to remain stagnant in the position which has fallen to one's lot, but to bring it to as excellent a condition as possible by gradually improving it more and more, with as peaceable and equable a frame of mind as possible, is not a dissatisfaction which ought to be discountenanced. In the opinion of Tilak discontent is the seed of all future prosperity and even of release without which the world is condemned to perish. Therefore the demand for unattached action has to be understood according to Tilak as proper control of the mind, one should not be disappointed if the aim of the action cannot be reached immediately. In order to avoid suffering the attachment to the motive and to the result of an action should be given up, that means to give up all thinking determined by 'egoness' and 'mineness'. All this Tilak said was taught in the Gita, where it was told how to act, mentioning equability as the most decisive feature of a proper action.

In the view of Tilak action was given by Krishna not the status of a means for the purification of the mind in order to be ready for knowledge, on the contrary, it was the path by itself leading to the supreme goal. That means that though Jnana Yoga and Bhakti Yoga were also paid due attention by Tilak, these two paths were subordinated to Karma Yoga. He was fully aware of the fact that by his understanding of the Gita as 'Karma-Yoga-Sostra' he was deviating from the traditional way of interpreting this important scripture. But he was convinced that his understanding was the correct one because it represented the natural conclusion of the fundamental unity of Ishvara (god), man and universe which does not allow man to stop acting for that implies the neglect of the world as one inseparable part of that unity.

To serve the world means according to Tilak the fulfilment of the will of god and forms therefore the safest way to liberation: The core of the Gita consists in the

opinion of Tilak in the teaching of doing one's duty in such a way that it leads to the liberation from the wheel of samsara. Since this is a very unique interpretation of the Gita, I was wondering whether Tilak did rely in this on a certain tradition in the Indian philosophical heritage especially of the Maharashtrian Bhakti philosophy. And here Jnanadeva came to my mind for I had heard about his translation and interpretation of the Gita. Both thinkers, Lokamanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Jnanadeva, have something in common. At first we have to mention the language they used.

Sri Aurobindo called the Gita-Rahasya 'the first prose writing of the front rank in weight and importance in the Marathi language, and the Jnaneshvari can be seen as one of the first (if not the very first) philosophical work at all in Marathi language and most probably also the first in the field of poetry. Jnanadeva by his translation of one of the most important scriptures of the Hindu religion in the language of the common people played a role in the history of Hinduism which can perhaps be compared with the German reformer of the Christian religion, Martin Luther, though Luther (1483-1546) lived more than 200 years later. Regarding his world view it is possible to compare Jnanadeva with Meister Eckhart (1260-1328), the first German philosopher of importance, who expressed his thoughts also in the vernacular language and who also like Jnanadeva defined the main aim of the human being as becoming one with the Divine.

Jnanadeva rejected an anthropomorphic concept of god and stressed the identity of natura naturans and natura naturata in the same way as Meister Eckhart has done. For both philosophers god has to be seen everywhere in the world. This search for the Divine unity was so very much in contrast to the dogma of the Roman catholic church that Meister Eckhart was suspected for heresy and he died in the papal prison in Avignon (France).

The role Jnanadeva played in the history of Hinduism was highly estimated by Tilak when he said: "A few years before the Hindu dynasty of Daulatabad was destroyed by Mahomedans, Jnanadeva Maharaj, by our good fortune, gave a 'native clothing' to the Bhagavadgita, and brought about an 'over-flow of the knowledge of Brahman' propounded by the Gita into the Maharashtriya provinces ..." Tilak knew the Jnaneshvari quite well. He mentioned Jnanadeva six times in the Gita Rahasya though perhaps Ramdas (Samartha), the 'active saint' seems of having been closer to his own thoughts.

In describing the different schools regarding the interpretation of the Gita Tilak deals also with the saints of Maharashtra, who have substantiated the doctrine of Devotion without discarding the doctrines of illusion and by whom according to Tilak devotion was taken as the easiest way to the realisation of the Divine and the path of devotion based on non-duality was called the principal moral of the Gita.

In this connection he mentions especially the Jnaneshvari as the most valuable work with regard to this school, which though following the interpretation of Shankara must be looked upon as an independent treatise of the Gita. Tilak praised Jnanadeva's wonderful skill 'of expounding the Gita, by numerous beautiful illustrations and comparisons' who had propounded the doctrines of desireless action and especially the doctrine of devotion in a much better way than Shankara.

Later on in explaining the state of perfection of one who has fully realised the identity of atman and brahman, characterised by the mahavakya'aham brahmasmi', Tilak quotes extensively from the Jnaneshvari in order to describe the equability of mind of such a person praising highly the sweet and attractive language and the impressive illustrations used by Jnanadeva for the description of a devotee. In the chapter on Renunciation and Karma Yoga Tilak quotes Jnanadeva's description of a Jnanin in order to demonstrate his own point of view. It can be easily recognized that Tilak not only knew the Jnaneshvari quite well but appreciated also his author very much.

Jnanadeva, 'the intellectual mystic' is called by Swami Ranganathananda an Advaita bhakta, a Jnana bhakta: 'The devotee should realise God as all-pervasive; and where he casts his eyes, he should see God therein.' Ranade calls the Jnaneshvari one of the greatest commentaries on the Bhagavadgita and one can only agree with this verdict. One of the most outstanding features of this book can be seen in the field of ethics. Jnanadeva analyses the various moral virtues and vices, mentioned in the Gita and describes them in a very impressive and detailed manner. When we ask how far Tilak was influenced by Jnanadeva, we can clearly state that Tilak's understanding of the term 'yoga' in the Gita as meaning 'Karma Yoga' and the philosophical conclusions resulting out of this are his own and original contribution to the history of ethics in India.

Jnanadeva in his Bhavartha Dpika or Jnaneshvari has mentioned all the four paths as leading to the supreme goal according to the Gita, being all of them of equal value though bhakti without doubt has given some more importance by Jnanadeva. He also stresses the point that even after realisation one has to be active and has to act according to his dharma and that this action should be dedicated to god as a sacrifice.

But no direct influence of Jnanadeva on Tilak regarding his evaluation of Karma Yoga can be seen. But what is common to both of them is the stress laid on ethics in general within their respective commentaries. When Krishna describes himself as being always the most outstanding phenomenon of a certain group or class he calls the ethics among all sciences 'which discriminates between good and evil and sides with duty and wisdom' we can take this as a symbol of Jnanadeva's high estimation for this philosophical discipline.

To my mind within this broader frame the Jnaneshvari can be taken as having given a valuable stimulation for Tilak's own considerations which were determined by the political and philosophical needs of his time. Though Jnanadeva also stressed the point that non-attached action leads to liberation and one has to act also after one has reached liberation, no direct influence of him on Tilak can be seen with regard to the interpretation of the term yoga. But nevertheless Tilak's Gitarahasya breathes the spirit of the Jnaneshvari insofar its pivot is also morality and ethics. Tilak's translation and commentary of the Gita have to be taken as resulting out of the endeavour to adjust this text to the cultural and spiritual demands of his time just as Jnanadeva's Jnaneshvari has been the product of his time. Tilak does not deal with the different virtues as Jnanadeva did. He just stresses in his note to Chapter XIII,7 of the Gita, that the description of jnana given there, affirms his position, namely that a jnanin must continue to perform all actions with an unattached frame of mind. Whereas Tilak focused his attention on the demand for worldly activity and social

responsibility in the Jnaneshvari main stress was laid on compassion, equanimity and the grace of god respectively of the guru.

Grace is called one of God's attributes, and here it can be seen that new religious movements like the Ramakrishna Mission with its stress on social service and the love to god had its roots in the Indian tradition of the bhakti mysticism and there is no need for deriving the concept of God's love and grace only from the Christian influence as we can read it very often. It has to be mentioned within this context that it seems to be very important to take up detailed studies of the Indian middle ages in order to be able to understand the complex intellectual development during the colonial time and to explain the fact that European thoughts could find an echo in the Indian cultural atmosphere.

Thoughts from outside to my mind can only be of some lasting influence if they fall on a fertile soil, that means that the cultural and intellectual atmosphere must be in such a way that thoughts from outside can be understood and developed further. As another difference we have to state that whereas Jnanadeva always expressed his respect for his teacher and was very much possessed by devotion to his guru Tilak, a 20th cent. thinker did not try to establish a new sampradaya or to derive his views from a teacher. In order to be able to understand fully differences and common features of these two great personalities we have to look at them within the time they lived and try to find out how they responded to the problems of their time.

Jnanadeva's social environment was characterised by other problems than that of Tilak. Maharashtra at the end of the 13th cent. was an independent, strong and culturally blossoming country, whereas Tilak suffered from the colonial exploitation of his country and had to struggle during his whole life for democratic rights and political self-determination of India. He belonged to the intellectual elite whereas Jnanadeva though obviously also highly educated and perhaps accepted in some intellectual circles was socially stigmatised. He led the life of a sannyasin or of a homeless sadhu in contrast to Tilak - a married man and an active politician. But nevertheless they both have much in common, especially the interest in morality and ethics, demonstrated by Jnanadeva in his unique description of moral qualities, by Tilak in his explanation of why and how one has to act.

The society in which Jnanadeva lived was governed by the varna sramadharma, and he had to suffer from the tyranny of the orthodox brahmins since he and his siblings were the children of a sannyasin and as such looked at as outcasts. The main aim of Tilak's translation and commentary was, first, to open up the whole spiritual wealth of the Gita, and by this to awaken the Indian masses from all lethargy and to include them actively into the national movement and, second, to demonstrate that in the Indian tradition and especially in the Bhagavadgita thoughts were developed appropriately in the same way or even better for forming the philosophical basis of modern ethics in the sense of a 'scientifical definition of the pure, complete and constant form of morality as he said. Tilak relied on the Bhagavadgita in order to base his demand for activity philosophically. Regarding the question of influence within the field of philosophy we have to take into consideration that philosophy never is developed within a vacuum, each time has its own problems and in every philosophy the time of its development is always directly or indirectly reflected in a certain way.

Jnanadeva's problems were different from those Tilak was confronted with. The vitality of a tradition can be recognized by its ability to correspond with the further development and the change of thoughts though the form of it may become obsolete. The Gita quite obviously belongs to those traditions the living content of which can be sound and valid for a very long time since it answers to questions of vital human importance. And in my opinion also the Jnaneshvari belongs to these traditions which are always new and vivid and able to influence our thoughts and actions and to which also further generations may return from time to time for inspiration and orientation. But that does not mean that in the Gita or in the Jnaneshvari we can find solutions of all the problems we are confronted with today. What we can do and what will be proved quite fruitful is to develop further thoughts contained in these scriptures according to the needs of our time.

That means that each generation will have its special understanding of scriptures like the Gita, and a tradition has always to be made one's own in order to be of any influence. I think it is justified to call Jnanadeva a religious reformer, one who revived the traditional values by adapting them to the changed conditions in this case in the shape of a new and original translation and interpretation of a religious text of decisive importance. The life in which Jnanadeva was casted enabled him to develop something new resulting out of the confluence of traditional Sanskrit wisdom of the Brahmins with folk wisdom and folk religion. That is in my opinion the reason why his philosophical and religious thoughts till today have not lost their vitality. Even 700 years after his death they contain fresh and new elements - for one who is searching for answers regarding the problems of our time.

Jnanadeva's views can be called a democratised religion because he translated an important religious scripture into the language of the people, he made the Gita available in the Marathi language that 'this bliss has come within the reach of everyone as he put it. He explained this religious wisdom in such a way that it was understandable to the common man and furthermore he stressed those passages of the Gita where the way to liberation was opened to everybody. He deals extensively with the passage of the Gita (Chapter IX,32) where it is said that everybody independently of caste, creed, sex etc. can reach god. For him, the outcast son of a sannyasin, equality of men is a value of fundamental importance: "Therefore noble family, colour and caste are of no account; what is of vital significance is to have love for me." And in connection with Chapter X, 40 he remarks: "Therefore, do not regard anything as small or great, give up all distinctions of high and low, but know for certain I am all this universe."

When asking for the relevance of the Jnaneshvari in our time we have first of all to look at the remarks on moral rules of conduct. Here already his starting point seems to me of importance: Whether one has got knowledge of the Self can be recognized by his behaviour, the criterion of true wisdom is how one acts, there must be coincidence between the action and the declared principles of faith especially in politics everywhere in the world a desideratum.

Besides modesty and humility Jnanadeva deals extensively with harmlessness, ahimsa. He defines: "Now to conduct oneself with body, speech and mind with the sole object of making the world happy is the essence of non-violence." Of course, his criticism of the vedic sacrifice with the slaughtering of animals is of no importance for us today, but when he asks: "How can non-violence grow where only the seeds of violence are sown?" he has touched a very important problem of our time. Very often

especially in the field of international conflicts we can observe the desire to achieve non-violence through violence and how often this experiment was condemned to fail - instead of trying to avoid conflicts or solving them before they can escalate into a violent confrontation.

Jnanadeva describes the conduct of one who has attained knowledge and whose mind became impressed with non-violence as determined by compassion. 'How ... can he think of wielding a weapon?' he asks. It is taken for granted that the demand for non-violence is not only valid with regard to actions but also to speech and thoughts.

Within the complex of consideration on non-violence Jnanadeva criticised the Ayurvedic medicine and with it the short-sightedness of men when trees have been cut or animals have been killed in order to save human beings suffering from diseases. He is full of compassion with all living creatures in the environment including plants when he, e.g., regrets: "The innocent trees which bear no enmity to others are cracked all over and thus reduced to a lifeless and dry state." and he compares the cutting of trees for the sake of a small fortune with buying a cage after driving away the parrot. If one thinks of the time in which the saint lived one wonders how he was able to develop such modern ecological thoughts. But in order to understand this we have to point at the long tradition of belief in the unity of human being and nature in India, for instance in the shape of the famous hymn to the earth (Atharvaveda XII,1) or the legend of Visvarupa (Taittiriya Sa hita II,5,1): Indra gave the boon to the earth that everything dig out of it would grow again within one year.

This feeling of unity of human and natural environment has to be re-established not only in India. There is a direct connection in the view of Jnanadeva between ahimsa and compassion, and compassion is closely linked with equanimity. A person of steady wisdom (sthitaprajna) is characterized by compassion to all creatures. "Just as mother earth does not think of giving only to a superior and denying it to an inferior ..." so he is equally friendly with all creatures and looks after them like an affectionate nurse. It is quite natural, that as in any comment on the Gita within the discussed moral standards also duty plays an important role. He says: "If a person ... is firm in the performance of his duty, he will accomplish all his desires without effort..." But "... he who ignores his call of duty loses his freedom.

A small remark in connection with Gita VI, 17 can also be of relevance in our time if we think of the millions of starving people all over the world: "A person should eat to live, and so he should eat wholesome food in moderation." We find many interesting passages more with regard to moral virtues and vices which are of relevance in our time but it is not possible here to mention them all. In order to conclude: since Jnanadeva raised questions of general importance and answered them on the basis of a deep spiritual understanding combined with every day's experience of the common man and with an intensive democratic feeling even today after more than 700 years we can get a lot of valuable suggestions for solving our problems by studying this book.

In view of the global crisis of our days a new value system is necessary. I think there is no need mentioning the different problems as the dangerous change of climate, the consequences of the genetic technological manipulations, the existence of nuclear weapons, undernourishment of millions of people, civil wars in many places

of the globe etc. It can be easily recognized that either the humanity is able to come to its senses or the human race sooner or later will be an extinguished species as it was the dinosaur.

A society oriented only at individual profit, a society in which everything is only evaluated with regard to the question how much material gain one can get and how much one has to pay, a society in which money is the measurement for everything can obviously have no future in view with the global problems. So it is quite useful to look at books like the Jnaneshvari for answers to our problems. These answers are not contained in those books, for the questions we have are the questions of our time and we have to find the answers ourselves by reading those books and finding our own concepts stimulated by the thoughts developed hundreds of years ago.

But what we are not allowed on pain of annihilation is to loose faith in man - according to Rabindranath Tagore the greatest ever possible sin. Optimistically I say that man is not the wolf of man but man is god and god is man, that is to my mind the teaching of Jnanadeva's interpretation of the Gita.

We have to give up egoism, greediness, hatred and privileges and learn to love our neighbour.

This might be called an utopia. But utopia, a vision, is needed for orientation. One point seems to me very important in this connection. One alone is weak. Only if going together with others he and she can become strong enough for influencing the course of history. But for this, aims in common with others too are necessary so that the feeling of 'we' can be developed. It is this feeling of 'we' by which human civilization became possible.

To make men aware of the problems which are common to all the demands, raised 700 years ago and interpreted according to the needs of our time have to be seriously taken into consideration in view of the severe situation we live in. We have to remember what Jnanadeva said: he vishvadi majhe ghare: the whole world is my home or to put it in the way Tilak has taught us: we all are responsible to plant trees the fruit of which our children will harvest.

The Dhyanayoga of Shri Jnaneshvara

Prof. N. M. Kansara Visiting Professor, L. D. Institute of Technology, Ahmedabad, India

Shri Jnaneshvara, who is not far removed even in time from the great Vedantic commentators, and whose interpretation is absolutely mystical and in a way super-Vedantic, was not merely one of the great saints of Maharastra, but also certainly one of the greatest interpreters of the Bhagavadgita that have ever lived, the most distinguishing feature of his interpretation being his unique combination of philosophy, poetry and mysticism, which makes it stand supreme.(1)

The Dhyanayoga or 'The Yoga of Meditation', also called the Atmasamyama-yoga or ‚The Yoga of Self-control' comprises the sixth adhyaya of the Bhagavadgita. In the fifth adhyaya Sri Krishna replied to the question of Arjuna as to which of the two, viz., the renunciation of works and their unselfish performance, was better. He elaborated the details about eligibility and means for both these paths, but did not indicate which of the two was suitable for Arjuna. In order to indicate this, he continues in the sixth adhyaya which begins with the Dhvanayoga which is conducive to both these paths. This adhyaya consists of forty-seven verses, which may be suitably divided into five sections, viz., (i) vss. 1-4, (ii) vss. 5-9, (iii) vss. 10-32, (iv) vss. 33-36, and (v) vss. 3747. The first section introduces the topic of Karmayoga

(unselfish performance) and the characteristics of Yogarudha (oneattained to yoga); the second inspires one to lift oneself by oneself and describes the state of blessedness of the person who has established himself in unity with the Universal Self; the third treats in details the Yogaof Meditation proper; the fourth shows the means of controlling the mind; and the fifth one refers to the future of the soul who attempts but fails (yogabhrsta) and extols the great yogin as the great devotee (bhakta). (2)

Sri Jnaneshvara commences his Bhavarthadipika on the sixth adhyaya of the Bhagavadgitawith the dialogue between Sanjaya and Dhrtarastra. The former, says Sri Jnaneshvara, asked the latter to the teaching of yoga which Sri Krishna was going to expound to Arjuna, adding that it was as if a great feast of the essence of Brahma had been prepared for Arjuna by Narayana, and that both himself and the king had arrived as guests at the right time; their good fortune was very great, as though a thirsty man, on tasting water, were to find that it was nectar. But, Dhrtarastra, however, remarked that he had not asked that of him. From that Sanjaya understood what was in the king's heart, possessed by his affection for his sons; the old king had been blinded by his love for his children; otherwise the words of Sanjaya were relevant at that time. He knew that a blind man cannot see the light of day, but he feared to say it lest the king should be offended. However, inwardly he was delighted that He had an opportunity of hearing the discussion between Sri Krishna and Arjuna; (3) and, so are we all, too.

This sixth discourse of the Gita according to Sri Jnaneshvara, is, like the nectar born from the milky ocean, the essence of the meaning of the Gita, the other shore of the ocean of discrimination, the treasure of the reaches of yoga, the resting place of primordial matter, which cannot be expressed by the Vedas from which springs the root of the creeper of the Gita. And, Sri Jnaneshvara promises that although his language is Marathi, he will explain it with literary beauty composed in words and

expression that easily surpasses nectar, and even the melody of the seven notes would fall short of its sweet delicacy, and the power of fragrance would be subdued by its charm; and overcome by its sweetness, tongues will spring up in the ears and hearing it the various sense organs would quarrel among themselves. (4)

As regards the eligibility for joining this great feast, Sri Jnaneshvara clarifies that he is offering it to those who are dispassionate, who have lighted the lumps of the ever new radiance of the Self can partake of this food without the awareness of the senses. In doing so the listeners must disregard the craving of the cars, for the mind alone should enjoy it. With the personality merged in Brahman, and the veil withdrawn from the inner meaning of the words, the experience of the supreme bliss of the Self should be freely enjoyed. (5) And, Sri Jnaneshvara has, thus, sought to arouse the listeners! He has further warned that only those who, out of their love for realization of the Self have given up all thought of heaven and earth can appreciate its sweetness. As crows cannot recognise the moon, so ordinary people would never be able to understand this work. As the chakora bird feeds on moonbeams, so this writing is meant only for the wise men. (6)

In Section I, Sri Jnaneshvara propounds that among men the yogi and the sannyasi

cannot be regarded as different; rightly viewed, the two are indeed but one. As different names may be given to the same man, as two roads may lead to the same place, as different vessels may be filled with the same kind of water, so should we regard this apparent difference between yoga and sannyasa. (7) Just as the earth naturally produces vegetation, without any awareness of itself and does not look forward to the grain that grows, similarly, the yogi performs actions whenever occasion demands, according to its circumstances and appropriate to his caste duties and the stage of life. Such as man is a true yogi, a master of yoga. According to his destiny he has already on his shoulders the burden of a householder's duties; the practice of sannyasa only adds to it. So one should not abstain from, worshipping the fire or fait to carry out one's appointed duties. The bliss of yoga is within one's Self. (8)

A sannyasi is the same as a yogi. When the will, being renounced is finally given up, then essence of yoga is discovered through the poise gained from experience. (9)

From the lower levels of the restraint of the senses by the footpath of the postures of yoga, one may mount upwards by the steep ascent of the restraint of breathing. Then one can reach the cliff of pratyahara, which is slippery even for the feet of reason and whence hathayogis, inspite of their boasts, are hurled down. While on pratyahara they are helpless, but with the strength derived from discipline they cling with their claws of dispassion. In this way, helped by the power of the wind, one comes to the broad road of mental concentration and may proceed onward till the peak of meditation has been passed. Then the end of the path will be reached, all desires for further advance satisfied, and in the joy of the Self the seeker after the goal will be united with it. Where no further path remains,, where memories of the past fade out, there, in that highest level, comes samadhi.(10) Herein Sri Jnaneshvara has chalked out the technique of mental discipline on the lines of Patanjali's Yoga Sutra.

Unfolding the distinctive characteristics of a yogarudha, Sri Jnaneshvara says that since he sleeps in the chamber of the consciousness of the Self sense objects do not pay frequent visits to the house of the senses. His senses are engaged in their

appropriate functions, yet his heart entertains no desire for any fruit. While fully awake in the body, he is yet like one who has fallen asleep. (11)

While passing on to the Section II, Sri Jnaneshvara makes Arjuna pose a question about the one who has endowed his with such merit, (12) in reply to which Sri Krishna is made to smile and wonder at such a strange question, since in that state of union who would give what, and to whom? A man who indulges in self-conceit brings about his own ruin. From this point of view, egoism should be given up and then would he have secured the welfare of his own self. How strange it would be if some unfortunate person should wish to be blind at the very moment when he discovers a treasure, or that he should close his eyes? The man who is filled with conceit is his own enemy.

The man who is enlightened does not hold on to such illusions. (13) As when all the impurities have been separated from it pure gold remains, so the individual self becomes Brahma when the will has ceased to function. When the shape of a pot no longer exists, the space therein becomes merged in the outer air; it does not have to move to another place. As showers of rain falling from the clouds do not pierce the ocean, so good or evil are not different for the master yogi. When he considers worldly knowledge, he perceives it to be false, and when he sees aright he knows that he himself is wisdom. Though still in the body, he is naturally equal in his bliss to the highest Self. (14) How can he imagine such strange differences as a friend or a foe, one who is indifferent or one who wishes one well; who is a relative or who is a hater to him who has realised his unity with the whole universe? This supreme wisdom he has gained in its fullness, so he is not deceived by the outward of this array of forms. He who has gained this perception in experience has formed evenness of mind which does not vary. Religion lives through his words, the sight of him produces the highest psychic powers, and in heavenly bliss he takes constant pleasure. If by any chance the memory of him comes to our mind his greatness is imparted to us; even to praise him will be of great profit to us. (15)

Here, Sri Jnaneshvara makes Sri Krishna reflect for a moment that if He revealed the whole secret of the Eternal which casts out all thought of duality, then the joy of His affection for Arjuna would be destroyed, and He did not tell Arjuna everything but drew a thin veil over it; for this enjoyment oneness with Brahman is an obstacle; those who seek after it are poor and the sight of them may affect his love for Him. With this compassionate thought Janardana reached out with his mind to draw to Himself the mind of Arjuna in conversation, under the pretext of this exposition. On the one hand this teaching and on the other the battle! How strange!! But, Arjuna was the refuge of Sri Krishna's affection, a mirror reflecting the heart of Sri Krishna overjoyed with love. With this sort of an introduction, Sri Jnaneshvara commences the delineation of Section III, and tells about the royal path. Multitudes of yogis have set out by various by-ways to find Brahma, and the foot-prints of their experience have made an easy and straight path of Self-realisation by which they have travelled steadily, avoiding the side roads of ignorance. But, before starting his exposition of the Dhyanayoga, Sri Jnaneshvara makes Arjuna exclaim impatiently and urge Sri Krishna to rescue him from the ocean of expectant desire in which he is plunged, and makes the latter respond to his request and describes in detail, but adding that it can only be profitable through experience. (17)

First a suitable place must be found where one can sit comfortably and not desire to rise, as such that when one sees it, one's intention towards dispassion would

increase it should be one frequented by saints, very beautiful so that one would wish to practise yoga; it must be as clean as beautiful where the highest bliss is revealed. But, it should not be disturbed by the footsteps of passers by. It should be surrounded by a grove of shady trees having roots as sweet as nectar and always bearing fruits. There should be streams, clear even in the rainy season, with springs nearby. The air should not be hot but cool, and gentle breezes should blow softly over it. Quiet should reign there; it should not be a resort of animals, nor should there be parrots or bees near it, though there would be no harm in occasional presence of peacocks, swans, cranes and cuckoos. It would be better if there were a secluded hermitage near the spot, or a temple of Siva. The yogi should for the most part sit in solitude. The scat for meditation should be set up there, placing carefully laid well-bound young blades of kusa grass, with a pure deer-skin placed on it, and on it a clean folded cloth. It should be neither too high nor too low and evenly poised. (18)

Then, with concentration of mind, the aspirant should recall the presence of his guru,

remaining thus, until the respectful calling causes a sense of purity to pervade his heart, the hardness of egoism is melted away, the sense of objects is forgotten, the restlessness of the senses stopped and the mind becomes quietened within the heart. This should be continued until a sense of union is reached and the yogi should remain seated with this awareness, with the body maintaining its poise, the breathing keeping its own rhythm, the outgoing activities of the mind being withdrawn and a sense of repose being felt within. At the moment of adopting this posture, the exercise begins. (19)

Then Sri Jnaneshvara describes in detail the yogic posture: Lifting the calves of the legs up on the thighs, the soles of the feet should be placed firmly against the perineum so that they will remain in position. Let the right foot press against the base so that the left foot rests on it easily. Between the anus and the penis there are exactly four inches; leaving a space of one and a half inches on each side, in the remaining one inch span the back part of the right heel should be forced and the body balanced on it. The ankles should be held in such a way that the lower part of the body is raised so slightly that one is not aware of it. The form of the whole body would thus come to be resting on the top of one heel. This is what is called the mulabandha posture, otherwise known as vajrasana. In this way the proper position is established and the lower passages of the body are closed, and the breath is restrained within the body. The cupped palms of both hands will rest upon the left foot and the shoulders will appear to be raised. Between the upper anus the lotus-like head is held firm and the eyelids will begin to close. The upper eyelids will drop and the lower ones extend; thus the eyes remain half-open. The vision remains within and does not wander outside; it continues to be focused on the tip of the nose, the sight thus remaining firmly inside and the focus steadily downwards. The neck and the throat are compressed, the chin pressed into the cavity between the collar-bones and forced down on to the breast, and the larynx is hidden. This posture is called jalandhara. The navel rises upwards and the stomach is compressed and the heart cavity is expanded. The yogic posture thus formed by drawing the navel and the penis towards each other is called uddivana. (20)

Indicating the signs of the yogic experience that appear outwardly on the body and inwardly, Sri Jnaneshvara continues: The working of the mind ceases, the activity of thought subsides, mental energy dies down and the body and the mind find rest. Hunger is forgotten, sleep disappears; even the memory of them is lost, with no

trace of it being found. The downward life-breath (apana) being confined in the vase of the body, turns back and, becoming compressed, begins to expand. More and more it is agitated and in the freer space above it rumbles and struggles against the solar plexus. The struggle ceases and the whole body trembles to its very centre; thus the impurities of childhood are driven out. It does not, then, turn downwards but moves in the interior of the body and expels the bodily secretions. It reduces the fat, and even draws out the marrow from the bones. It clears the arteries, loosens the limbs; but the seeker should not allow himself to be frightened by any of these. It reveals and removes diseases; it stirs up the soil and the water. On the other hand, the heat induced by the practice of this posture awakens the force called kundalini. As the brood of a she-serpent bathed in turmeric lie curled upin sleep, so lies this kundalini, very small and curled in three and a half circles, like a female serpent with her head turned downwards. It is like a ring of lightning, or folds of flaming fire, or a bar of pure gold. Thus bound fast by threads it is confused between two folds, but being compressed by the vajra posture, it is awakened. Then, as a star shooting through space, as the sun falling from its place in the sky, or as a point of light bursting forth as a sprouting seed, it breaks its bonds, grips the body, and appears mounted upon the navel. For long years it has hungered for this awakening, and, the pretext having occurred, it extends its mouth upwards with great eagerness, holds firmly in its clasp the air which fills the cavity below the heart, and the fire arising from it spreads upwards and downwards and begins to consume the flesh, even the fleshy tissues of the heart also, attacks the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, penetrates the upper parts and passing through them it searches out the joints of the limbs. It does not leave its place in the lower body but draws the vitality from the nails, and cleansing the skin causes it to cleave to the bones. It cleanses the hollow of the bones, scours the inner recesses of the heart and withers the hair of the body, drains the ocean of the seven bodily humours, parches the whole body and brings about a state of intense heat. The air which passes twelve inches out of the two nostrils is perforce again inhaled. Then the exhaled breath is drawn upward and the inhaled breath downward, their meeting being prevented by the petals of the psychic centres (cakras). All the earthly matter entirely consumed and the watery element dried up. Being thus satisfied fully and pacified, kundalini remains close to the susumna. The poison which in its satisfaction it sends forth from its mouth is the nectar by which vitality is sustained. This fire rises from within, but when it begins to cool down both internally and externally, the limbs regain the strength which they had lost. The arteries are blocked, the nine typos of vital air disappear and the functions of the body cease. The ida and pingala

arteries merge into one, the three knots are loosened, and the six petals of the psychic centre at the spleen (svadhisthana cakra) open out. Then the two breathes, thought of as the sun and the moon, cannot even cause the flume of a lamp to flicker. The energy of the mental activity dies down and the sense of smell which remains in the nose enters the susumna and joins the kundalini. (21)

Slowly from above the reservoir of the moon nectar pours itself into the mouth of the kundalini, turning downwards on one side. This nectar fills the passages and circulates throughout the whole body and together with the life-force is absorbed in it, and beauty is incarnated in the shape of the body, covered over by a veil of skin, the limbs seeming like natural marble or the sprouting of seed-jewels. So appears the body of the yogi when kundalini has drunk the nectar, and even the god of death is afraid to look at it; old age vanishes, the knot of youth is loosened, and the lost bloom of childhood reappears. Fine new finger-nails grow; new teeth appear, very small, set like rows of diamonds on each side. The palms of hands and feet are as red lotus flowers and in the eyes there shines an indescribable lustre; so the sight

embraces the whole heavens, even with half-open eyes. The yogi can then see beyond all oceans, here the thoughts of the heavens and read the mind of the ant. He rides on the horses of the winds, walks on the surface of the water, though his feet do not touch it, and in such ways he acquires many superhuman powers. (22)

Then, Sri Jnaneshvara describes what is called the piercing of the psychic centres (cakra-bheda) thus: Grasping prana by the hand, ascending the stairway of the either, kundalini enters the heart by the steps of the middle artery, and the force-centre there is awakened and sounds are heard; in the volume of that sound lie pictured in the form of the sacred syllable (Om) the four divisions of speech. This has to be experienced to be understood, but how can it be imagined? In the innermost cavity of the heart the divine kundalini lays out before consciousness the feast of her own lustre. On entering the hollow of the heart, it loses its separateness and is merged into the power dwelling within it; the power should be known as the life-force and nada, bindu and kala and jyoti become imperceptible. 'One body devours another'; this is the secret of the teaching of Natha, but it has now been revealed by Sri Krishna. The three grosser elements of the body have disappeared with the body itself. The water dissolves the soil, the light absorbs the water, and in the heart centre the vital air consumes the light. Then the word kundalini loses its significance, and the appropriate name is Maruti, but the force remains until it is absorbed into Shiva. Now it leaves the heart centre, breaks through the end of the susumna artery and enters the space in the roof of the mouth. Forthwith, climbing upon the back of the sacred syllable, it passes beyond the form of speech called pasyanti. There upon, as rivers flow into the ocean, the subtle elements enter into the space of the brow centre (ajnacakra)symbolised by the ardhamatra of the sacred syllable. After settling in the Brahma centre, it reaches out with the anus of its consciousness of unity with the Self and embraces the image of the Supreme. At that moment the veil of the five elements is rent asunder and the individual self and the Supreme Self are united; then all, including etheric space, is absorbed in that union. As it happens that space merges into space, so is this state of union realised by experience and the yogi remains in it. It would be impossible for words to describe this state nor can even discuss it in conversation. Therefore, it is a threefold truth that this could neither be expressed in words nor be heard by the ear. If by good fortune self-realisation can be attained through experience, then one should strive to remain in it. Beyond this there is no more to know. (24)

Sri Jnaneshvara dilates upon the supremacy of this state thus: This is the highest principle, without beginning and beyond measure, the beauty of the supra-mental state and the dawning of the experience of the soul's oneness with Brahma, the end of all form, the goal of the search for liberation, that in which beginning and end merge into one. It is the root of the universe, the fruit of the tree of yoga, the very essence of bliss. It is the seed of the subtle elements, the light from which emanates the sun; it is Sri Krishna's own nature, and the four-armed form had manifested itself in its splendour, seeing that the god-less had persecuted the multitudes of His devotees. At this point Sri Jnaneshvara makes Arjuna agree and confirm with Krishna that the method described by Him, being the way to attainment, leads surely to the goal, and they who steadfastly tread this path unfailingly attain to union with Brahman. Then Arjuna adds that, though there is no fault in it and he appreciated the yoga.He had taught, he was unable to practise it for lack of worthiness. (26)

To this Sri Krishna replies that here nothing can be obtained without effort. A man who is inclined to dispassion and restrains his bodily needs should be regarded as

worthy for this purpose; by that means may Arjuna become worthy. The gist of that teaching was that an undisciplined man is entirely unfit for that work; one who is in bondage to his palate or spends his life in sleep, or too rigidly restricts his hunger and thirst and rejects all food, or refuses to sleep, and plays the role of obstinacy incarnate, is not fit for the practice of yoga. Therefore, both excessive enjoyment of sensual pleasures and the complete abstention from them, are to be avoided. (27)

Sufficient food should be taken, but with proper restraint, and all actions performed in the same way. Speech should be moderated, walking should be steady, the need for the regular sleep respected. The disciplined man may easily turn to yogic practice; his experience will ripen into Self-realisation. One in whom there is the holy confluence in the union of moderation and yogic practice, and whose mind is resolved ever to remain in that holy place, may be said to be harmonised in yoga;

moreover, one characteristic of such a man is that his mind is like a lump set in a windless place. (28)

Then, asking Arjuna not to let his mind be troubled, consoles him that the wicked senses try in vain to frighten men. That which is really conducive to our welfare is painful; apart from this there is nothing as easy as yoga. Therefore, the senses may be curbed by the resolute practice of yogic posture of which He had spoken to him. When in that manner the senses have been restrained, the mind reaches out to meet the Self, and at once it recognises its true nature of being but the Self. When this recognition takes place, it seats itself on the imperial throne of supreme bliss, and becomes absorbed in the union. Then if mountains of bodily trouble should oppress such a man, his mind would in no way be crushed by their weight. Or if he should be struck by weapons, or burnt by fire, his mind, absorbed in the bliss of the Self, is in no way disturbed. Having entered into the Self he is unaware of the body; in the fullness of joy he even forgets it. (29)

Because of the sweetness of that joy, the mind which is held in the grip of worldly life, gives up all desire. This beauty of yoga, this kingdom of contentment for which wisdom is essential, must be seen by the mind through the practice of yoga, and seeing it the seer becomes transformed into it. Strive for such dispassion, and then the pilgrimage of desire is finished and pure reason dwells in happiness in the mansion of courage. If reason, supported by steadfastness, slowly leads the mind by the pathway of Self-realisation to the temple of the Self, and installs it there, this is one way of attaining to the Self. But should it be found impracticable, there is still another easy method. A vow should be taken to adhere to a resolute determination and not to depart from it. If by this means the mind can be steadied, then the work will be easy. If not, it may be allowed to move freely. Then, wherever it goes, the resolution will bring it back, and the steadiness will be restored. Thus in course of time it will acquire steadiness and will easily approach the Eternal. On beholding that it will become one with it, duality will be lost, and the universe will become illuminated by the splendour of unity. When the mind has become absorbed in the divine consciousness, that alone is the all-pervasive essence. This result is easily obtainable in such a way. (30)

Then, Sri Jnaneshvara makes Sri Krishna show another way to Arjuna, if he finds it as difficult as if one had to walk with one's legs upon one's back! There is no doubt that He exists in all forms, and that everything abides in Him; thus has everything been created, and both the spirit and matter are intermingled. Arjuna's reason should come to understand that. Whoever through his conscious realisation of unity

worships Him as one existing in all beings, and who knows that notwithstanding the multiplicity of beings there is no duality in their hearts and that His essence pervades everything everywhere, He is indeed he; as there is oneness between a lamp and its light, so is he in Him and He in him. Thus, Sri Krishna urges Arjuna to strive to realise that oneness, to see the universe in himself and himself in the universe; there is no realisation higher than the consciousness of unity. (32)

In the Section IV, Arjuna excuses that one cannot know the nature and extent of the mind; the three worlds are too small for its activities. Will the mind which harasses the reason, shake the resolution, and plays games with the courage, which deludes discrimination, disturbs contentment, and compels us, though we want to be still, to wander in every direction, which becomes excited when it is curbed, and is even encouraged by control of the senses, can such a mind give up its own nature? It can never happen that such a mind will ever remain stable and allow the Self to acquire equanimity. (33)

To this Sri Krishna replies: Although the mind is indeed of a fickle nature, by the aid of dispassion it can be led into constant practice, and in due course it would become stable. For in this one respect it is good that it frequents places familiar to it; therefore, the delight of experience of the Self should be shown to it often. On the other hand, it must be admitted that, for those who are not dispassionate and who do not engage in discipline, the mind is hard to control. Therefore, the restraint of the mind begins by this method; and then how can that resolution fail to be achievad? (34)

The Section V begins with Arjuna's question: True, the strength of the mind cannot be compared with the power of yoga. But, what is this yoga? A man may strive to attain to Self-realisation through faith, but without any yogic method; but he does not reach Self-realisation; neither can he retrace his steps, and at such a point the sun of his life sets. So, both ways are lost to such a man; his goal is far off but also on account of his faith he loses his former state of not seeking for it. If a man, though full of faith, loses his goal through delaying, is he entirely lost? What is his fate? (35) To this Sri Krishna replied: There is no other goal than liberation possible for a man striving for deliverance. One thing may happen, that for a time he may have to rest from his efforts, but during that delay he may still enjoy happiness unattainable by the gods. There he enjoys the wonderful but unprofitable pleasures of that world, but his mind becomes satiated with them. Consequently he is reborn into the world of mortals, but in a family which is the mother of all righteousness, which follows the path of rectitude, speaks pure truth, and considers whatever is to be done in the light of the scriptures, in which the Veda is a living god, whose only concern is the performance of its own proper duty, and for whom the discrimination between good and evil is the only counsellor, in a family where the consort of Vishnu takes thought for its welfare, and prosperity is the presiding goddess. A man fallen from yoga is reborn into a family possessing such merit and the harvest of all happiness. (36)

Or, he may be born into a family which bums the sacrificial fire of wisdom, is versed in the knowledge of the Eternal and is heir to the land of the highest bliss; who, seated on the throne of the highest truths, rules over three worlds, and who are as birds singing in the garden of contentment; who sit in the chief place of the city of discrimination enjoying the fruit in the form of Brahma. In the family of such yogis he may he born.

In outer form he may appear small, but as the light precedes the rising sun, so in him there appears the dawning of Self-knowledge. Without waiting to attain this state, or reaching mature age, already in youth he becomes possessed of all knowledge. With the acquirement of such a perfected intellect, his mind freely gives forth learning, and from his lips are revealed all branches of knowledge. The pure reason which was his when he left his former life, he obtains anew in full measure in this life. The intellect of such a man grasps without effort the most abstruse problems, knowledge which ordinarily may only be gained by the aid of the guru. The powerful senses are under the control of his mind, the mind becomes one with the vital air, while that begins to mingle with the etheric space. We do not know how this comes about that owing to past practice, meditation itself seeks out the house of his mind. He appears to be the embodiment of contentment, or one drawn out from the great store of those who have reached perfection. To such a condition the seeker after yoga seems to have risen. After millions of years and thousands of births, he arrives at the shore of Self- realisation. Thus, he becomes the embodiment of the state of Brahma, that which promotes all activity, and is indeed the very form of the Formless. During many past lives he has swept away the mass of confusion, and the moment of his birth is the final moment of his marriage with Brahma, and entering into non-duality he becomes wedded with the Eternal, becomes one with the Eternal, from which the universe proceeds and into which it will again be absorbed. (38)

Therefore, he is respected by all men of acting, worthy to be known by the wise, the highest lord among ascetics. He whose whole mental activity is directed towards the union of the self with the Self, rises to greatness even while still in the body. Sri Krishna, here, urges Arjuna to be a yogi with all his heart; the man who is called a yogi is the god of the gods, His greatest joy, His very life. To such a man, worshipper, worship and the object of worship, these three are always, through experience of union, Himself. The love existing between him and Him cannot be described.

Notes

1. Ranade, Dr. R. D. - 'BG Phil. God-Realization' p. 55

2. Swami Ramasukhdas - 'Glta-jnana-pravesika; (Hindi), Introduction; p. 29.

3. BD., 6. 1-8 (Reference is here to Ovi number). 4. Ibid., 6. 10-16.

5. Ibid., 6. 22-25, 27

6. Ibid., 6. 28-30.

7. Ibid., 6. 39-42

8. Ibid., 6. 44-45, 47, 50-51.

9. Ibid., 6. 52-53

10. Ibid., 6. 55-60.

11. Ibid., 6. 62, 64-65.

12. Ibid., 6. 67.

13. Ibid., 6. 70-71, 73, 80.

14. Ibid., 6. 82-83, 87-88, 90

15. Ibid., 6. 94-95, 99, 11, 103-104.

16. Ibid., 6. 113-114, 119, 125, 152, 154-155.

17. Ibid., 6. 161-163

18. Ibid., 6. 163-185

19. Ibid., 6. 186-191

20. Ibid., 6. 192-210

21. Ibid., 6. 211-246

22. Ibid., 6. 247-253, 259-263, 265, 267, 269-270.

23. Ibid., 6. 271, 274, 277, 281, 287, 291, 298-299, 301-306, 310-311.

24. Ibid., 6. 316-318

25. Ibid., 6. 320-324

26. Ibid., 6. 328-330, 332-333.

27. Ibid., 6. 341-348

28. Ibid., 6. 349-350, 357-358.

29. Ibid., 6. 362-370

30. Ibid., 6. 371-373, 376-384.

31. Ibid., 6. 389-395

32. Ibid., 6. 408-409

33. Ibid., 6. 411, 413-416

34. Ibid., 6. 420, 424.

35. Ibid., 6. 427, 430-435

36. Ibid., 6. 436, 441

37. Ibid., 6. 447-449.

38. Ibid., 6. 450-452, 455-458, 462-463, 478.

39. Ibid., 6. 477-479

40. Ibid., 6. 480-481.

References

1. The Bhagavadgita, edited with original text and introduction, by Swami Ramasukhdas with the title Gita-jnana-pravesika Gita Press, Gorakhpur, V. Sam. 2025

2. Lambert, H. M.- Jnaneshvari (Bhavarthadipika), translated into English by V. G. Pradhan, Vol. 1. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1967.

3. Radhakrishnan, Dr. S. - The Bhagavadgita, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1948.

4. Rajawade, Visvanath Kasinath - Jnanesvari (Marathi original), Dhule, S. Sam. 1831.

5. Ranade, Dr. R. D. - The Bhagavadgita as a Philosophy of God-Realization, Nagpur, 1959.

The What and Why of Philosophy

Pandurang Shastri Athavale Founder of the Swadhyaya Parivar

Introduction by Katerina Wolf, Ph.D.

In India the borders between Philosophy and religion are somewhat less tense than in western philosophy. For most of the Hindu philosophers the sacred traditions, as for example the Veda, represent the basis for all speculation. The main doctrines of these religious sources, for example incarnation, karma and moksha are fully

accepted without any sense of criticism.

The orthodox doctrines may differ in their metaphysical views (the definition of soul, monism and pluralism etc.), but they agree in general in their views about the central questions of life, as they are the sense and the goal of life or the different means of liberation. We can say, that they represent different types of view, which are adapted to the personal needs of human beings. These views, we call them in India darshanas, can differ from each other. In the western culture it probably would not be possible, to accept on one side the negation of the existence of god and at the same time to believe in the existence of a personal god and an impersonal absolute reality. In India this is possible, as the phenomenology of religion is much wider than in the Christian tradition.

Besides this acceptance of the religious traditions in India there existed as well an opposition, which was directed in their philosophical view towards the religious tradition and its authority. The school of Charvaka for example denied the existence of the transcendental, they believed in a firm, materialistically orientated dogma. Bakhtavar propagated in the 19th century the philosophical view of "emptiness". This view, which can be closely linked to the Mahayana-Buddhism, was opposed to the Charvakas´ conviction, that the interior world of human beings can be explained only through the external factors of the material world. Charvaka believed, that the external world was a mere reflection of the human self.

Athavale explains in his article the nature and the functions of Indian philosophy. His main interest is not the mention and distinction of the different philosophical systems, much more he tries to give to the reader a sense of Indian Philosophy. To his opinion, philosophy means first of all a means of salvation. In that sense traditional Indian philosophy might provide the world and mankind with the possibility of finding new ethical values and a better understanding of life. In his article Athavale gives on one side an inside in the very complex subject of Indian philosophy, on the other side he provides the reader with a deep inside in the phenomenon `Indian world of thougt´.

The What and Why of Philosophy

Pandurang Shastri Athavale Founder of the Swadhyaya Parivar

What is the nature and function of philosophy? What role does it play in promoting life and civilisation? What are the distinctive features of a philosopher? Such questions haunted the minds of thinkers like Shri Jnaneshvara in the past and of every serious thinker who is interested in understanding the meaning and purpose of world process in general, and human existence in particular, as it leads to Harmony.

Philosophy for me is "the science of Reality"; it is a body of coherent, consistent, and comprehensive knowledge of the fundamental features of all existence. Philosophy is an attitude taken up by the mind in relation to the whole world. This attitude affects and determines the whole of man's practical living giving it a sane, abiding and enlightened direction towards the pursuit of the ultimate values of civilisation. Understood in this sense, philosophy becomes a way of life and not a mere idle, sterile, intellectual discipline. Of course, rigourous intellectual discipline is included in philosophy as it is a body of reasoned enquiry and knowledge. But, rigourous intellectual activity by itself is not philosophy in the fullest sense of the term.

Every philosopher is a thinker, but every thinker is not a philosopher. The genuine philosophic spirit is the will for sane and enlightened action. It is a search after wisdom and an endeavour towards perfection. A philosophy which does not affect, transform, elevate and ennoble life, remains a cold, sterile, formal intellectual discipline. A negative, pessimistic, otherworldly philosophy does more harm than good.

Philosophy becomes a way of civilised and divine life in its fusion of physical, moral, aesthetic and religious values. This is the practical standpoint of Indian philosophical thought which has been unjustly charged by some Western Philosophers as not a "genuine philosophy", but a bunch of loose reflections on ethico-religious problems. Indian philosophers proclaim the integration and synthesis of Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa - the ultimate valuesof human life. They compare these four purusharthas to the four legs of a cow and if any one of them is lacking, the cow becomes lame and limping. Unlike the West, Philosophy in India is not born out of the 'wonder' impulse alone. It springs from the awareness of one's limitations and imperfections in the temporal world and is a positive passionate craving for enlightenment, abiding subjective happiness and perfection. A Philosopher in India is not merely a "Spectator all time and all existence" as Plato puts it. A philosopher is Jnanapurna (full of wisdom), Bhavapurna(saturated by the milk of human kindness and concern) and Krtipurna(Dynamic and ever involved in the welfare of his divine brothers).

A philosopher leads an ideal life, a life free from all sorts of Moha and Soka i.e., likes and dislikes, misery and frustrations. A philosopher has a coherent and adequate knowledge of Pinda- Brahmanda (Microcosm and Macrocosm). He has rightly understood the nature of Jiva, Jagat and Jagadisa(Self, World, and God) and their interrelations. Since, the philosopher is a Brahmajnani, one who has realised God and feels the presence and touch of God in each and every action, his kaya or physical frame is Brahmi-bhuta, Divinised. Selfless love and selfless activity ever flow

from such philosopher. The philosopher leads Divine Life and incessantly engages himself in making others' life equally divine. The philosopher has love towards all and malice for none.

The philosopher, who is a jnani-bhakta does not condemn the physical world, does not denounce the senses. Since the world is beginningless creation, the Jnaniloves and works for its betterment. He strikes a balance between Pravrtti(activism) and Nivrtti (passivism). instead of condemning and suppressing the senses and desires, he elevates, sublimates and finally divinises them and becomes himself the effective tool in the hands of Cosmic process.

The philosopher is a man of synoptic (Samyak) vision. Synoptic thinking involves seeing one aspect of experience in the light of another, and seeing the variety of our physical, aesthetic, moral and religious experiences as elements of a grand Divine System (Design).

A philosopher has in him not only rare synthesis of supreme wisdom and highest devotion, he is a highly dynamic person. He has a powerful progressive and sensitive mind. As the philosopher is intoxicated by "Divine Love", praise and blame, adversity and prosperity, happiness and misery, none of these dualities ever disturb his pure, screne, lustrous and blissful mind.

A philosopher enjoys absolute freedom. He is free from the fetters of Kamini (Sex), Kancana(wealth or material prosperity) and Kirti (name and fame), in other words, he is not Vittadhina (a slave of money), Sattadhina, (a slave of power) and even Sastradhina (a slave of scriptures). He is above conventional codes of morality and ritualism. Since a philosopher leads a divinised life, his acts are pure and holy. They are not tainted by narrow self-interest, petty desires, and fear of public criticism.

A philosopher is like a pole star. His life is a shining example for millions to imitate. He inspires and leads humanity to greater and loftier heights of spirituality. A philosopher is a friend, a divine brother and a guide to persons from a very stratum of the society, particularly the most neglected and downtrodden members of the society.

A philosopher has absolute trust in cosmic power. He engages himself in the upliftment of the society not as a social reformer with an air of superiority. He considers everything he does as an act of Bhakti or devotion to God.

From the description of the nature and functions of a philosopher it is clear by now, as to what is the value of philosopher for life and civilization. Philosophy divinizes man. It is the art and theory of the internal life of man. Philosophy is at once general and concrete, critical and appreciative of direct intuitions. Its gifts arc insight and foresight and the sense of worth of life.

We live as we think. Low thoughts mean low behaviour. Unless our minds are stored with larger and nobler generalities and notions we can't be broad-minded and noble. We have to generalise and socialize the sacred mantra of Upanisads "Aham

Brahmasmi"(Iam divine in essence). If our minds are warped, damaged and frustrated, we can never build a society of noble and divine personalities.

Modern science and technology have given prodigious mechanical power and material prosperity. The rise of industrial civilization and urbanization has made men run after only trivial ends of life. Our whole social order is insecure and haphazard. We are facing unprecedented economic, ecological and moral crises. Man's worth is measured in terms of his possessions and positions. There is a craze among people to amass more and more money. This craze for money and power has created artificial barriers between man and man. It has also given rise to unhealthy competition, psychological stress, strain, complexes and sense of isolation, insecurity and worthlessness.

Only a sound, rational, theistic, philosophic and positive outlook can save the world from the present crisis. What we need today is not only scientific and technological development, but a philosophy which can re-establish the intrinsic worth and glory of man as the spark of the Divine, a philosophy which can synthesise the great sayings of Vedanta, namely, "Tena Tvam Asi","Tasya Tvam Asi" and "Tat Tvam Asi".

A sound philosophy must be internally coherent and harmonious and must be translatable into practice. It should not remain a mere utopian concept although utopia should always remain up the back of our minds. Integral philosophy is one which satisfies the total personality.

The only rational way of building a healthy and egalitarian society is through the propagation of a rational, dynamic invigourating and transforming philosophic outlook. Where there is no philosophic wisdom and vision, people perish. To fulfill the dream of Jnaneshvara what is needed today is a sound divinising philosophy - the philosophy of the Rhsi, Jnani-bhakta, kavi, muniand tattvajnani.

Tilak's Theory of Karmayoga: A Fresh Appraisal

Prof. Krishna S. Arjunwadkar Retired Professor of Marathi, University of Bombay.

The Tradition of Commentators of the Bhagavad-gita

The Bhagavad-gita (BG) has been a source of inspiration and veneration for large sections of Indian society presumably since the early centuries of the Christian Era and, consequently, attracting scholars of repute through centuries to interpret it the way they understood it. This in its turn increased the popularity of this text so as to inspire newer generations of scholars making fresh attempts of interpretation. The oldest available, but not necessarily the first, commentary on BG is that of Shankaracharya who has referred to earlier commentators and criticised their views at several places in a general way and on particular issues. Among the Vedantic schools, the BG is accorded a place of honour as a basic text, with two more, the Upanishads and the Brahmasutras, together called the Prasthana-trayi. Five centuries later, Jnanadeva wrote an exhaustive Marathi commentary on BG, popularly known as Jnanesvari, which is held in high esteem by Marathi-speakers and has been moulding the Marathi mind for the successive centuries. Jnanadeva's mention therein of the Bhasyakara as a guide is taken by many to imply a covert reference to Shankaracharya, despite the view being disputed by some modern scholars who would rather like to relate Jnanadeva to a Kashmirian school.

This tradition continued until, in recent times, the voluminous work of the late Bal Gangadhar Tilak, called the Gita-rahasya (GR) (1915) or Karmayoga-shastra, with its scholarly exposition of the philosophy, religion and ethics of the BG vis-a-vis the Western outlook on these subjects, persuaded the contemporary generation, fed on and influenced by English education as envisaged by Macaulay, to look at its heritage seriously and realize its worth in the context of world thought. The success of GR in laying a philosophical foundation for the activist forces of his tunes fighting for the cause of independence is immeasurable and will ever remain an object of admiration and veneration for generations to come. What adds to the greatness of this work is the fact that it is the product of Tilak's imprisonment for six long years away from his homeland - thanks to the vindictive attitude of the British which gave Tilak a chance to devote his scholarly talents to a worthy cause, undisturbed by political occupation. The only parallel case I know in the Sanskrit tradition is more than a thousand years old, viz., that of Jayantabhatta (7th c. A.D.), the author of Nyayamanjari, an encyclopaedic work on Indian logic which, on the authority of its author, was the result of his long imprisonment by a Kashmir king of his time. We should indeed thank the Kashmir king and the British for putting the two scholars into jail! Tilak's work influenced several contemporary and subsequent authors who wrote on BG from a social outlook.

Tilak's Presumptions and Conclusions

The most common feature of all writers of this class is to take personalities associated with the BG as real, historical and regard the events involving them as evidence in deciding its teaching. Thus Arjuna's reluctance before, and readiness after, the dialogue that is BG, is taken as a proof of the intention of the work to induce activism. Since, between the two points, all Upanishadic philosophy is presumed or stated succinctly, it is assumed that Arjuna had in the meantime

become a jnanin - a man of realization and hence qualified for liberation as conceived by the Upanishads. The description of how Arjuna had the privilege of the exclusive vision of the all-pervading manifestation of Krishna - identified as God Almighty during the former's dialogue with the latter is considered to strengthen his claim to qualifications for liberation. The readiness of such a person to fight reveals that, in the view of BG, performance of social duties - varnasrama-dharma, to use a time-honoured term standing for the prototype of such duties - which is emphasized repeatedly and more than anything else in the course of the exposition in BG, is a must even for a man of realization, for the good and guidance of the society, i. e., for loka-samgraha, if not for personal gain, as is the case with the ordinary people. Arjuna thus followed the same path as was trodden by Krishna the God and Janaka the renowned philosopher-king of ancient times. The name given by BG to such disinterested activism is Karmayoga (KY) - a term occuring prominently in BG for the first time in the history of Indian philosophy and popularized by GR - which is its main thesis. The BG as viewed by GR is thus opposed to renunciation which has been the keynote of Vedantic tradition for centuries.

Ancient Support for a Contemporary Cause

There can be no objection to an attempt to reinterpret old texts to meet contemporary needs of a society; and it must be admitted that GR has succeeded in carrying masses with it to a preconceived goal. Tilak was a great fighter and organizer who pined Indian masses against the Britishers in a degree no one before him could. All organizations need myths (or, alternatively, common interests) to build on, and support for a cause from an ancient source goes a long way in convincing a tradition-bound society of the necessity of coming together under a single banner. 'I am not stating anything new; I am only reiterating what our past masters have revealed.' This is an attitude assumed by Indian thinkers through centuries and liked by their society in general, despite the fact that new elements did find their way to the old framework but in the guise of an extension of the old ones, although India has also produced great men who took a positively opposite attitude of replacing old values with new ones. Tilak shrewdly recognised this fact and presented his outlook as coming from an old revered work.

The Basics and the Superstructure

This is the credit and rationale of Tilak's work. From a strictly philosophical point of view, however, Tilak's theory does not satisfy the logical demands a theory has to meet in order to be accepted as viable. A theory has its basics on which it builds the superstructure; and it is naturally to be expected that the latter should be harmonious with the former. What is wanting in Tilak's theory is the harmony between its basics and superstructure. To understand this, it is necessary to state briefly the contents of these aspects of his theory of KY.

The Basics

The basics of Tilak's theory have to be found in the philosophical heritage of BG. BG is admittedly the successor of the Upanishads to such an extent that a number of verses from the latter are bodily borrowed by the former. It borrows the Advaitic concepts of the ultimate unity of the individual and the universal principles, and the concept of liberation - moksha,the highest purusartha or goal of human life, in all its distinctive features which can be achieved only through jnana or Self-realization.

Purification of mind is a precondition for the rise of this jnana; and the yogas of karman, bhakti and dhyana are means towards this end. The Self, though seated in the perishable body, is eternal, unconcerned with actions which in fact belong to the prakrti with which the Self identifies himself through ignorance and, according their authorship to himself, plunges into samsara. The Self is distinct from the body and the various identities associated with the body are superimposed on it through ignorance. The concept of liberation presumes that of bondage which is the result of past actions accumulated though a chain of lives and deaths. The path of self-realization passes through a detached attitude towards worldly pleasures resulting in renunciation of actions identified as the root of bondage. Heaven is conceived to be varying with the size and quality of merit one accumulates, i. e., discriminative, and lasts only until the balance of merit is exhausted. Liberation, on the other hand, is conceived to be permanent and allows no element of discrimination. Unlike in examinations and jails, there are no classes or grades (A, B, C...) in liberation. If there be any, it will cease to be what it is conceived to be. It allows no ethical code for a jnanin who can continue to 'live' even after liberation, for liberation has nothing to do with death. This theory has its own logic and has been developed to the finest details through centuries by authors of outstanding scholarship. 'Ethical code for a liberated soul' is a contradiction in terms. Self-realization is trans-ethical as is categorically stated by the Upanishads.

Tilak's Superstructure and the Issues It Raises

When we check details of Tilak's concept of KY vis-a-vis these basics, we realize that, by accepting some and rejecting or modifying other elements of the Vedantic theory briefly stated above, he has landed himself in problems for which he has no solutions. The most conspicuous of his departures from the basics is that KY does not end, but starts, with the acquisition of jnana, and is an option for renunciation. To a question why he should practise KY once he has achieved its goal, jnana, Tilak's reply is 'for loka-samgraha', in consideration of the proper conduct of the society; for, as BG says, the common man follows the great. This stand leads to several questions:

i. If KY is compulsory for a liberated man, is he really liberated?

ii. Is it logical to expect a liberated man to practise KY in consideration of the social conduct which, for him, is samsara, a net fabricated by ignorance?

iii. Is it logical to allow KY which is essentially ethics to override jnana which is trans-ethical?

iv. Is Tilak's theory supported by evidence acceptable in scientific dialogue?

v. Does Tilak's understanding of jnana tally with that in Vedantic tradition?

Moksa vs Ethics

The concept of moksa in Vedanta which means a total dissolution of identity has no parallel in social thought which is nothing if not characterized by identities. The social thinker thinks of a man as distinct from other animals as also from men of different identities involving race, nation, province, caste, color, language, relations and so on. The Self as defined by Vedanta is pure consciousness free from all these and similar distinctions. The very concept of social duty, the protection and continuation of which is Tilak's major concern, is based on such distinctions. How is it relevant in a state where all such distinctions are denied? By its very nature, ethics is based on an awareness of, and for a sound conduct of the society. In other words, it belongs

to the relational world. How can it go hand in hand with moksa which is the cessation of relations? For a pious man, there is a lot of difference between the water of the holy Ganga and the tap water. For a scientist, water is H2O whether from the Ganga or a tap. Scientific reality is indifferent to sentimental considerations, for the former is based on objective evidence, and the latter, on willed cognition.

The World of 'Willed Cognition'

What is 'willed cognition'? Established epistemology recognizes two categories of cognition: true or valid, and false or invalid. The cognition of a rope as a rope is true, that as a snake is false. These categories are so familiar that they hardly need an explanation. Although sufficient for explaining empirical experience, these categories cannot explain a vast area of our life called culture. Culture covers everything from plays to politics, language to literatures, religions to social institutions, love songs to national anthems, stickers to national flags, trade unions to nations, in fact, all that man has created on the basis of his will as against the physical world which exists irrespective man's will. In drama, we identify the actor with Hamlet on the strength of our will and enjoy it. The criterion for the willed nature of this experience is our awareness of the separate identities of the actor and Hamlet. In the example discussed above, the holiness of the Ganga water is a matter of will handed down by tradition and subsequently transformed into a belief. We know that language consists of words which are but sequences of sounds linked to certain senses by convention which is ultimately the will of the speakers. On the poetic level, we call a man a lion for his courage, knowing full well that the two are in fact different. We do lots of such identifications for aesthetic or similar purposes. When we are not aware of this difference, false cognition results, as, for example, when we recognize a rope as a snake. All values, social institutions, systems, conventions and the like are phenomena involving willed cognition. Traditional analysis of human experience which does not recognize willed cognition cannot be regarded as complete or final.

The Scientific and the Mythical Contents of the Vedanta

While classing ethics as the domain of willed cognition, I am aware that Vedantic works are full of mythical contents based on will. From various accounts of the creation of the world to a large number of meditational ways and devices, Vedanta texts abound in mythical contents. This necessitates an attempt to sift scientific content of Vedanta from the mythical one. Identity of the individual soul with the universal principle based on a scientific analysis of our states of consciousness - waking, dream and deep sleep is the main thesis of Vedanta, and it deserves our attention more than anything else as attested even by a great authority like Gaudapada. If physical sciences explore the outer, objective world, Vedanta explores the inner, subjective world. Vedanta, thus, is the science of the subject and follows the discipline of presentation of its results - hypotheses, evidence, conclusions - as much as do the physical sciences. That the nature of evidence in Vedanta differs from that of physical sciences is due to the difference in the nature of the subjects they treat of even among physical sciences, nature of evidence changes with that of the subject. Discoveries of Vedanta are not a matter of belief but of reality.

Values and Scientific Reality

This explains why ethics cannot be linked with scientific reality. What Tilak has done is to take the latter as the basis for the former, may be out of his keenness to find a

basis for ethics in Indian philosophy which, by common consent, lacks ethical deliberations. This is mixing up willed cognition with true cognition. Values that make ethics are a matter of will which changes from time to time, place to place, and society to society. Scientific reality is the same for all. In Tilak's view, cognition of the ultimate reality forms the basis of Indian concept of social duty: How can our status in the world of everyday business form the basis of our behaviour in a drama or a dream? To come to details, how can Arjuna fight his adversaries with an outlook of equanimity towards friends and enemies which, according to BG, characterises an enlightened man? In the events that follow BG, he has behaved in the same manner as any normal warrior would. And Krishna, too, who has played all tricks a practical man would. What proof is there that they have done all this in the perfect manner of KY, i. e., in a detached manner not claiming or caring for the results? If events in the subsequent story are to be taken as indications, there is every reason to believe that the two were as normal as any man of the world. The only possible conclusion is that they were not enlightened in the Vedantic sense of the term, in case we treat the events and personalities associated with BG as historical.

Stories as Frameworks

But what if we do not? Stories in philosophical works are just frameworks meant for providing an occasion for the presentation of the teaching. They serve an ornamental purpose to induce the reader to read them. Many of such stories (e. g., the story of Naciketas and Yama in the Katha Upanisad) are obviously imaginary; and the rest are presumably so even though they involve characters which smack of historicity. In other words, they are myths created by will, and no myth can be entertained as a proof in scientific discussion. It follows from this that the example of Janaka cited in BG and taken as a support for post-enlightenment KY is no evidence.

The Test of Enlightenment

Then, what decides that a man is enlightened? Not certainly his affidavit. If such a proof is admissible, any man can make a claim to enlightenment. This is unscientific. It is the presence of the characteristics of the enlightened man which are described in BG and other Vedantic works and are logically linked to his state that decide whether or not a man is enlightened in the Vedantic sense. If Tilak's view is admitted, there would hardly be a man or woman of any profession including that of a sharebroker who cannot claim to be enlightened! Viewed from this angle, even Yajnavalkya, acclaimed to be the greatest philosopher of Upanishadic times, cannot be called enlightened, for he himself has confessed that he is not a brahmistha, but only gokama, and he had a large property to divide between his two wives. Admirers of recent great personalities like Vivekananda accord to them the honour of Vedantic enlightenment. This is not more than an indication of the appreciation of their great work and stands on an equal level with raising memorials of or naming streets after great men. Greatness or such other attributes have only a social significance which mean nothing for a man of enlightenment.

Jnana - Intellectual and Experiential

One wonders what led Tilak to base his ethics on Vedantic enlightenment? The term jnana, which according to Vedanta, is the only means to liberation has a number of connotations in different contexts even in Vedantic works. But when it is said to be the means of moksa, it means experience - saksatkara,as distinct from intellectual

understanding or conviction. Despite his knowledge of this distinction indicated in his writing, Tilak seems to have taken this term in the latter sense (i. e., intellectual understanding) which does not militate against ethical considerations. The great teachers of Vedanta from Yajnavalkya to Vasudevashastri Abhyankar of our own times who were mostly householders and also great scholars who no doubt devoted their lives to teaching and writing on Vedanta, made no claim to enlightenment; and even if one did, such a claim would only contradict itself implying the existence of his ego which is a sure indication of his not being enlightened.

Conclusion

The discussion above reveals the weaknesses of Tilak's position if exposed to scientific criteria. Considering the scholarly potential of Tilak, are we not justified in saying that he would not have interpreted BG the way he did, had he not called upon to guide Indian people on the path of swarajya?

Universal Significance of Jnanadeva's Philosophy

Prof. B. P. Bahirat

President, Pandharpur Research Society, Pandharpur, India.

Introduction

by Katerina Wolf, Ph.D.

India is a culture with a very rich and various philosophical tradition. One specific feature of the philosophical system in India is their very close dependence on religion. The borders between philosophy and religion are not as distinct as in the western tradition. The content of religious sources like the Vedas, Upanishads and Puranas are considered as an authoritative truth and they are the basis for philosophical speculation. These characteristic marks maybe the most important difference between the philosophy of India and the western culture.

The speculations about the existence of an ultimate truth, or god, mankind and the world, as we find them in both cultures, receive a dominant broadening in the Indian tradition. It is a central theme of all philosophical systems in India, to speculate about the existence of the transcendental and about possibilities to liberate the individual soul from the material world. The liberation of the soul and its union with god can be considered as the main aim of Indian religion and philosophy.

Besides this common basis in Indian philosophy there are many different concepts about the nature of the ultimate truth, the individual soul, their interrelation and their relation to the material world. One dominant distinction concerning the nature of god is the concept of nirguna (god without attributes) and saguna(with attributes). The individual soul can either be absolutely separated from god (dvaita) or be identical with god (advaita).

Jnaneshvara was a popular Indian philosopher of the early medieval times, influencing the philosophy of that time in a very dominant way. B. P. Bahirat presents in his article the philosophical concept of Jnaneshvara. In a short and succinct way he shows its most important features and furthermore gives inside into its interrelation with other philosophical systems of India.

Universal Significance of Jnanadeva's Philosophy

Prof. B. P. Bahirat

President, Pandharpur Research Society, Pandharpur, India.

The most important conceptions in any philosophy are of God, man and the world. The dignity and high atmosphere of thinking in them depends upon the clarity of these notions expressed by any philosopher. These are the fundamental concepts most important for the welfare of mankind. If these concepts are vague and obscure, the social atmosphere in any society would be full of various superstitions; because such superstitions are nothing but unworthy views of God, man and the world, which lead to the moral and religious degradation. So these ought to be as clear and rationally high as could be.

From this point of view, Jnanadeva's philosophy is worth studying carefully. Though born in Maharashtra, Jnanadeva was really the greatest citizen of the world who regarded the whole world as his home and all the people as his brothers. He has written few works but they are of outstanding importance.

Jnaneshvari is the commentary on the Bhagavadgita, Anubhavamrta is an independent philosophical work. In it, he has clearly stated his views on God or the Ultimate Reality, the Individual Self and the world.

God or Ultimate Reality

Jnanadeva does not divide God and Ultimate Reality which are regarded by some as distinct. They regard God as man's imagination of Reality. But Jnanadeva thinks differently and regards God and Reality as identical. Some thinkers regard Ultimate Reality as merely 'Nirguna' or attributeless and God as 'Saguna' or with attributes. Jnanadeva himself regards attributes as manifestations of the Ultimate Reality itself or God himself 'Saguna' is a manifestation of 'Nirguna'. God manifests infinite attributes from within. The highest attribute is Love. Love is God or the Ultimate Reality. Love is the highest value also.

Jiva or the individual Self

The individual Self is the form taken by God himself. In order to taste the sweetness of his Love, he himself assumes the form of individual Self. It is the means by which God can taste the sweetness of his Love. A mother has milk in her breasts; but she cannot taste the sweetness of that milk. It is the child that can taste it. In a like manner, though God is Love himself, he cannot taste the sweetness of that Love. It is the individual Self or Jiva that can taste it. So God has created so many selves out of his own being. In this way the real status of the individual Self is different from what we usually think it to be, i. e., limited and insignificant. It is really a very high status as it enables the Almighty to enjoy his own sweetness.

The World

In the Anubhavamrta, Jnanadeva says that though the Ultimate Reality is one, it manifests itself into many in order to enjoy itself: "The fragrance became the nose,

the mirror evolves out of the eye, flowers became the bee to taste its own honey." In this way the one Reality appears as many to enjoy itself.

Thus the universe is not an illusion as some think; but it is the play divine or the Absolute.

In this way, Jnanadeva's view of the World is 'Chidvilasa'. it is the self-enjoyment of the Absolute. Such is the philosophical point of view of Jnanadeva. It is a positive view to tell us that God is everywhere enjoying himself So he teaches not the gospel or mere renunciation to shut our eyes to the universe but to open our eyes to the sublime vision of God or the Ultimate Reality in the form of the world. Such a vision is seminal to the moral and religious uplift of the entire humanity.

Jnanadeva's philosophy is the philosophy of Love par excellence. It is a boon to mankind where the highest summumbonum, sublime poetry and divinity are inseparably intermingled in the Holy.

Jnaneshvara's Cangadeva Pasasti

A Unique Advaitic Composition

by Prof. Anant Ganesh Javadekar Retired Professor of Philosophy, M. 5 University, Vadodara, Gujarat. India.

Introduction to the work

"Cangadeva-Pasasti "

"Cangadeva-Pasasti" composed by Jnaneshvara or Janadeva, is an advaitic work of a very high order. Cangadeva was well-versed in many sciences and was a great Yogin. It is said that he lived for fourteen hundred years by repeatedly avoiding death, every time as it came entering into the state of Samadhi. But he had neitherspiritual realisation nor peace of mind. Having come to learn that Jnaneshvara, though a young boy, was recognised, along with his two (elder and younger) brothers and the youngest sister, as a saintly and miraculous person, decided to meet them all. In order to inform them of his visit to at Alandi, near Pune in advance, Cangadeva wrote to them only a blank letter not knowing whether he should begin with namaskara to him (as an honoured saint) or with asirvada (as a young boy). This only revealed his inner spiritual blankness, as sister Muktabai observed. Then Nivrttinatha asked Jnanadeva to reply to him. This letter of reply is known as "Cangadeva-Pasasti" as it contains sixty five verses in the Marathi meter called "Ovi". The purport of this work is to help establish Cangadeva firmly in the advaitic spiritual realisation. Jnanadeva takes the highest axionoetic stand of the absolutistic, non-dualistic reality of Atman greater than which nothing exists.

Jnanadeva begins with salutation to and the description of Cangadeva's Guru named Vatesvara who is himself identified with the One Reality of Atman or Brahman or God. Then Cangadeva is regarded as no other than a bit of this highest reality. There is thus complete identity between the Guru and his disciple, or Brahman and Jiva. Then Jnanadeva extends this oneness to the underlying principle of both Janadeva and Cangadeva. Their visit or dialogue takes place from this spiritual plane of Absolutism or nondualism, in which they are united.

The Nature of Atman

(The figures in brackets refer to the number of verses)

The first thirty-six verses contain the nature of Atman or God. God conceals himself and appears as the world, and when God is realised the world disappears. (1) This manifestation and concealment does not affect God, Atman or Brahman. (2) God becomes all this world without affecting his oneness (3) Thus Jnanadeva draws attention to the original Vedic and Upanisadic teaching. Purusa evedam servam

(Purusasukta10-902) Sarvani hietad Brahma (Mandukya-2), Idam Sarvam Yadayam,

atma (Brhadaranyaka 2-4-6) Sarvam khalu idam Brahma.

In the next four verses (4 to 7) Jnanadeva illustrates this identity between Brahman and the world. It is like that of gold and golden ornaments, water and its waves, earth and its molecules, moon and its digits, fire and lump. These illustrations suggest that Brahman is the material cause (Upadana-Karana) of the world.

In the next verse that Brahman is also the efficient cause of the world is made clear.

Brahman behaves in the two forms of drasta and drsya as a subject and as an object, the seer and seen. This, some say, is due to avidya. But Jnanadeva declares that 'I do not think so'. This existence of the Brahman in these two forms is natural or spontaneous to it. (8)

Then it is pointed out that the transcendent principle of knowledge itself appears in the dual forms of the knower and known, or the subject and the object (10). The similes given are of the thread which is basically real and the cloths are its nominal forms, so also the earthen vessels are only earth (9). Such again is the relation between the whole and its parts (11).

Then it is explained how from God Siva to all varieties of objects there shines uniformly one principle of consciousness or knowledge (12). The wall remains wall even though any picture is drawn on it (13). The sweetness of molasses remains the same whether it is in the bound form or not (14). The cloth remains cloth even if it is folded (15). In the same way it is suggested that it is one and the same consciousness or spirit that glitters as the world without being affected by pleasure and pain. Just as the thing appears as the subject in its relatedness to its image, so does the one spirit throbs itself into the triad of the seer, the seen and the seeing, without affecting its oneness (16 to 18). As much as the bundle of thread is only thread inside and outside so is this triad without actually being three (19). The face sees itself through the mirror, but this seeing is really not seeing. All these illustrations point out that one original consciousness appears threefold without getting really divided (20, 21).

The seership of the subject is only in relation to the seen object. In the absence of the object the seer ceases to be the subject. Thus the triad of the knower, knowledge and the known is illusory, the oneness alone is real (22 to 25). The face remains the face before and after the mediation of the mirror. The mirror makes no difference to the face while it produces the deception as the seer face and the seen face. In the same way the real remains the self seeing itself while it appears as the seer and the seen (26 to 28).

The universal nature of sound is independent of the instruments of music. Fire is independent of the kinds of wood. So reality remains itself reality devouring the differentiations (29).

That which cannot be described or known by any means exists in itself as being (30). The eyeball though competent to see is incapable of seeing itself. Similarly the Atman though of the nature of knowledge, is incompetent to know itself (31). This reflects the Upanisadic thought vijnataram are kena vijaniyat, by what means can the knower be known? In the total absence of not-knowing, that which is knowledge itself cannot be known as knowledge. (e.g. Sun knows no darkness, and therefore knows not that it is light) (32). Therefore, He can be expressed through silence. He becomes all without undergoing anymodifications. Yet not being nothing Brahman

could be realised (33). Just as for all waves the basis is water, so, all knowledges are true because of the basic truth (34). He remains the seer without seeing. For Him He is himself (35). His being, knowledge and enjoyment are within Himself independently of any other (36).

Identity of God and the Individual self

After the above elaboration of the nature of Brahman or God, Jnanadeva describes the nature of the individual self or jiva by telling Cangadeva that, "you are son of that Vatesvara (who is at once God and Guru) like a bit of camphor." This shows identity of God and the soul. Both Jnanadeva and Cangadeva are identical basically. Addressing to Cangadeva Jnanadeva says "We will enter into conversation though we both are one" (37), when each one gives other the status of listener and assumes to oneself the status of speaker. This event becomes a feigned duality. They however, understand that behind this apparent duality, they are basically identical. This truth of advaitism will be revealed in the Ovis that follow.

Jnanadeva's description of dialogue and meeting with Cangadeva.

Our dialogue, Jnanadeva says to Cangadeva, is as good as handpalm shaking hand with itself (38). It is like the speech hearing itself or taste tasting itself light enlightening itself (39) or gold testing its goldness by itself or face becoming mirror to see itself (40). Cangadeva is addressed by his other name Cakrapani. Will sweetness enjoying itself not fill the mouth? Like that is our liking for each other, says Jnanadeva to Cangadeva (41).

"Dear friend Cangadeva," My soul is enthusiastic about meeting you, at the same time I am afraid that our already established meeting in a unity will be disturbed" (42).

While desiring to see you, my mind returns to its original state of the self (or mind reaches the nature of your true self), thus, as I feel, causing a hindrance to my seeing you (43).

From the point of view of your real nature of the self it is neither possible for me to do, to speak or to imagine about you, nor not to do, not to speak, not to imagine about you (44). For both these are meaningless from the point of the Absolute nature of the self (either of Jnanadeva or of Cangadeva). Cangaya: There is nothing special in saying that, with respect to you, to do or not to do is impossible, because in my case too it is impossible for me to hold my sense of 'I'ness (45). Jnanadeva thus illustrates: the salt trying to gauge the depth of water, melts into nothingness, how can then it measure the water (46)? In the same manner Jnanadeva says to Cangadeva, 'As I attempt to see yourself, I myself vanish into nothingness, then you too do not remain any object for my imagination about you (47). One who attempts to know the sleep while keeping awake, misses altogether one's knowing it. And so you too do not become the objet of my knowledge. I remain in my original nature not attaining to the state of subjecthood (48). In darkness there is no sunlight but the consciousness that I am (of my existence) is not lost (49). Similarly says Jnanadeva, 'in my attempt to find you, both the senses of 'thou' and 'me' get swallowed, and the basic oneness of our meeting remains‘ (50). (When the eye is pressed by the side) the eye sees its own pictures, without any hesitation (51). In the same way, without splitting ourselves into 'I' and 'You', or the subject and the

object we meet in oneness (52). I enjoyed again and again this meeting of the nature of oneness in which there are no limiting adjuncts of 'I' and 'You' (53).

Just as the tastefulness itself becomes the occasion for enjoying the taste, just as in the name of the mirror one sees oneself (54), so that which is unknowable came to know itself through filling the letters of silence and constructing the story of our meeting in the absolute oneness (55). One speaking to oneself is as good as silence or mauna.

Jnanadeva's teaching to Cangadeva

After this delineation of the meeting in oneness, Jnanadeva gives Cangadeva the teaching that he too like Jnanadeva should attain the state of absoluteness going beyond the sense of dualism. the following five 'Ovis' comprise this teaching as follows:

O Cangadeva: Taking recourse to my above description of our meeting in unity, you know yourself as the lamp sees its own lampness. In the same manner, through dialogue you open you insight and meet yourself in your own self. That is, realize yourself. Just as at the end of the creation water gets so spread everywhere that it swallows its own source, so you get absorbed in yourself. Jnanadeva says, your true self is devoid of any name and form. In that life of beatitude, be happy. It is a life of pure joy, where no triad of the enjoyer, the enjoyed and the enjoyment exists. Through repeated study of this truth, you will be enriched with such absolute knowledge that the dualism of the knower and the known will be transcended in that state. Axionoetically that is the realization of the highest status where the maximum value of beatification becomes one's own (56 to 60).

Jnanadeva's modesty and the fruit of this work

Jnanadeva expresses his modesty by telling Cangadeva that Cangadeva was made an occasion by Nivrttinatha who with his maternal love gave to Jnanadeva fondly this sweet in the form of his spiritual experience of the self (61). By this he suggests that inspiration to this composition of the pasasti Jnanadeva owes to his Guru Nivrttinatha.

Jnanadeva and Cangadeva or Cakrapani are like two consciously observing mirrors who while perceiving each other, lost their difference of dualism (62).

Like this whosoever will make these ovis his mirror, will obtain happiness of the measure of the absolute self (63).

In the next ovi Jnanadeva expresses the mysterious undescribable nature of the ultimate reality. I do not know what that is which is not, nor do I know how it becomes known, nor what that is in itself (64).

Jnanadeva says that this composition is made by me in the manner of going to sleep beyond sleep, or by coming to wakingness swallowing the waking state (65). This suggests the mystic experience of self-realization which cannot adequately be described.

Evaluation

Cangadeva-pasasti is thus a unique work presenting the non-dualistic absolutistic ontology in its unmatched purest form. Jnanadeva already is an accomplished person who has attained selfrealization. He becomes the teacher in this case of Cangadeva who too is a person of high order. He needed only the last drop of a dose of the Advaitic teaching to enter into the final state of self-realization. This dialogue is that last dose from one master to another, who two ultimately write in that meeting of absolute oneness. This basic oneness of Reality, Absolute or God is the theme of this work.

Jnanadeva holds that the whole world of plurality is an apparent expression of the Brahman, without its undergoing any change within itself. Without affecting the basic unity it appears as the duality of the subject and the object, or the triad of the knower, known and knowledge. Jnanadeva says that such manifestation of Brahman is natural to it. He does not subscribe to any element of avidya, or maya as an explanation of this dualism or triadism or pluralism. Jnanadeva's insistence is on the unbroken, continuous nature of Atmaneven when there is the manifestation of two or more.

Jnanadeva's presentation of illustrations

Jnanadeva does not give the traditional illustrations of rope-serpent or mirage which suggest obviously mayavada. The very many illustrations that he has given show complete identity between the basic reality and its nominal variations of forms. While some of the illustrations have been common among the mayavadin and non-mayavadin Advaitins as for example earth and earthen vessels, gold and golden ornaments, water and its waves, and the like, these as distinguished from the other specifically illusionistic examples, really favour realistic Brahmavada rather than illusionistic Brahmavada. It should be remembered that even Sankaracarya, an avowed mayavadin, has given similar non-mayavadin illustrations, especially in Vivekacudamani. These illustrations, show qualitative non-difference between Brahman and the world. Jnanadeva is a master of apt illustrations, which make the point better than any piece of logic. Even when the illustrations are already given by some other thinkers his presentation has its own beauty. It is common to speak of the thread and the cloths. But as Jnanadeva points out, again the cloth unfolded or folded has a difference without any modification in the nature of the cloth. Actually the folding or otherwise of the cloth is as good as unfolding manifestation of the cloth. The presentation of the illustrations is poetic. For example, the water-waves are a sort of clothing of water. But without its unclothing, water remains naked as it were. The ontological suggestion is that with all the presentation of the worldly plurality Brahman alone gets presented or manifested. It is not necessary to consider that the world of names and forms covers the Brahman. Brahman manifests itself

through the worldly forms without losing its identity and without undergoing any real change. This is both exclusive and exhaustive Cidvada.The term Cidvilasavada, as often applied to Jnanadeva's philosophy is bit of a misnomer. Jnanadeva himself has not used this term anywhere for his philosophy. If Vilasa suggests any addition to cit then it means that cit is to that extent defective. This is not acceptable.

The bundle of thread is thread only inside and outside. So is God everywhere, molasses remains the same whether in the bound or louse form. So is camphor and its bit. These suggests complete identity without differences.

In the other illustrations are the moon and its digits, fire and lamp, whole and its parts, earth and molecules. The suggestion is that God could be known through the world, without eliminating the world, because God himself is this world.

Jnanadeva has used the example of mirror in different ways. It is through mirror that the falsity of dualism of the seer and the seen, or the subject and the object is produced, without making any real changes in the face which holds the mirror. He also refers to two mirrors perceiving each other.

To illustrate that Atman, though of the nature of knowledge or the knower, is incapable of knowing itself, the reference is made to eye which though seeing everything is incapable of seeing itself. Again eyeball, when pressed, makes eye see its own pictures on its own background or curtain as it were.

Jnanadeva also makes use of the illustration of light seeing itself, or lamp seeing itself to show the absolute identity of Atman.

Relativity and Absoluteness

Jnanadeva takes recourse to the concept of relativity by means of which alone the dualism becomes meaningful, between the subject and the object, the seer and the seen, the knower and the known. The Absolute shows itself in such apparent dualism which having its origin in the Absolute is not other than the Absolute, that is real, and yet the Absolute remains completely unaffected. In the same manner Janandeva says that the description of Atman as sat-cit-ananda also could not be regarded as final, as these terms become meaningful in relation to their opposites asat-jada-

duhkha. Thus the Absolutness is beyond any meaningful description. It could be understood by being it, that is going through its experience, and enjoying it in silence or by keeping mum. This experience Jnanadeva has through the grace of his Guru Sir Nivrttinatha.

Jnanadeva says that in this Absoluteness of unity, he has already met Cangadeva, and wishes that Cangadeva too should experience this unitary meeting, which is basic and more real than their meeting as two different persons. Through this letter Jnanadeva teaches this non-dualistic meeting and wants Cangadeva to go through this experience of self-realization. In that state alone there is highest peace and happiness, Axionoetically this experience is worthy of realization.

In no other absolutistic work within such short space such profound teaching in the ontology of Atmanis given. The work also has its poetic beauty par excellence, and the situation of imagined dialogue and meeting is very dramatic. It is no wonder that Janandeva and this unique work from his pen are held in high esteem.

ADVAITA AND SCIENCE

A Unified Theory of Spirituality and Science

MD (Ob-Gyn). Nitin Trasi, DGO Mumbai (Bombay), India

edited by Carla Geerdes

Science and religion have not ordinarily agreed with each other. There are several areas of contention between the two. The word 'religion' is often used to denote the ritualistic aspects of religion. However, the true meaning of the word, and the sense in which it is used in this article, is to indicate a genuine search for the truth about life. To avoid confusion, we will henceforth use the word 'spirituality' instead to denote such a search.

Some of these points of contention are :

a) the existence of a 'soul',

b) the existence of 'free will' (versus genes, conditioning and chance),

c) the existence of rebirth,

d) the existence of God,

e) and reliance on faith versus reliance on experimental proof.

Science denies that the first four exist - for it has found neither proof nor any place for them - and refuses to take their existence simply as a matter of faith. But what happens if we conduct research in spirituality while applying the scientific method? Can we find a model of spirituality which agrees with science on all these points?

Interestingly, we can. Not only that, if we delve a little further, we will find that all the mystics and sages have been pointing to this very same philosophy from time immemorial.

In its most explicit form, this philosophy is found in the form of the Hindu Vedantic doctrine of Advaita. In this philosophy, there is no separate, autonomous, individual soul. There is only an illusion of a separate soul.

As there is no separate soul, there can be no question of either free will or of rebirth; free will and rebirth for whom? The reality of God according to this theory is that he is the Universal Consciousness, the Source or Ground of all being, and not a personal, anthropomorphic, all-powerful entity. And finally, these things are definitely not asked to be accepted on trust. The individual is encouraged to find out for himself and confirm and corroborate these findings on his own.

Nor does this really contradict conventional religion, even religions other than Hinduism. The apparent contradictions are because the religions or the various sages talk at different levels of reality, in consideration of the pre-existing beliefs of the listener. But when speaking at the highest level of reality, most religions as also the sages and mystics affirm this same monistic truth.

Several of Jesus' sayings, for example, "I and my father are one", and the teachings of Christian mystics like Meister Eckhart and St. Augustine can be clearly seen to have monistic meanings.

The Buddha appears to have restricted himself to the practical aspect of this same teaching, not wanting his disciples to merely speculate on its theoretical considerations and end up in sterile intellectual debates. He taught that there is no separate soul or atman, the doctrine of anatta or anatma. While refusing to speculate on the Universal Consciousness Paramatman, he asked his followers to experience it for themselves - indeed a highly scientific approach.

Zen and Taoism too taught much the same principles.

And so did Sufism. In fact, Islam is the one religion which simply refuses to speak of an anthropomorphic God, and insists that He is formless.

In Judaism God is called Jehovah, Yhwh or Yahweh which means 'I am that I am', clearly indicating the primary Consciousness which enables anyone to know that one exists.

As Advaita can be shown to be quite scientific in temper, modern science, on its part, is closing in on this philosophy. Modern science, especially quantum mechanics, gives us a completely different world view of reality from that so far given to us by classical 'Newtonian' physics.

In fact, it shows that classical physics, or the world as we know it, is merely a special case scenario of the more comprehensive new physics. The world-view of modern science comes remarkably close to that of Advaita, and several books have been published correlating the theory of Advaita with modern science, see (1) to (5). Some recent scientific discoveries also correlate very well with this theory, for example, discoveries of the way the brain functions (6) and the discovery of the so-called Zero-Point Field (7).

The only point on which there is still confusion between science and this comprehensive, monistic spirituality, is the final question of whether there is 'something' behind all this, or whether there is 'nothing'. Religions unanimously uphold the former view - even Buddhism which some believe to be nihilistic. The Buddha said:

"There is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. If there were not this Unborn, this Unoriginated, this Uncreated, this Unformed, release from the world of the born, the originated, the created, the formed would not be possible."

Science, however, has so far tilted towards the latter, nihilistic opinion only because of its old, classical moorings. Science has so far presupposed that materialism is the

primary reality and Consciousness is an Epiphenomenon of this reality. However, this fails to explain many aspects of the modern physics, and glaring holes are now visible in this classical world-view.

To give just two examples, the 'quantum' jump made by an electron from one orbit to another without passing through the intervening space; and the Aspect experiment which showed that two electrons can instantaneously affect one another however far apart they are in space - a phenomenon called non-locality.

On the other hand, if Consciousness is taken as the primary reality, almost all the contradictions immediately resolve themselves. This is also exactly what mystics over the ages have been saying. And really, to presuppose that materialism is the primary reality, indeed, to presuppose anything and to stick to it in spite of the many contradictions that become apparent based on this presupposition, is in itself highly unscientific.

So the least we could do is to examine the alternative paradigm with an open mind - the alternative paradigm being identical with the main Advaitic teaching, that Consciousness, and not matter, is the primary reality and the ground of all being (8).

But apart from the scientific angle, our theory must also be able to satisfactorily explain the oft mentioned spiritual phenomena of Enlightenment and Liberation, and also the mystery of God. Let us see if our theory can do so.

If Consciousness is taken as the One Reality, then all the teachings of the sages immediately become relevant. The core of the teaching of the sages has been that Consciousness is one and that we are not separate psychological entities. The sages have always maintained that our sense of separateness is an illusion. It is only man that suffers from this unique delusion of being a separate entity, of having a soul. Occasionally, a rare human being sees through this illusion, and such a person is then said to be illumined or Enlightened.

What exactly is this phenomenon called Enlightenment? Let us first understand it in simple terms, and then try to explain it in the scientific, medical and psychological context. To understand what is Enlightenment, we must first understand the basic premise or contention that the sages have taught.

This is that Consciousness is one, and our sense of being separate psychological entities with separate individual consciousnesses is an illusion. Philosopher J. Krishnamurti said,

" It is not a fact that one's consciousness is totally separate from that of everybody else - that separateness is an illusion. One is the whole of mankind - not an individual consciousness. One's consciousness is the consciousness of mankind." (9).

This means that the separate 'we's' and 'you's' that we imagine as distinct psychological entities or as separate bits of consciousness, do not really exist as such. True, there are discrete body-mind units. But the idea of separate individual consciousnesses or individual souls inhabiting those body-mind units is a myth.

The Upanishads say 'Ayam aatmaa Brahman' meaning that this apparently discrete individual soul is the same as Brahman or the Universal Consciousness. Here Brahman should be understood as the one (universal) Consciousness, as the Upanishads clearly state that Consciousness is Brahman, 'Prajnanam Brahma'.

These two statements taken together clearly mean that Brahman is the Universal Consciousness, and the apparent individualised consciousness is really Brahman, with a superimposed illusion of separateness. Thus the separate me's and you's which we expect will survive our mortal bodies as separate entities, do not exist. The separate body-minds are animated by the one Universal Consciousness just as the consciousness of a novelist animates all the characters in his novel. Jalal-ud-din Rumi, the Turkish Sufi mystic of the middle ages, sang:

Who are we, O Thou soul of our souls, that we should remain in being beside thee?

We and our existences are really non-existence; thou art the absolute Being which manifests the perishable.

We all are lions, but lions on a banner: because of the wind they are rushing onward from moment to moment...

...Our wind whereby we are moved and our being are of thy gift; our whole existence is from thy bringing into being.

Mesnavi Book I, 599-607

Advaita is often misunderstood to mean that everything is an illusion. Let us be clear about this - Consciousness is not an illusion - but the psychological separateness is! Consciousness includes the sense of being alive, being aware, being able to touch, taste, see, hear, feel, sense, act. That does exist.

What is illusory is our idea of a 'who' that is doing all of these things - a 'who' that is expected to survive the death of the body. Touching, tasting, sensing does occur, but there is no entity, no one who touches, tastes, senses, there is no subject, there is only Subjectivity. And Absolute Subjectivity is the Universal Consciousness which is not a 'who' at all - it is impersonal.

". . . man's obsessive consciousness of, and insistence on being a separate self is the final and most formidable obstacle to the unitive knowledge of God. To be a self is . . . the original sin, and to die to self . . . is the final virtue." Aldous Huxley (10)

Now perhaps we could try to understand what the phenomenon of Enlightenment is all about. Enlightenment is the actual realisation, intuitive perception of this truth, not just belief or intellectual understanding, namely, the oneness of Consciousness and the absence of separateness. The mystic sees that he is not a separate individualised consciousness or soul, but that he is the one singular Consciousness which is also called by some God, seeing this directly for oneself is Enlightenment.

Jesus said, "That they all may be One; as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they too may be One in us". (11)

We must understand that Enlightenment is not some esoteric or magical process, Enlightenment does not give a man magical powers, nor make him a superman. Enlightenment is simply the disappearance of an illusion which made him see everything from the point of view of a 'me', Enlightenment does not make a person all-knowing.

When the scriptures talk of spiritual knowledge that occurs upon Enlightenment, we must realise that they are not referring to any form of verbal, temporal knowledge which can be learnt or developed in time. The word knowledge here refers to the true insight, the intuitive perception which is Enlightenment.

Enlightenment is thus a change in perspective, a change of focus, a paradigm shift. It is a shift from the constricting, individual focus of a 'me' to a view of life in its totality, a shift from being a circle with the illusory 'me' as centre, to a circle whose circumference is everywhere and whose centre is nowhere. Thus the knowledge that comes with Enlightenment is not a temporal knowledge but is rather an intuitive insight into the way things are in their totality.

How can we explain Enlightenment in medical terms?

To begin with, it can be shown that man's persistent belief in his separate selfhood is a result of his capacity for symbolic thought, which gives him the ability to conceptualise 'himself' as something over and above and apart from the body-mind. It also, by providing him with the rather unpalatable knowledge of his own mortality, gives him incentive enough to conceptualise himself as a separate entity which will survive the death of the body.

The actual mechanism of this illusion is also easily explained. It is known that the left cerebral hemisphere is responsible for verbal and logical knowledge and skills. One of its functions is to relate different events logically and make sense out of them. The left brain takes unrelated events and attempts to relate them by concocting a 'story'. It is the left hemisphere which does the job of selecting from the abundance of sensory inputs that the brain is bombarded with, and by it's selective editing it tries to maintain a coherent belief system, a 'consistent storyline.' The left hemisphere's job is thus to create a working model of the world and try to maintain it at all costs. The right hemisphere, on the other hand, tries to detect anomalies.

It is the left part of the brain which is thus responsible for the illusion of a 'self' and the illusion of separateness from the rest of the universe. The belief in a separate 'self' is programmed into our brains right from the early formative years of childhood by parents, religion and society, and it seems to fit in rather neatly with our linear, symbolic way of thinking. The left brain then builds further on this framework.

It, by its very nature, tends to selectively pick up and remember events which would seem to support this belief, and selectively - unconsciously - edits those which point against it. By this constant filtering of information, it thus maintains this fiction of a separate self. But there is a threshold level up to which this selective editing can be successfully carried out by the left brain. This level is different in different people.

Depending upon the level of this threshold, which is the strength with which a person clings to his beliefs, even obvious inconsistencies pointed out by the right brain may be ignored. But when this threshold level is surpassed, something dramatic happens.

When the information from the right brain reaches this threshold, it forces the left hemisphere to revise the entire model and start from scratch. This is a paradigm shift. The left brain tries to cling to the existing model, the right tries to force paradigm shifts.

Enlightenment is a paradigm shift - the most radical that there can be. The entire old, individualistic, me-centred world-view is ripped up, and is replaced by a new world-view which is no more me-based, but is instead universal in outlook 'from no centre at all,' as J. Krishnamurti has said.

That is why Enlightenment is sudden though its effects will be gradual. It is not a question of a slow transformation, rather it is a total scrapping of an old model and its replacement with a new one. Only in this case, there is no new 'model' in the real sense of the word, there is no more 'storyline'. That is why things are seen 'as they are' and 'from no centre at all'. The brain has realised that there need not be a storyline. It no more burdens itself by constantly trying to fit things into the picture.

The effects of Enlightenment - deconditioning, liberation.

Enlightenment, says spiritual tradition, results in a complete transformation of the individual. Indian philosophy calls it paraavritti, the West has called it metanoia. Christ referred to it as returning to the mother's womb and being born again. It is a transcendence of personality, a total, inside-out transformation:

What is night to all beings, to him that is day, and what to them is day, that is to him night.

Bhagavad Gita, II-69

This is the beatific condition called Liberation.

Once Enlightenment has occurred, the whole world, and life itself, is seen in an altogether different light. The average man's thoughts are usually me-centred or me-based. After Enlightenment, the me is seen as an illusion, and all me-centred thoughts are therefore seen to be void. This does not mean that they disappear overnight. Initially they do occur. But before the involvement can become deeper, the clear perception that the 'me' is an illusion puts a brake on the thought chain and the me-centred thoughts are seen as the anomalies that they are - based on an illusion, the non-existent, phantom 'me'.

This, in effect, is a process of deconditioning from the earlier me-based conditioning which is the ban of every man and is the cause of psychological suffering. Over the years, as the deconditioning proceeds to its logical culmination, a point arrives when the me-based thoughts do not arise at all. This is what is called Liberation, mukti, moksha, nirvana, the Kingdom of God. The Liberated one is completely free of the me-illusion and its effects, and free of psychological suffering.

"Having realised his own self as the (Universal) Self, a man becomes selfless; and in virtue of selflessness he is to be conceived as unconditioned. . . . through selflessness he has no part in pleasure or pain . . ."

Maitrayana Upanishad (12)

In conclusion, the sage is a person who has 'purged himself of selfness,' whose personal 'I' is dead.

"I live, yet not I, but Christ - the eternal Logos - liveth in me."

St. Paul

And the 'not-I' which remains is the same as what other people call 'God.'

So then, finally, what is God?

God or the Truth or Reality is simply the Consciousness or Energy which animates our bodies and sees the Universe through our senses. It is another name for the Subjectivity which perceives all the objects through 'us'. It only appears as if 'we' are doing the seeing.

In fact 'we' are mere apparitions, illusions, which arise in the body-minds during the process of seeing. Thus God is the real I which is even more proximate than the fictitious I which we normally identify with. So it is what remains when the fictitious I has disappeared. It is the sight behind our eyes, the very 'seeingness' with which things are seen, the "knowingness" by which anything is known.

Now we can understand why the scriptures repeatedly state that the Reality cannot be known. For It to be known would mean that knowingness must know itself. And for 'us' to know It would mean that 'we' be the subjects and It the object - a complete reversal of roles, for in fact, It is the Universal Subject and 'we' are objects perceived in Its light. How can 'we' know It, and by whose light?

Even when 'we' talk about It, the 'It' that we conceptualise is not the real It. The real It is That by which we are doing this very conceptualising. Indeed, in reality we cannot talk or even think about It for It is that which is doing the talking or the thinking.

'You cannot think about God because it is He who is doing the thinking.'

Ken Wilber

Can the dagger stab itself? Can the hand grasp itself? Can the ocean dive into itself? Can the eye see itself? Can the tongue taste itself? Can the flower smell its own perfume? Can the mirror reflect itself?

Jnaneshvara

Advaita

Advaita is the Hindu or Vedantic name for the doctrine of monism. Advaita can be literally translated as adualism or non-dualism, but is generally referred to as monism. It is not the same as monotheism, which is the belief that there is only one God, as contrasted with polytheism which believes in many gods. Advaita is not even the same as pan-theism, 'all things are God'. The basic principle of Advaita is that there ARE no 'things' - there is only God. In other words, all that exists, is God - 'things' are mere appearances.

The basic tenets of Advaita could be stated very briefly as follows :

1. There is One basic underlying Reality or Source of the entire manifestation, which is variously called Brahman, Nirguna (attributeless) Brahman, Consciousness (Prajna) or just 'THAT' (Tat).

2. Unlike the common perception of God, in reality God is not a person - 'God' in Advaita refers to this same impersonal, indefinable force. This force cannot be accurately described in words, and so any description must be accepted with that caveat.

3. The Nirguna Brahman has not CREATED the manifestation of this phenomenal universe, it has BECOME the manifestation, and that too, ONLY IN APPEARANCE. In this becoming, the essential nature of Brahman remains unchanged, as Brahman is, by its very nature, changeless, this becoming is only an APPARENT becoming. The example given is that of a screen - Brahman - and the pictures projected on it - the manifestation.

4. 'We', as the separate individual entities that we unquestioningly take ourselves to be, are also not different from Brahman or the Source. Our sense of being separate psychological entities each with our own separate individual consciousness, IS AN ILLUSION caused by our defective way of thinking. This delusory power of our thinking is termed maya.

We are not even a part of Brahman in the sense of being a small part of a bigger whole. We ARE Brahman by another name.

References

(1) The Spectrum of Consciousness, Ken Wilber, The Theosophical Publishing House, Wheaton, Illinois, USA; 1977, reprint 1985.

(2) The Atman Project, Ken Wilber, The Theosophical Publishing House, Wheaton, U.S.A., 1989.

(3) The Tao of Physics, Fritjof Capra

(4) My View of the World, Erwin Schroedinger, London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1964).

(5) What is Life? and Mind and Matter, Erwin Schroedinger, London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1969).

(6) Phantoms in the Brain, V. S. Ramachandran (neurologist, director of the Centre for Brain and Cognition at the University of California, San Diego, USA).

(7) Brilliant Disguise; Light, Matter and the Zero-Point Field by Bernard Haisch, Science & Spirit, Vol.10/Issue 3, Sep-Oct '99

(8) The Self-Aware Universe, Amit Goswami, 1993, G. P. Putnam's sons, New York.

(9) The Network of Thought, p. 70; Krishnamurti, J., KFI, 2nd Edn., © J. Krishnamurti Foundation Trust, London, 1982.

(10) The Perennial Philosophy, p.36, Aldous Huxley, Harper & Row, New York, 1970.

(11) Gospel of St. John, 17:21.

(12) Quoted in The Perennial Philosophy, p.206, Aldous Huxley, Harper & Row, New York, 1970.

Another very interesting contribution in this context is a non-duality novel by Dr. Sanjay Grover: Nine days to Nirvana

Jnaneshvara's Approach to Bhakti

Chihiro Koiso (TANAKA) Scholar of Saint Jnaneshvaras Philosophy, Japan

Jnaneshvara's approach to bhakti is very peculiar in the history of bhakti system. Especially his contribution to Bhagavata dharma in Maharashtra is really great. Bahinaba' describes in her Abhanga Jnanadeve rachila paya (Jnanadeva laid the foundation). If we consider Bhagavata dharma as a temple, Jnaneshvara laid the foundation of its structure. And this foundation is firm and profound. Jnaneshvara adds philosophical basis to Bhagavta dharma. Jnaneshvara's great contribution lays not only in his philosophical concept of bhakti (devotion) which is Advaitic but also in making Bhagavata Dharma a movement, or a living force controlling the lives of the devotees. E. Zelliot credits bhakti movement with "securing the final triumph of Hinduism over Buddhism and Jainism, with bringing the vernaculars into being as literary languages, with spreading the concepts of the great tradition of Brahamanical Hinduism to the common man." 1

Jnaneshvara says,

All human beings are naturally inclined to worship my divine being.

He says the bhakti is a natural instinct of the human beings, therefore, bhakti must be as old as the human being; only, it must be evolved.

To consider the concept of bhakti according to Jnaneshvara, the following five questions are raised by Dr. S. R. Talaghatti. 2 These questions are helpful to understand the complicated problems about bhakti. Therefore, I would like to quote these questions and add some minor questions' and then try to analyse all of them.

1. Is dvaita (duality) a necessary condition of bhakti? Is it possible to consider bhakti without accepting dvaita of God and bhakta (devotee)?

2. Is there any conflict between jnana and bhakti? In other words, are jnana and bhakti two different means to attain moksa? Some say that the faculty of jnana is

intellect and of the latter is emotion; so both are totally separate. That means there is no necessary and inevitable relation between jnana and bhakti: so bhakti exists without jnana.

3. Is bhakti a personal and private matter of bhakta with God? Is there any place for social implication in bhakti?

4. Is bhakti action-oriented? This means that bhakti implies something 'to do'. For example, we say 'to do puja', 'to do salutation', 'to do kirtana', 'to do namasmarana' and so on.

5. Is bhakti merely a means or an end? Some say that even multi (liberation) is also a means. Some say that bhakti is the fifth purusartha.

To these five questions raised by S.R. Talaghatti, I am adding the following ones:

6. What is the relation of gauni (secondary) or apara-bhakti to para-bhakti? Are these two gradual stages of development?

7. What is the mutual relation of the four kinds of bhakta, viz., arta, jijnasu,

artharthi, and jnani? Can the former three bhaktas be said to be preparing stages of jnani-bhakta?

8. What is Jnaneshvara's approach to navavidha bhakti (nine forms of bhakti)?

Jnaneshvara mentions the importance of namasmarana in his Abhanga and Haripatha, but what about the other eight?

Before considering all these questions, I would like to mention a general and common problem for all these questions, that is about language.

Just as there is a triad of the knower (jnata), the known (jneya) and knowledge (jnana) involved in cognition, similarly, deva, bhakta, and bhakti is involved. The language in which we talk about the subject of bhakti, is certainly that of dvaita

(duality). All our transaction of knowledge goes on with the help of language. In the field of knowledge, there are jnana and ajnana, both are dependent on language. Jnaneshvara knows this fact fully. He mentions, "Now the knowledge and ignorance whose very life pitiably depends upon the word" (A. 6-102). We are prone to decide the form of bhakti by 'bhakti-language'. 'Bhakti language' means that language which we use while discussing about bhakti. If we are not alert enough, the language easily misleads us. And finally it leads us to the false knowledge. So we should be always "alert about language". This is very important in the field of philosophy. Wittgenstein admits that to know the real form of the language by its logical analysis is the work of philosophy. He says, "Philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment of our intelligence by means of language." 3

Jnaneshvara is also quite aware of the defect of language as a 'trap'. In his Amrtanubhava, Jnaneshvara says, "discharging the debt of language is necessary for all". 4 Jnaneshvara accepts language only as a reminder of Brahman, not more than this. He first praises the importance of language as follows; "When a thing is lost to us or to others in forgetfulness, it is regained by the word that reminds it. If the word thus glorifies itself as a reminder, it has no other merit beyond this." 5 Jnaneshvara's view of language is very similar to Wittgenstein's. According to Jnaneshvara, all misunderstanding about bhakti, such as dvaita in bhakti, and bhakti is actionoriented, etc. is caused by language.

Going back to the questions raised earlier, the first one is directly related to the understanding of the nature of bhakti, namely that bhakti is the experience of

advaita (non-duality). It seems that the prevalent view of bhakti is based on

accepting dvaita of God and bhakta: otherwise bhakti is not possible. But Jnaneshvara does not accept this view. He asserts that bhakti is very much there in advaita:

"In that way, although activism finds no place in non-dualistic spiritual principle, yet there is the devotion that finds a place in it, and this can be realized through personal experience alone, it being inexpressible in mere words."

Not only advaita-bhakti is possible, but for true bhakti, dvaita cannot be even imagined. His clear view is that to imagine dvaita-bhakti is due to ignorance.

"In that way this devotion operates, taking the support of ignorance and shows me, the seer, as the object to be seen."

The root of all language of bhakti is grounded in dvaita, such as pujya-pujaka

(worship- worshipper), upasya-upasaka (worship-worshipper), and so on. Thus dvaita is reflected in the language itself. That is why we get misled, and people understand that bhakti should be based on dvaita. This difficulty of language creates a problem in understanding bhakti. By foresaid reason, it is difficult to understand advaita between God and bhakta. So, it is not possible to get to the inner core of advaita-bhakti without renouncing the dualistic language.

According to Jnaneshvara, God and bhakta are not different, but one inseparable unity.

"You have by now heard, that the devotee who gets absorbed in me through knowledge- cumdevotion is one with me."

The removal of this ignorance, i.e., the belief that bhakti is based on dvaita, is called jnanabhakti according to Jnaneshvara.

"As that ignorance has vanished now, the state of seeing inherent in the seeing agent merges into me, in this way the reflection merges itself into the original."

So, in this state, there is no room to consider three-fold cognition, viz., the seer (the subject or agent), the seen (the object), and the process of seeing.

Jnaneshvara makes many statements in connection with the subject of advaita

between God and bhakta. "The God himself becomes the devotee. The destination itself becomes the path." (A. 9-35). "The non-dual one enters of his own accord the courtyard of duality." (A. 9-29). "Seeing Me as the Spirit, he becomes one with me." (J. 18-1174) "Name of the Hari is only a means. To fix the position of non-duality is an art and to experience this is very rare". (Haripatha 2) 7

Now we should proceed to the next question. Are jnana and bhakti two different means or pathways to attain moksa? According to the prevalent opinion, jnana and bhakti are two independent means to attain moksa. But Jnaneshvara's assertion is different. He uses the expression 'jnana bhakti", it means that jnana and bhakti are one and the same. As I have once mentioned, "the devotee who gets absorbed in me through knowledge-cum-devotion is only myself." (J. 18-1130). It is difficult to understand the oneness of bhakti and jnana, because we have a firm belief that bhakti is derived from emotion, and jnana from intellect. But in Jnaneshvara's view of bhakti, there is no separation between jnana and bhakti.. As a matter of fact, he calls bhakti as 'jnana-bhakti" only. Jnana and bhakti are not two distinct states, but two names given to the same state of being. Bhakti and jnana are two different words, but according to Jnaneshvara, the state which these two words refer to, is one and the same. This very condition can be said to be the "natural state of Atman". (J. 18-1205)

Jnaneshvara clearly mentions:

"Men of knowledge (samkhyas) call it 'recognition of the self', while the devotees of God Siva call it 'the power (sakti)', and we call it the Supreme Devotion of the self."

We can understand Jnaneshvara's definition of bhakti from this ovi.. He clearly asserts that we call the Ultimate Reality by many different names, but all are the same. Not only the same, but natural conditions of Atman itself. "In fact, this is my own innate state of Brahman, that is named bhakti." (J. 18-1113). Here the consciousness of the body disappears, and all actions are performed with the internal conviction that everything is Atman. 8 Jnaneshvara accepts svasamvitti (self-illuminated knowledge), jnana, and advaita-bhakti synonymously. For Jnaneshvara,

between jnana and bhakti, there is no difference but they are one and the same. Again this oneness of jnana and bhakti is equivalent to the state of advaitabhakti.

Now we will consider the third question. This topic is directly related to my theme, that is "social implication of bhakti". Apparently bhakti seems to be a very personal affair, an intimate relationship between God and bhakta. But Jnaneshvara's view is different. To understand his view, it is necessary to consider the conception of &oaf according to Jnaneshvara. Jnaneshvara uses the words "Atman", "Brahman",

"caitanya", "vastu'' (substance)", "samvitti (pure knowledge)", and "Israra", and so on to denote the Ultimate Reality. Here I assume his conception of God as the following two: 1. God as Atman and 2. God as Universal Spirit.

Jnaneshvara uses many similes to propound the real character of Atman. "The glorious Atman is pure and perfect knowledge itself" (A. 6-87), "Atman that is self-luminous" (A. 6-13) "Atman is self- evident" (A. 6-93). And in the first ovi of Jnaneshvari, he expresses the real nature of the Ultimate Reality, and salutes it:

"Om, the Primeval being, the very form of Supreme Self, the subject-matter of the Vedas, be bowed to. All glory to it. Oh you, the form of self who can be known from self-experience alone, I hail you."

"In this way, he knows me as unique truly through his reflexive devotion as part and parcel of his own self and also knows that he is that knowledge, viz., the realisation of the self."

The understanding of "God as Universal Spirit" (visvatmaka, Isvara) is a very important concept for understanding the real meaning of bhakti. "visvatmaka Isvara"

means that understanding of God as abiding in everything and every human being. This is the Advaitic realization of "seeing oneself in all and all in oneself". Upanisadic

philosopher says, "Verily, all this is Brahman". And in the Gita, "Vasudeva is all". is stated.'¡ Jnaneshvara says:

"They also regard every being that they see of divine nature. Know that this is my Yoga of devotion". 10a

Jnaneshvara shows the gist of his philosophy of bhakti beautifully. He tells us to treat each and everything regarding it as God, because every living being is filled with God-hood. So, the real bhakti is to worship every being as God. The service of mankind is therefore the most important way to worship God.

Svami Vivekananda, who translated this Advaitic philosophy into practical principles, says, "The highest form of worship that had been laid down for the bhakta was the worship of man." Really if there were to be any sort of worship, he (bhakta) would suggest getting a poor man, or six, or twelve, as his circumstance would permit everyday to their homes, and serving them, thinking that they were Narayanas." 11 This humanistic conception is the foundation of his practical goal of the service of mankind, especially the poor. (The concept of "daridra Narayana" i.e., "God in the firm of the poor.") And he adds, "Look upon every man, woman and every one as god. You cannot help anyone, you can only serve". 12 This humility is the very core of bhakti. Svami Vivekananda shows us a harmonious reconciliation of the good of oneself with the welfare of the society.

Svami Vivekananda unites karma and bhakti together and brings it into practice. Jnaneshvara also says the same thing:

"If he (the seeker) worships such God pervading the hearts of all beings, by dedicating to him, the flowers in the form of performance of the prescribed duties-such worship propitiates Him very highly."

Jnaneshvara says that the worship of God does not merely mean the idol worship, but performing one's own prescribed duty without expecting any fault. As we have already seen, the conception of Universal God and to serve every being is closely related to the naiskarmya (exemption from action).

"Know that one's duty is an obligatory sacrifice. If one performs his duty, sin does not enter him."

"His inner experience getting saturated with the realization that this entire universe is full with 'Vasudeva', he proves to be the king among the devotees, and one of great knowledge."

True bhakta must find God everywhere, within himself as well as without himself.

In this context, I will refer to the following sentences from the PJ. by B.P. Bhahirat; "The relation of the Ultimate Reality or God with our finite selves is one of deep sympathy and love. God is regarded as the embodiment of love. Hence to know Him is to love Him, and this love is the inspiration of noble deeds and the highest social service." 13

The fourth question is whether bhakti is action-oriented or not. It seems that bhakti

implies 'to do' something. In bhakti-language we say 'to do puja, 'to do vandana' and so on. But real state of bhakti is not "to do" something, but "to be" something. Bhakti is not an action, but can be better understood as anubhuti (experience) only. Jnaneshvara mentions:

"In that way one following the path of activism gets one with my essence and abides there worshipping me passively without any manifest action, in the way a gold ornament does, with regard to gold."

"In that way, although activism finds no place in non-dualistic scriptural Principle, yet there is the devotion that finds a place in it, and this can be realised through personal experience alone, it being inexpressible in mere words." As we have already seen that bhakti means the experience of advaita is stated by Jnaneshvara:

"Since he has become one with Me, his 'doing' amounts to, 'not doing' and that is a special characteristic of my worship."

"In such a state, all the terms (such as) 'action' or 'doing agent' get eliminated, oh Son of Pandu, and he becomes only myself-getting one with my essence."

Once advaita-bhakti is experienced, there is no place for action. Because action presupposes dvaitic conception. So we can say that bhakti is not action-oriented, but some kind of a state of being.

"Since I am all-pervasive, all movements (of the devotee who has merged in myself) stop and this absence of movement becomes his pilgrimage to my non-dual state."

"In short, whatever he talks is (singing) my own praise, whatever he looks at, is my own vision, whatever movements he makes are my own movements, I who transcend dualism."

"Whatever he does is all my own worship, whatever he contemplates upon, is repeating in a muttering tone (japa) my own name, and his abiding m peace is enrapt concentration of meditation upon my own self (samadhi)."

In this state, bhakta worships God wholly without doing any action. "Bhakti is not an act of devotion but the very nature of God." 14

"There is no action or inaction, and everything goes on as the experience of the Atman."

The fifth question is: Is bhakti merely a means to attain moksa or an End in itself? In Hindu philosophy, dharma, artha, kama, and moksa are known as values (purusarthas) for human life. Here moksa is the supreme goal of life. The other three will be secondary goals. Jnaneshvara says that bhakti is the fifth purusartha and higher than moksa.

"This is the fifth and the principal quality of the Ksatriya, just as devotion is the head of the four principal objects of life (purusartha)."

According to Jnaneshvara, bhakti is the goal and the final fulfilment of life. Before this, even moksa is nothing. But generally bhakti is said to be a means for moksa.

People practise bhakti, because bhakti can lead them to moksa. That is not true, because there may be some sort of minor intention, or secondary purpose, that is devotion for the sake of desire (sakama bhakti). Even expecting moksa is also included in this. Bhakti is considered as an end by Jnaneshvara.

"The enjoyment of the objects of senses becomes sweeter than the bliss of final emancipation, and in the home of loving devotion the devotee and his God experience their sweet union".

"It is not mere object of sensual enjoyment as a materialist thinks, but is the expression of divine Love which is also the very source of his life." 15 Bhaktas even

do not want to attain moksa, because for them bhakti is the supreme end. So they want to get birth again and again and devote themselves to God forever.

As we have seen, the concept of bhakti according to Jnaneshvara is grounded in Advaitic view. So, experiencing Advaita is the essence of bhakti. In short, Advaita-

bhakti is equivalent to jnana-bhakti, and both are treated as para-bhakti or sadhya-bhakti.

The remaining minor questions will be discussed all together. What is the relation of gauni- bhakti to para-bhakti? Narada says; "The secondary devotion (gauni-bhakti)

is of three kinds according to the difference in the mental disposition (of the devotee) or according to the type of discontentment (in the devotees)" (NBS. 56) According to the difference in the mental disposition means the three gunas (sattva, rajas and tamas). Swami Chinmayananda says:

"The tamasic seeker can never rise high, but the ta-magic, striving hard through his devotion, will get slowly transformed into the rajasic type. The rajasic individual can, through his more intensive devotion, rise much higher, and as a result of his strong bhakti, he will eventually come to the sattvic stage. The sattvic seeker can easily go to the highest ...". 16 The secondary devotion is of three kinds due to the type of discontentment means, so called arta, jijnasu and artharthi. According to Swami Chinmayananda: 'Arta means one in whom there is a discontentnent with all that material life can give. Jijnasu is one who feels the Presence of an Ultimate Reality, but intellectually he is discontented because he cannot understand this great truth. The artharthi is also discontented with his present condition and, therefore, longs to find his fulfilment among his desired worldly objects of pleasure." 17 All these three types are discontented with their own states and some of them who attain bhakti for its own sake, would go to higher stages with God's grace, they are jnanis.

Jnaneshvara also says:

"This fourth kind of devotion is so named, since its ways differ from the ways followed by those in distress called arta, or those eager to know, called jijnasu, or those desiring the fulfilment of some cherished object, called artharthi."

"Practically this is neither the third nor the fourth or yet neither the first nor the last; in fact this is my own innate state."

In NBS No.57; "Than each succeeding one, each preceding one becomes the nobler." In these three kinds of bhakti, each preceding one serves for the succeeding one. It may be considered that arta is sattvic in nature, jijnasu is rajasic in nature, and artharthi is tamasic in nature. From this description, we can understand that gauni-

bhakti is necessary and preparatory stage of para-bhakti, because we cannot attain para-bhakti within a day. It can be attained gradually.

The last question is about 'navavidha bhakti". In the Bhagavata school, for practising bhakti, navavidha bhakti is mentioned. 18 In the Jnaneshvari there is no specific reference to navavidha bhakti. But Jnaneshvara mentions the importance of some of them, such as kirtana:

"Such devotees dance with the joy of devotion to God while singing My praise, and make all the talk of penance empty, since not a trace of sin is left in them."

"They are so enrapt in singing My praise, that they forget the place and the time, when absorbed in the supreme bliss. There is constant and unbroken stringing together of the names of God."

From these ovis, we can understand that Jnaneshvara considers kirtana as a very helpful means to experience the unity with God (advaita).

Another kind of bhakti emphasised by Jnaneshvara is namasmarana (remembrance of God's name)... In his Haripatha he praises Harinama, with the refrain, "Hari

mukhe mhana, hard mukhe mhana." "Invoke, invoke the name of Hari." S. G. Tulpule says: "The goal to be achieved is identification with the Brahman, or the Reality, and the way is the way of namayoga which means "union by the Name". It is the Name, and not the image or attributes of God, that is to be meditated upon." 19 Generally navavidha bhakti is understood as sadhana bhakti. But in the case of Jnaneshvara, kirtana, namasmarana are considered to be helpful means to attain sadhya bhakti.

The above discussion, I hope, would bring out the nature of Jnaneshvara's approach to Bhakti.

Notes

1. E. Zelliot: "The Medieval Bhakti Movement in History" in Hinduism: New

Essays in the History of Religions, ed. by B. L. Smith, p. 143.

2. S. R. Talaghatti: "Jnaneshvara-darsanatil Bhakti-sankalpana." Sanskriti-sugandha, pp. 250-51.

3. L. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations.

4. A. 3-1. Tr. by Bahirat in PJ.

5. ibid., A. 5-67, 68.

6. Haripatha. Tr. by C. Vaudeville quoted from her article "The Cult of the Divine Name in the Haripath of Dnyandev."

7. In the A., there are many descriptions of omnipresence of Atman. cf. A., X- 14, 15. "Everything is luminous, and there is no secret to be revealed, since the whole universe is completely filled with the one eternal perfect Atman, who is neither hidden nor manifest."

8. "Sarvam khalvidam Brahma" (Chard. U. 3-14-1).

9. "Vasudevah sarvam iti. " (G. VII- 19).

10. a. J. 10-118. Tr. by Yardi..

11. Swami Vivekananda: The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol. 3, p. 39.

12. ibid., p. 392.

13. B.P. Bahirat. op.cit., p. 147.

14. ibid., p. 94.

15. ibid., p. 95.

16. Swami Chinmayananda, op. cit., p. 111.

17. ibid.,p. 112.

18. Cf. the chapter of "Bhakti in the BP."

19. C. Vaudeville: op.cit., p. 399.

Saint Jnaneshwara's Contribution to Religion and Philosophy

Balasaheb Bharade

President, Maharashtra Smarak Nidhi, Gandhi Bhuvan, Pune.

The word philosophy has a very large connotative expanse. In olden days this word used to bring in its connotative fold different concepts like Self consciousness, ethics, psychology, ways of state administration etc. in the Western countries in an oriental country like India the concept of Religion encompasses in itself all the aspects of life. It includes philosophy and its focus is on the knowledge of spiritual matters. The term Religion used by us brings under its perview all the comprehensive aspects of human life. To transcribe all such comprehensive aspects of life, by using the word Religion would be incorrect. In western countries Religion and Philosophy are two different matters. Not only that the areas they encompass are also different. In short, it is quite necessary to take into consideration the similarities and dissimilarities of the import or the meaning of the term philosophy in Indian context and in the global context.

Philosophy is the quest of the ultimate Truth which is the basis of this creation. Search of this ultimate Truth is the content matter of Philosophy like:

• What is the nature of our living

• Wherein lies the ultimate fulfilment of our life

• How is individual life related to life in the universe

• What is the nature of interrelation between the body or matter and the Universe

• Which is the way to peace and prosperity out of the duel or conflict between happiness and the unhappiness

• What is the mystery behind the rise of the Universe and its development, how to analyse and explain the mutual relationship between life, Universe and the Universal Supreme authority

• How to free the man from the catacomb of life and death which makes man uneasy and restless

Philosophy covers subjects which sublimate the human life and man's culture. It can be said in essence that upon the search of the ultimate truth in this creation, we have to tune ourselves harmoniously with that truth and this is in a real sense the philosophy of life.

Western and Indian Perspective

Knowledge is characteristic to a man and curiority is his instinct. A curious man looks at any phenomenon with questions - why, how, what and when. He becomes dumbfounded with such questions in his mind, he looks at his own life and life around in the universe. Man gets agonised or distressed by his doubts and questions such as how he is born, what is his end, how has universe come into existance, whether the vast expanse of the Universe has any meaning. He tries to search for answers to these questions by his sense of logic, imagination and the potential genius in him or personal experiences. Philosophy arises from this man's process. That he should live and not die is his desire and that he is going to die is also known to him. That he is going to die is the real fact and that he should not die is his

condition of mind. From this duelity arises the philosophy. Similarly, his state of mind engrossed with the question of intreguing relationship of his with the surrounding universe leads him to grave philosophical thoughts. Here lies the origin of philosophical thoughts. In short, it can be said that from his all-time human curiosity about the questions like - who am I, what is going to happen to me, how am I related to the Universe in which I live and what is the future - start his philosophical deliberations. All religions have recognised the concept of man's self-driving force and the Divine Force to quench the curiority of the man. All the religions have been founded on the five co-ordinating principles:

• mortality of body

• continuity of self principle

• intense desire for inner peace

• ethics for self-realisation

• social brotherhood

The origin of philosophy lies in this religious thinking. However, this religious thinking in western countries is faith-oriented and not philosophy oriented. That is why in those countries philosophy and religion are not one but their areas are different. Generally, religion has at its base the faith, whereas philosophy has at its base the intellect, and on this premise, the westerners have built up their cultural process. Hence they do not seem to have made efforts to co-ordinate both or to build religion on the foundation of philosophy. The result is that with westerners, the religious practices, knowledge are faith-oriented and the philosophical thinking, is logic-oriented. Unless tinged with intellect and tatwa-darshan is tested on the touchstone of faith and intellect, curious persons and persons desirous of emancipation will not be get real satisfaction.

Unless intellect comes together, life cannot go on in a system. Else religious faith based only on sentiments and philosophy based on arguments will both be one-sided and the very object of life will not be fulfilled. Ceremonial prayer offered in the temple is not dharma, nor ceremonial philosophical exposition made or spelt out through a book or before a meet of learned person, is not real philosophy. Philosophical thought appealing to intellect and religious faith appealing to mind, if constantly coupled together, human life get sublimated and herein lies the fulfilment of the religion and philosophy. To sum up in the west, because the religious thoughts and the philosophical thoughts are two different entities, the devotional path of the temple and the path of knowledge of the philosophers do not meet. Hence man cannot have a delightful walk on his path for peace. A second point regarding western philosophy is very important and it is that it has its base in only logical thinking Western philosophy is only an intellectual exercise. It is not a life's rite. While saying so, there is no intention to underestimate the western intellectual thinkers. It is undoubtedly true that in the arena of philosophy, many thinkers have made good efforts with their genius to propound the mystery of this creation. There is also no doubt that the influence of their thoughts have given a new vision of intellectual happiness to many to look at this creation. But the happiness is momentary and does not lead to happy life.

Indian Philosophy gives more importance to spiritual vision rather than to intellectual exposition. There is more stress on perception and inference in western philosophy. The two are considered as the parameters of knowledge, while in Indian philosophy, Anubhutiis the third parameter. Intellect can not reach beyond the three limitations.

Time, place and result, and the questions like the primary cause of this Universe, interrelation of the matter and the spirit, the purpose and future of life and the Universe are beyond the reach of the three parameters and here the intellectual process gets frozen.

To sum up, the Indian Philosophy through its proper co-ordination between experience, inference and Anubhuti have shown very effectively to the world the integrated picture of the reality. That is why the Indian Philosophy does not render only occasional or ceremonial intellectual happiness but have been giving an incessant satisfaction in life. Hence, its attraction to the rational and peace-thirsty man in the world. If philosophy is not life-pervading, it is onesided.

A good singer by his effective music gives a delightful experience to his listeners and derives pleasure. May that singer be virtuous or not, he and listeners both derive happiness by his bliss of music. But what after the singing is over? There is no trace of happiness. Same happens in the case of philosophy which is based on intellect and logic guess. It exhibits intellectual tricks. It does not show the way to salvation or liberated state or freedom from the cycle of birth and death. Indian philosophical exposition has convinced the world that instead of the philosophical exposition based on intellectual inferences or guess, the confluence of mind, intellect and the soul which purifies the life by its darshanik philosophy can alone render unending happiness and peace to the mankind. There is no doubt about this.

To sum up, Indian philosophy has covered all the aspects of human culture such as metaphysics, knowledge, devotion, ethics, religion, and on the basis of experience, inference and Anubhuti all these three parameters, Indian philosophy has offered to the world the balanced picture of the man's foal liberation from the cycle of life and death. One very important thing is that whatever the Truth the Researchers in philosophy could see through their own experiences, they stood well in their exposition. Although they had difference amongst themselves, Indian culture has offered all of them their honoured place as rishis/saints. Indian philosophy has set a celestial tradition to honour (1 ) faith in the Truth rather than loyalty to any dogmatic theory, and (2) respect to the honesty of opposite views rather than to blind insistence on one's views.

That is why the enlightened world is attracted towards it. This country has also taken a charvak as rishi/saint although he sponsored atheistic materialism by criticising the Vedas. It is better to leave to imagination what would have been his fate in other countries. This country (India) has given due opportunities to those philosophers who carried out search for the truth by their honest convictions and also to those who propounded their philosophical thinking as per their views with the result that we could get a nectre of knowledge which can rejuvenate the world of persons who are filled with curiosity and who are desirous of emancipation. Indian philosophy has encompassed many divergent views right from materialism to monism. This is the priceless treasure left to the thinkers of the world.

On this background it is necessary to think of that philosophy which has the potential to be good for the mankind and for the universe. In the age of science, it is the most cute question how to co-relate science with the knowledge of spiritual matters. While seriously dealing with this cute question, the philosophers should seriously consider that philosophy should not be merely rationalistic but that it should be life oriented.

All the alternatives right from Atheistic materialism to Theist Brahmawad should be considered and future of the mankind be kept in view while philosophising.

Whatever the materialists or spiritualists contend about the origin of the Universe and the life in it, it should be remembered that this is a cute question beyond our intellect and we can't have only one answer to it by the logic of inferences. Although alienation between a scientist and the one with the knowledge of self is increasing, scientific alienation is diminishing. Formerly matter and energy were treated as two different. Now, atom and proton electron have been known to us. It is now accepted by all of us that matter can be transformed into energy and energy can be transformed into matter. The Atheist and the Theist may now agree that before the existance of the Universe, there must be some such universal primary energy force and its transformation must have take place into energetic - matter oriented universe. No intelligent person can state an answer to the fundamental question what is the nature of the Adishakti (Primary Force) from which originated oriented this Universe. If Adishakti is matter, it must not have knowledge of self and then we shall be stuck up in Atheist materialism. If that Adishakti is a spirit, having self consciousness it must have self-knowledge and then we will come to Theistic philosophy. We cannot answer the nature of this Adishakti with the help of inferences or intellectual exercises. Some presumption hypothesis has to be taken as basis, which cannot be proved by intellect or by any ingenious way. Other alternatives could be set aside by ingenious tricks. However our own alternative cannot be proved, because same objections will be levelled against it. Since the universe is created, some reason for it could be given because of God. If the reason is said to be nature, even then how can we prove? By ingenious explanations, we can only disprove the other side and establish our version and this is the limitation of inference theory or intellectual approach.

This is why where inference or logic is of no avail, there, intuition comes to our assistance. Where, intellect cannot work, there faith comes to our assistance. This is the characteristic of Indian Philosophy. Unless we take this kind of support, we have to accept that divine spiritual power has created this universe or if this not acceptable to some, they have to be content saying that the material universe has been evolved in its way. Both the presumptions are beyond logic and that because they could not be comprehended, they are to be presumed. That God is there for the Universe and God is not there for the Universe are both presumptions to be accepted by intuition and faith rather than the logical reason.

Both points of view, to think that God is there or he is not there, are approaches of faith. Both approaches are beyond the reach of intellect. You may believe in God or not, but you should believe in each other and this ethics is a must.

Although, both the presumptions are there, we have to decide on the strength of rational thinking as to which of them is better. The theists, consider that our universe which is so beautiful, has been created by no other force than the omnipotent creator. Adishakti/Brahma is the only truth. The Brahma desired that I am alone, I must be many and from that, the whole creation of the universe came into existence according to Bharatiya Vedanta Philosophy. On the contrary, those who are materialistic Atheists think that there is no God and this universe goes on in terms of time by no one regulating it. They regard that, due to some natural process, life got created in this universe. Both are assumptions but we have to decide on rational basis which of them is more appealing. It is also a cute question as to how

the expanse of the Universe has taken place out of the concept of spiritual force, and also it is a cute question as to how spirit got into the matter. According to us, this approach is more appealing to intellect that instead of life coming into existance out of matter by permutation combination, it came into existence because the omnipotent Brahma could give shape to the matter as well as it could expand it. From the believer's point of view, it is very pleasing to us to consider that this creation came into existence due to the creativity of the great God. On the contrary, from the materialist point of view, about all the activities of the universe, they have to say that, the universe and its activities are only an accident. Taking this into consideration, we can confidently say that, the theists are more on the intellectual and rational side than the materialists (Atheists). In short, the theory that, behind all the creation, is only "Brahma" or "Sat" and that, all the expanse of the universe is out of this concept. This Brahma-Dnyan, is best suited for World Philosophy. There is no doubt about this. The concept of absolute of the western philosophy is more or less consistent with this "Brahma-Dnyan". However, the "God in their religion" and the "Absolute in their philosophy" - these two are not one. In Indian philosophy, the "Brahma", is the Brahma in worldly affairs and it is also known as "Ishwar" or the "God". This should not be forgotten. Once we agree, to the concept that, origin of the Universe Adikaran, maintenance of the Universe sthithikaran, and decline of the Universe layakaran are happening as per the wishes of the great God, then, the mystery of the life in this universe could be resolved more easily. Although, the God Paramatma, the living being Jivatma and the Universe Jagat - all the three appear to be different, they are in fact, part of "Maya" and "Leela" of the omnipotent God. This, we can experience.

From the other point of view, it is worth noting how man looks at himself. There is one Shlok of Shankaracharya, which gives a critical understanding of how an ignorant man, a wise man and man of knowledge looks at himself.

The ignorant says, "body is what I am" and he cannot think beyond his body. But, a dead body is also a body. That is why, a wise man regards that, he is a mixture of both body and the spirit. Without body there is no being. Without being, there is no body. However, the death will dissolve or break this mixture. This worries him very much. But, those who are visionaries, seers and saints, because of their rational and scientific thinking maintain that, "I am not body, nor I am the mixture of body and spirit and that all this is hallucination, I am Brahma, Atma". This is the ultimate flight of Mokshaof the philosophy of man. The ignorant is Dehavadi, and while the wise is Sadehavadi. And the saint or Rishi is Videhavadi. The Dehavadi man should abandon Sadehavad and take to Videhavad. This is the essence of Indian Philosophy. There is a consensus of all the religions in many important matters. They are: Our life is for a short time, the Universe is temporary and not everlasting. However, in this not-ever-lasting world, there is 'Brahma', 'Chaitanya', or 'Paramatma Chaitanya'or the God which is immortal and Omnipotent. The fulfilment of life of a human being lies in associating with that. Body and soul are two. We are reborn in this or that form. The God is there in his essence in all the creatures. It is 'Moksha Sadhana' to develop this essence and merge completely in the Divine Spirit. We must forsake body-oriented approach and develop self-knowledge approach, for which we must be prepared for Neeti-Dharma Deeksha. All these main principles of "Jeevan-Siddhi"have been accepted by all the religions. Indian philosophy has effectively brought out a harmonious co-ordination of all these things.

Whatever may be the controversies in philosophy, man has the intense desire that he should get satisfaction. While he is living there should be no sorrows and miseries and while dying, he should die with satisfaction. The role of philosophy is the co-related thinking of contended life and contended death. Indian philosophy has given a comprehensive guidance as how to get incessant happiness through different Sadhana marg. If man seriously thinks that he is not body but Atman, then by virtue of this Dnyana Sadhana, a man desirous of emancipation, shall abandon demands of the body and shall commence Sadhana of "Atma Swaroop". In this state of life, he will not be afflicted by happiness or sorrow. Those who cannot get the experience from Dnyana Sadhana, believing that they are not body but Atman, they should act the role in this life drama assigned by the God and do that role faithfully by surrendering to God and then they will not experience the afflictions of sorrows and they will lead the life with satisfaction by devotion to God. Those who are engrossed in doing their duties (Karma) faithfully and are doing it with no expectation of any fruits from the same shall also get incessant satisfaction. One can arouse his "Kundalini", by Yoga marg by harmonious co-ordination of body, mind and intellect shall also get satisfaction.

To sum up, Indian philosophy, has given a message to the world by explaining how persons desirous of emancipation in all walks of life can get satisfaction. That is why all people, old, educated or uneducated, have derived more peace and prosperity than those in other countries and there is no doubt about it.

Despite all this, some deficiencies in Indian philosophy attract our attention:

1. A country which proclaims "Advaita Philosophy", and contends that there is one Brahma in all the creatures, there are disparities on account of caste, varna, class and religion with the result that there are great social inequalities in the society. This disharmony is regrettable, it must stop the contradiction in the form of "Advaita in thinking" and "Dvait in practice."

2. Although knowledgeable persons and Yogis who are Sadhakas oriented in the Sarvatma Bhav of Vedanta Philosophy, strove for 'Moksha' for themselves and this led to the negligence of the spiritual elevation of the society. These Sadhakas neglected this.

3. In the meantime, these knowledgewise people who have preached – ‚This world is Mithya, Maya (illusion) or Brahma,‘ to the people might have got Brahmananda (Devine happiness). But they could not see that people in general, get simple happiness.

4. Paying more attention on the concept of how to get good birth in the next birth, almost all the Sadhakas did not pay attention to the progress in this world.

5. Instead of going after incessant Jeevan Sadhana on the basis of Indian Philosophy, ceremonial, purposive, and superficial Sadhana marg got undue importance with the result that the process of change in the life of man got weakened.

6. Most of the people have followed one way instead of the marg which co-ordinates harmoniously Dnayan, Bhakti, Karma and Yoga, with the result that in their whole life they could not see the direction of Karmayog or Jeevanyog.

7. Although life needs to go through the process of observance of Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha - the four purusharthas, the people of philosophical thinking could not co-ordinate the efforts for the Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

8. Because of the fact that the treasure of knowledge was in Sanskrit, and because in addition to that, the Indian society was based on varna system, the common people remained bereft of the rich Indian Philosophy.

It is Saint Dnyaneshwar who removed all these deficiencies and placed the Indian Philosophy on the social and universal foundation. We must know this in its essence. The main contradiction in Indian culture is, that the Philosophy is based on "Advaita principle", the religious traditions are based on disparities on the basis of caste and creed. The country which proclaims this celestial philosophy is afflicted by social disparities based on high and low levels of man and the social disparities have been cruelly afflicting its very people. In the days of "Rishis" and "Munies", birth (in what caste or varna) did not matter. "Vyas" was the child born out of wedlock. Walya became Valmiki. Many sadhaks from ordinary families became extra-ordinary rishis. This is the glorious history of rishi period. In the times predominated by the rishis, various Indian disciplines of learning progressed. Indian culture offered Deeksha(Learning) to many erudites of the world. Due to historical events, the influence of religion and culture which was predominated by rishis began to vane, and the Indian Society came under the influence of the kings who belonged to Kshatriya Varna and the Purohits who belonged to Brahmin Varna and inequality-oriented four varna based society began to show its ugly head. We have been witnessing the mutual contradictory system of equality in spiritual matters and inequality in social interaction, since many centuries. Equality in spiritual matter is Indian Culture and Inequality in Social Matters is Indian Vikruti. Sant Jnaneshwar was born in India with a mission to remove the traditional vikruti and to imbibe on the minds of knowledgeable and the ignorant the message of social equality in the society which has proclaimed that there is divine spirit in all beings.

He preached social equalities and denounced discrimation on the basis of caste, kul etc. In his times, saints of all castes and religions came forth. They are Saints - Namdeo, Gora Kumbhar, Sawata Mali, Visoba Khechar, Muktabai, Janabai.

Second deficiency in the Indian philosophy and religious traditions was being noticed and it was that many knowledgewise persons, and yogis were doing Sadhana for Moksha or peace of the self. Most of them were not thinking of social responsibilities. India attracts the world by its philosophy, but half of its number could not write the word Brahma. This is the most unfortunate thing which makes us to introspect. One of the main reasons for this is that even the people of Dnyanand Bhakti were oblivious of the relation between a man and his society. In a country which has proclaimed to the world the importance of four Purusharthas like Dharma, Artha, Kamaand Moksha, there appeared a big gap between Purusharthaand Parmarth (good for the other). Meantime we were under the adversity of foreign rule. Many reasons can be cited to substantiate the fact that many races, many religions, many castes and hence heterogeneity in the society could not go to help the development of humanitarian religion (Manav Dharma) and national culture (Rashtra - Dharma). But if we may think of our religions, since the Dnyanis and Yogis were in persuit of peace for themselves, the common people remained bereft of the benefit of these rich personalities and their knowledge. There is seen a great deficiency in the Indian culture in the form of lack of Purushartha and selfishless Parmartha.

At the same time, the influence of Mayawad increased in our philosophy. These appeared a travesty of the Siddhanta which says: "Brahma satyam, Jagatmithya." The world is Maya, it is an illusion. If world is maya, why to think of it. It is enough

that we may attain peace with the self. This was the attitude of Dnyani, Yogi and Bhakta Sadhak . They were great by their penance . They might have got divine happiness, but common people could not benefit from them, this was the great tragedy. Saint Jnaneshwara brought about renaissance in these days: "There is Brahma everywhere, Universe is Brahma." He propounded this revolutionary spiritual teaching.

Saint Jnaneshwara propounded a Universal Dharma which contended that we should not neglect vishwa as mithyaand we should serve the vishva as were it Brahma itself. This is metaphysical vaishvik darshan. A golden ornament does not loose its quality of gold. In the same way vishva is the ornament of the creator, its quality of Brahma is not lost. Mayawad preached to disrespect the world whereas chidvilaswad of Saint Jnaneshwara taught us to look at this world with reverence. This units the Almoddhar and Lokoddhar. It makes one's Sadhana, Sadhana for the people. There is a harmonious blending of Sadhana, Seva, Dnyan, Bhakti, Swadharma and Vivshdharma. In fact those who believe that same soul or atma prevails in all creatures, they should make sadhana for the welfare of all the beings. This philosophy of Saint Jnaneshwar has shown the way that one can bring heaven (Vaikuntha) on this earth on the strength of "Adhyatma Bhakti" and by that, he can unite his personal elevation and development with that of the society. This philosophy, no doubt, encouraged the atma-chintak and social service persons for the welfare of all.

Saint Jnaneshwar has shown to the world that it is the philosophy of our Bharatiya Saints to achieve both things - to be virtuous oneself and also to bring about social change.

Jeevanyoga

Jnana, Bhakti, Karma, Yoga are the four ways to Jeevanyoga or Jeevanmukti and only if they are coordinated, Jeevanyoga of incessant peace in one's self will be attained. This is the message of the teachings of saints, and this is the message of India's Philosopher Saints. These four ways are dormant in each one's life. Man thinks and hence he has knowledge. He feels and hence he has devotion. There is activity and hence there is karma. Science is there as there is experimentation. Blind faith grows where there is stress on feeling. If there is stress on intellect, there is Parkhand. Hence, there should be a harmonious blend of "Dnyana" and "Bhakti" and through that, the Karmayoga should make headway. This is the excellent philosophy for human life. God prevails in all the creatures. In it, there is a confluence of all pervading knowledge of the spirit, "Bhakti" originating from good feeling for all and "Karma" for the welfare of all. The Jeevanyoga of our saints is proved by the message of Metaphysical spirit of Brahma, social brotherhood and merciful service to humanity.

In order to make each person experience this Jeevanyoga, saints like Jnaneshwar have done celestial work. He broke the monopoly of vedic pandits for their knowledge of religion and philosophy. He opened the door of Manavmukti for all. To achieve this, he wrote marathi sahitya to understand this philosophy for simple 'Marathi' people. He convinced the world that an ordinary man even in his 'prapanch'(wrodly affairs) can attain a level of a Saint. He gave a "Vishwa Geet", (universal prayer).

This universal prayer resounded beyond the borders of caste, religion, sect, class of all the countries. I am confident that this World Philosophers Meet will highlight this universal prayer of Saint Jnyaneshwar thorough its various modem means and media.

To sum up, because there is curiosity for the truth in all the people and desire for eternal happiness, philosophy is on the horizon for the people. In the west, there have been efforts to search for the truth, mainly with the help of inferences with the result that there could be no blend of intellectual and mental approaches. The areas of philosophy based on inferences and religious devotion became separate and they could not be co-ordinated. Hence, western philosophy and religion both became one-sided. In India, anubhav, anuman and intution are treated with more regard than knowledge. Because of this, the thinking of the truth and feeling of the good, the sense of logic and purification of the mind, Dnyan' and 'Dhyan' could be blended together harmoniously. This made the Indian philosophy an authority for incessant peace and prosperity for peace-loving people and for those curious to know the truth. As in the west, there is no such situation in India wherein, the platform of religion and platform of knowledgeable people are different. Here, temples became the temples of knowledge and they also became sevalaya (a platform for service) due to the saints. Body and soul are different. Body lasts for little time, the soul is immortal. Western and Indian philosophers have explained the origin as well as the relation between Atma and Vishvatma and also their relation with the whole world, Jeevatmaand Parmatma. But only, the Indian "Adhyatma" and authorities on it showed the people the way to peace and prosperity (prachiti). This is the speciality of Indian Philosophy. In order to see that, this prachiti is felt by the common man through the confluences of Dnyan, Bhakti, and Karma, Saint Jnaneshwara gave to the world Bhagwat Dharmabased on humanity and humanitarian principles. This saint bloomed the garden of happiness in the thorny life of the people. Lord Krishna tells Arjuna, "He is 'Sanyasi' in whose heart, where is no trace of I and mine.

In his philosophy, he preached that we are not body but atma. We are actors with assigned role by God and we should do it by submitting to Him. We should not expect any return for our Karma (Duty). Thus, Dnyaneshwara's philosophy blended harmoniously, Dnyan, Bhakti, and Karma. Hence people who seek knowledge perform Bhakti and do their duty with no expectation of any return, will derive new inspiration from Dnyaneshwara's philosophy. I am confident of this. There is, differences of opinion regarding the relation between science and Adhyatma (Knowledge of the soul). Both are mutually supportive and necessary. Evolution and development of the universe of living beings is the work of science and vision for human beings and its development is the work of science for the soul. Science can intercept the space; but it cannot enter the innermost soul of man. Antaranga being selfish, can lead us to ruin in the name of development of science. Only, if Antaranga becomes amenable to yoga and universe, science will lead us towards welfare of the Universe. The only way for the bright future of mankind lies in giving our scientific experiments, the base of spiritual yoga, and for this, we have before us, Dnyaneshwara's PASAYADAN, which is the prayer for Divine Grace:

"MAY THE DARKNESS OF IGNORANT DISAPPEAR!

MAY THE UNIVERSE SEE THE SUN OF SELF CONSCIOUSNESS,

MAY WHATSOEVER ASPIRATIONS OF THOSE BE FULFILLED!

OF ALL LIVING BEINGS!"

This is the resolve of all the thinkers and philosophers of the world. I am confident that they would be more successful in fulfilling this resolve by the Jeevan Darshan philosophy of Saint Dnyaneshwara.

Creation of Ajanta and Ellora: Cultural Canvas of Saint Jnaneshvara's

Thoughts

Pan V. Ranade

Edited by Carla Geerdes

It is proposed to present in this script a monumental memoir on the Aesthetics of rock-cut architectonics of the world famous Kailasa cave at Ellora. Rock-cut aesthetics of Kailasa is that prismatic spectrum of Indian fine arts that collected the rainbows of Ajanta and refracted them to the hill fort of Deogiri. Ajanta's rainbows refracting through the architectonics of Kailasa finally kissed the rock cut

ditches, scarps tunnels, towers and turrets of rock cut Deogiri. The lyrical notes of Jnaneshvari as a matter of fact scintillate the textural temper of Ajanta, Ellora and Deogiri in variety of ways.

That Jnaneshvara walks in the steps of Halasatavahana Vyasa, Valmiki, Bharat, Bhasa, Kalidas, Bhavabhuti Dandin, Sankarcarya, Rajsekhar is a well known fact. That he owes something to Ajanta hasn't been well argued so far.

Ajanta houses some of the best galleries of ancient Indian paintings. Ajanta speaks the liveliest of the language known to man. This liveliest backdrop of Ajanta is at the back of Jnaneshvara's mind when he composed his verses. The Gita Ratnaprasad of the 18th chapter and Yogadurga of 12th chapter in the Jnaneshvari have permanently connected Jnaneshvara with the rock-cut aesthetics of Ellora and Deogiri, Ajanta backdrop makes Jnaneshvari the prismatic spectrum that refracted the beams of rock cut aesthetics of Ajanta Ellora and Deogiri. They together make a common aesthetic rainbow catchment area.

The Kailasa of Ellora and Durga of Deogiri are the best preserved rock cut moments of ancient India. Deogiri fort is the crowning piece of the rock-cut art that had begun in Nane Ghat wherein the early Satavahanas had excavated a Vihara, that has one of the earliest inscriptions of

Satavahanas. The Nane pass was however excavated by one Achintya a preBuddhist king of the Deccan who also evacuated a pass in Ajanta ravine as per account rendered in an Ahirani folk song. This Ahirani folk song is perhaps the rarest piece of literature that tells us the story of the earliest phase of rock-cut aesthetics and engineering.

Achintya of this folk song can surely be identified with the Anchantaraj of the Nagarjunkund inscriptions who is credited with having a spiritual sway over to the people of Kashmir, Gandhar Kirata, Aparanta and what not. Though this Ahirani folk song percolates the popular memory of hero and heroine of remote times.

Free English reading will read as:

Lord Buddha had come to Ajanta for gracing Achintya. Una means had come says Ahirana. Achintya's story is more ancient than that of Buddha; Achintya was a South Indian King and his queen Ajitanjya was a beauty incarnate. Achintya had built number of passes and tanks in Bamiyan, Khaibar, Khandala, Kondana, Nana and other places. King and queen were living happily but a malignant star wished them ill. As bad luck would have it, the queen slipped into a mishap. She fell down while carving a pass in the ravine that skirted the Waghura stream. She was followed by her King in the death trap. They had taken a vow to leave this world together.

To visit this sacred place Lord Buddha had come to Ajanta along with Sopara's Purna, Nevasa's Bavari and in the company of Amrapali and alongwith number of mendicants. He had halted at the hut of Vakkal rishi and was greeted by Yaksha Kutadrashtanta at the Mukpat village.

Deogiri, which was renamed Daulatabad in the Muslim period is a fort par excellence of ancient India. Hemadri's Raj Prashasti, dozens of inscriptions, early Muslim chronicles have referred to Deogiri as fort and town of Yadav period. A sixteenth century Rajasthani Hindi Akhyan kavya Chhitai Varta is a composition that has its main theme which centres round the story of the creation of Deogiri fort by a Yadav king. The conical rock on which the Deogiri fort stands is 600 feet high and is isolated from the surrounding hills. One has to see Deogiri to appreciate the skilful manner in which the hill has been scarped all round vertically from the ground level to 150 ft. Around the escarpment is dug in solid rock a ditch or a moat forty cubits in width and thirty in depth. Through the centre of the hill a long dark spiral passage has been dug out to make way for a long ascending tunnel that rises rapidly and without a lamp or torch one cannot traverse this underground tunnel even in daylight.

At the head of the tunnel which rises by flight of steep steps, is a large grating of iron. When a fire is lighted upon it, the ascent of the serpentine tunnel becomes impossible owing to the intense heat. This very Deogiri Fort makes its appearance in Jnaneshvari when the poet describes the eightfold stage of Yoga Durga.

World fame of Ellora rests on the shoulders of Kailasa, an eighth century Indian monument, the rock-cut aesthetics of which keeps us spell bound when we see it. When measured in global scales Kailasa turns out to be biggest of its kind. It will he an interesting thing to read how Indian psyche interpreted its creation over the centuries.

Baroda copper plate date A.D. 812 expresses a sense of bewilderment and excitement at the very sight of Kailasa in the following words:

"When the chariot-bound celestials happened to pass over the wonderful encampment over the edges of Elapur mountain, they were astonished to see a Shiva's Shrine. They continued to discuss and talk about it as 'not a man-made affair but a self-existent matter." After having tried his hand for creating another copy of the same, the architect considered his second effort as a waste of profession. The architect when having a look at this own earlier creation was amazed watch his own accomplishment and exclaimed-nhow could I have excavated such a wonderful composition." And by reason of it, the king was caused to praise his name. The Baroda copper-plate also credits the Rashtrakut king Shubhtung Krishna for having patronised the excavation of this Shiva Sanctuctry.

In the Indian folk psyche the entire rock-cut complex of Ellora was a divine creation. Last great Mughal emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir after visiting the rock-cut site of Ellora was impressed by its aesthetic value and in one of his letters to his son Bidar-Bakht wrote that he had visited Ellora in the company of his daughters and daughters-in-laws and was amazed to see the rock-cut shrines of Ellora, which in his view were god's creation. Aurangzeb was perhaps repeating what an average Indian felt about the creation of Ellora's rock-cut complex. It is possible that Aurangzeb might have overheard a Maharashtra folk tale about Ajanta and Ellora.

An interesting folk tale circulates among the villagers in the vicinity of Ajanta and Ellora. The genesis of the sculptures of Ajanta and Ellora has received a charming version in this folk tale. The story goes that long long ago devas, devanganas,

gandharvas and apsaras resolved to spend a fullmoon night on the earth. Indra allowed them to leave the paradise on the condition that they would return to heaven from earth before the next sunrise. Devas and devanganas along with apsaras and gandharvas came to the earth. While descending from heaven they spotted the moonlit Ajanta and Ellora. Some of the celestials went to Ajanta and some of them came to Ellora.

The gods and nymphs danced, sang and played in the valleys of Ajanta and Ellora. They liked the spot so much that they forgot Indra's instruction to return home before sunrise. When the day broke they were still found playing on the cliffs and flanks of the hills of Ajanta and Ellora. This divine folly resulted in the transformation of these celestial creatures into stone images because of Indra's curse. The author of this folk-tale forgot to add that many of these celestial creatures were transplanted into the lovely paintings of Ajanta and Ellora.

Kailasa is an eighth century work of wonder that has no equal in its time either in India or all over the world. As centuries passed more luxuriant refined and beautiful ornamental motifs were to adorn the temples of Mount Abu, Khajuraho's towers were to travel a more wonderful rising crescendo of curves, Bhuvaneshwar was going to present wonderful curvilinear terraces of its Shikhar towers, Konarak was to present endless round of erotic dalliance, Halebidu and Somath were to epresentma never ending masshof delicate ornamental accessories. But that is a later day story Kailasa in eighth century had no equal.

The Rashtrakuta conquest of Karnatak and Tamil territories had brought the so called Dravidian style of temple architecture into the very heartland of the so called Indo-Aryan orbit of cultural entity that is Maharashtra. Shubh Tung Krishna (757-783 A.D.) had carried the Rashtrakut banner to Vatapi Aihole, Kanchi and Mahabalipuram. Metaphorically speaking, he carried the towers of the so called Dravidian temples to the Rashtrakuta capital at Ellora and crowned his own Kailasa shrine by gracing its summit with his south Indian booty. The so called Dravidian devotees must have felt very happy and elated over the honour bestowed on their own towers. Himalaya would have said 'Tathastru' watching the Rashtrakut king putting a Dravidian tower on Himalayan peak.

Kailasa - 300 ft. by 175 ft. rectangular enclosure 200 ft. long, 100 ft. wide and 100 ft. high shrine at its apex, the monument, from top to bottom is studded with iconographical sculptures with Vedic and Puranic connotations. It is a Shaivite shrine but has no aversion for Vaishnavite legends. At least one one group of sculptors was fond of erotic poses. The plinth of Lankeshwar in its parapet wall bears two dozens of lovemaking couples. The hereditary craftsmen who worked and lived in guilds had their own tantric gods who granted them the fun and frolic of erotic pleasure.

These craftsmen dedicated their profession not to any single religion or cult. They worked for every paymaster whether Buddhist, Jain or Brahmanical. These guilds had been working in the rock- cut medium for centuries. They inherited the traditional skills of the rock-cutter, who had been tunnelling into the cliffs and ridges of the mountains. They had been quarrying downward. The unfinished rock-cut sanctuaries at every site from Ajanta, Bhaja to Ellora tell us the story of the rock- cutting technique.

One has to go to the top of the Kailasa to appreciate and measure the colossal endeavour which had gone in the making of Kailasa. A free standing temple with its towers, sanctum, pavilions, an enormous basement, pillared halls balconies, bridges that connect the chambers, and gateway and several monastic vihara, surrounding the courtyard and sub-shrines, galleries and attached monasteries cut in the scarp had to be cut in the rock. Lesser sancturies attached to the main shrine, flag posts and free standing elephants sculpted friezes had to be taken care of while executing the work.

How did they do it?

When it was decided to cut a shrine on the hill-side spot which Kailasa occupies, lot of preliminary work must have engaged the attention of the chief architect. First, the

slope and slant of the hill-side would have been cleared of shrubs and trees. Then a circuit of a Vastu Mandal and a rectangular frame of Vastu Purush would have been drawn on the slope and slant of the hill side. Mandal with its chakra, centre axis, circumference, cubics, spiral, triangle, circle and square would have been arranged in geometrical motifs, marking the contours of the proposed monument firstly on the cloth and then on the slanting slope of the hill side itself.

The geometrical imprints of the proposed monument had to be worked out first, because most of the dramatic folklore of art work is conceived in the blue-print stage of the work. In ancient Indian dramaturgical aesthetics, Kavyarth Siddhi was made possible by the functional operation of the law of flexion of bhava, anubhav, vibhav and vyabhichar bhav. This dramatic interpretation of rasa presented by Dr. S. S. Barlingay at the Simla Seminar in late sixties, help us to untie the many tangles connected with the architectural aesthetics of Ellora's Kailasa.

The geometrical mould of a traditional Indian chariot was picked by the chief architect of Kailasa from the rathas of Mahabalipuram and then transfixed it with the stone built shrines of Pattadikal and Kanchi.

How they did it is a matter of speculation and guesswork. One line of speculation that has been suggested by most of art historians is that the architect must have drawn an imaginary line on the topmost and lowest level of the hill slope and then all along the line he must have instructed his craftsmen to cut three trenches inward and turn out a lump of rock for making a free standing temple and then hand over the cut-out remains of the lump to the sculptor to do their business on the lump. That was a very simple methodology and technique of rock cutting. But the matter was not that simple in case of Kailasa.

If we see Kailasa from a spot from where one can have a full view of the structural design of the Kailasa, one can have a better hunch of the methodology and

technique of the rock cutting business of Kailasa. One has to climb the hill and stand on the ridge crest of back side of the central tower of Kailasa. Looking over the monument makes us aware of the fact that cutting three trenches inside the hill rock and then handing over the remaining block boulder was not an advisable methodology and technique for a simple reason that cut out rock to be thrown out of the pit would have put lots of hazards, before it would be pulled out of the courtyard.

The architect of Kailasa must have found out the way to ride over this difficulty by cutting number of terraces, beginning with the top and then moving slope wise down-ward so that the rock chipped out of the block could be allowed to roll down and tumble out of the site. The technical process of excavating Kailasa shrine at Ellora did not start from the bottom but from the top and carve downward from the central horizontal and vertical criss-cross line side- wise and downward, so that the rock which would be removed form the boulder would be allowed to roll and tumble down without damaging any excavated part of the monument. The proposed chariot shape design of Kailasa had to take care of their descending terrace cuts for executing and completing the excavation business in one generation lifetime.

Looking at Kailasa from the top ridgy crest of back side of its central tower, one is simply impressed by the symmetrical regularity and unity of the entire monument that seems to have been excavated from beginning to end in one stride and operation and that too in the lifespan of one generation of the excavators. We are fortunate to have Baroda copper plate inscription to tell us that the chief architect of Kailasa at Ellora was happy to have completed the work in his own lifetime.

The main shrine in its componental integrity that consists of Gopura torana of the entrance gate, the enclosure wall cuts, the Nandi Mandap, Mukha Mandap, Rang Mandal the vestibule Antaral and Viman Shikhar tower that surmounts the Garbha Griha were planned and executed in the reign of the Rashtrakut king, Krishna, who led Deccan from A.D. 752 to 772. Lankeshwar, Paralankeshwar surrounding galleries were part and parcel of the original plan as the vestiges of bridge cuts inside Kailasa and potholes in the neighbouring cave that descends in Paralanka provide us indications towards this conclusion.

Simultaneous use of trench and terrace cuts used by the Kailasa architect by drawing upto several criss-crossed lines converged at the central verticular line. First the tower, then the roof over central hall, followed by downward steep of the Nandi Mandap and lastly the entrance gate were cut in terraced trench method. For the instruction of the craftsman and for visualisation of the operational technique, a model either wooden or one made of soft stone had to be preferred and put in a glass tub filled with water and a drip drop tap attached to it.

Tub-tap and the model

Before cutting a trial trench in the live rock, the architect of Kailasa must have prepared a model of the proposed monument to be cut in the rock and a rectangular transparent tub made of lamina spread glass or mica, a drip drop tap attached to it at the bottom. After having filled the tub with water the model would have been lowered and put in the tub. The glass tub tap experiment was necessary to mark and check the crisscross, horizontal and vertical level-lines so that chisels, hammers, brushes and pencils would take care of the topsy-turvy contours of the proposed monument.

Tridimensionality of the designed structure needed to be visualised and perceived before the craftsmen would cut the trenches, terraces and stresses on and in the bosom of Ellora's rock When the tap tip was screwed down the water would have eased out of the tub and released various parts of Kailasa model over the dropping levels of the tub water. First the top of the tower, then the ascending and descending terraces, arcades and columnades of the shikhar and the succeeding sequence of architectural and sculptural portions of the entire proposed monument would have come out of tub water.

The architect must have prepared hundreds of sketches, line drawing elevation graphs and paintings before summoning his associate craftsmen to watch the play and replay of the glass tub water tap show so that they would and could visualise in their inner eyes the actual and tridimensional graph of the contours of the proposed monument. Of course this is my own hunch. Nobody really knows if this was the technological preparatory measure taken by the architect before he created Kailasa.

Art And Vision of Ellora

A 13th century Jain inscription names the hillside in the bosom of which nestle the world famous Ellora caves as Charanadri. This hillside is an extension of Sahyadri mountain into the heart of Deccan Plateau. The stooping edges and steepy flanks of this Charanadri range in the Aurangabad district shelter the rock-cut monuments of Ellora. Ellora is about 25 kilometres from Aurangabad and 100 kilometres from Ajanta.

Undulating mountain spurs that mark the skyline of Deccan plateau shelter a chain of rock-cut monuments. Among these rock-cut monuments of the Deccan, Ajanta, Elephant and Ellora are the world famous ones.

A wide flung festoon of terraces and valleys, flat roofs and steep flanks characterise the topography of the Deccan plateau. The Deccan trap rock is ideally suited for the rock-cut architecture. The terraces, valleys and summits of the Deccan plateau consist of extensive horizontal flows of the trap. The soft portions of the trap beds wither and exfoliate leaving suitable fresh rock in the bosom of the hills that rock-cutters could use. This favourable feature of the undulating spurs of the Sahyadri was one of the factors that led to record the heaviest rock-cut activity in Maharashtra.

Slow winding rocky slopes of Khultabad ghat move through the sprinkling of shrubs and wild plants till they reach foothills. When one gets down from the Khultabad ghat, one starts getting the most spectacular view of Ellora caves-curious heaps of cliffs and hill tops intervene between the everwidening sky dome and the green grassy foot-hills that skirt the Ela streamlet. Rock-cut monuments are seen spread over this crescentshaped hill. In rainy season a number of small waterfalls that empty their torrents into deep pools cast a sprinkling arcade over the caves.

Tourist excursions to art centres are often like cocktail! parties where men meet all types of men without knowing them intimately. Ellora caves shelter thousands of aesthetically important pieces. It is difficult to establish a stable rapport with all the objects that one encounters at Ellora. As one moves from site to site, one gets acquaintance with the monument depending on the sensibility of the visitor. The spell of Ellora's magic however leaves no one unmoved and unstirred.

Ellora gets much sun throughout the year and some showers in the rainy days. In winter Ellora draws large picnic crowds. These cocktail picnic crowds propose to see and admire Ellora in one day. Over centuries generations of artists and stonecutters worked in the rocks and hollowed shrines and chambers, dedicated to Buddha, Shiva and Tirthankar. Centuries of labour and art have made Ellora a subterranean township.

Ellora had been a major well-known centre of pilgrimage from the remote times. An early ninth century rashtrakuta copper-plate describing the Elapur situated Shiva shrine Kailasanatha, suggested that even the gods were amazed to watch this wonder. Ellora is the anglicised version of the Prakrit Elura that had undergone a mutation to Verula in Marathi, the local language. The Prakrit Elura was transformed into Sankrit Elapur. The earliest recorded reference to Ellora-Elapur is found in the copper-plate inscription of the Rashtrakuta prince Dantidurga which is dated saka samvata 663 (741 A.D.). The inscription mentions the grant of a village to certain Brahmins. The grant was made by Dantidurga at Elapur after taking bath at the Guheshvara Tirtha. The Elapur of this inscription is Ellora and the Guheshwar Tirtha is obviously the large deep pool that collects water from a picturesque waterfall near Dhumar cave at Ellora.

Unlike Ajanta, Ellora was never lost and therefore question of its rediscovery did not arise. Located on an ancient trade route that connected Paithan and Devagiri with the other eminent indian towns and cities Ellora has always attracted attention of writers and travellers of ancient and medieval times.

Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain Viharas, Chaityas and temples carved out of the living rock at Ellora enshrine the wisdom, philosophy, mythology and the artistic ethos of early medieval India. Tremendous proportions of the carved pillared halls, long and awe-inspiring colonnaded monasteries, mysterious play of light and shadow on the rock-cut shapes, the graceful fluidity of the flying gandharvas and apsaras, majestic images of Buddha, Jain and Brahmanical gods, the gigantic rock-cut miracle of the Kailasanatha shrine and many other impressive features of this cave complex have made Ellora a wonderland of ancient indian art.

The excavation work commenced at Ellora some tune in the sixth century A.D. and over several centuries creative incitement of early medieval artists continued to playfully chisel the graceful shapes and figures out of the unsouned depth of the Ellora rocks. Over centuries instinctual and cultivated urges of the indian artists had poured into the rocky world of monumental fantasy. The last cave on the top of the shoulder of Ellora hill was excavated as late as early fourteenth century. Rest of the fifty major and minor caves of Ellora were cut sometime between sixth and twelfth century.

The well-known art of Ellora is an architectonic carving of structural models and animated figures. At Ellora to move from one monument to another is to find chambers, pavilions, towers and architraves enclosing a wealth of carved miracles. Gods and goddesses, demons, gandharvas and apsaras, musicians and dancers, yaksas and kinnaras, yogis and warriors, lions and elephants, trees and mountains, oceans and rivers, serpents and crocodiles, giants and dwarfs creepers and flowers, in their simple and fantastic manifestation decorate the walls, roofs and doors of the rock-cut pavilions. The rocky monumentality of the shapes confront us with charming ease and magical touch.

A visit to nEllora is a charmed journey into a fairyland. One has to adjust oneself when one visits a fairyland. Ellora houses many dream sequences of such a fairyland. We cannot go straight into the meaning of the dream sequences but stumble and circle round and try to hold them. A visit to Ellora enables one to enter the dreamland of indian devotional ethos. The labyrinths of ancient Indian cultural heritage with their sectarian intricacies and orthodoxies have received permanent habitation in the wonderland of Ellora.

In between the first and the last groups of excavations at Ellora are found all types, styles and levels of artmanship. There are some clumsy affairs of architectonic exercises in the midst of world famous miracles of art at Ellora. These caverns were cut to make halls, chambers, pavilions, shrines and pendals. In those hollowed parts of the hewn out structures, gateways, doorframes, pillars, roofs and towers are utilised more for decorative purposes than for functional ones. Entire rock-cut architecture at Ellora is therefore a sculpture on magnificent level.

Ellora presents us with some of the boldest geotechnique compositions in world sculpture. Ellora sculptors were imitated and even unproved upon by the later medieval indian artists. Ellora artists however remain unrivalled in their capacity to make use of unsounded depth of the rocks and the nebulous world of light and shade for powerful and effective sculptural representations. Modulation of light and shade and the vibrating atmosphere of rock-cut shelters render magic touch to the sculptures of Ellora.

While moving in the Ellora caves we have a feeling of seeing colossal tableaux of sculptures in the rock-cut shelters where light and shadow chase each other. Tied to the rocks these sculptures glow with lively movements. World sculpture can show few instances of such an artistic creativity. Such an artistic escarpment and projection of volcanic rock was being tried and experimented over a period of thousand years at such far and near places as Dhauli, Bhaja, Karle, Ajanta, Elephanta and Badami. A dramatic consummation of this tradition was achieved at Ellora.

Every cave at Ellora has its own focal point. In certain caves the stately radiant pillars with their massive monumentality and florid beauty impart an impression of a solid living faith of bygone days. In some caves the sculpture galleries draw our main attention. In more than one sense Ellora caves are the finest sculpture galleries of early medieval indian art. In a shrine like Kailasa one is dumbfound to witness the stupendous feat of rock-cut architecture and sculpture. In Indra Sabha the chief attraction is equally shared by the paintings, sculpture and architecture.

In most of the caves, however, the focal points are centred round the figures of divinities - Buddha, Shiva and Tirthankara. Music, dancing and erotic play of all the carved and painted creatures turn to the central figures of divinity. Devas and devatas, apsaras and gandharvas, vidyadharas and kinnaras, dwarfs, makaras, vyalas, elephants and bulls, whether they are in the main hall or in the side chambers, in porches, in balconies, in galleries, whether they are standing or flying, the entire world of these artistically drawn devotees are found switching their attention to the central figure of divinity in the main shrine-either Buddha, Shiva or Tirthankara.

From cave to cave, from pillar to pillar, and from image to image, it needs a long and leisurely attention to appreciate the creative skill and significance of each piece of art. Variety of reasons will draw a visitor to a particular cave and compel him to stay longer than intended. In some caves doorways and window-frames will attract the attention of the visitor. The nagas and naginis, the river goddesses and tree goddesses, birds and flowers, loving couples and fanciful animals playfully cluster around these doorways and windowframes. The exuberance and beauty of the entablature of these shrine doorways in many caves articulate the poetry of the architectonic rhythm and melody. The great paired attendants flanking the doorways display energy, fury, love and fear and all possible shades of passions.

The pillars in these caves really don't support the ceilings. They however create an impression of structural stability within the rock-cut shrines. Apart from fulfilling this psychological function they are used for holding medallions that are replete with foliate decorations, auspicious figures and erotic play. Scenes of discreet erotic play, artistically drawn celestial and earthly creatures and florid forms of anthropomorphic figures, birds and animals make these medallions on the pillars immensely attractive. The female figures from the brackets, dwarfs who play flutes and drums and carry heavy loans, also make these pillars attractive.

It needs patience, devotion and suspense of disbelief to rehear and recall the tones of chanting music that was once played at Ellora. It needs some imagination to inhale the fragrance of the incense that once must have filled the air of Ellora caves.

Proliferation of creeds and cults over the entire Indian sub-continent was a marked feature of Indian cultural history. In early medieval times Ellora functioned as a prism of this cultural proliferation. Geopolitical location of Ellora has rendered it a unique position in the indian cultural dynamics. The part of the Deccan in which Ellora is located represents a terrain of cultural synthesis that involved integration of Northern indian stylistics with South Indian cultural patterns. Ellora is the creation of this early medieval cultural dynamics. Movements of inshtutions and ideas, of art motifs and designs affected Ellora in consonance with its geo-politics. From 6th century A.D. to 12th century A.D. Ellora functioned as a prism through which continental, regional and local cultural trends reffacted in all directions. This period was a time of Buddhist decline, Shaivite resurgence and Jain revival in the Deccan Ellora caves articulate this aspect of indian historical sociology of early medieval times.

Origins of Ellora art are scattered all over the Indian continent. It will be a folly to trace the heritage of Ellora art to any one particular school or centre. Ellora's origins are inextricably entangled with the artistic impulses that were throbbing with life in various regions of India. The contemporary and earlier cultural trends achve elsewhere gave their fluctuating shades to the broad stream of artistic expression at Ellora. The sensibility of the Ellora artists could not escape the influence of philosophy, theology and aesthetic ethos of their times. Ellora's style of composition, its diction, its texture, were a matter of taste and fashion prevailing in its environs.

Artistic expression of Ellora-sculpture, architecture and painting-does not represent a unilinear development of any particular style and diction. Six or seven centuries of art activity of Ellora take in their strides the achievements and accomplishments of various regional styles and schools that had grown over the entire continent. Ellora

has its ancestors, it has its fraternities, proteges and descendants. Ellora's affinities are spread over the entire indian continent.

Ellora attracted the attention of all the three major religious orders of ancient thnes-Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain. These rock-cut monasteries were not only retreats for the monks but they served as inns and rest-houses for merchants and princes. Merchants, bankers, artisans, affluent agriculturists, state officials and feudal warlords gave patronage to these monasteries which lie on the trade routes. The monasteries offered protechon and security to the flow of trade. The monasteries were also important customers for the caravans. Monasteries needed cloth, perfumes and lamps. These caves thus functioned as abbeys which were important stages on the long distance trade routes, as resting places for the Sarthavahas caravaneers-as well as supply house and banking posts. Most of these caves were located near the mountain passes guarded by the forts which protected the kingdom and travellers and collected

the tolls ffom the caravans. The kingly obligations, spiritual needs and trade facilities thus converged at the sites of monasteries.

Invariably the cave monasteries of Buddhists, Shaivites and Jains were located in the vicinity of ancient cult sites.

The political sky dome under which the Ellora cave monasteries funchoned during their heydays was overcast with feuds among the various sections of feudal aristocracy. In absence of a central political authority in the country, region was set against region. Perpetual wars of conquests undertaken by the regional warlords often destroyed the economic prosperity and human lives. In the dynastical wars, villages, cattle, grains, women and men suffered. Cities were sacked and granaries burnt. In this background of ceaseless warfare religious monasteries seem to have functioned as islands of peace and quietude. Monasteries had the tranquility and safety which royal places lacked. In a war-torn world of feudal tyranny, religion was the sigh and solace of every helpless creature. Mahayogi trinity of Buddha, Shiva and Tirthankara offered a soul to the soul1ess world, a heart to a heartless world.

The scholarly debates over the dynastical affinities of these cave monuments have often missed this perspective. Great worthies are still debating whether Dhumar-Rameshvar caves of Ellora were due to patronage of Chalukyas or Kalachuris. Perhaps the Shaivite mahantas of Ellora monasteries might have pocketed grants ffom both the royal houses. Who knows, the archpriest of Guheshvara Tirtha might have performed puja and rudrabhisheka for the good of both warring houses!

Over centuries feudal aristocracy and merchant princes had been patronising these monasteries. Their patronage sprang from many motives. These monasteries exercised various functions that helped the common people. Religions are made of that stutf on which dreams are made. Human miseries are partly and illusorily relieved by dreams. In medieval hmes when feudal aristocracy and merchant princes

had cornered all the wealth and beauhful women, when all the luxuries of life were the privileged possessions of the rich, common ploughman had to cultivate the fields and also fight the endless wars of the medieval warlords, religion provided a great solace to the common man.

Brahmanism, Buddhism and lainism in ancient thnes were not very different from each other in matters of social system. They together taught the common tnasses to renounce the vanities of this world and seek salvation ffom this or that deity by devotion and austere life. Religion saved the common masses ffom allurement of possession and wealth, and spared the feudal aristocrats to enjoy the luxuries of life.

The monasteries also functioned as transmission houses for passing on the traditional skills and cultural values to the younger generations. Poets and scholars, artists and artisans worked for monasteries as well as for royal palaces. Most of the rock chambers and shrines of the Shramans and Brahmans at Ellora were therefore modelled after royal palaces of the Rajas and Samantas.

Though the patronage of wealthy merchants, guilds and royal houses made these excavations of Ellora possible, the main impressive element that remains hovering in the background of Ellora is the religious ethos of the people. The large paraphernalia of servants and attendants which these cave monasteries must have required for the comfortable living of the monks, would not have been possible without the patronage of the rich people and willing submission of the masses. Whether indian culture is all spiritualism and otherworldliness is a point that can be debated endlessly.

What is obvious in indian history pertains to endless use of religion for secular purposes. Religion provided the cushion that could absorb the shocks and tensions of a war-torn society. Though individual rules had their own sectarian leanings and likings, by and large the medieval Indian rulers showed remarkable spirit of religious tolerance. The great religious monasteries also displayed equal enthusiasm for receiving patronage from all sorts of rulers, just or unjust, cruel and kind. The spirit of accommodation was mutually beneficial.

While the patronage of royal houses and merchant princes made the rock-cut monasteries possible the actual physical labour involved in excavation of these eaves must have been put by a section of humanity called karmakara-karu-shilpi-rangavatari and such other artisans of early medieval India who were looked down by the Brahmin- Ksatriya elites. One of the dramatic ironies of India's age-old culture relates to the position karu- shilpi held in the estimate of classical textwriters. While Bharata and Vatsyayana sang the glory of the arts of drama, dancing and painting, the smriti writers excluded the sculptors, dancers, architects, painters, players, musicians and artisans horn any honourable position in Hindu social hierarchy.

The artists in India were bracketed together with women and shudras as of low and ignoble status. Along with women and shudras, artists were the wretched of the earth. These very karmakaras, rangavataris, shilpis have dropped fluorescent curves on the Ellora rocks. Strokes and beats of their chisels have poured rhythm and rhyme into the shapely figures at Ellora. Strokes of their chisels, thrusts of their hammers and touches of their brushes have tamed the- rocks of Ellora. Lively flora of shapely figures that has blossomed on the walls and ceilings of Ellora is due to them.

It will be better if we separate Indian art and its contemporary legend. To most of the readers Indian art is nothing but plastically rendered indian spiritualism. On closer scrutiy, however Indian spiritualism itself is a by-product of indian material milieu.

At Ellora Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism live face to face. Their myths and symbols and heroes are different and yet they have much in common. The Yogi and the Devi are equally close to heart of Buddhists, Brahmins and Jains. The celestial world of apsaras, gandharvas, yaksas, kinnaras and vidyadharasis equally shared by Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain Ellora. What is shared absolutely and enthusiastically is the sport of love. At Ellora esoteric mysteries of the festival of love co-mingle with the longings for moksha, nirvana and mukti. Ellora art has been enriched by a wealth of erotic themes. The whole seraglio of Indra's paradise has come down to Ellora. Celestial singers and dancers blessed with youth and beauty are invariably drawn in erotic shade. Though heavenly in origin they possess eloquence of earthly charms. The elongated legs, the enlarged hips, the slender waist and the breasts that don't droop render the feminine divinities with a charm that is certainly earthly.

The art of Ellora whether Buddhist, Bramanical or Jain was shaping under a common canopy of tantric spell. The artists who did the job of cutting and painting the rocks were invariably the followers of various tantric cults that proliferated all over India in this period. The Tantra hovers over the entire early medieval indian art. What these pleasure-loving sensuous figures with their wealth of hairdress, ornaments, costumes meant to the priests and monks who lived in these rock-cut chambers is a question that baffles everyone who sees them.

The erotic couples, swinging across the firmament, do have an affinity with the romantic cycles of ancient indian tales. The repertoire of the contemporary feudal princely harems and courtesans, with which the Tantric artists weren't unfamiliar, largely account for these erotic scenes at Ellora.

Though the vision of Ellora art is divine, the art itself is this-worldly. The fundamental tone of this art, its realism, its liveliness spring from motives that are absolutely this-worldly. Its spiritualism is mythological, its realism is human.

Lilacharitra

The earliest notices of Ellora caves in Marathi literature can be traced in a thirteenth century Mahanubhava text Lilachraritra. According to Mahanubhava tradition Shri Chakradharsvami visited Ellora in A.D. 1268. He stayed for ten months at Elapur, as it was then called. In Lilacharitra there are over fifty lilas that deal with his visit to Ellora. Among these lilas there are eight lilas that have a direct bearing on the caves of Ellora. What follows here is a ffee rendering of those eight lilas. Lilacharitra has two parts-Purvardha and Unarardha The Ellora lilas are found in the Purvardha.

No. 179

Gosavi went to Elapur via Katak. He descended the ghat through the pathway that surmounts the Rajavihara cave. He stayed in Rajaviharacave for three days. On the bench of that cave he relaxed, he offered his prayers, had his mouthwash, chewed the betel leaf. Changdeobhat used to go to Elapur town and bring the purchased goods ffom the market. According to one text, Baisa asked Shri Chakradhar as to

who made these caves. Sarvjna said that the caves were made by Kokas, the carpenter.

No. 180

One night Baisa had a disturbed sleep in the cave. The animals were heard crying, someone was heard singing lullabies. Someone was whispering something in someone's ears. Birds were twittering. Baisa heard many such sounds that distarbed hear sleep. In the moming Baisa asked Svami what those frightening sounds meant. Sarvajna said: "Madam these are the deities of this place. They are self-willed spirits." Then Baisa said: "Let us make our lodging somewhere else. This place ffightens me." Sarvajna then asked Changdeobhat to search out a suitable lodging place. Changdeobhat went out and foand out the monastery called Chaturvidhi math. Then Gosavi leR the Rajavihara cave. He reached Chaturvidhi math via Kuaumaswar, Chakrapani, Ekavira and Mahakala. Gosavi stayed in the Chaturvidhi math for ten months.

No. 186

One day moming prayers were over. Gosavi went out for a stroll. Changdeobhat, Baisa and other devotees accompanied hhn. Gosavi entered a cave and took rest in a pillared square. The devotees, were standing and watching a large figure on the opposite wall. The figure had put on a lotus- studded skirt. The devotees kept watching him for some time and suddenly the figure disappeared. The devotees asked the Gosavi about the maner. Sarvajna said: "This is a shadow creature. A Siddha Sanket. One who made the cave, leR his shadow behind."

No. 187

One day, the morning prayers were over. The Gosavi walked to the Manakeswar cave. There was rock-cut tunnel in that cave. Gosavi entered that tunnel. Baisa asked, what was that? Where were they going? Sarvajna said: "Don't get ffightened". Then he led his devotees into the tunnel. One aRer another they trailed behind him. Baisa held the string of Gosavi's turban. The flap of Baisa's gannent was held by the devotees. Holding and supporting each other they kept moving. All of a sudden a floodlight flashed on a spot. A pot was set in the middle and a group of men sitting around it. They had covered their heads with a piece of cloth. Sarvajna said: "Stand still and keep quiet." Then he moved further. Baisa asked what sort of thing was that. Sarvajna said' that was their agamasama. What was agamasama, asked Baisa. "Madam, this is a siddha sanket". Gosavi replied and moved still further. They found the tunnel ushering in a cave called Isaluvache Lene. There was a balcony in that cave. Gosavi sat there; and had a foot-wash. From there they could see the town of Elapur. Baisa asked him, what was that town? "Madam, this is Elapur". Baisa was surprised. How was that possible? They had been walking for along time, and how could they be still in Elapur. Gosavi explained the matter. The entire hill was one and half measure of the town. Its entire mass was excavated and made hollow. Nobody knew its entry and exit. The man who excavated that tunnel and Gosavi himself knew the passage.

No. 188

Once Gosavi had gone for a stroll. He visited a cave. Changdeobhat had gone to Katevasai. Changdeobhat entered a cave and saw a strange sight. Legs of one creature were spread along the legs of another, and face of one creature was turning and staring at the face of another. One was singing, another crying, third one swinging and singing lullabies. They were dead creatures, yet they looked terribly vivid and full of life. Changdeobhat got frightened. He traced his steps back from the cave and ran to the presence of the Gosavi; and narrated what he had seen. Sarvajna said: "Had you talked to them, they would have talked to you, they would have shown you the way further. Had you gone still further, you would have come across things still stranger than what you had seen." According to another text, creatures actually spoke to Changdeobhat. They told him that they were Vidyavanta. Thereafter Changdeo moved still further and visited the Saptapatala lene where he saw men, women, animals illuminated and lighted.

No. 189

Apadeobhat during this time had gone to a cave to wash his clothes. He washed his clothes, spread them for a dry up. As he was sitting in the cave, he saw a figure approaching him. He was a tall creature. He had put on the lotus-studded garment. He had a sword of gold. He hurled Apadeobhat on his sword. He struck him, round. Apadeobhat felt as if the sword was flowing through a pool of water. Apadeobhat experienced a continuum of pleasure. Thus he was delayed in reporting back to Gosavi's presence. When Apadeobhat narrated what he had experienced to the Gosavi, he was told that it was an affair of Pralhad Vidya. "Can I imbibe it? asked Apadeobhat. Gosavi moved the crown and said: "Not possible for you. I have it."

No. 212

One day when Gosavi's morning prayers were over, he went for a stroll to the cave of Sankareswar. Baisa asked him, "Sir, why this cave has such a large entrance gate?" Sarvajna said: "The food-offerings for this deity are brought on the back of an elephant."

No. 214

One day Gosavi went to Manakesvar cave, squatted in the square. Then went to the tunnel. Sarvajna said: vocal and instrumental music as well as the dance of this place have been stolen. Then showed the tunnel.

Kathakalpataru

The earliest Marathi version of the legend that narrates the story of the excavation of the Kailasa cave is found in the Kathakalpataru of Krishna Yajnavalki (circa 1470-1535 A.D.). The Kathakalpataru contains a canto that begins with the title Vidyadharkatha and ends with the terminal legend Vidyadhara Parampara. Vidyadharakatha story of Kathakalpataru may be summed up as follows:

In the Dakshina Desha, there was a Brahmin merchant Dhaneshvara living in the town of Ritpur. He had a son named Vidyadhara. After the death of Dhaneshvara,

Vidyadhara took over the charge of his father's profession. While scrutinizing the family papers, he chanced to see a paper that was his own horoscope. The horoscope contained a frightful prediction that Vidyadhara will commit a three- fold sin of cohabiting with his own mother, drinking liquor and killing of a Brahmin. Apprehension of such sinful course of life made him leave his home. He went into wilderness.

Vidyadhara, however, could not escape the sinful cycle predicted in his horoscope. He committed all the three sins, and then died. In his next birth, he was born in the princely family of Alajpur. He was named Yelurai. He married a princess named Manikavati. Yelurai lived happily with her for some time. But the sinful fruit of his earlier birth visited him and he was affected with a strange disease. His body was infested with worms in the night, while he was free from that infection in the daytime. Once Yelurai, accompanied by his queen Manikavati visited the holy shrine of Ghrsneshvara. The queen had prayed at the Jyotirlinga shrine for the health of her husband. She had prayed the lord Shiva and took a vow that if her husband was cured of his disease, she would build a Shivalaya and would not take -her food unless she saw the pinnacle of that shrine. While Manikavati was making this prayer and vow at the Ghrsneshvara shrine, Yelurai had gone to the forest of Mahismal for hunting. In the forest of Mahismal, Yelurai happened to take a bath in the spring water and to his surprise he found himself cured of the strange disease. Yelurai and Manikavati were relieved of the nocturnal distress. Manikavati then told Yelurai about her prayer and vow. Rest of the story centres round the excavation of the Manakeshvara cave of Ellora that need to be cited in Krishna Yajnavalki's words:

Queen said my lord: I have evoked the lord Rudra

That if your body would regain health I shall erect a Shiva shrine

and would not touch a morsel of food and a drop of water before seeing the crowning summit of the shrine For your sake I have pledged this bond and vow in my

prayer to the Lord Shiva. (11.15. 103-4)

Yelurai felt deeply grateful to the Ghrsneshvara but he was in a quandary over the queen's vow. How to erect a Shiva shrine in a shortest possible time so that his queen could take her food, was an agonizing problem. A craftsman named Kokas from Paithan however rescued Yelurai from his anguish. How the job was done is told by Krishna Yanjavalki:

The king then sent for Kokas Vadhai the carver from Paithan He lived a pious life

He would not take his food without taking a dip in Godavari He was the Vishvakarma incarnate destined to make a Shiva shrine

King's minister was commissioned to bring Kokas from Paithan. Kokas was brought to he royal prince. He was accompanied by seven thousand artisans.The King explained to the architects his predicament on account of Manikavati's vow.Some of the architects asked for sixteen months time to do the job. The king sighed a breath of anxiety. Kokas however assured him that within seven days he would make it possible for Manakavati to see the summit of the shrine. Then taking leave of the king, Koka proceeded to carve the mountain and before the sun rose on the he morning of the seventh day, showed the rock- cut tower of the shrine to the queen. Manikavati saw the tower and then took her food.

Kokas thus carved out in the topsy-turvy style, the shrine which was named Mankeshvara. He carved many other caves. Thus a beautiful settlement was raised by Yelurai. It came to be named Yelura. This is the last chapter of the Sahyadri Khand of Markandeya Purana.

This legend from the Markandeya Purana's Sahyadri Khand reappears in the nineteenth century Marathi work Verula Mahatmya.

Kokas Vadhai of Lilacharitra and Kathakalpataru is a legendary figure of Indian literature whom we meet in Vasudevahindi, Brhathathashlokasangraha,

Avashvakachurni, Avashyaka Vritti and other Jain texts. The first epigraphic note of Kokas can be traced in a Central Indian inscription of 1155 A.D. In the Mahanubhava

text Srikrishna Charitra, Kokas is identified with Margajasura, a demon killed by Crishna. Margajasura had a ffiend name Drumil, who was credited to have excavated an underground settlement in the Ellora caves.

Jnaneshvari

Jnaneshvara, another thirteenth century Maharashtrian saint in his works Amritanubhava and Bhavarthadipika has obliquely hinted at the inner similarity between the rock-cut caves of Ellora and the inner spiritual experience of a devotee R.C. Dhere and M.N. Deshpande in their writings of the sixties brought this fact to the notice of the Marathi scholarly circle. Though there is no direct reference to the Ellora caves in the works of Jnaneshvara, there has argued, the image of Ellora's Kailasa, then known as Manakesvar lene, was very much impressed in Jnaneshvara's description of Gitaratnaprasada in the eighteenth chapter of Jnanesvari. Instead of substantiating Dhere's argument, it will be more worthwhile to render a free but faithful translation of the relevant portions from the eighteenth chapter of Jnaneshvari.Here is that textual part of Jnaneshvari which contains the earliest poetic allusion to the rockcut Kailasa cave of Ellora, in Marathi:

Therefore, oh archer, a devotee who has compressed the rock-plinth of the shrine in the basement of penance, and raised the tower of love, whose doors are always open for the devotees, and the pinnacle of which remains four square intact and unblemished, when a devotee installs a gem of the lordship of Gita in such a shrine, the devotee will attain my own stature (18. 1497-99).... One who has assumed the body of a cave and yet whose life and breath are distinct from it is dear to my heart. (18. 1504).

The Bhagavatgita is the jewel-studded shrine. Its towering top is the wish fulfilling stone that illuminates the divine message. It is a popular belief that if one sees the top of the shrine, he gets the vision of the god within that temple. It is true of this chapter also, for when it is read, the true meaning of the Gita is comprehended. That is the reason why I hold the eighteenth chapter as the summit placed on the shrine of the Gita by Badarayana. In a shrine nothing is placed higher than the summit, so this chapter is the culmination of Gita's meaning.

Vyasa was a born master sculptor who cut the Upanishadic rock in the mountain jewel of the sacred texts. Out of the large amount of the waste-stone of the tree purusarthas, he erected the enclosure walls of the Mahabharata all around. Then he skilfully designed the Krishna-Arjuna dialogue by excavating the monolithic rock of self-knowledge. He measured the dimensions with the thread of detachment supplemented by the sacred texts and drew the edifice of liberation. The fifteen chapters of the Gita raised a fifteen fier structure. The sixteenth chapter became the neck. The seventeenth chapter became the abacus and the eighteenth chapter became the towering crown. Vyasa placed the flag post of Gita on such an edifice.

Therefore it may be presumed that each preceding chapter is an ascending tier culminating and fulfilling itself in the eighteenth chapter. Just as the crowning tower of shrine unstealthily recalls the architectonic accomplishment, so the eighteenth chapter of the Gita sums up its message. Thus Vyasa designed the Gita shrine and offered protection to the various creatures. Those who recite the text anain the merit of circumambulafion; those who hear the text, enjoy the cool shade of this shrine; those who pay careful attenfion, place the betelleaf and coin inside the shrine and enter the womb of right knowledge, they embrace the lord with the strength of self-knowledge. There is a place for all sorts of devotees in this shrine of liberation. Thus I have interpreted the eighteenth chapter, the summit of this Vaishnavite shrine by revealing its secrets. (18.30-48).

The rock-cut Mankeshvar lene that is now known as Kailasa lene, was perhaps at the back of Inaneshvara's mind when he described the Gitaramaprasada. This point originally suggested by R.C. Dhere, was well taken by M.N. Deshpande when he drew the attention of his readers to a couplet from Jnaneshvara's Amritanubhava wherein the dialectical unity of god, shrine and devotee is brought out with subtle yet eloquent suggestion: "God shrine and devotee carved in the rocky hill, such is the affair of non-dualist unity of knowledge and devotion."

Deogiri

The rock-cut architectonics had touched the chord of Jnaneshvara's poetic sensitivity at another point wherein he was describing the Yogadurga in the twelfth chapter of Jnaneshvari. The world famous rock-cut fort of Deogiri was at the hack of Jnaneshvara's mind when he drew the world portrait of Yogadurga:

"The fire of detachment would burn the army of desire and curb the unrestrained passions. The yoke of restraint would control the topsy-turvy tums by driving them within the heart's fold. Closing the door of the down-moving breath (apana) and setting a yogic posture a fort of primal bond is excavated. The bonds of desire are broken. The rocky cliffs of timidity are chiselled and the sleepy darkness is swept away."

The wordly elements apanadhatu are burnt down by the flames of thunderbolt (vajragni) and the cannons of pranayarma are worshipped by the offerings of the ailments. Setting the torch of Kundalini on the foundation wheel adharacakra the path to the crowning summit brahmarandhra is illuminated. The nine-door barbican is closed by the curvature of restraint and the window of the Kakaranti (susumna)

nadi is made wide open.

Breath is the goddess of energy, resolve is the goat, mind is the buffalo and sacrifice of these animals is the worship. By extinguishing moon and sun and by trumpeting the unsounded music, lunar nectar is won. Then through the intermediary carved stepped central tunnel of the peak of Brahmarandhra is reached. Ascending the staircase, by passing the dark cavern, embracing the sky, the highest point is grasped. "In this manner those who are self-composed, achieve liberation by conquering the fortress of Yoga" (Jnaneshvari 12 46-57).

This long quotation from Jnaneshvari is meant to suggest and substantiate that the Gitaratnaprasada and the Yogadurga of Jnaneshvari are deeply impressed by the rock-cut architectonics of Ellora and Deogiri.

Echoes of Ellora in Marathi Literature-Latest Imprint.

What follows here, proposes to present the latest echoes of Ellora in a Marathi poem. The author of this happens to have composed it. The title of this Marathi poem reads Verulchya Kailas Mandiri. This composition is a poetic response to a sculptural panel carved on the enclosure wall of the Ranga Mandap of the Kailas. As we circumambulate the main shrine and walk on the back side of the plinth, we see many flying figures decorating the walls of this shrine. In the midst of these flying figures one interesting panel of a divine drummer and a celestial dance arrests our attention. The panel is carved on the pillared mini-pavilion in the south-east comer of the outer wall of the Ranga Mandap. Within a gopura topped architrave and an elephant-lion holding basement, the pillared frame of this panel holds a cultural representation of a musical interlude that involves the sky-bound dancer Parvati and the earth-bound drummer Shiva. The sky-earth fixture of this dance is the theme of this poem.

In the Kailasa panel, celestial dance is shown flying, floating and responding to the rhythm of the drum. Parvati is shown drummed up in the sky. But for the drum she would have perhaps fallen to the ground. Parvati's left leg is cast horizontally, right leg is turned upward, right arm is stretched skyward with fingers moving freely. The breasts of the dancer are firm and terse though her entire body is swinging and swaying. The hairdo of Parvati is adding grace to her demeanour. Her face is glowing with joy and pride. Her figure is fleshy suppleness that counter balances the massive terseness of Shiva. The free moving elephants and lions the massive pillars sideways, the frolic and ferocious ganas on the architrave topped by the gopuras and kalasha define the framework of the panel that entails the earthboundness of the drummer and freedom of the dancer. The earth-bound firmness of Shiva and sky-bound freedom of Parvati are dialectically entwined in this sculptural panel of Kailas that has escaped the attention of the scholarly world so far. The poetic fancy of this dance-music dialectics has been impressed in one of my Marathi poems. What follows here is a free verse rendering of that poetic fantasy in English:

In the Kailas shrine of Ellora

Harken the story of a whirlwind dance That Gauri performed at Shiva's instance Deep through the sky in rock-cut mode

Kailas of Ellora imprints its ode.

We heard it from the sculptor straight from the dock Who carved that tale in the bosom of a rock.

Tender was his passion and simple his stock

For sake of the sculptor in loveliest of a dream Gauri did dance a lyric whirlwind

Her sky-dance mingled in rock-cut mode Its lyrical flavours vibrate in this ode.

In the olden times when strange were the ways twelve hundred years back and some more days.

Ellora's hills were stirred with dreams. Rocks were big with poetic beams. Buddha with Shiva and many a Jin

Along with the spirits of tree and wind. Bloomed on the rocks of Ellora's glen. Stones were cut subdued was the space. Wolves of time were tamed in caves.

After seven centuries of Christ had been past A grand master architect threw a gauntlet last. Hundreds of hammers and thousands of men twanged their magic and trimmed rock's mien

Songs of their hearts were flowers of a bloom

sprawling on the rocks were hue and perfume Rhyme kept moving in step with the beat Drives of hammer were singing how sweet.

Sky came out there from the deep earth A glance at Kailas is billion dollar worth.

A sculptor who cut and shaped this shrine

was helped by artisans from the continents nine cutting criss-cross they

floated the rock with a plastic miracle of distinct a stock

Having cut the shrine the master craftsman Great was his work but name uncertain.

Was on the point of just saying Amen

When suddenly he paused at the Kailas again A lightning charge of a doubt and a fear

hit him in his head he could hardly bear Defying the pulls of time and space He had done a job that was peerless.

For the lord Shiva and the Gauri of his mind A better abode none could ever find

Logic of the life but never was so straight joy makes a single sparrow sorrow packs a crate.

How senseless and wicked is the wheel of time

How crooked and dubious is the world and its rhyme.

Lo! the shrine of my dream Lo! this shrine of stone Will this keep untouched? Will this leave it alone?

At some dark stained hour of the moonless night

stars and comets of firmament To escape the fangs of darkness might descend on the terraces and towers of this shrine

How shall the shrine of my dream withstand such a bolt from the blue.

How senseless and wicked How crooked and dubious is the world and its rhyme.

Or at some odd hour of the full moon night the moon itself may walk down here under the magic spell of Ellora's rocks

may pitch its tent right there. Alas! the Rahus and Ketus are hovering everywhere.

These monsters will turn my shrine into a small spoon

and swallow it along with the moon.

How senseless and wicked is the wheel of time

How crooked and dubious is the world and its rhyme.

Crestfallen the sculptor sat on the lower terrace of Kailas He closed his eyes and opened the door

of the shrine of his mind.

In the shrine of his mind he saw a dream

Shiva was confiding in the ears of his queen Look at that creature

who sculpted this shrine He is worried of the future

events unkind.

He is thinking of what may turn up tomorrow that might end up in disaster and sorrow.

His doubts and fears are true...

But tell me frankly what can I do? The men have raised Shivalayas

in every nook and corner The fate that awaits them this shrine will share.

Shiva spoke thus to Gauri and cast a glance at the sculptor

Suddenly a point flashed in his mind This sculptor is a creature

of innocent kind. Turn that side and look at his face

Shiva told Gauri, he deserves our grace He is a dreamer

let his dreams bloom If his dreams die

Life will be in gloom.

Shiva also told her he was helpless.

He would confront things that stood face to face.

What happens in the future was beyond his grace.

You are the world's mother and also its keeper.

This sculptor is in trouble grace him with a cover.

The trouble with the sculptor was now made clear to Gauri. She resolved to do something

about his worry. She fastened her garment

and tinkling bells

Leapt freely in the sky sans wings or sails.

Shiva set up on the terrace

and trumpted the drum sporting in an open sky.

Gauri played up trump. Shiva was handling beats of sound

skybound Gauri whirling Gauri leapt

in step with lightning Shiva's drum a clouding.

A serpentine stir torn her body a violent storm she played.

Never such a skybound dance of that sort

till then was witnessed.

Dreamy eyes of the sculptor watched her sky-bound feat And heard the tingling grace of Maheshvara's drum beat.

In his dream he saw a boon bestowed on him The cup of Shiva's grace was filled up to the brim.

As long as the dance of Uma would adorn the rock-cut shrine

Nobody would dare harm Nor cause it any ruin.

Mind of the sculptor then rested in peace blessed was the shrine cherished was its crease.

Shiva's boon was honoured by the sculptor on the wall

He carved the sky- bound dance

And that was all

Shiva beats the drum And Gauri swings the sky.

Now we know the reason what they do and why.

Since then stands up Kailas Intact and unhurt

In the bosom of Ellora's rock well sung and well cut.

We heard it from the sculptor straight from the dock

Who carved that lovely tale in the bosom of a rock For the sake of a sculptor In loveliest of a dream Gauri played a sport and a lyric whirlwind.

Source: www.here-now4u.de

Soham Hamsah