BigWonders,SmallWonders:AParadigmShift

JadeF.King

May2010

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Part 1: Examination of the Wonders

There are many world wonders that captivate the fascination of the world’s

cultures. World wonders can be divided into two main categories: man-made and natural.

As impressive as the natural wonders are, people still seem preoccupied with the man-

made ones. The man-made wonders can be further divided into three subcategories:

ancient, medieval, and modern. Ancient wonders of the world include the Hanging

Gardens of Babylon, Colossus of Rhodes, Lighthouse of Alexandria, Pyramids of Giza,

Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and the Mausoleum of

Maussollos at Halicarnassus. These structures represent the pinnacle of human

achievement within their respective times. The original list was compiled by Herodotus

in the year 225BC and was housed in the famous Library of Alexandria. A second list

was compiled which contained the wonders of the Medieval world. This list contains the

Great Pyramid of Giza, the Hagia Sophia, the Taj Mahal, the Great Wall of China, the

Colosseum, the Leaning Tower of Pisa, and Stonehenge. In November 2006, a list was

compiled containing the wonders of the modern world.1 Of these lists of the wonders of

the world, the most popular from an American viewpoint seem to be the medieval

wonders.

Each of these wonders are distinctive from other constructs of the time period and

exhibit dissimilar functional purposes. The Great pyramid was constructed for a god-king

to spend his afterlife. Stonehenge was a monument to a people and the gods they

worshiped. The Colosseum was built to honor the city of Rome and as an illustration of

the Roman might. The leaning tower of Pisa was a bell house for the church in Pisa

1 United Nations. World Votes for New Seven Wonders. 8 July 2007. 18 March 2009 <http://www.un.org/partnerships/YNewsNew7Wonders.htm>

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which stands when it should not. The Hagia Sophia was built as a testament of one man's

devotion to his religion. The Taj Mahal was built to show the city and ultimately the

world the extent of one man's love for his wife. The Great Wall of China was built to

show the strength of the Chinese empire to their enemies and as the ultimate defense for

its people. However, to truly appreciate the grandeur of these wonders, their individual

stories must be told.

The Great Pyramid was a monument to the dead. It was built to honor the pharaoh

Khufu, also known as Cheops. There are multiple, valid theories that contribute to the

enigma of the Great Pyramid. However, a variety of aspects concerning the pyramid

astound both ancient and modern people alike. Herodotus was awed by the pyramid and

gave it a spot on his list of wonders. It was then carried over to the list of medieval

wonders because there was nothing then that could rival the architectural grandeur.

In order to gain a better grasp on the magnificence of the pyramid, some of the

details that leave researchers amazed must be examined. It is believed that the Great

Pyramid was built within a 14 to 20 year period. At the time of completion the Pyramid

stood 480 feet into the air. The base was 754 feet on each side. It is calculated from these

dimensions, the density of the stone, and the spaces within the structure that the pyramid

weighs 5.9 million tons. At that tremendous weight the Egyptians would have built at a

rate of 800 tons per day.2 The stones making up most of the pyramids are limestone and

were brought from many different quarries along the Nile River. It is believed that there

are as many as 2.3 million stones carefully placed to make up the Great Pyramid. The

burial chamber was built out of a single granite stone that was shipped from the Aswan

2 Lepre, J.P. The Egyptian Pyramids: A Comprehensive, Illustrated Reference. Boston: McFarland & Company, Inc., 1990.

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region of Egypt, which is over 500 miles away.3 The stones shipped each weighed over

50 tons each, equivalent to the weight of a train engine. The pyramid was the tallest man-

made structure in the world for over 3800 years until the 1300s.4

Another element in the building of the Great Pyramid is that of its position and

religious themes. The Great Pyramid’s points are aligned with only 0.05 degrees

deviation from true north. True north differs from magnetic north because it is based on a

celestial position directly above the North Pole rather than on the magnetic field of the

earth. It is very amazing that the Egyptians were able to ascertain true north rather than

magnetic north. There are also passages within the pyramid that illuminated at certain key

astronomical times of the year. These “windows” were long and designed to capture and

direct light from a particular star during a very precise time of the year. The Egyptians

were very close watchers of the stars and were very religious and believed that there was

knowledge to be obtained by watching and predicting the paths of stars in the sky.

Because of the careful attention to detail and the skilled hands of over 100,000 men, the

Great pyramid of Khufu champions significant architectural achievements.

Stonehenge

Another highly celebrated medieval world wonder is Stonehenge. It is a world

wonder for many similar reasons as the pyramids. Stonehenge is made of massive stones,

the stones had to be quarried from very far away, the exact methods as to how the

builders constructed it remains unknown, the grounds were originally used for burial

purposes, and it was probably built for religious purposes.

3 Marrucchi, G and S Pierallini. The Great Mysteries of Archaeology: The Pyramids. New York: Metro Books, 2007 4 Smyth, Piazzi. The Great Pyramid: Its Secrets and Mysteries Revealed. New York: Gramercy Books, 1995

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Even though the scale of Stonehenge is much smaller than that of the pyramids its

complexity is highly intricate. Stonehenge was built as early as 3100BC on the Salisbury

plains of England. Its builders were likely a group of people known as the Druids.

However, many other theories have emerged of giants, aliens, and Merlin as the creator

of this structure. In recent years archeological projects indicate that Stonehenge was

originally used as a burial site for cremated remains. It is believed that the site was

actively utilized for burial for 500 years after construction.5

The structure that is now known to be Stonehenge is only a skeleton of its former

self. The Stonehenge that was intended for use was much larger and contained many

more stones. The stones were placed in three different construction phases. In the first

phase, which took almost 800 years, the ditch was dug and stones lining the inner portion

of the ditch. The second phase is only partially seen today as the outermost stones known

as outer sarsen ring. The third and final phase contains the inner “bluestone” ring. It is

believed that the stones were transported from almost 250 miles away from the Salisbury

plain. It is also believed that there were nearly 3000 men involved in the transportation of

these stones.6

Once the stones were transported to the site, holes were dug and the stones were

placed almost 3 feet within the earth. On the vertical stones a mortar and pestle grove was

placed between it and the two horizontal stones creating the cap. This groove was to

stabilize the horizontal stones and prevent them from falling from the tops of the vertical

stones. The two horizontal stones had jigsaw grooves which connected them to each other

and prevented disconnection between the two horizontal stones further stabilizing the

5 Balfour, Michael D. Stonehenge and Its Mysteries. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1980. 6 Chippendale, Christopher. Stonehenge Complete. New York: Cornell UP, 1983.

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structure. This structure is an amazing architectural feat even before one considers that

each stone weighs almost 50 tons.7

Hagia Sophia

The Hagia Sophia is a medieval wonder found in Istanbul, Turkey. The mosque

first came into existence as a Greek Orthodox Church. It was originally built in 360 AD

by Constantius II when the city was called Constantinople. The building has gone

through numerous reconstructions to be the structure seen standing today. In the year 404

AD the Hagia Sophia was destroyed by fire the first time. It was rebuilt in 415 AD by

Theodosius II but was decimated by fire once again in 532 AD. The current building,

which is also fireproof, was built from 532 to 537 AD by the Emperor Justinian. The

large dome was destroyed by an earthquake in the year 558 AD, was rebuilt in 563 AD,

and remains intact today.8

It was in 1453 when Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks that the

city was renamed Istanbul. The Turks brought with them their religion of Islam and

converted the Hagia Sophia from a church to a mosque. Minarets were placed around the

building, the Christian decorative ceilings were covered by plaster, an addition was

created facing east and Santa Sophia was finally transformed into an Islamic center for

worship. The Republic of Turkey succeeded the Ottoman Empire as the controller of

Constantinople, which they renamed Istanbul. In 1935, almost 500 years of being used as

a mosque, the Republic of Turkey declared the Hagia Sophia a national museum.9 The

building underwent an intensive restoration project to remove the plaster covering the

7 Chippendale, Christopher. Stonehenge Complete. New York: Cornell UP, 1983. 8 Nelson, Robert S. Hagia Sophia, 1850-1950: Holy Wisdom Modern Monument. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2004 9 Mainstone, Rowland. Hagia Sophia: Architecture, Structure and Liturgy of Justinians's Great Church. London: Thames and Hudson, 2001

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artwork on the ceiling. However, two groups arose with ideas of how to deal with the

interior of the building. One group of Turks opposed the removal of the plaster on the

ceiling stating the museum should be left in its current condition. The other group

believes that the building should be restored to its original state.

One of the most architecturally impressive parts of the Hagia Sophia is the

massive dome in the center of the building. The dome is suspended using pendentives

which until its construction were not used on domes of this size. Pendentives are used to

support large domes and consist of massive arches atop pillars. Buttresses are used to

support the side domes along the perimeter of the large dome. There is a series of domes

which surround the main dome and lead upwards towards it. The main dome is 131 feet

in diameter and the top is 184 feet high. The dome remains partially uncovered due

primarily to the indecisiveness of the Turkish government to determine whether or not to

restore the building. At the time of its creation, the Hagia Sophia was the largest church

in the world. It was used for over 900 years as the seat of the Orthodox Patriarch of

Constantinople and was used for countless church councils and imperial ceremonies.10

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal was built in 1648 by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as a mausoleum

to honor his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal who died during childbirth. It was built in the

previous capital of Agra. The building took a total of 12 years to be built. Mumtaz Mahal

was Shah Jahan’s third and favorite wife.11 The construction of the Taj Mahal is a great

love story. Upon the death of his wife, Shah Jahan ordered the building of the mausoleum

from the finest marble that existed. The marble came from the quarry at Makrana which

10 Yerasimos, Stephane. Constantinople Istanbul's Historical Heritage. Langenscheidt Pub, 2008. 11 Koch, Ebba, and Richard André. Barraud. The Complete Taj Mahal. London: Thames & Hudson, 2006.

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was over 220 miles away. The marble had to be brought to the Taj on carts and carved at

the site. The Taj Mahal is typically thought of as the tomb alone; however, the Taj Mahal

is the entire complex encompassing the mosque, the guest chambers, the garden and the

gate. The Tomb is adorned on the exterior primarily by white marble. However, inlaid

into the white marble is black marble and semiprecious stones all cut and inlaid by hand.

Many flowers are carved into the white marble itself creating multiple floral motifs.

Around the main entrance of the tomb are verses from the Koran written in Arabic of

black marble inlay. The overall theme of the Taj Mahal is symmetry. Everything from the

flowers on the tomb, to the surrounding buildings, to the plants in the garden is in

symmetry with one another. If a flower is carved a certain way on one side of the

building, on the exact opposite side of the building, the flower will be mirrored perfectly.

This theme is carried inside the buildings as well. The tomb displays perfect symmetry

around the caskets in ornate decorations along the walls, floors, and ceiling. To the east

of the tomb is a mosque which mirrors exactly the guesthouse on the west side of the

tomb.

Shah Jahan used these words to describe the Taj Mahal:

Should guilty seek asylum here, like one pardoned, he becomes free from

sin. Should a sinner make his way to this mansion, all his past sins are to

be washed away. The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs; and

the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes. In this world this edifice

has been made; to display thereby the creator's glory.12

12 Arnold, Caroline, Madeleine Comora, and Rahul Bhushan. Taj Mahal. Minneapolis, MN: Carolrhoda, 2007.

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Once a year, on the anniversary of Mumtaz Mahal’s death, Shah Jahan would feed the

poor and homeless people of Agra in celebration of her life. He wanted everyone to come

and feel the things he had felt for his favorite wife. One of the easily recognizable parts of

the Taj Mahal is the reflecting pool in the garden. The reflecting pool is long and narrow

and is connected to the Celestial Pool of Abundance. The pool of abundance is a square

pool with a fountain in the middle which overflows into the reflecting pool. The

reflection pool has been seen in countless photographs reflecting, like a mirror, the

beauty of the mausoleum. The mirror pool is the dividing line for the line of symmetry of

the Taj Mahal. Even in the garden leading up to the mausoleum the symmetry is

preserved. Every bush, every tree, and every bench is reflected perfectly across the line of

symmetry through the center of the Taj. 13

Colosseum

In the center of Rome there is a world wonder which is a monument to a spectrum

of things not limited to: death, life, the power of the Roman Empire, and to the people of

Rome itself. This monument is called the Roman Colosseum. It is one of the most readily

recognized buildings around the world. Although many other colosseums were built by

the Romans during the same time The Roman Colosseum was the largest and most

popular ever built. 14

The construction of the Roman Colosseum began during the reign of the Emperor

Vespasian somewhere between 70 AD and 72 AD. It has been estimated that the

Colosseum was able to hold approximately 50,000 people. 15

13 Preston, Diana, and Michael Preston. Taj Mahal: Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire. New York: Walker, 2007. 14 Hopkins, Keith, and Mary Beard. The Colosseum. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2005. 15 Coarelli, Filippo, and Ada Gabucci. The Colosseum. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2001.

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Many people who owed money to the government at the time were forced to

perform in the Colosseum to pay off their debt. If they survived a certain number of

games and earned the money to pay their debt, they would be freed. Yet some of the most

successful slaves chose to become professional gladiators, risking their lives for the sport.

For them, being a gladiator was an honor. They were the bravest people in all of Rome

and some of them were the most popular as well. 16

The Colosseum was the livelihood for many professional gladiators. Across the

road from the Colosseum was the Ludus Magnus. The Ludus Magnus was the home for

the gladiators. It was also a school where those who wanted to become gladiators

professionally. The men who chose to be trained were not common prisoners or slaves

but free men who sought fame and fortune.17

In 217AD, the Colosseum was damaged by a fire caused by a lightning strike and

was not fully repaired until 240AD. It was damaged again by an earthquake in 443AD

and was repaired again. Gladitorial combat was ended in 435 due to the high costs of

maintaining the structure.

After the gladitorial games were ended, the Colosseum was used for many

different purposes. Parts of the Colosseum were used as a church during the late 6th

century and the arena was used as a cemetery. Many other places in the building were

rented out as housing and workshops for craftsmen. In the year 1200, a wealthy family

bought the Colosseum and fortified it to use as a castle.18

16 Coarelli, Filippo, and Ada Gabucci. The Colosseum. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2001. 17 Meijer, Fik, and Liz Waters. The Gladiators: History's Most Deadly Sport. New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 2007. 18 Bomgardner, D. L. The Story of the Roman Amphitheatre. London: Routledge, 2000.

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In modern times, many people have tried to find something productive to do with

the Colosseum. Leaders throughout the 16th and 17th centuries have suggested many

ideas ranging from bullfights to a factory for employment of Rome's prostitutes.

Currently, the Colosseum is a historical site which recieves millions of visitors anually.19

Great Wall

It is in far away China where the last of the medieval wonders looms. The Great

Wall of China has stood for over 2500 years as a monument to the people. In Chinese the

wall is called Wànlǐ Chángchéng which literally means “The long wall of 10,000 Li.”

The Li was an ancient unit of measurement equivalent to 500 meters. The Great Wall is

listed at over 8,800km therefore the name, indicating a 5600km wall, is not truly accurate.

However, in the Chinese language 10,000 Li is used as an idiom meaning “infinite” in

length. 20

The construction of the Great Wall of China began in the 5th century BC on the

northernmost borders of China to prevent the invasion of the Xiōngnú, a people thought

to be Mongolian in origin. The wall was built and rebuilt continuously as it was made

from wood and mud which was susceptible to erosion. The wall is a testament to the

power of a united people. However, the wall was not originally built by a unified China

but a highly divided one the northernmost wall was not the only one built during this time

period in China. The time from the 5th century BC to 221 BC was known as the Warring

Period. This is the period when China was divided into many states. The states Qi, Yan,

19 "Colosseo Biglietti Online." Biglietti Online. Musei, Mostre, Parchi Divertimento, Eventi in Italia. Web. 10 Jun. 2010. <http://www.ticketclic.it/HTML/musei/colosseo.cfm>. 20 Yamashita, Michael S., and William Lindesay. The Great Wall: from Beginning to End. New York: Sterling, 2007.

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and Zhao all constructed their own walls to prevent the invasion of each other.21 It wasn’t

until 221BC that the Chinese were unified under Qin Shi Huang who conquered the other

states and created the first dynasty of Chinese rulers. Qin Shi Huang ordered the

destruction of all of the inadequate northern walls and the construction of new, more

stable ones. The new walls were made from stone and mortar in the hills and packed

earth in the plains. Most of these walls are non-existent in present day. Each subsequent

dynasty had to rebuild and extend the walls to protect them incessantly.22

It was not until the Ming dynasty in the 1400s that the walls of China became the

Great Wall of China the modern world now knows. Technology greatly improved over

the 1200 years that had passed allowing the walls built during this period to be highly

durable. The wall built at this time was made from brick and mortar and was highly

durable and not susceptible to erosion like the previous walls. This “Great Wall” was

used primarily to deter the invasion of the Mongols in the area of Mongolia to the north

of China.23 In modern times the wall can be seen as one of the greatest achievements to

the abilities of man ever created. It is a stone wall 6 feet at the smallest portions and over

20 feet at its tallest, is as wide in most places as a two lane stretch of highway, and

stretches over 5,500 miles across mountains and plains. This is truly one of the greatest

structures and monuments to man of all time. 24

21 Rojas, Carlos. The Great Wall: a Cultural History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2010. 22 Michaud, Roland, Sabrina Michaud, and Michel Jan. The Great Wall of China. New York: Abbeville, 2001. 23 Lovell, Julia. The Great Wall: China against the World, 1000 BC-AD 2000. New York: Grove, 2007. 24 Waldron, Arthur. The Great Wall of China: from History to Myth. Cambridge [England: Cambridge UP, 1990.

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Part 2: Examination of the trip and what it means

In the summer of 2009 I had the opportunity to personally visit these wonders of

the world. In an effort to understand the feelings so many people have for the large

constructs of humanity's past, I wanted to witness these monuments first hand.

My travels first took me to Stonehenge. It is nestled in a large field surrounded

by other large fields. The closest town is approximately three miles away. In order to

preserve the stones, there is a fence which now keeps visitors about 200 feet from the

stones. Most of the people who see Stonehenge go on a guided tour. Interestingly, the

tour guides tend to allow less than an hour to take pictures and view the stones. This

struck me as odd since these massive stones are the focus point of most individuals on the

tour. Tourists are shuffled around the stone rings taking as many pictures as they can of

every conceivable angle of the structure. Then, they are encouraged to visit the gift shop

and take a small piece of their experience with them. In order to see the giant stone

structures up close, we arranged a private tour around the stones after the park had closed.

The stones have lichen growing on most parts of each surface. There are many different

varieties of lichen which grow on the stones giving them different shades of greens and

blues. It has been said that some species of lichen have not been seen anywhere else in all

of Great Britain. Interestingly, there is a particular species of lichen which turns red when

rained upon. This has the effect of turning the stones a deep red color. It is most

noticeable on the stone known as the Slaughter stone which is one of the vertical sarsen

stones fallen to its side. When rained upon, the Slaughter stone appears to be covered in

crimson blood stains. In addition to the lichen, ancient runes adorn the sides of the stones

and are now only slightly visible. Probably the most notable characteristic of Stonehenge

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is the size of the stones. Only until an individual is juxtaposed to the structure can they

appreciate the girth and enormity of the stones comprising Stonehenge. The tour I took

after the park closed was only available to fifteen people per day. It is disillusioning to

think that out of all people who visit these stones each day, only fifteen of them get to

stand next to these massive stones.

The Leaning tower of Pisa is considered one of the wonders of the medieval

world due to its counterintuitive ability to remain standing. There is only a 3m foundation

for a 55m building on shaky foundation. If a modern building were built with the same

parameters using current technology, the building would not exhibit the same

architectural persistence and would structurally fail much sooner. It is not difficult to get

to the small town of Pisa, one can either take a car or train. The church ground the tower

stands on is an unassuming part of the small town of Pisa. The area is surrounded by a

wall and one must pass through an entry way adorned with locals trying to sell small

trinkets to tourists. Through the arch is a walkway leading to the church, baptistery, and

tower. There were countless stalls of people selling the same small objects as those on the

outside. Each of them calling out for the tourists to buy something for them, offering

everyone "the best price." People are not allowed to be on the grass within these walls,

however, countless people are standing in the grass taking pictures. People stand with

their hands outstretched to look as though they are holding up the leaning tower. Only

tourists were participating in this game of holding up the wall. It must be quite amusing

for the locals to watch them all. There are many organized tours throughout the day to the

church, tower, and baptistery; none of which were free. I climbed to the top of the

Leaning tower. It is now supported with anchors to prevent further leaning and allow

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tourists inside. The stairwell winds around inside the tower. The stairs were worn from

the foot traffic but only on one side due to the leaning of the building. Once at the top

there were countless people taking pictures of the beautiful countryside surrounding Pisa.

The climb was arduous but the view was worth it all. I reflected on the history of the

tower. It was said that this tower was where Galileo dropped two cannonballs in order to

test theories concerning gravity. There is so much rich history in Pisa and with the tower

in particular. It is easy to see how so many people can be drawn to it every year.

The Colosseum of Rome was a sight to behold. It sits in the very middle of Rome

surrounded by untold amounts of history. The first thing people notice about the

colosseum is its size. The colosseum is as large as an American football field, however,

there is something quite special about the place. While people in America are quite

familiar with buildings larger than the colosseum, there is something that causes all

people to stand in awe. The colosseum was a tribute to the power of Rome at the time of

its construction. Countless people died on the battlefield against other men and even

animals. The men emerging victorious were the movie stars of that time. Modern day

gladiators and Roman guards are Roman citizens dressed up in costumes. These men and

women stand outside the colosseum and offer to have their picture taken with tourists

only to demand a fee afterward. They will use guilt to obtain "donations" from these

unsuspecting tourists. Once inside the colosseum the history is overwhelmingly evident.

Many statues and other structures are very well preserved. Tourists can walk all around

the two floors and can see vast amounts of Roman history before them. The Roman

government has been renovating the fighting floor of the colosseum in order to give

visitors an illustration to how it looked when originally used. The great Roman

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colosseum truly deserves its spot on the list of world wonders. The irreverence of the

Roman citizens to either the tourists interested in their history or the building itself was

striking. They could not care any less about the history, rather they are preoccupied with

the amount of money they could make from the tourists who flock to their city.

The fourth stop on the trip was Egypt. I traveled to Cairo and stayed in a hotel that

overlooked the pyramids. My first impression of the pyramids was indescribable. I have

never seen anything so massive in my life. My words cannot describe the feelings I felt

when looking upon something as old as these monuments. There is something very

humbling about having sand from the Sahara in your shoes and the desert sun baking

down on you while standing in front of the pyramids. My companions shared my

sentiments. We talked about how small we felt and how insignificant our buildings in

America seem by contrast. The Great pyramid can be seen from almost anywhere in

Cairo, there was not a single place I could go to escape its presence and it was a constant

reminder of where I was. The pyramids seemed so large but it was not until standing next

to them does one truly understand their magnitude. Americans are taught in kindergarten

that the pyramids are the greatest structures that mankind has ever built. All through

school we are taught how magnificent and how old these structures are. I also gained

access inside one of the pyramids to attempt to more intimately understand these

structures. Three things were immediately noticeable upon entering the pyramids: the

temperature, the smell, and the slope. Cairo, being nestled in the Sahara desert, was

110°F while the inside of the pyramid stayed a consistent 65°F. Once inside the tomb a

strong smell was immediately noticed. The smell burned in both my nose and throat and

smelled a lot like ammonia. There were vacuum pumps outside pumping in clean air. In

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order to get down into the main chamber of the tomb I had to descend a very steep slope.

The slope was approximately angled at 60° and the path downward was very small. The

slope was an amalgamation of a ramp and staircase, like nothing I had ever seen before.

Outside the pyramids there were Egyptians selling "Egyptian" gear such as head wraps

and jewelry souvenirs. There were also policemen riding around on camels with machine

guns. They would ask tourists if they wanted a picture of them and the camel, then the

police would not give the camera back until a fee was paid. It was in Egypt where I first

began to realize the true impact of my trip on my world view. I began to appreciate that

the locals really do not care as much about the historical significance of these massive

monuments as the tourists. While this may be an obvious concept, I think it is an

important one to confess. I began to wondered and still ruminate as to why they would

not recognize the grandeur in the monuments I traveled across the world to see.

Istanbul, Turkey was the next stop on my journey. I wanted to see the largest

Greek Orthodox Church as well as the largest mosque in history. The Hagia Sophia is

now a museum honoring both Christianity as well as Islam. There is nowhere else in the

world where both Christian symbols of Mary and Jesus can be found directly beside those

of Allah and the prophet Mohammed. It was novel to see the unification of these two

religions held together under a single roof. Currently it is not allowed for an individual to

openly pray from any religion due to the conflict from both Islam and Christianity. The

ceilings are covered in gold foil and are painted on to depict angels as well as Mary and

Jesus. However, in other places, the ceiling has discs with Islamic phrases concerning

Allah and the prophet Mohammed written in Arabic. Turkey was very different from

many of the other places I had visited because there was a paucity of people selling

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souvenirs outside the monuments. There was a designated market where tourists could go

to buy trinkets and other items to take home. It was a very nice change. The whole city

seemed disinterested with the tourists spending money at shops. Instead, they focused on

offering quality products at fair prices and kept people coming back for more. The people

I met were all very kind and open to foreigners. They were hospitable and offered us

anything we could want. A very generous society, seemingly concerned with how the rest

of the world viewed them.

The sixth wonder of the medieval world is the Taj Mahal. Located in Agra, India;

the former capital, the Taj was a spectacular testament to human achievement. The Taj

Mahal is on a very large piece of land and consists of a mosque, a guest residence,

gardens, the mirror pool, stables, and other buildings. The most notable building on the

premises is the mausoleum. The tomb is an everlasting tribute to the love of a former

ruler of India for his wife. We took a tour around Agra as well as the Taj itself. The

grounds were so beautiful. A verse in Arabic of black marble was inlayed into white

marble along the perimeter of each gate. One of the most amazing architectural feats

concerning the Taj was the mirror effect. There is a long pool of water which divides the

grounds in half. Everything that is present on the left side is present, exactly mirrored, on

the right side. Every bench, shrub, tree, marble figure and even the carvings on every

structure mirrored exactly. To see this mirroring first hand was spectacular. On the

mausoleum itself, there were countless semi-precious and precious stones inlayed into the

structure both inside and out. The marble for each stone was hand carved as well as the

stone itself handcrafted to fit perfectly in its required place. There were a few people we

encountered, some young boys, who wanted to take a picture with us. They stood very

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close and we noticed they were trying to pickpocket us. I had never had an issue with

pick pocketing before and this action made me realize the desperate situations many of

these people were in. I was told that the average yearly income for Indians is

approximately $400. India was the poorest place I have ever been, and I noticed a feeling

similar to the one in Egypt. We arrived at 4am and as we were driving around New Delhi,

the modern capital, we noticed cots lining both sides of the road. Sleeping in these cots

were countless homeless people. There were some who were starting to wake up and

were taking baths in the pot holes in the streets. I had never experienced poverty on a

scale this large.

The final stop in my journey was Beijing, China. The city of Beijing is

comparable to the city of New York or another large city. There were countless people

everywhere , however, many seemed quite friendly and eager to help in any way possible.

The section of the Great wall I went to was the farthest away but because of its rural

nature, it was also the least crowded. The Great wall is at the top of a very large hill.

There are two ways to reach the wall from the small town; walk up countless stairs or

take a cable car. Due to the limited time we had available, we took the cable car. The path

to the car was a steep road with locals selling everything from t-shirts to small metal

trinkets. They would call out in excellent English for tourists to buy things from them. It

was as I had seen it before in the other countries, the locals were not as interested in their

monument as they were preoccupied with making money. Although it was not

completely unexpected, the trend in attitude was interesting to note. It was a 10 minute

ride up to the wall, but the view from the top was spectacular .Once on the wall there

were many things to see. We decided to take off in a direction and see where that took us.

20

Most of the people on the wall were foreigners with the occasional Chinese man or

woman seeing the wall for the first time. At one point there was even a Chinese woman

taking wedding pictures on the wall. It was quite nice to see a local enjoying their

monument. It was very humbling to think of the countless people who had died building

this immense wall. The Chinese are credited with inventing the wheelbarrow just to make

the Great Wall of China. To know so much about this place allowed me to understand

better the significance and impression this wall has made on human history.

Both the Great pyramid and Stonehenge are architectural masterpieces which

continue to awe people from all over the world. Even after seeing these wonders first

hand, however, I feel that the world wonders should further be divided into two

subsections: big wonders and small wonders. This distinction may seem very trivial and

one might suggest that the Great pyramid is a big wonder and Stonehenge is a small

wonder. However, I would consider something much smaller to be considered among

world wonders. I would suggest that antibiotics should be listed as a candidate as a man-

made world wonder. I would also argue that these small wonders are the most important

wonders and have changed the entire world for the better. I would further argue that the

antibiotics more complicated in their construction and function than any other wonder on

the lists.

21

Part 3: Examination of the Biochemistry

In order to fully explain antibiotics and grasp their impact on humanity as a whole,

it is first necessary to discuss the biochemistry of the organisms they kill. Bacteria,

although very “simple” when compared with a multi-cellular organism, are highly

complex. Even though bacteria are only a few microns in length, they can multiply at a

high rate and can cause impressive amounts of irreparable damage to cells. For better or

worse, they are ubiquitous in human lives, present both in the lining of intestinal walls

and living within our mouths. It is estimated that there are 40 million bacteria living in 1

gram of soil and over a million in a single milliliter of water.25

Bacteria were first discovered in 1676 by Antoine van Leeuwenhoek using the

single-lens microscope he had invented. In 1859 Louis Pasteur proved that

microorganisms were responsible for fermentation and because of further investigation

advocated, along with Francis Lister and Robert Koch, a theory that “germs” were

responsible for diseases. In 1905 Robert Koch won the Nobel Prize in Medicine for

proving this germ theory and its relation to tuberculosis, cholera, and anthrax.26

There are three main types of microorganisms: eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and

viruses. Bacteria are prokaryotes while humans’ cells are eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic

cells are very simple; comprised only of a cell wall, a plasma membrane, DNA, RNA,

proteins and many small molecules needed for life. Prokaryotic cells, unlike eukaryotic

cells, live alone or in small groups rather than in multicellular organisms. Prokaryotic

cells also outwardly look as different from each other as they do from eukaryotic cells.

For example, prokaryotic cells can be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral; and can vary in

25 Alberts, Bruce. Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York: Garland Science, 2008. 26 Nester, Eugene W. Microbiology: a Human Perspective. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill, 2009.

22

size from very small to very large. Bacteria were the first microorganisms to be

discovered because they are the largest of the microorganisms. Typically bacteria can

range in size between 0.5 and 5.0 micrometers(µm) in length. Although they are large

when compared to other prokaryotes, their size is still quite small. There are

approximately 25,000 micrometers in one inch. Therefore in one linear inch there can be

as many as 50,000 bacteria and in one square inch as many as 2.5 billion bacteria.27

One of the most important parts of bacteria is the cell wall. The cell wall provides

seminal protection against a harsh outside world. The cell wall of bacteria is very rigid

when compared to that of eukaryotic cells because eukaryotic cells do not possess the cell

wall. The rigidity comes from the peptidoglycan layer which gives support and a

structural frame to the prokaryotic cell. Peptidoglycan is a polymer of sugars and amino

acids which form a type of mesh outside the plasma membrane. The first component of

the peptidoglycan is N-acetylglucosamine which is derived from glucose. The other part

of the mesh is the N-acetylmuramic acid derived from lactic acid. In addition to the

peptidoglycan, bacteria have plasma membranes.28

The plasma membrane is a fat-like layer which is flexible and allows for the

uptake of nutrients and excretion of waste. These membranes have proteins embedded

within them which allow them to interact with their environment and communicate with

other bacteria.28 The proteins also act like pores and are responsible for the passage of

small molecules and water into and out of the bacterial cell. Only select small molecules

are allowed in and the proteins are highly specific for the right molecule to allow passage.

Therefore, the plasma membrane acts as a molecular sieve allowing only defined

27 Nester, Eugene W. Microbiology: a Human Perspective. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill, 2009. 28 Alberts, Bruce. Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York: Garland Science, 2008.

23

molecules which it needs and can use to enter while excluding potentially harmful

material.

There are two main subclasses for bacteria which describe the nature of their

cellular wall. These subclasses are called gram positive and gram negative. Gram positive

bacteria have their peptidoglycan layer on the surface of the cell cytoplasmic membrane.

Gram negative bacteria have both an inner and outer plasma membrane which surrounds

the peptidoglycan keeping it protected.29

29

There are four main classes of antibiotics that are categorized based on their

function. There are antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis, RNA polymerase synthesis,

DNA synthesis, and protein synthesis.29 Any one of these pathways effectively cripples

29 Alberts, Bruce. Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York: Garland Science, 2008.

24

the bacterial cell and causes it to cease functions required to maintain viability.

Antibiotics are referred to as "bactericidal" meaning they kill bacteria. However, it should

be noted that there are many other substances known as "bacteriostatic" which prevent

bacteria from growing in a desired location. Microscopic coatings of silver on disposable

hospital items, such as urinary catheters to prevent bacterial growth, are a good example

of the bacteriostatic nature of silver.

In order for a bacterial cell to maintain important interactions with its

environment, the cell wall must function properly. A strategy for many antibiotics is

disruption of the cell wall, specifically by blocking cell wall synthesis. The cell wall must

be constantly maintained else the bacterial cell will destabilize and the cell will no longer

be able to function properly. One function of the bacterial cell wall is to provide support

for the high pressure system within the cell. The sugar polymer is maintained by

penicillin binding proteins which are inhibited by beta-lactam antibiotics. When the

binding proteins are inhibited, the cell enzymatically destroys the peptidoglycan,

30compromising the integrity of the cell wall and prompting the cell to explode.

Penicillins, cephalosporins, and monobactams are all examples of beta-lactam antibiotics.

Gram positive bacteria are more susceptible to beta-lactam antibiotics than gram negative.

Because the peptidoglycan is exposed to the environment in gram positive bacteria, they

are more susceptible to antibiotics introduced to the environment. 31

The central dogma of biology is that DNA is transcribed to RNA which is

translated to proteins. Proteins are imperative to the function of a cell. They are essential

30 Nester, Eugene W. Microbiology: a Human Perspective. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill, 2009. 31 Goodman, Alfred G, Lee E. Limbard and Joel G. Hardman. Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001.

25

for the regulation of all processes within the cell. RNA is synthesized from DNA by the

enzyme RNA polymerase. RNA polymerase is an enzyme consisting of multiple subunits;

bacterial RNA polymerase has five subunits. An enzyme is a protein which causes a

certain reaction to occur faster than it would in the absence of the enzyme. They are

biological catalysts meaning they are required for the reaction to occur at an appreciable

rate but are not consumed in the reaction. Without RNA polymerase, DNA would not

spontaneously form RNA based on a particular strand. Each of the RNA polymerase

subunits has a different role to play in the production of RNA from DNA. These subunits

form complexes with DNA at varying positions facilitating the enzymatic preventing

RNA polymerase from making RNA. The rifamycins are a unique class of antibiotics

which bind very strongly to the bacterial RNA polymerase preventing it from binding to

DNA. If the RNA polymerase cannot bind to DNA, it cannot make RNA and the cell

cannot create proteins which are integral for survival and propagation. Rifamycins are

able to target both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. For reasons unknown, the

plasma membranes of many bacteria are not selective against the rifamycins and

therefore allow them entry to the interior of the cell. 323334

Many antibiotics are produced from certain species of bacteria genetically

engineered to produce vast quantities of an antibiotic for which they have been made

resistant. A bacterium will produce an antibiotic against other bacteria because they are

highly territorial. In a sense, a bacterial colony wants to occupy the most space possible

and does not want to share that same environment with a different species of bacteria.

32 Alberts, Bruce. Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York: Garland Science, 2008. 33 Nester, Eugene W. Microbiology: a Human Perspective. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill, 2009. 34 Goodman, Alfred G, Lee E. Limbard and Joel G. Hardman. Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001.

26

They will try to outcompete one another for space and resources. In order to overrun

another species, a bacteria colony will begin to secrete an antibiotic against other bacteria,

thus killing them off. Penicillins, cephalosporins, tetracyclines, and many other major

classes of antibiotics were derived from bacteria. 35 They were originally purified in a lab

setting and are now created by genetic engineering techniques. Antibiotics created by

isolating them from a natural source are referred to as natural product antibiotics while

antibiotics created solely by chemists are called synthetic antibiotics.

Synthetic antibiotics such as nitrofurans and oxozolidinones are made entirely in

an organic chemist's lab. These novel classes of antibacterial agents are revolutionary

because upon their conception, there were no bacteria with a natural resistance to them,

unless they were designed for a specific microbe. Since antibacterial resistances are

becoming increasingly common36, it is important to have synthetic antibiotics where very

few microbes are resistant. A commonly prescribed synthetic antibiotic is nitrofurantoin.

This antibiotic is typically used in the treatment of urinary tract infections. It is highly

effective against many strains of E.coli. Nitrofurantoin actively causes damage to

bacterial DNA causing many mutations and eventually the destruction of the bacterial

cell. Another powerful antibiotic which is less frequently prescribed is linezolid.

Linezolid is a powerful antibiotic which is used as a treatment for persistent and highly

resistant bacterial strains. Microbes which are resistant to the powerful antibiotics

methicillin and vancomycin typically are not to linezolid due to its infrequent

35 Society for the Advancement of Education. ""Bad" Bacteria proves helpful - Antibiotics - Escherichia coli used in manufacturing erythromycin." October 2002. 6 April 2009 <http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1272/is_2689_131/ai_92691060>. 36 "ONI BioPharma Inc. Announces Successful Antibiotic Synthesis Using DPOLT(TM) Technology." Medical News Today: Health NEws. 5 March 2009 <http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/126166.php>

27

use.37Linezolid is only effective against gram-positive bacteria and is then only used as a

last effort to quell the infection.38 The mechanism of action for linezolid is not

completely understood but it is known that it inhibits the synthesis of proteins within the

bacterial cell causing cellular death.

As mentioned previously, bacteria can develop resistances to one or multiple

antibiotics. Resistance can be induced in bacteria by the addition of a plasmid. Plasmids

are small circular pieces of DNA which are code for the production of proteins

responsible for genetic resistance to antibiotics. Sometimes bacterial colonies which are

resistant to certain antibiotics get engulfed by other species of bacteria. Once engulfed,

the bacteria now are able to be resistant to the same antibiotic as the bacterium it

consumed. This new resistance is caused by the DNA of the first bacterium merging with

the second allowing the bacterium to now be resistant. Some common mechanisms of

resistance are permeability barriers, efflux pumps, antibiotic target modification, and

inactivating enzymes.39

Permeability barriers are common mechanisms for the prevention antibiotics from

reaching their target. In order for antibiotics to be effective, they must reach their target

of action. Permeability into the cell is often caused by proteins expressed on the surface

which allow certain molecules to pass directly to the cell interior. Prevention of entry

involves removing the protein or adding additional specificity to it inhibiting the entry of

the antibiotic.

37 Departmetnts of Surgery, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Tennessee. "Pyrogenic Exotoxins as Superantigens." Clinical Microbiology Reviews (1995): 411-26. 38 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "Bacterial 'Battle For Survival' Leads To New Antibiotic." 27 February 2008. Science Daily. 4 March 2009 <http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080226115618.htm>. 39 Alberts, Bruce. Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York: Garland Science, 2008.

28

Efflux pumps are highly specific for a particular antibiotic and pump it out of the

cell interior. This is very useful for the cell because permeability barriers can often cause

cells to deny themselves of the nutrients the proteins were allowing to enter. With the

efflux pumps, the cell can maintain the same permeability for the nutrient as well as the

antibiotic; however, the pumps will just pump out the antibiotic causing the cell no

harm.40

Sometimes bacterial cells will modify the antibiotic target. Antibiotics are very

specific for a particular target either on the cell wall or in the cell interior. Bacteria can

modify the antibacterial target causing it to no longer become the target, rendering the

antibiotic useless. For example, when antibiotics attack the RNA polymerase enzyme

they target a specific portion of the enzyme. Sometimes the bacteria can modify that

portion so that it is different enough that it can continue to function normally (i.e. binding

to DNA and synthesizing RNA) while still different enough to prevent the antibiotic from

binding. 41

One of the most common forms of antibiotic resistance are inactivating enzymes.

An example of an inactivating enzyme is beta-lactamase. Beta-lactamase is produced by

bacteria to completely render useless the class of antibiotics known as the beta-lactams.

The beta-lactam structure forms a ring which the beta-lactamase breaks open thus

eliminating the antibiotics effects. A diagram for antibiotics sites of action and

mechanisms of resistance are shown below.

40 Mulvey, M. R., and A. E. Simor. "Antimicrobial Resistance in Hospitals: How Concerned Should We Be?" Canadian Medical Association Journal 180.4 (2009): 408-15. 41 Goodman, Alfred G, Lee E. Limbard and Joel G. Hardman. Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001.

29

42

It is very important to understand the significance of antibiotics and how they

have changed the modern world. In America, antibiotics are routinely prescribed after

surgery and with every small infection. This can create many problems as well as benefits.

The benefits are obvious, no infection after surgery and other infections are circumvented

earlier than normally possible. However, there exists the possibility for antibiotics to be

overprescribed. Antibiotics diminish the need for an immune response by destroying the

bacteria itself rather than forcing the body's immune system to adapt and destroy the

infection. This can cause the immune system to not be able to handle subsequent attacks

by bacteria.42 If a person is exposed multiple times to the same bacteria, and has no

immune system to combat it, they are poorly adapted to handle attack when the antibiotic

42 Mulvey, M. R., and A. E. Simor. "Antimicrobial Resistance in Hospitals: How Concerned Should We Be?" Canadian Medical Association Journal 180.4 (2009): 408-15.

30

is not around. Unfortunately, bacteria are fully capable of evolving immunities to certain

antibiotics as was previously discussed. People are often forced to change their antibiotic

regiment for each subsequent infection. Eventually, the bacterial strain that keeps

resurfacing within their body will be completely refractory from every antibiotic

available. Once the bacteria are completely nonresponsive with respect to antibiotics, the

person will probably die from the infection.

Typically, bacterial infections can become resistant to certain antibiotics from

individuals not taking the entire prescribed dose and instead "saving some for later." If a

person does not take an antibiotic long enough to kill the entire population of bacteria

present, it can lead to the bacteria forming resistance to that antibiotic. 43 The resistant

bacteria will form colonies which will continue to grown and upon additional antibiotic

administered the effect is abolished. An illustration of antibiotic resistance from a single

antibiotic resistant organism is shown below.

44

43 Devitt, Terry. "Engineered bacterium churns out two new key antibiotics." 5 March 2009. PhysOrg.com. 10 January 2010 <http://www.physorg.com/news154193863.html>. 44 Mulvey, M. R., and A. E. Simor. "Antimicrobial Resistance in Hospitals: How Concerned Should We Be?" Canadian Medical Association Journal 180.4 (2009): 408-15.

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Part 4: Examination of what it all means…

It is very important for people to understand these tiny wonders and to appreciate

them to a greater degree. I would also like to further suggest that many people around the

world take for granted the wonders just as we do. I will give an example. Imagine an

American man standing in Egypt staring at the pyramids. He then pops a malaria pill into

his mouth not really caring what it does or how it can save his life. He is more

preoccupied with the pyramid and the intricacy involved in its construction. Meanwhile,

an Egyptian man is standing there watching the American; he wants the malaria pill to

keep his family safe. He could care less about the pyramids, he’s seen them before. He is

more fascinated that a small pill could prevent the death of his child or any other member

of his family. It is something that many do not understand and simply take for granted. I

feel that it is crucial to appreciate the medical advancements that keep us safe around the

world from the smallest of creatures. One of these microscopic wonders, I feel, is more

important and more amazing than all of the wonders, past and present combined.