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1,1 THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING ATRANSPORT SYSTEM IN SOMEMU LTICELLU LAR ORGANISMS
Learning Outcornes:o Identify the problems that could be faced by multicellular organisms in obtaining
their cellular requirements and getting rid of thejr waste productso Suggest how these problems are overcome in multicellular organisms
Problems Faced by Multicellular Organisms in Obtaining Their Cellular Requirementsand Removing Their Waste Products
How multicellular organism overcome these problem?
1. Have sreg:.*1i:S.$..... structure to increase the s.Y.ff.9.9.9....... a.t9.9.... for the exchange of
respiration gases
2. Have t.r.-q.l$RSftsystem to get gases respiration in and out of tissue and to take excretory
waste/ urea from ihe liver to the kidney and skin
3. Have d.i.frQ.€.ty.gsystem to bring in food from surroundings into alimentary canal, digest and
absorb into small intestine. Digested food are then transported to the body cells through
blood and lymphatic system.
Unicellular organisms {Eg. Amoeba sp and Pararnecium sp)
'1, Have small size - the TSfuV is ni.9. Exchange of substances between organism ar
surrounding occurs easily
2. Body cells is directly in contact with surroundings. No need specific organ for gas
exchange.
3. Transpori system not required as gases exchange can takes place by plasma
membrane. Excretory waste are directly eliminated from cells to the surroundings
through the cell membrane
4. Does not need digestive system because food is directly taken in from surrounding
through plasma membrane by pht-9.9SJt-o.-€.'S..., then digested by intracellular enzyme
in food vacuole
1. Big size - the total surface area to volume
(TSA/V ) is d.9.e.1.9.?.f.9........
Rate of diffusion of substances inio and out
of all body cells is 1.9.S.......
2.Cells are often 19.S9.tS.-d.
far away from the external
sudace of the body
zllea-sr'*.
Sarnple Question 2 PaPer 3
The fate of gxqhqnge of SUbEtances in an organigm depends on the sr;face area that is
in contict with the surroundings. However, the amount of substances the organism
requires also depends on the volume of organism, The ability to meet these
iqqqlrgmqnts depends an the tqta! surtuce area tA vglume ratig.
Base on the above statement, design a laboratory experiment to investigate the effect oftotal suface area to volume ratio on the rate of diffusion of substances.
of
rd
lsm aI
zyme
Objective To investigate the effect of total sudace area to volume ratio on the rate ofdiffusion of subtances.
ProblemStatement
What is the effect of total surface area to volume (TSA/V) ratio on the rate ofdiffu sion of substances?
Hypothesis The larger the total surface area to volume ratio, the higher the rate of diffi]sion
of substances.
Variables MV: size of potato cubes /total surface area to volume raUo (of the potato cube)
RV: rate of diffrrsion / percentage of coloured area
FV: time taken/ volume/concentration of coloured water
Material &Apparatus
Potatoes, cslored solution/liquid //red inV filter paper
Beaker, white tile, knife, ruler and grid (transparency)lgraph paper, stop watch
Teehnique Measure and record area stain with colored solution by using grid
(transparen cy) lt calculate and record the rate of diffusion by using formula :
Rate of diffrrsion = p€rc€ohge of colored area/ time taken(o/o min-1)
4
r
1"
Procedure 1.
2.Cut the potatoes into cubes with side 1cm, 2cm and 4cm respectively.Immerse the three potato cubes into the beaker, of colored liquid for 30minutes.After 30 minutes, remove the potato cubes from the beaker, the outersurface of the cubes are dried with filter paperCut each potato cube into halfThe colored area in each cube is estimated by using grid (transparency)The percentage of eoloured area and the rate of diffi-tsion of each cube is
calculated and the results are recorded in the table.
3.
4,5.6.
ResultSizeof
cubes(cm)
Totalsurface
area(c*')
Volume(cmt)
Totalsurfacearea Ivolume(cm-1)
Percentageof coloredarea (o/o)
Rate ofdiffusion(% min-l)
1
2
3
Conclusion The larger the total surface area to volume raUo, the higher the rate of diffusionof substances
C[r
ExCreise { (Rclating size to TSAM
Examine cuboid A and B. Calculate the TSAIV of both cuboids.
Assurne that the euboids ere two organisms. Whieh oFgaRisms
obtain their cellular requirement (O2 and nutrient) and removing
their waste produets {COzand urea) easily? Why?
Answer
a
(r
p
m'm;LI
1.2 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Learning Outcomes:o State what a circulatory system iso State the three components of the circulatory system in human and animalso State the medium of transport in humans and animalso State the composition of human bloodo Explain the function of blood and haemolymph in transporto Describe the structure of human blood vesselso Explain how blood is propelled through the human circulatory systemo Explain briefly how blood pressure is regulatedo Compare and contrast the circulatory system in the following: human, fish
and amphibianso Conceptualise the circulatory system in human
Circulatory System in Humans and Animals
1. Tlle circulatory system helps organism in:
a) delivering n.:*.fi9.S.{.. and oxJ9.311...... to cells
,b) carrying .9.9*..... andw.9ft9... p.f9SY9..+.f.. away from the cells
c) protecting the body from infections
2. The circulatory system includes three components:
1'V= 54
27
A.'ti.r.tglf ..
. blood
(plasma, blood
cells and
platelets)
lnvertebrates
. h.e.::l3.llPf.h.
aodatubular heart
haemolymph
Functions as a
m.Y.f.e.}J.9l. p..Y.$P
It creates the
p.t.9.:LT.19... that
forces the b.l.?3-d...
through the blood
vessels throughout
the whole body of
the organism.
Components of circulatory system
a) Medium of transport/ BL?.9.9...
c.sPi*31i.?.*
6l@EK
1.2 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Learning Outcomes:o State what a circulatory system is
o State the three components ol the circulatory system in human and animalso State the medium of transport in humans and animalso State the composition of human bloodo Explain the function of blood and haemolymph in transporto Describe the structure of human blood vesselso Explain hbw blood is propelled through the human circulatory systemo Explain briefly how blood pressure is regulatedo Compare and contrast the circulatory system in the following: human, fish
and amphibianso Conceptualise the circulatory system in human
Circulatory System in Humans and Animals
1. Ttle circulatory system helps organism in:
a) delivering n.nt f.i?.S.{.. and o}fl9.3!?...... to cells
.b) carrying .S.g:s..... andw.gf!.9... p.*$:t9.-+.f.. awayfrom the cells
c) protecting the body from infections
2. The circulatory system includes three components:
;l":l*''
l
i
I
_lT1]3
1' A nr lflQlSn..,.....4;..
rsma, blood
s and
:elets)
lnvertebrates
. h.3.:.39.1rrr.b.
aortatubular heart
haemolymph
Functions as a
m.Y.-s.9.Y.19. !.. p. -u.$f
It creates the
p.r.9.ff.1i.9... that
forces the b.l.*S...
through the blood
vessels throughout
the whole body of
the organism.
V= 5427
-2-
Components of circulatory system
a) Medium of transport/ B!.?.9S... b) Blood vessels
c arteries
. csPll\*li.?.f....
. veins
capillariesVCINS
. blood
(plasmi
cells ar
platelet
6I@:EY
rComposition of Human Blood
. Blood is a kind connective tissue that are composed of.
D
(
Human Blood
/--\ n(,,.)}t\.-/ U
I
LLr
g
Neutrophils -
- mostabundantWBC
Monocytes *
-Origin frombone marrow
p.139.113.... sszCeliular components 45%
Le.{s.e}ls:(wBC)
Pt9.ls.l9.ts..
. Nutrients (e.g: glucose, aminoacid)
. lr,rinir"ut salts (eg .+S].,..lLpi.l..cl \'..' . '.. . .... '..,
. Dissolved qases (o*J.99lta n d.931'.P9.-3. 9: g::,ii$
. Hormones (eg: insulin)
. Waste products (eg: urea anduric acids)
. Antibody
. Plasma protein eq: albumin,g.t g.b.:l.{in.., fibrin"ogen a ndprothrombin
. Platelets arefragments of large cellsfrom the bone marrow.. They have no nucleus. They are important.inthe orocess of b19.9*..c.letti.h9.V---,tr - +(: q,,\/
| o= z-r p.
\u$ I
Ae.f.g !Tr.1 99.e,.1S1 3 0 % )Clear cytoplasmN.tl.9.!9.1.. are not lobed
Granulocytes (70%)G !:9.0.!l l3!:.. cyto plasmLobed nuclei
Lgtl.Pt'9.9J.+.9:-produceantibodies-neutralizetoxins.
3)
Eosinophils *
-controllallergicresponses
.f*nor.- *:
immobilemobile
8a- Sca'tz
Notes: . Phagocytes ='cell eater'
Differentiate Red Blood Cells and White Blood Cells
. Complete the table below:
Characteristic RBC wBc'
1. Shape a)Eryth rocytes are b.lSSl.9g.Y.* discs,
SETVES
.lncrease s!t#9.9.-e... a.trg-.S. to volume
ratio for diffusion of gases across its
plasma membrane.
b) Erythrocytes have no n.Y.9!.9.11S. to
gives space for great quantities of
h.e..s.illp.g.lI9i.n..
Leucocytes have nll.-c.t9.Y.1. uut oo
not have h s.9IP.qP.!9.f.1. f h"/"r"larger than erythrocytes and do
not have fixed shape.
2. Function . Has haemoglobin that contains iron
atom and is the site of o.LH.9S.?... and
carbon binding.
o Haemoglobin will combine with
oxygen or carbon dioxide depend on
their partial pressure and carry those
gases during respiration.
Le,v999Vtes "glg,!'g:pg?sible for the
d.9f:.?.:.-e...... of orga nisms against
diseases.
3. Diameter 8pm 10-15 pm
4. Number ofblood cell/mm3 5 million/ mm3 6000-'10000/ mm3
5. Lifespan 120 days A few days
7. Manufactured
in
B.q19... m.9.L1.9.H... ' Bone marrow (granulocytes), but
may migrate to the thymus gland or
lymph nodes for their growth and
development stages.
. L,9!P.P.l.q.* scg.t.gP. (agranulocytes)
8. Destroyed in liver and spleen By phagocytosis process
Ratio: 1 WBC:700 RBC
ellea-s,*.
Functions of Blood in Transport Fu
3) Transport of carbon dioxide. Cel I u la r resoi ration releases c.-q.L9.-o.?......
dr:e.?:{S.9..... '
Glucose + Oz ----> Energy + COz + water
. Carbon dioxide is transported from cellsto the lungs/alveolus in the form of
o hd.9.{99.9.?.. c.9.qh9391:.. ions inplasma
o b.sl..b..l.t'll.::ghs.s.n99lghiliin RBC)o Dissolves directly in the blood
plasma. When the blood reaches the lungs, the
carbon dioxide is released and. diffusesout of the blood into the aLy.igli.......
7) Transpoft of absorbed food materials. Soluble digested tood, v.itgfil.Jano mineral
are absorbed into the c.3fi.ll:.ll9f. of the villiin the small intestine. For examples:o stl*tl3.... s.YgS.l.. e.g glucoseo amino acidso water soluble vitamins ie ..Y.i*..P..o mineral salts
. Thgy are transported by the hgf$t.*. p9ltglv.g.il.. frorn slR-q.!I. i.T'.*.*ilg to the liver andthen to the heart.
. Other food materials are absorbed into the1.99.t331+..... in the villi. For examples:o fatty acids^ rrl g ceFolv Y.....r...'...1r
o vitamins A, D, E and K( fat solublevitamin)
r They are then transported by the l.{.{lPh. intothe blood circulatory system via the leftsubclavian vein.
What is transported?
From where?
To where?
For what?
1 )Transport of oX9.9.9n...... T rans port oxyg e n f rom l.9.DSf .ial.Y.99.l.Yl
to all parts of the body/ cells.r ln the lung, oxygen combines with
h99f9.-e.l.q.htn. in tne erythrocytes to formoxyhaemoglobin. Erythrocytes is thenpumped to the body tissue.
. I n tiss u e, o.r.v. h.-q. 3 :L9.s. J.9I i3. d i s soci atesinto haemoglobin and oxygen, andoxyqen is thereby supplied for c3ll.l.J.1l.r.s.*rt3]l9?.. Lung
Hb + Oz -----+ HbOhffiv.eEn
4)Transport.of excretory waste products. D93.T!.:.9f.-o.?. of excess amino acids occurs
in the 1.1Y.91"... to form urea.
. From liver urea is transported by blood tothe ki.9lSif... to be excreted.
5)Tra n sport of h.9.1.T,?.t).9f.....r Blood transports hormones produced by the
e.qC.9.91i.1.9.. g.l.?.1.S.1.... to the target organs.
. For example, insulin and g.1.T.9.-a.9Sl'1.. arecarried by blood from the pancreas to theliver.
2)Transport of water to tissuesr Water is transportqd by blood to prwide
a m ed i u m fo r b l:9.9h.9.T iS9. :.... r.e..9.!*9Ll.re)Tt| . 'n.99-u.l9l9body temperalure by distributing heat, especially
I
I from muscle & liver to other oarts of the bodv I
{n"tion"ore}
.Jt'ansoo|
./
ollea-s,,*
I
Fulnction of Haemolymph in Transport
' lr insects, the h9glng.lH.TPh. is a circulating
blood-like nutritive fluid which fills the entire
bcdy cavity called haemocoel.
2. A circulating system in insects is called oFS.?'
ci.r:.g..t].9if.t9... slr:.*3.P... because the
haemolymph
. is not confined to vessels onlY.
. bathes the tissues and internal organs directly
Nutrients from di.9.-e.f.t-e.9.. f.9.9.{.+ and h9..ll}-o..*S. diffuse from the haemotymph into the cells.
Waste products diffuse out from the cells into the haemolymph.
The haemolymph does not transport respiratory gases. Respiratory gases are transported
via the tracheal system.
Complete the table below to show where certain substances enter and leave
the blood
main blood
digestivetract
haernolymphflows into haemocoel
Bio-brain
Substance Carried from Carried to
Amino acids lle qrtl Liver
Urea
Heat Skin
Endocrine gland Target organs
lollEio- se*.I l--
Structure of Human Blood Vessels
There are three types of human blood vessels: artery, c.g.Pi]].SLy... and vern
A.n*g19....... Blood vessels that
carry oi1).9:nL:.9...
bL-o.9.3.. away from the
h.9.9f1... to all parts of
the body except
pulmonary artery.
c.-q.P.l.lSLY..,. Sites for the efS.\9!'t9..-e. ot
respiratory gdQes, nutrients and :
wastes between blood and body
cells.
. Capillary is the smallest blood
vessel which joints artery and vein.
vg.i.t...Veins transport
d.g.g.)P.91-q.-r.3.1
b1.99.9...... from all
parts of the b.*J back
to the heart except
pulmonary vein.
Human Blood Vessels
Capillary VenuleArteriole I
Artery
r* -tI
Jt--
deoxygenated biood
Different types of blood vessels
Endothelium
Lumen
Connective tissue
Smooth muscle
Elastic tissue
Cross section of typical blood vessel
Note:
. Artery branch out into smaller vessels called arterioles
r Afierioles branch to form capillaries.
. Capillary ioin with one another to form venules.
. Venules join together to form vein
ttlle;.-s, ".
3. The differences between arteries, capillaries and veins
- Pulse '. The wave oTpressure on artery due to pumping action of the heart
Characteristic Arteries Capillaries Veins
Diagram
Collagen fibre(connective tissue)
dothe
Elastic fibremuscle
Single layer ofepithelialcells
Endothelium
muscle
Direction of blood
flow
Transport blood away
from ihe h.egLt.. to the
tissuesicells
Connect
a.r*9ri9l.ff to
venules
Transport blood from the
tissues to the heart
Blood content Transport oxygenated
blood except the
pulmonary artery
Act as the sites for
eI3h9.t].9S.... of
substances with the
cell
Transport
d eoxgg8 no'te{;, tso{
except the pulmonary
vein
Wall Th.i.".S..... muscular wall One cell in
thickness (thinnest
wall)
T!:'1.'l1Sf ...... wall
Lumen size Small V.-e.|J.... s. !ll9.tl.. Large
Valve No valve (except aorta at
the base of aoda and
pulmonary artery)''
No v.9.1Y9... Valyes present along of
the vessel to prevent
back flow of blood
Blood pressure H.i9h.... (with pulses) * Lower than arteries
but higher than
veins (No pulse)
L9.::l'.... than arteries
(No pulse)
121@:8,"*.
r'
How Blood is Propelled Through the Human Circulatory System?
1. A heart, is an organ that generates the p.L9.8..{.9.f9'. to pump the blood
2. The basic structure of the human heart
\//a,,..e.e.:t.9...
Pulmonary-arterY
superiorvena cava
Pulmonaryvein
Right atriumLeft atrium
Bicuspid valve
inferiorvena cava
Chordae tendinae *
Right ventricle Left ventricle
*Chordae tendinae control theclosing of the valve and prevent thebi/tricuspid valve from turning insideout during systole ventricle*
are not controlled by the nervous system.
d) The r.r.9Jtt. p.9.TP....... forces deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The left pump forces
o.T.999.L9.t-€.9... b.19.9.9...... to other parts of the body
E
&rr.!m
W*Iineill'litiT Ii,F
F-il'qtlt r:
-:i- -
-
il\lr -
dr i*-. -\l t=. =
E*:a:/hnrswr
of ilrl,e
a) The human heart has four chambers:
. A.f*5;:-q. .. (singular, atrium) (upper chambers right and left) which receive blood
returning to the heafi.
. V.?.tlLlig.q:..... (lower chambers right and left) which pump blood out of the heart.
b) The s.eP.tY.T...... separates the right chambers from the left chambers.
c) The valves in the heart ensure that blood flows only in o.Q,9.. di.19.9.'1i.9f.. There are iq
three types of valves:
. S.g.Til-u.?.11.. wlye- the valves at the base of the aorta and pulmonary artery
o Bicuspid valve - the valve between the 19f.1... a.tl'.ig.*. and t9.fi. v.9f1.'.'.SJ'9.'.. i
. Tf.i3.lt:fi9. v.9,r,Y.9..... - the valve between the right atrium and right ventricle. il,
c) The heart is made up of c.9.fii.9.9. muscles. lt is said to be m,Y9.99L19.... because the
heart muscles able to contract and relax automatically (auto rhythm) throughout life and
6c4'>e444
lI
I
''" II
)d
rt.
tre
the
rnd
les
141
--e p;mping of the heart
b) Systole Atrium {0.1
- bicrispid'&
tricuspid
valves opened
- semilunar
valves closed
c) Systole Ventricle (0.3
- bicuspid'& tricuspid
valvesclosed-'''
- semilunar valve
opened
ffihsr an'e SAN and AVN? Mark the position of SAN and AVN on the diagram (a) above.
tne sin9..-.,q.l.fi:I.n9.L?.. 1Snf.f 1 is a specialised bundle of tissue, located in the ri9h.t.....
a*.r.iS1......... wall, near the entrance of the anterior v-9.L9...' c'lL9-...'.'..
It acts as p5.99.T:19.f...... which generate a wave of e)t9.i.t9l9I-v. irnPl.Y-s.9i... tne
impuls is then spread to atria, causing them to c.q.?IL9.tJ..... simultaneously. Hence,
blood is then forced into the v.S.$.f 1.9.}-e.f......'. (right and left)-
Further more, the impulse is then stimulates the second node atTl'.9..-.L9'lJIl9.Y!:f.'?9-d.e
(AVN) lying at the base of the ri.9.\.t..... a'i.l'r.Y.f.'........'.
lmpulses from the AVN are conducted by specialised muscle fibres called b.q.rl9.1:... .9f.
.!1f .{.... and p.\.111}1.:. fi.qf.9.f..... to the ventricular walls. This causes the
cgf,.t!S.9t9.L....... of both ventricles to pump the blood out of the heart.
The r.i9.h.t ventricle pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery, which forces the
blood to the l.$$3:.............
The 1.9.f*...... ventricle which is thicker and more mtlP.9.YlSL... than the right ventricle,
pumps the blood into the aorta which forces the blood to the whole parts of the body.
i"
l|l
E*r ain vihy the left ventricle is thickdr and more muscular than the wall of the right ventricles?
Answer: The left ventricle needs tb generate grelater p.r..e.f.).19,.1o pump blood to all. p9rti
d the bgC.V. white the right ventricle pumps blood to the l.Y.l.$f ... only. '
a) Position of SAN and
6@'>c444
a
4. What is cardiac cycle?
Answer:
Cardiac cycle is the series of events that occur during one complete heartbeat, rncluding ihe
go.n+IEelb.{systole) and r.?.13.L:tt:9.?... (diastole) of both the atria and the ventricles.
1 systole and 1 diastole equal to t hearlbeat (0.8 sec)
Therefore, the heartbeat is 75X per minute
How does the blood in the veins flow back to the heart?
. The pumping of the heart generates sufficient f.-o.19..9..... to move the blood through the
at.t9.ll.S., arterioles and capillaries. However, when the blood reaches the v.9i.?S..., the
pf9ff.'lf.e.. produced by the heart is i$.e:t$:.9Le.tl. to force it back into the hear1.
. When the body moves, the s.t3l9l9]. m$f .9.1f. around the veins contract and press on the
veins. The veins cCn*l..fi*.. and the blood pressure increases, to open the valves and
push the blood towards the heart.
Upper valve
tI
Blood flowtowards theheart
a) Muscles relaxed,
. valves closed.
5.
b) Muscles coRtract,
upper valves open
and . b.lood is forcqd
upwards, lower valve
remain closed.
c) Muscles relaxed, upper
valves closed, lower valve
opens as a result of muscle
contraction elsewhere and
blood,flows forwards. "
6. The sin9.-ai.fj.9.l. node can initiate the heartbeat on its own. But the heart rate may be
modified by certain external factors. The sJ.$f91.!.9.1J:. nerve carrying impulse to the hear
can increase the heart rate and the parasympathetic nerve can sJ.9.f... it down.
The heart rate increase when:
(a) an increase in the secretion of hormone (e.g aC.l9L9.llL9....l while a person is e.L9.it3*..,
(b) an increase in partial pressure ot c3199.?..... d1.9.T.1.9S.. in the blood. ,,tE :(c) body 1.9.'1f9.q9.t5.? is elevated. F':
7.
6.0- >cd4e
grriatory Mechanism of Blood Pressure
E,E,r€i pressure'(bp) is the f.o..r199.. of the blood exerted on the w.-q.lt.. of the
ing the *p-s.s€lS. Normal bp for an adult is 120/80 mmHg.
r;:ei'ial blood pressure is highest during ventricular s5ff.9J.9. (120 mmHg), and
dt*?.'l-4.!:. (80 mmHg) ie resting phase at the heart.
rr-e biood pressure is regulated by b9.T.9.I9.*l!9!swhich is located in the walls
a,-J cg.lStl'.9. arteries branch out from the aorta to the head"
Ssnematic diagram for regulatory mechanism of blood pressure:
'e Blood pressure stretches b.9'I9!::::ffTs(stretch-sensitive recePtors)
r lmpulses are sent to the cardiovascular
control centre in the m.9.9.Y!J.9 o.hl.?.1.9.?.1'9
. From that impulses are then sent via the
parasympathetic nerve to..tf,9.fe3rt and
bloodvessel ,:.::.j.. Decrease the heart rate
o Dilate the diameter of arteries hence
reduce the resistance
arterial blood
lowest during
of the asl.t9
rgh the
i..., the
; on the
es and
er
VE
scle
rnd
may be
,he hean
,eifed
ncrease
Normal bloodpressure
(120/80 mm Hg)
de: Blood pressure can increase because
lmel, viscosity of blood and stress.
Decrease
Normal bloodpressure
(120/80 mq Hg)
lncreaseo Baroreceptor are inhibited
. rn9.q91*9.:.. stt.*s!.9.11.:l'ot the sA
node by the sYmPathetic nerve
o This increases the contraction of the
a) csr.9.'.9.9 mT.SlSS. hence increase
in heart rate
b) s,lll9.9.fh.. mil.{.S.|9S. of the arteries,
hence decrease. the diameter
of increase in heart beat, resistance of blood
rcll&b-s*,1
,-
Gircuiatory SYstems in
. The circulatory system
lnsects, Fish, Amphibians and Humans
of large muliicellular organisms can be divided as follows:
Singlee.g flsh
!ar,'1rr
I l*llrl i
. *,,: :i'
r ,,i':
I i'
illil,arnr
> l/: l:
,r - *l-
t"* -
Completee.g human
t.q'.s9P.el.9f9e.g amphibian
Diagram
*,,&/1. I
:-
flows into haemocoel
Oxygenate'bloo
) r 'aI Gilli-capillarie 'i-+)
I roo,
J caoillari
Te
i
t
Deoxygenatedblood
Circulatory system
c.l9s..#. circulatory systemOpen circulatory sYsteme.g rnsecl
Girculatory Systems in:
lnsects - Open circulatorY system. One or more h99.ftS pump the hg.9ll|9!'l.Pf!l through the
vessels into the body cavity called h3'-€'.T9''c'9':l
. Here, materials are exchange directly between the
haemolymph and the body cells through diffusion'
e When the hearts relax, the haemolymph is drawn through
pores called of.*.J.9. (singular, ostium)back into the hearts'
Fish - Single closed circulatory system
. Heart consists of two separate chambers, an a*'T''l-o'T anO
a v.gntf.i9L9
. The d9.9.f.9S"e.1P.!$ut9.9.9"., enters the atrium and then the
ventricle.
. The ventricle pumps the blood to the c.:.fi!l::'19'{ in the
gills where gaseous exchange occurs'
r The oxygenated blood leaves the gLt'I.{.' and flows directly
to the b495., il.+S.1{9.s....
. ln the systemic capillaries, ox,99'9.Q. diffuses into the
tt:99.J.9.f.. while cgl.Lg.?. utg.*'i$.9"... diffuses out of the
tissues and into the caPillaries.
. The deoxygenated blood then flows back to the h'9'9ft""
. The blood flows through the heart only o'!"c'9' in a
complete cYcle.
ll ll&i"- Scon"lF.-
DiagramGirculatory SYstems in
hr*chihians - lncomplete double closed; *:u atory sYstem, -::: ;onsists of thr.99' chambers with two airia
;*: :^3 ventricle.
, l-:: , -, genated blood from the body is carried into
:.- = r'"i.9t.1. al.ri.'l.T while oiiJ.99.L 3l*l u'e:$.. from the
,--s ts sent to the left atrium.
r I,*r3iated blood is miXgC'. with deoxygenated
: ::: in the ventrtcle.
.--z ventricle then pumps the blood through a
-- ftonq.r-s.... cif:.'llSil.9.D s.99.t9t1..' and systemic
-
E '..'r.rrrr'
: -:-lation sYstem.
| --: blood contains *ower,levels of oxygen but is
r heart : -- cient. to meet the cellular requirements - of
=-ahibians.
1
remocoel
Gill'capillarie
)xygenatebloo
Bodvcapillari
hla nr m als'- Gom plete dou ble closed ci rculatoryst'Stem ..
r --nans have a four:chambered heart: two at'tl'9"'
a - : two vgntl.i:i.9.{...
, --e four-chambered heart pt'-e'I.9.tlt.l.'.' the mixing of
::e oxygenated and deoxygenated blood'
, --rinans have a d9.9.q19.. clp.f.?.-d. "irg.y't:'*ll
sgf't9{?"
::nsisting of the pulrllonary and systemic circulatory
*: rstems.
. ' the pulmonary circulation system, deoxygenated
: ood in the r.i9hL..- v.enltL.gl'9:' is pumped into the
p.:r.l$.9.ffiIJ. af.f9.1.'.9.s- to the l''lng.L' and oLJ'9'9'?9191'
b.i9.?:1... from the l.9nP:.' returns to the l9f!" atri'9'T'
r r the systemic circulation, blood is barried from the
h3.9.f.t. to the other parts of the body except the
l..l,?.?.:... and transported back to the heart'
. rhe blood enters the heart twice during one
:omplete cYcle.
Body capillaries
rcllf,a.-sro*I l---
a
Figure shows schematic diagram of the circulal.-,ry sysiem in human.
a) Draw Pulmonary circulatory system with
Systemic circulatory system with --€
b) Draw Oxygenated blood as
Deoxygenated blood as
Jugular veln Carotidartery
Y:..'ii:til::)V':il]//.4|11
tl
C.:flnr
Head and neck
Sub-clavian Sub-clavianvein bheiY
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary veins
Small intestine
Renal vein Renal artery
%Hepatic vein HePatic artery
Left veniricle
5ao- >co4a
Gmnnpanison between the Circulatory System in Fish, Amphibian and Human
Similarities
Differences.
0rganisms Fish Amphibian.i. .,.j!.
Human
D,ragram of closed;rculatory sYstem
Type of circulatorYsystem
lncomplete Complete
Single D.o..9.b.1S.... i Double
C1.999S... circulatorYsystem
Closed circulatory I Closed circulatory
system I sYstem
Number of heartchambers
Number of atria
Two Three F.9.-.'.f.
o.t.-e.. Two Two
D"lumber ofventricles
One on.e.. Two
zollsi"-sr ".
t-
1.3 THE MECHANISM OF BLOOD CLOTTING
Learning Oulcomes:o Explain the necessity for blood ciotting at the site of damaged blood vessels.o Explain lhe mechanism of blood clottingo Predict the consequences of impaired blood clotting in an individual
Necessity for Blood Clotting
1. To prevent e1f99ff.1.Y.9...... bl.qgS... 1.9.9.-s.. from the body when there is a damage of the blood
vessel.
2. Maintain bl993.. p.t9f.-s.9ll to ensure proper blood circulation.
3. Prevent the entr.y of mj.9.1.99f9:$:.T.1. and foreign particles into the body through the
wound.
4. Promote wound healing.
Blood Clotting Mechanism
Platelets clump at the wound
Vitamin K
:. . Clot forms to stop further blood loss
Base on the diaqram above, describe the blood clottinq mechanism
When you get cut, blood vessels around the wound immediaiely constrict to reduce blood loss.
The platelets in the blood exposed to air become sticky and clump together to plug the wound.
Thrombokinase and other clotting factors are released by platelets.
ln the presence of c919i.Y.T. ions, thrombokinase converts prothrombin into thrombin. Prothrombin
is synthesized in the liver and requires .Y.itS.T.il..K..
. Thrombin converts soluble plasma protein, f:.!.fi.?9991. into insoluble t:.h.fi.L.
meshwork of threads over the wound.
. As the blood flows out, erythrocytes and platelets are trapped in the fjbrin fibres and a blood clot
forms. lt dries to form scab.
r When ihe wound heals, new skin is formed and the scab peels off.
form a
lnjury in blood vessels
+
ztlle,b'Sr*.
Haemophilia
e blooc
rgh the
OSS
.)5S.
nd.
rrombin
r form a
rod clot
Consequences of an lmpaired Blood Clotting Mechanism
. problems related to blood clotting include haemophilia and thrombosis.
. Haemophitia is a h9!:9.-q.:.19.f.Y.. dl:€.9S.9.9.. due to the lack of certain gene for the
production of certain clotting factors (eg: factor Vlll)
. This is an i.rllP9,J9.S. cJ.?.tfnp... m.9,9!f.tP.T. which causes serious bleeding
particularly in the joints.
. The afflicted person may die as a result of excessive bleeding from even
minor cuts and bruises because blood clotting cannot take place.
The figure shows a human heart.
a)complete the table to show whether the blood in vessels w, X, Y and
Z is oxygenated or deoxygenated, and under high or low pressure.
Blood oxygenated Blood under pressure
o*USeoqted H igh
Y ole - oxYgeogte d Low
de- ox39e oo+e sl His h
Z. orggena+eq fli9he' eL9l9**'to!"4 "+' t':'t'l:'' "state two substances in food that are believed to cause heart dis
suggest one advantage an{ one disadvantage of using the patient's own artery rather than an artery
transplanted from another person.
oo"".,"n".ls.f.".|.9i:t..l.::y3..ir.t.T9':1s'?.1..;;";;;;;n"' * i:il i: "-tr::i:f3ll) lirr:P:t rlel -a:
onfeny 4.9 ii hgs th;nner
. Sometimes a local blood clot (thrombus) is formed on the d-q:L9'9.S1'. or rough
inner wall of the artery, for example deposition of cholestrol. This may cause
blockage of the artery, a condition known as t.t't9.P.9'*.1.:.
. When the thrombus drslodges and is carried away by blood circulation, it is
known as an e:T.f9l.Y.{.... The embolus may be trapped in a small artery where
it btocks the blood flow. This condition is called e.11.\9!if.T....
. lf the thrombosis occurs in coronary artery ( vessel that carries blood to the
heart) the supply of o+.V.99.1...,. and nutrients to the heart muscles is cut off,
hence causes h,?.9:.1.. af!:9SI....
Bio-brain:
wqlls +hQn qn orlerJ'
1.4 THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
{1)
. When the blood flows from arteries into
csp.tlqgti** there is higher tr.u9f.gS.t91lg..
pressure at the.arterial end of the capillaries.
. This high pressure forces some plS-".1?.9".
to pass through the. capillary walls into the
i nt S lc.9.tl y.|.9.1. s p.S. 9.9f.. . .. between the cel|s.
Learning Outcomes:o Describe the formation of interstltial fluido State the composition of interstitial fluido State the importance of interstitial fluido Describe the fate of interstitial fluido Describe the structure of the lymphatic system
o Explain how the lymphatic system complements the circulatory system
o Compare the contents of blood, interstitial fluid and lymph
o predict whatwill happen if the inter:stitjal fluid fail-s to return to the.circulatory system
o Conceptualise the relationship between the lymphatic system and the circulatory system
Formation of the lnterstitial Fluid and Lymph
(2)
. Once the fluid leaves the capillary
walls, it is called i.?.t9!'.fiit'l:1....'
or tisf 113... f.l.Y::9. rhe
interstitial fluid fills the spaces
between the cells and constantlY
t bathes the cells.
I
(3). .90% Qf the
interstitial fluid
diffuses back into
blood capillary
. lAok.of the interstitial fluid that
has not been r.9.iF.fp.':b.9.{.... into
the bloodstream goes into the
tp. PR!'...... c9.?i.rlsllsl once
. inside ,t[9, Jymp,,h capillaries, the
fluid is knowr as l.Y.TP.h -
nl@:8,*"
rrTme{rs-iitlaI Fluid
Oomposition of the lnterstitial Fluid
. --: composition of the lnterstitial
'u C is similar to the blood Plasma
axcept there is no erythrocYtes,
pr*1.9.19.-+.1. and plasma protein
'inolecules (albumin, globulin and
'brinogen).
o-eucocytes especially phagocytes
can pass through the capillary wall
and can be present in the interstitial
iuid.
lmportarice of the lnterstitial Fluid
" lnterstitial fluid is important because
o lt forms the illt*.fl?.?J eItYI.t-b.?-S'9'?.f'. of
the body
o lt, ba"thes the cells and supplies them
with o.'fH9..9P... and nutrients .which
diffuse from the b1.q99....... through the
intgLs*:i-".t t.ly,i*... into the cells.
o Excretory wflitS. p.*S.Y.9.ti (carbon
dioxide and ureq) di.t8.+.fi o.-ql' of the
cells into the interstitial fluid.
;rinto
I
i::l'^"1
__l
Fate of the lnterstitial Fluid
. Approximately 90o/o of the interstitial fluid ftows back into the v.-e.FP.Y.f...
capillary system where the hydrostatic pressure is low'
r The remaining 10% of the interstitial fluid enters the
called lsra.P.l'....,
o Lymphatic capillaries from all parts of the body converge to form lymphatlc vessel-
r lt is clear now that lymph also originates from blood plasma. lt has almost the same
composition as the interstitial fluid which lack of erythroc$es, platelet and plasma
r lf excess interstitial fluids unable to return to the blood circulatory system, it
accumulate and cause tissue swelling known as o'9.*.9'T'9"".'"'
lnterstitial Fluid
2al@:8,-*,
F
Lymphatic System
a) Structure of the Lymphatic $ystem
. The lymphatic system is a oft€-w9.$. s,9S.t9{?... consisting of a
cstill.?.r. i.es., u$.p.1.9*i 1.. v.e.{f fl .1,.. a n d l.Y,*P h.., n.:i Pf ..
ill
1I}
I
\\
t
'l'il
lrI lJi1\
i\;r. I,\t/\ t,t(ll'l t
Enlargement of Lymph node
a\
t,^{l'lvi1r1t\]'\\,/.
a one-way valves
Lymphatic vessels
. The lymph capillaries are bJr'.F.9...-en.9.9.d-
t.'tb.g.q.. located in the spaces between the
cells.
The interstitial fluid that l-tas 'not
been
reabsorbed into the bloodstream goes into
the' ts.flPh. '69ni!l9l'.igf. Once inside the
lymph capillaries, the fluid is known as
lfmP.h... Lymph is the colourless fluid found
i n the I x:Tlr.b.:ll:9.... v.gf.i.9LL.
r Lymph capillaries converge into larger
lymphatic vessels.
r Lymphatic vessels form two main lymphatic
ducf -right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct
r Located at intervals along the lymphatic
vessels are lymph nodes. The lymph nodes
produce lrnp.!'-g.s*r..19-s. tfrat involve in the body
defence against infections.
r Hence lymph contains a higher number of
lymphocytes than blood.
Valveo Within the lymphatic vessels are one-way
valves to ensure the c9'f1l:r.)l-c.-'1.9.. f.19.9 of the
lymph to prevent the b.9.95f J.9* of the lymph.
8' - Seo'rz
-___lcrc I
il'l
t)claviann
! Tiie Relationship between the Lymphatic System aitd Circulatory System
: i-,,mph is returned to the circulatory system via the
r"h.9r.q.9i9 dl{9.tand the ri.ghL lJ.Pnh:i.l9 d'Y.g.t
r -:e vessels from the l9f.t sj'9.9.. of the body (the
a, mentary canal and the right slde of the lower part
:: the body) flow into the thoracic duct. The'thoraeic'
iuct is the largest lymphatic vessel in the body that
carries lymph to the l.gft s'Y.f.:1.-o.:11". v.-e.!'l.. back
,nto the b1.9.o.i.{}f '?'9.m
. The right lymphatic duct transport lymph from the-tTi,+g. of the head and chest into the r.i9.b.f
s.itb.9.l?.Y,l3l v.ci.tr..
Lung
LymphaticSystem
Blood CirculatorYSystem
\iI
. The movement of lymph along lymphatic vesselis aided by hydrostatic pressure, one way
valve, contraction of surrounding skeleton muscles and respiratory movement squeeze the
vessels.
Complete the diagram below-
Blood capillaries
V
t nt-€.i$.tj.t-ql f t .,{.i9.
Diagram shows the Relationship between the Lymphatic system and circulatory system
Right subclavian veinLeft subclavian vein
Lflf.Q.Ph. v9*iSll..Lymph capillaries
zallEa-sco*t F-.#
r
Role of the Lymphatic System iri Transport
. Coilects the i.r.,.t.9:fi.1:.1.. t.l:f J.i. and returns it to the blood circulatory system.
" F.9ii9 ,agiC..", g1999.191....... and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbedinte through
l.-q.99.?,|.{, in villus and transported to the blood circulatory system.
. The LYaPh n99.9.s.. produces phagocytes and lymphocytes.
(i) Phagocytes engulf and destroy foreign particles.
(ii) Lyrnphocytes produce anil..5.9$.i9f.. which aid in the destruction of pathogens
and the neutralization of toxins. Hence, lymph nodes filter out pathogens and the
foreign particles and protects our body from diseases.
Compare the contents of blood, interstitial fluid and lymph
'mg
tu
B!.ood lnterstitialfluid
*WBC may escape frorn blood capillary and goes into intercellular space
due to flexible shape.
Composition
. Plasma without
p1.3.f.s.9. p.qe.L?I1.,
erythrocytes and
p.ts.L9l?tl
. More fatty
substances and a
higher number of
lymphocytes
produced by the
lymph nodes.
Plasma without
plasma protein,
and cellular
component except
WBC-
. P.lSf.lPS. andcellular component(wBC, RBC,platelets)
zzllSa-s,'*.
ROLE OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEIS IN THE BODY'S DEFENGE SYSTEMrgh
3ns
the
Learning Outcomes:. stute another function of the circuiatory system besides transporl.
: Identify the the body's three lines of defence mechanisms'
: Describe the process of phagocytosis.
:, State the meaning of antigeii and the antibdy.
iil'dI s Defence Mechanisms
ies oes transport function, our circulatory system also defends the body against disease abolition
:"' :*e disease-causing microorganisms or pathoqens.
: : -" aodies have three lines of defence against pathogens:
: First line of defence - prevention of pathogens entering the body'
:, Second line of defence - killing the pathogens that entered our body by action of
Phasocvtic white blood cells.
: Third line of defence - killing the pathogens by means of antibodv actions.
First Line of Defence
al Prevention of pathogens entering the body
by mean of physical and chemical barriers
DJ A non-spesific defence, that is never
differentiate among various type of
pathogens. This includes:
Skin
n As a physicalbarrier, skin is made up
of a dead keratinised laYer, tough
enough for pathogens to penetrate.
. lf thgre is a scratch or cut, the blood
clots to sealthe wound and avoids
infections.
. Also acts as chemical barrier as it
seeretes sweat whieh eontains salt.
Sebaceous glands Produce sebum
whieh esntains aeid and oil. All these
substances are unfavourable for
growth of microorganisms.
' Sweat also contains-.lysc@ which
destroys Pathogens.
^o
Tears and Saliva
. Contain lvqozv-{nes
which protect the eYes
and rnouth from
pathogen invasion.
Gastric juice in stomach
" Contain hvdrochloric
acid which dqstroYs
most pathogens in
foods and drinks taken-
Mucous membranes
. Secrete mucus in nasal cavitY and
trachea to trap the dust particles and
spores
. The cilia in the respiratory track sweep
the irapped particles to the pharynx and
stimulates sneeze or cough to expel out
the paihogens.
,'
Second Line of Defence
(a) The killing action brought by some of the white blood cells like neutrophil and monocvte.
They are calted phaqocvtes and the process is phaqocytosis
(b) lt is also a non-specific defence.
(c) Phagocytosis occur when pathogens get through the first line of defence, Phagocytes move
the infected area due to the stimulation by chemicals released by damaged cells, example
skin.
(d) The steps involved in phagocytosis by a phagocyte e,g. Neutrophil
. Useful product of
digestion is then
absorhed and
assimilated by
phagocyte
Complete the diagram above.
(e) Sometimes the phagocytes are killed by toxins produced by the pathogens.
(f) Dead bacteria, tissue cells anci phagocyies may accumulate to form pus at the site of injury
Third Line of Defence
(a) The third line of defence in the body is antibodv.
(b) Antibody is a kind of protein released by lymphocyte in response to the presence of fore
substance, called antiqen in our body-
(c) Lymphocytes are white blood cells found in lvmph nodes and in the blood circulatory systr
There are two types of lymphocytes, Bjvmphocvte that secretes antibodies and Tlvmphoc,
that helps B-lymphocyte in antibody production.
(d) An antigen is a subtance (usually protein) normally found on the outer surface of pathog
Different types of pathogen act as different types of antigen.
29
lEe.
:es move
)xample
rf injury.
of fore
tory systt
lvmphoc'
f pathog
---.::ci line of defence is a sF9.9.i.f:.9... O.g.f.g.1:9..... because when a specific antigeir
- .-:s the bociy, lymphocyte rs stimulated and produces specific antibody to destroy
-..= scecific antigens.
--: -esponse is known as i.T.P.Y.IS....... r.9i.P.911.f9.... because it resists ihe body from
: ; "- -:jens or diseases.
--:-an rnfection, some lymphocytes remain in ihe body as m'9'T.9.|X"...-' c'9ll-{-'.. which
* = " ast for several months or years. This memory cells help to defend the body against
-:,. infection by the same aniigen. During this period, someone is said to be
-T:1.!.9.9. .. for that particular disease.
--=-:fore, the word 'immunitl refers to the g|l.t'iY..9.t.:1..919.:.1:-"'T..t9..9.:tsl9'.t::tl
a e 3 ! lt.{. . ir.f .9.q1 i 9.1. .h .9 . .P.: i. f,.g.e.9.rls. . .
-ai is the mechanism used by antibodies to destroy antigen?
. Antibody b.in,i9........ to the specific antigen binding site
. hence, i.aSStiY.g.t9.i.... antigen by several ways
Ways Explanation Diagram
r.l.e:$r9lif.31l9l
)isintegration
re:J:1i.?.11e.!
oPs..?.lHs-+.e?.
. Antibody called antlj9Iit.'..coats
the bacierial toxin or viral
binding sites and neutralize it.Bacteriurn
Antibody called l.9.fj.l.l.
binds to the antigen causing
antigen to rupture or disintegrate. -
Bacterium
Agglutinins are antibodies that bind
to pathogens cause to clumP
together and stoP their movement
and stimulate phagocYtosts.
Antigenrnolecules
Opsonins modifies antigen bY
attaches itself to the bacteria
surface and thus stimulates
^ hqgaCJtosist,,,..'..
Y = Antibody molecule
Learning Outcomes:o State the meaning of immunit and immunization'
o Relate antigen and antibody to immunity to immunity'
o Name and give examples of various types of immunlty'
Types of lmmunitY
1. lmmunity is the body resistance to p9.th.o.?.9lll which cause a specific disease.
2. lmmunity depends on the presence of lymphocytes and the production of anij.P.93jli.,.
whjch give a specific immune response'
3. There
Graph
lrlll
I
$
Time (weeks)
are various tYPes of tmmunitY:
(a) Natural Active lmmunitY
. When a person is attacked by a kind of
pathogens, antigen of the pathogens
stim ulate an i lT.PlllS. . ... r.9. 9.P'?.1S.1.'.'
. L.9lLP.h9:.Y.tSs release antibodies into
the blood stream to destroy pathogens'
r After the person recovers from the
infection, some lymphocyte remain as
m.9.t119.t9.... c9!!1..... in the bodv
. During second infection, this memory
cell initiate rapid immune response to
produce more antibodies and the the
person becomes i'11lT.Y.?.g.' to that
particular disease.
. E.g: Chicken pox virus, measles virus'
o
v,€)
o.o
(Ec+3o>ol:(E-O
o-
O-o
vlls,b- s,,,1
as
--ldies
I
sI
munitylevel
-f---->I)
Types Graph
s,.t.''cial Active lmmunity
. l::ained after a person is given (orally
:- :y injection) a v.qPSi.A9.. before the
-::ction occur.
c -i process of making immunity by
-:'cducing a vaccine is called
n.T.Y.ti.{lt:911....
r I ',,s661pg is a suspension of killed or
n,'. 9-a.t?.1S9. antigens (bacteria/viruses)
"".rich is not harmful to the person.
. ."accine stimulates l.9P.P.l3S..).tSl in tne
::dy to produce antibodies that capable
:: destroy living antigens which causes
: sease.
=rerefore, for the coming invasion of the
:athogenic microorganisms, the body is
: b I e to d estroy them i.fl .T.9.1j:.L91.Y. . . . ...
:ecause it already has the antibody.
Booster dose (2tu)
stimulates a faster and
longer lasting
resp0nse.
lmmunity level
1"t vaccination 2'd vaccination Time (weeks)
'o
-o
r!trsi]o>6S(g_O
E60r-o9xo()-o
+
1" dose usuallyinduces a slow andshorter lasting
. Finally, we can say that the body has
acquired immunity throug h v.qS:j.qSJi9l.
. Examples. BCG vaccine againsi
tuberculosis. Salk vaccine against
^ oliorngel;+iSP. "..'
\aturally Passive immunity
. Obtained from the mother either across
:he p.t9.9.9.?t9..... to the foetus or
ihrough the mother's milk to the infants.
r ff foetus received several type of
maternal antibodies during pregnancy
o Early mother's milk or c.:l.9flLY*... also
contain antibodies.
. All these antibodies protect the baby in the
first few months after birth.
. Examples . Antibodies to avoid pneumonia
and common cold.
Artificial Passive lmmunity
. Obtained through injection of a F.?.f.Y.T..
wh ich co nta i ns s P.t9jf. iS. . .. a I)l!.9 9.L i 9.f.
zzllgi"-sr"*.
Graph
This serum containing antibodies is
prepared from blood of human or other
animals, for example horse.
The ready made antibodies is given to
the person who needs the antibodies
urgently like t,t:g.'{-e.!!9L:.. or the patient
who are seriously ill. E.g: t,gtgll)l:...,. ,
botulinum and s.QSF.9.... b.itgf.....
The injection gives a quick immunity but
cannot last longer because this foreign
antibodies breakdown in the body and
are not r.9.Pt3.i.9.1
Examples: Anti-tetanus, rabies anddiphtheria
d)-c
.=o.9:oo-oc:
o>ol:
o_Xo()-o
Differences between active and passive immunity
Aspect Atrificial
Active immunity
Artificial
Passive immunity
1. Type of injection V.9.9S.:n9..... contatning dead
or weakened pathogen.
S.9.1.Y.T,..... containing specrfic
antibodies.
2. Time of injection Before a person is infected
with a disease.
At the time when a Person ls
rnfected or high risk of getting
the disease.
3, Time taken to achieve
lmmunity
Body needs time to synthesise
antibodies.
Ready made antibodies give
i.l?.T91i: L?..... i.n.p.v. ril. H.. .
4. Duration of immunity L.?.t.9....,. lasting of immunity lasting of immunity
5. Necessity of booster
I
oose
Needed for certain diseases
like hepatitis B because the
first injection usually induces a
slow and low level of antibody.
Normally not needed.
First injection offers sufficien
immunity
zzllg,a- s,*z
*ear-ning Outcomes:Slate the effects of the human immunodeficiency virus (HiV) on the body's
c:lence mechanisn^s.Describe the transmlssion of HIV'
: suggest ways to prevent the spread of Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS).
-.:quired
level
J Specli:
lerson -:
rf gettir;
lies gi',i
,ni.t I
-1, -:=-:, HIVvirus
The Effects of HIV
feks)
d
n' :rril;:{: :.e central nervous system
il'-r -::3r r..991!1., in the body's
: S,'Stem.
' -'q :,:- --cef fs are essential to activate
! :€ Ix. '.. .. ', lymphocyte in antibody
-- ^n
* * , -r3js B - 10 years of in9:tp'9.119.n
r',:- : I :e'ore the sYmPtom aPPears.
* -": -*une system of infected person
r, ":: -a ,l becomes weakened and
r'*'=-::ress against many pathogens'
- : € cf.9.99.9f.. in function of central
" : - : ,s system followed bY bodY
'* e 9.h1..... loss.
* :,i-i-?ily death occurs. The patient
:,"== :rct die from AIDS itself but from
:rmunity s.9.eg.a.{31^.Y. infections such as
-onia and meningitis, tuberculosis,
infections or certain forms of
:ike Kaposi's sarcoma.
ty
sufficieii
HiV virus
Transmission Methods
. HIV only survive in body fluid such
such as s3.99.1......, blood and
v.9.?!n91.... fluid.
. Therefore, HIV can be transmitted
through s.3.LY.?.1'.. intercourse, blood
t.1.9.?.qf)'!.ii.qf...... or injection with
contaminated needle used to inlect
drugs.
. HIV infected pregnant mother can
pass HIV to her babY through
p.{9.99}.13.... or br.9.3.:t.T1If.. "'.... HIV cannot be spread bY touching,
sharing of food or through the use of
public torlets.
Prevention
. Avoid i.U.9.9:1."...' s.91"'..'
. Using c.9!];d.9.T.1.. during copulation.
. Using only s9.1-".?19.9.. otooo in blood
transfusion.
. Educational programs for p.1Llit"""
ancsS!r,9.? c.|i1.1.f91....".
s+ll€,n-s,,*.
7
1.5 APPRECIATING A HEALTHY CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Card iovascular diseaseo.i:.erlsl ...ffiodcircutarorysystemExamples: Hypertension, R.Q.91.1.9.,.., c.g.qg.q9fy...thL?.T.q:fi.l, nrtS.li9.:.:!:.1"..fi:.
Risk factors: L..... s..........., age and family history
CCIUSCS
Lumen
Cross-section artery
The heart has topump harder
1.
L.
3.
lt-
Ititllliurrulltr
Ull
iihuN
Coronaryartery
Notes : Coronary artery is aspeciaiised blood vessel to supplyoxygen and nutrients to the heart.
Severe
Learning Outcomes:o Select and practice sultable ways to malntain a healthy cardiovascular system
blood
fr
I CardiovascularDisorders
Blood clot may occur in
narrow coronary artery
"Angina(chest pain)
"Heart attack(Miocardiai infarciion)
6@- >c442
THE TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN PLANTST
€ nos;s
Learning Outcomes:o slate the necesslty for transport of substances ln plants.
o Identify the vascular tissue in the stem, root and leaf'
o state the role of vascular tissue in the transporl of substances'
o Describe the structure of vascular tissue'
o Relate the structure of xylem to transport'
o Relate the structure of phloem to transport
o Predlct the effect of removlng a ring of phloem tissues from a plant'
f,1il1,*.*:essity for Transport of Substances in Plants
, : a^is absorb wgfit..... and ml.?.9.1-a!...... i.9.?.:....... from the soil to all parts of the body'
: ,,3.3r- fleeded by ptants to carry out p.\919:.-5,?ti'.S.ll acts as a solvent and rSSgt3t'f" in
-; cell metabolisms'
t, ,* n "eral ions are,.required for healthy growth and d.9.I'?-19t.T.9'f'1" ""'r 3-all multicellular plants such as m9.S.{9f.,.. and liy'9'l:.qLtshave a large TSAA/ ratio and a
s ir.g,rL........ distance for diffusion of substances. Therefore, they do not requtre transport
:-. -r:em.
i -:,,vever, in large flowering plants, conifers and ferns, they have a s'P'9'l\ TSAJV
-:to and gf.9-qt9.f.-.... distance for a diffusion of substances. Hence, they require an
-:ernal transport system in their body'
ll rscular Tissues in Plant
' ransportation of substances in plant is carried out by v'9'eS'I!':'1"" t'i:'f'Y':""""
I -here are two types.of vascular tissue: xJl9f..-... and p.b)'93T""""' tissues'
i o.,item transports w.9L9!1...,.. and di.qf'?l'Y9-9... m!'lr.9l9'!"" s'?'t't'l"""' absorbed by roots
:: the upper parts of the plants. lt also gives s.Y.P.P.gtl'.-.' to the plant'
I :hioem iransports o.f.93Iti9.....,. s.g.l:iS.lStl' synthesized by the leaves during
p,f.9t9.{.Ytt}.9.ii:.. to other parts of the plants'
: I agram 1 shows the locations of vascular tissues in a dicotyledonous plant'
--la;,;""1
I)
il;-l
lll
6@'>aa44
F:
(a) Cross-secticn of a Leaf
Cuticle
Xylem
Phloem
/,/( (b) Cross-section
of a Stem
Epidermis
s.l9.T.:
. Contain vascular tissues thatare continuous with those in
the stem and root.
One-celled thick with cuticlelayer outside
Has l .?.11i.'.9Jlfor respi ration.
Consists of c.?ll:tSh9.T.9cells in outer region andp.9.'.9.1.?1. LT.9... cells in tnnerregion
Provides support to the stem.
.r ench$rhoConsists of large P.9....^^il^LUil5. i
F..9:1..... storage
Vascularbundle
Arranged in thearound the pith.
Xylem and phloem separatedby c.?.TFI.YS...... tissue
Root hair A specialised eP.i.*T.T3l, cell
lncrease the s.Y!T9,9Sa.f93..... for water absorption.
Epidermis Does not have c.Y.{i.9.1.9........
Absorbs water and i9.?.f..........from soil.
Endoderm Single layer of cells
ricycle Consists of sg.l.9.f.l.?l)lCItissuewhich provide mechanicalsupport to the root
Consists of vascular tissue andpericycle
Xylem radiates from the centreforming si.9f....... shape.
o Phloem fills the area betweenxylem.
(b) Cross-sectionof a Root
Phloem
Diagram 1
" Wax substance to reduce\^, qre.l. I oSS
' Vascular bundle in vein.
,trt'
,i't)
1
\
6.4- >c444
$1,r)",:;*-e of Vascular Tissue Related to the Transport
PHLOEM
educe
>s thatose in
XYLEM
)I" :r' t.;.i.., parenchyma ano t.ih.1.9.......
Phloem
Also consists of 4 types of cells, i.e. sieve tube,
cs.q1P.Lli9.l.... c.3.\t...,, fibre and parenchyma.
1. Sieve tube
. Cylindrical in shape, consisting of elongated
sJ,?.Y.9..... c.9.!1....., arranged end to end.
. The end wall of each cell are perforated to form
si.9L9..... p.t:1S.... and allow food
substances such as s.:t9.Pf9.. and ani.1.9...
a.9.i9..... to pass from one cell to another.
. The sieve tube is a living cell but during
maturation, many organelle including nucleus
disintegrates.
. There is a ihin layer of c.p.Lq.R.!9J.T.. lining the
cellulose wall of sieve tube.
Companion cell
. Normal cellwith nucleus, cytoplasm and many
mitochondria.
. They are adjacent
the sieve cell.
. lt provides ATP to
the sieve tube.
Parenchyma and fibre.
. Parenchyma cells store food
. Fibres provide support.
Thin cytoplasm
Companion cell
Sieve tubes ICompanion cett
IFibre )I=t
cuticle
ltion.
chg rn o
r andr inner
stem.
ch$rno
P.9......
laratec
jr :- ',,eSsel
r f - ?iti vessels are long, hollow and
: er.1i l.Y.?)'l:....... tubes.
. D F..q.9..... c.9J19...., no protoplasm
: - :asier the flow of water.
r -3 ceil walls are strengthened by
r,?.lll., deposited in various patterns
,- : gives m.g.eI-q.LiLll...... support.
. *-: cell wall with numerous hole or
e.*,., to allow w.?.t€.T.. and mineral
::ss side way between the cells.
-"::heid i
r - sc dead cells and hollow but more
:nger and smaller than xYlem
^^^^l. =55Ut.
. tcrnted end and pitted.
LS of tracheid
:::anchyma and fibres
. =arenchyma stores food.
. =ibres provide support.
/,\\dtJ*
ll,11d) I:l$
ffiil1lJ\/
ll. cell\6
;il;;and closely related to with
help the food transPort in
Sieve plate
ItQ.r^^..^.. Ll55UC
chanical
sue and
o_o
=o)
.qU)
r centre3.
between
Xylem vessel(Patterns of 4
lignin deposited)
ffiI=ffil'. I [,^.] l€
HEH
6c4- >c442
Pit spiral r!
1.8 TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS
Learning Outcomes:o State what translocation is,
o Explain the importance of translocation in plants'
o Describe the process of transpiration.o Explain the importance of transpiration,o Describe the pathway of waler from the soil to the leaves
o State external conditions affeciing transpirationo Design experiments to study factors affecting the rate of transpiralion
o fxpliin the role of cohesion and adhesion of water in the movement of water in plants.
o Conceptualise the transport mechanism in plants'
Transport of Orga n ic Substances (Translocation)
1. Definition : Translocation is a transport of soluble o.q9?.Li9..... s-'l!.fJ:l*f' sucn as sucrose
anO a.!'li!.|9..... a.Si$...... from the leaves to other parts of the plants.
Translocation is a two directional transport, uf.Y-q.19.... and dsl.Y.L.*.919". ano occurs in
ihe s.r1,P.Y.9,..., t.Yp.-e...." of the phloem tissue.
2. The importance of translocation : to enable the product of photosynthesis moves from the
leaves to the:
(a) G.q:.*.t.\.. region such as shoots, roots, and young fruits'
(b) Storage organs like t.'Y!.9.1.'...
(c) Other parts of the planis to be a raw materialfor cell r.9.Lfll3lP-l.'...
3. To show the role of phloem . Bark Ringing Experiment (Practical Book:Experiment 1.7 pS.15)
Method Result Explanation
(a) Choose a healthy small branch of a
tree.
(b) By using a knife, remove a
complete ring of bark, about 2cm
length.
(c) Leave it for one month.
The tissue above
the ring swell uP,
whereas the one
below the ring
withers.
J he trssue removeo togelner
wiih the bark is p.t:J.?.9.T......
This disrupts the flow of
organic substances from the
leaves down to the root.
Accumulation of these
substances causes a
s.Y.1.ll.'.?.9. above the ring.
The leaves of small branch
do lot wilt because the
x.H!.9.T..... has not been
removed. So, uPward flow of
water is not disruPted.
(a)
(b)
{c)
(d)
After one month
3sllgb-s,*1
I
--ansport of Water and Mineral lons
' ::cm the soil, water enters the root by of.3.9.liL. whereas mineral ions by agliy9t.fq.l.f Pgfl
- -.,e presence of root hairs increase the siilflS.9.... a.f9.1...... for absorption.
iucrose
;curs in
r the
1.15)
logetherem
flow of
irom the
rot.
these
u5d
: rrng.
I branch
use the
oi been
'd flow of
d.
-re movement of water from the root
:: the leaves is aided by three factors
a) Root pressure
c) Capillarity ( capillary action )
c) Transpirationalpull
]-EAVES
(c) TranspirationalPull
. During the day, water eY93'?'tSI9': from the
mesophyll cells into ihe intercellular space in
the leaves.
. From here, the water vapour diffuses to the
surrounding air through the stoma.
. The loss of water from the leaves to the
atmosphere is called t.nL:.f.in.ll.gf ..
. Transpiration in ihe leaves pull up the waier
from the soil, a force called t.t)Sl.fi.fglign p.y.l..
r[ET@t
(b) Capillary Action
. Capiltary action is a combination
force of c 9..hSti?.1 a no a *.h.e..ii-o.1,
which enable the water move uP
along the narrow xylem vessel.
. Cgh.9.lfiY.9. force is the attraction
of one molecule to other molecule
of water.
. Meanwhile, ad.b3.i1.Y.9... force is
the attraction between water
molecules and the wall of xYlem
vessel.
. Therefore, xylem vessel forms a
continuous column of water from
root through the stem to the
leaves.
HzO **"Stonra
Xylenrvessel
(a) Root Pressure
. The surrounding soil water is h.9P.9.'13.t].*... to the cell sap of root hair because ii contains
salt, s.9.99.1 and amino acid.
. Therefore, water diffuses into root hair by o.9.T.?.f.'t""
The entry of water into root hair diiutes its cell sap to become hypotonic to the a$'9.9.91'tcells.
The water moves again to the next cell untrl it crosses the c.9.f.t.9f ...... tissue by osmosis.
This water concentration gradient existed in the cortex creates a force called r,9'9'f".'."
p.{9.*.Y.1.1....... to push water into xyiem.
ROOT
Encloclent
t----------.H
6@- >c442
1.9 Water Loss from the Plants (Transpiration)
1. Definition: The loss of water in the form of w9t9f ... v.9t99.f. from a plant to the atmosphere.
Atmost (99%) of the water taken by ptants is e.Y3 f 9.i9.n9.. by transpiration, only 1% is used
for p.ti9.tliy.lfl.q:.i:.. and io remain t"Y'l:J.1""""
2. About 90% of transpiration iakes place through the s.*1.?.t3. .....,|oh through the cllll3.l9
and 5% evapoiated from the 1.9.?:j'?.?,''{..... of the stem'
3. The importance of transpiration :
(a) Creates a tfg,?fP.iL:.1:L:]... p.:.11.....,. that sucks water and dissolved mineral salts
from the soil. Mineral salts are used for cell activities while the water is used for
photosynthesis and keeps the cells turgid to give support to the leaves-
(b) Maintains oS.T.9l,iL.... p.f9Li.Yl,9... in the cells due to elimination of excessive water
in.plant bodY.
(c) Gives c9.qli|r.?....... ef.f.9.9.t... due to absorption of latent heat by water to evaporate.
4. Measuring the rate of transpiration.
{a) The pulling force developed by transpiration can be demonstrated in an experiment by
usins p9i9.TS.tS!'..'
(b) This photometer can also be used to measure the rate of photosynthesis under
different envi ronmental condition.
(c) From the diagram shows, the rate of
water loss'is indicated by the speed
of which the air bubble moves along
the graduated capillary tube. (from X
to Y)
Rate of =
water loss
DistanceXtoY(cm)
time
(d) Notice that, the potometer does not
measure transpiration directly and
will give an accurate indication only if
the rate of water loss is PreciselY
equal to the rate of water uPtake.
However, for most purpose the estimated transpiration obtained from the experiment
is satisfactory.
6.4- >c442
rlts
aro
sed
ic,lQ
Iter
ate.
lt by
lent
:rr:irr-s Affecting the Rate of Transpiration
Explanation Graph
'' i, r-.3( vapour that diffuses out of stomata
a .9 3.'l.T .Yl.?.1 9:.. . .. arou nd the leaf surface.
- ','l--ving air carries water vapour away. This
c.[.93.t9.f.... the concentration gradient between
-',aier vapour inside the leaf and outside the leaf.
-lence, the rate of transpiration is increased.
- -re rate of transpiration increases when the
rcvement of air is increased.
c)(otcoCg'-U)c
F
Air movement
" {n increase in temperature, increases the rate
cf transpiration due to:
. lncrease in water e.Y9.P.9.*Jl]9.?.... rate
. lncrease in d.iF.F.Y.9i,9.?.....,... rate
. D.9.9.f.9.::9..... in humidity of surrounding air
a)(!tCo.E(g'o-ac(gF
Temperature ( 'C)
' During the day, high light intensity stimulates
s.igP.g.t9... opening, so the rate of
trans pi rations i .-P 9. l'.9.9.f.9.9. .
:. Heat energy also increases evaporation of
water.
i. At night, stomata close and the rate of
transpiration decrease.
0000 0600 12a0 1800 24aa
>\=ac0),c-.c_9-J
c)(gtc.a(o'dU)
(gF
i. At the l.9.Yl. relative humidity (dry air) the
concentration gradient at water vapour between
the leaves and surrounding is high, so the rate
of transptration is i.?.:.L-e.?.9S3.....'..
2. When the relative humidity is high, the air is
s*3tY.*L1.1... with water vapour. The water is
unable to evaporate from the leaves'Relative humiditv
c)
t.F
'o-<t,C.
F
The Regulation of Transpiration by Stomata
1. Each stoma consists of a pair of kidney shapecl git9.*.. c9.l!.{ surrounding st.qt9'19 p.9f'9"
2. Unlike other celts, guai"d ceils are sP.3.9j3.1*93 epidermal cells with a thicker inner ceilwall
and also contain c.h.lg.tSf '{3i'L:'J. ln dicotyledonous leaves, stomata are found on the lgHgl ... epidermis while
monocotyledonous leaves have stomata on b9i'b.""'. lower and upper epidermis'
4. ln general, stomata oPPl.{..... during the day and c.\9j9-s"...' at night.
rlll
$riiilllll:-,i
l:l ,,,rll:: l
- ,,iil;
!t
Opening Closing
E.Fi9:tT.3.'.... ;.ii* \\v.:.9.q.9J.e....... d(<- -'ii;)
;il;,..ii.; -ffiThin outer cel! wall-fiF1t,U\ i, , i Jl');n,
#;;i::'ffNucleus -r YV;r-
(a)
ctornqtel n oF€v..... t'"'..'"'
t-* * *" tr"*t,r"tis "*r'tguard cells and produce g.t'Y.n9.{9.
K* ions are ap.t!y.9!J...... pumped fromsurrounding epidermal cells into the guard
cells.
An accumulation of K+ ions and glucose
increases the of.T.$.f.1.. p'l9ll'Y.T" ofguard cells.
Water from epidermal cells move into the
g.'J.q.1.9..... cells by osmosis
The guard cells become t.''lt9i'9..'...'. and
curve outward, the stomata open'
Hence, water vapour diffuses out from the
sub stomata air space to the surrounding'
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
a) ln the dark, photosynthesis does not
occur. Sugar and amino acid are
translocated out of the guard cell
(translocation)
K+ ions move out of the guard cells into
the epidermal cells.
Therefore, osmotic pressure of guard cells
d s.: r.q3:.f.f.....
Water diffuses out into the epidermal cells
by osmosis.
The guard cells become fl.?.3.1i.1.".. and
the stomata closed.
Water vapour cannot diffuse out to the
surrounding. Transpiration stops.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
6.4- >c442
dQuestion 1 paper 3
was carried out by a few Form Four students to investigate the effects of air movement
6l1i i;-anspiration in Hibiscus plant. The set up of the apparatus is shown in Diagram 1.1(a)'
mffapparaius is left on the laboratory table. The stopwatch is started when the fan speed as
ffifnm lmutiat air bubble position are set at 0 as in Diagram 1.1(b). The tirhe taken for the air
ffim,mnove a distance of 10 cm, or PQ is recorded down.
experiment in Diagram 1.1(a) is repeated with the fan speeds set at 1,3 and 5 respectively-
1lll2(p) shows the result obtained from the experiment.
'50 cm
DIAGRAM 1 .1 (a)
Scirle
Initiirl Positionof irir bubble,
DTAGRAM 1.1(b)
Table 1.2(a)
llibiscus plant
-\il bubble
(l:rpillalv tube
^K+ i
!514131211109 8 7 6 5 4 3 21 Ocm fuu T 5'D*so I to
45d1.N l\{inute nkrt 30 Ei
conditions faced by the Hibiscus plant are:
Condition Fan speed Air movement
1 1 Slow
2 ? Moderate
? tr Fast
++ll9i"-sr*1
!f"''
Condition Fan speed Observation Time taken (min
1 1
f.ss so s\*so 10"
4s ,P 15
-4o ,/ 20 -kfr 30 21;l
3+
2 3
{sa 60 s'\'50 1oa
4s\ls-49 \ eo_
\"lu 30 'tga3
3 5
50 10
4s oliu40 20
Fsoz{
le
nt#
tf
tlr*il
Table 1.2(b)
1. (i) From Table 1 .2(b), state two different observations .
1. When the fan speed is ..1.,... the air bubble takes ..?.1.. minutes to move from P to Q
2. When the fan speed is ..f.....tne air bubble takes ...i?.... minutes to move from P to Q
(ii) State the inference which corresponds to the observation in 1 (i).
1. Speed fan 1 is a 1.9.*... speed, the water loss from the Hibiscus plant is s1.93.......
2. Speed fan 5 is a hi9.h... speed, the water loss from the Hibiscus plant is f.9.f1.......
2, Write down the time taken for the air bubble in the potometer to move a distance of PQ for the
differcnt fan speed respectively in table 1.2(b).
+sl!e:f,"*.
l:,-: ele Table 'i.3 based on this expertment
Variable Method to handle the variabie
: -;aied variable
.peed
:,::: : rding variable
--e :.i.T.9..... taken for the air
: - :: 3 to move a o l.i t3?.99. ..,
'::r:- = iO Q
- : -:'ciled variable
*-- tJP9........ of plant
Table 1.3
4 i :r:: :'e hypothesis for this exPeriment. ,
Tth,* * J!9i.tfre fan speed, the sltg.r)fL the time taken for the air bubble to move from P to Q
g l.sed on Table 1.2(b), construct a table and record the results of the experiment which
r: -de the following asPects:
: -he fan speed: r'-ne time taken for the air bubble to move from P to Q
- The rate of transpiration of Hibiscus plant (cm/nin)
toQ
toQ
I for the
Tqe pon sPeed 'lifne fqKen fon*h€ elr bubbt€
*o move f rom P to q cmin)
The Fote oF +naosPilo+ion
of gol sam P lani ( orn /m;o)
o-ei
o.6Jle
r Fi-om the table ln S(i) aOoue, Ora* tne g-rph of the rate of transpiration of Hibiscus plant
against the fan speed.
$ :-:m the table in 5(i) above, explain ihe relationship beiween the fan speed, the time taken for
:-e air bubble to move from P to Q and the rate of transpiration of Hibiscus plant.
*\,ren the fan speed is hi.?1t9.1,.., the time taken for the air bubble to move from P to Q is
r.t:,.".i.ti.1., if..r" rat" of transpiration is h.LQlr.9.f...caused more water loss to the atmosphere
Use d.r$e-q9.Lt.. tan speeds which are
speed1,3and5.
M99S.Y.19.. and record the time taken
for the air bubble to move a distance
from P to Q by using a sIffl.'H:*'i..
F.H......the type of Plant that is
Hibiscus plant.
46llF,,b-S*f