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Japanese physical education teachers’beliefs about teaching students withdisabilitiesTakahiro Sato a , Samuel R. Hodge a , Nathan M. Murata b &Julienne K. Maeda ba The Ohio State University , USAb University of Hawai'i at Manoa , USAPublished online: 01 May 2007.
To cite this article: Takahiro Sato , Samuel R. Hodge , Nathan M. Murata & Julienne K. Maeda(2007) Japanese physical education teachers’ beliefs about teaching students with disabilities,Sport, Education and Society, 12:2, 211-230, DOI: 10.1080/13573320701287536
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Japanese physical education teachers’
beliefs about teaching students with
disabilities
Takahiro Satoa, Samuel R. Hodgea*, Nathan M. Muratab andJulienne K. Maedab
aThe Ohio State University, USA; bUniversity of Hawai’i at Manoa, USA
The purpose of this study was to describe Japanese physical education (PE) teachers’ beliefs about
teaching students with disabilities in integrated classes. Participants were five Japanese PE teachers
(one women and four men). The research was descriptive and qualitative, using an interviewing
method. Data were gathered in interviews, analysed and presented as descriptive narratives and
themes. Themes that emerged from the data were: satisfactions, ambivalences and concerns;
professional preparation inadequacies; and communication, collaboration and support. PE teacher
education faculty must provide apposite training for teachers to more competently teach students
with disabilities and better ensure that they have satisfying experiences doing so. The study brings
to the literature information on Japanese PE teachers’ beliefs about integration and teaching
students with disabilities. This is particularly important as teachers in Japan grapple with the
current historic, societal and educational transition from segregated to integrated schools.
Introduction
The integration of students with disabilities into general education classes is
becoming a more common educational practice worldwide (DePauw & Doll-Tepper,
2000). Accompanying this trend, scholars in the USA and elsewhere have studied
issues on teaching students with disabilities in physical education (PE) classes
(Kusano & Chosokabe, 1997, 2001; LaMaster et al ., 1998; Lienert et al ., 2001). For
example, teacher candidates’ attitudes and how they are prepared for teaching
students with varied disabilities are well-studied variables (Folsom-Meek et al ., 1999;
Hodge et al ., 2002, 2003). In recent years, research has emerged on the beliefs and
behaviors of practicing teachers who teach students with disabilities. For example,
Hodge et al . (2004) studied the behaviors and beliefs of experienced high-school PE
teachers from suburban school districts in the USA about inclusion and teaching
students with disabilities. They reported that these teachers often verbally interacted
*Corresponding author. The Ohio State University, School of Physical Activity & Educational
Services, 212 Pomerene Hall, 1760 Neil Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210-1297, USA. Email:
ISSN 1357-3322 (print)/ISSN 1470-1243 online/07/020211-20 # 2007 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/13573320701287536
Sport, Education and Society
Vol. 12, No. 2, May 2007, pp. 211�230
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with and expressed mostly favorable beliefs about teaching students with disabilities.
They also described three recurring themes: the teachers were positively disposed to
inclusion as an educational philosophy, had degrees of differences in their efficacy at
achieving successful inclusion, and encountered challenges related to establishing
inclusive practices. It was of concern that most of the teachers felt they lacked
adequate preparation, support and resources to effectively teach students with varied
disabilities.
Even given what we know about PE teachers and integrated or inclusive practices
in the USA, much less is known about the beliefs and practices of PE teachers in
other countries, with notable exceptions (Kusano & Chosokabe, 1997, 2001; Lienert
et al ., 2001). In Japan, for example, koryu kyoiku (interactive education) is gradually
advancing, which means that students with and without disabilities will increasingly
be educated together (Kusano & Chosokabe, 2001). Troublingly, Kusano and
Chosokabe (1997) assert that most PE teachers in Japan are not prepared to
effectively implement integrated pedagogies. They stress the importance of teachers’
attitudes and academic preparation for integrated practices (Kusano & Chosokabe,
2001).
Japan’s educational system, laws, policies and integration
Despite rising advocacy for integrated schools, Japan has not thoroughly addressed
the inclusion movement, for a myriad of reasons. For example, Japan’s educational
system does not lend credence or support to preparing teachers to teach students
with disabilities in integrated settings. Even today, most students with disabilities are
taught in separate classes or special schools, with little or no chance for interaction
with their peers without disabilities (Kusano & Chosokabe, 1997). Inevitably as the
movement toward integration progresses, educators worldwide will have more
opportunities to teach students with disabilities in their classes (Kusano &
Chosokabe, 1997, 2001; DePauw & Doll-Tepper, 2000).
The passage in Japan of the Educational Law (Section 22) provides a legal base
to advocate for integrated schooling (Suzuki, 2002). Under this law, placement
and programming decisions (such as whether to attend regular or special/
segregated schools) about students with disabilities are left to the authority of
administrators of schools, departments of education and parents. It is thus crucial
that school personnel and parents collaborate on what is determined to be the
most apposite educational experience for each child or young person with
disabilities. In addition to educational laws, the Japanese government established
the Foundation Policy for People with Disabilities in 2001 (Cabinet of the
Ministry, 2002). The purpose of the policy is to encourage, accept, support and
enhance the quality of life for persons with disabilities in society. The policy
stresses normalization, which includes progression toward integrated practices and
barrier-free accessibility.
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Purpose and theoretical framework
It can be predicted that, with Japan’s emerging advocacy for integrated schools, there
will be increased opportunities for teachers to teach students with disabilities in their
classes. Thus far, there exists limited research on teachers within the Asia�Pacific
region and their beliefs about teaching students with disabilities in integrated classes.
To fill this void, the purpose of this study was to describe Japanese physical education
teachers’ beliefs about teaching students with disabilities in integrated classes. This
study adds to the existing literature base (Kusano & Chosokabe, 1997, 2001),
especially to the genre of qualitative research on the integration of students with
disabilities into physical education contexts.
It is important to examine teachers’ beliefs, as these serve as the precursors to their
behaviors (Ajzen, 1991). The theory of planned behavior (TPB) posits that three
accessible belief aggregates lead to the formation of a behavioral intention.1 The
intent to perform various behaviors can be predicted from attitudes (Ajzen, 2001a,
2001b). If given sufficient control over the behavior, individuals are likely to carry
out their intentions when presented with opportunities to do so (Ajzen, 2001a,
2001b). We judged TPB (Ajzen, 1991) to be an apposite theoretical framework for
this study. The research question that guided the study was, ‘What are the beliefs of
experienced Japanese physical education teachers on integration and teaching
students with disabilities?’
In this study, ‘beliefs’ refer to accessible beliefs (Ajzen, 1991) expressed by PE
teachers about teaching students with disabilities, based on their knowledge (both
newly acquired and older) and experiences with such students in their classes.
Method
Sampling and participants
Purposeful sampling (Patton, 1990) was used to select five PE teachers from Tokyo,
Japan. Pseudonyms were used to protect the privacy and anonymity of all teachers
(Akita, Kono, Mori, Saki and Yoshi) and students (Osaka, Kanto, Kim and Jimmu).
Selection of the teachers was based on criteria that paralleled those identified by
Hodge et al . (2004). First, the teachers were all Japanese and taught PE in school
districts located in Tokyo. Secondly, these teachers had experience teaching PE at the
middle-school and/or high-school level. Thirdly, they had established reputations as
effective teachers within their respective school districts. Fourthly, all teachers had at
least 5 years of experience teaching in their schools. This criterion was used to ensure
that the teachers had progressed to the ‘maturity’ stage of development (Katz, 1972).
At this stage, ‘teachers begin to ask questions of themselves and their teaching that
focus on their insights, perspectives, and beliefs regarding teaching and children’
(Stroot, 1996, p. 342). We chose for the sample teachers who could reflect on their
experiences teaching students with disabilities. Lastly, the teachers selected taught
classes containing students without disabilities and at least one or more students with
mild to severe disabilities.
Teaching students with disabilities 213
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The sampling logic used was intensity sampling. The logic of intensity sampling is
to seek exemplars of the variables of interest (e.g., experienced Japanese PE teachers
who had taught students with disabilities), but not unusual cases (Patton, 1990). The
five Japanese PE teachers sampled taught in middle- and high-school PE programs
where students with varied disabilities were included on a regular basis.
Table 1 presents demographic data on the teachers and the students in their PE
classes. In total, two of the teachers (Kono and Mori, both male) taught at middle
schools, and three (Akita, female, and Saki and Yoshi, both male) taught at high
schools in Tokyo. All five teachers, whose ages ranged from 27 to 60 years, had a
Bachelor’s degree in education, majoring in PE. Saki had a Master’s degree in PE as
well. They all were certified in PE. Their teaching experiences ranged from 5 to 37
years. Class sizes ranged from 25 to 60, with an average of 40 students per class.
Typically, with one exception, these teachers had no support personnel or adaptive
equipment available to their classes.
During the conduct this study, all five teachers taught students with and without
disabilities in at least one of their PE classes. Specifically, Kono taught a class of 40
students, including two students with disabilities (a student with autism concomitant
with mental retardation and a student with physical disabilities). Similarly, Mori
taught a class with 60 students, including a student with physical disabilities (right-
side hemiplegia). At the high-school level, Akita taught a class of 39 students,
including a student with a severe hearing impairment. Saki taught a class of
40 students that included three students with disabilities (visual impairment,
physical disabilities and multiple disabilities of autism with mental retardation and
Table 1. Demographic information on teachers and their PE classes (MR � mental retardation;
PDD � pervasive development disorders)
Teacher Gender Age Years experience
teaching PE
Grades
taught
Class
size
Students’ disability types
(no. in class)
Kono Male 28 5 7�9 40 PDD: autism concomitant
with MR (1)
Physical impairment:
ambulatory (1)
Mori Male 55 32 7�9 60 Physical impairment:
right-side hemiplegia (1)
Akita Female 59 37 10�12 39 Severe hearing impairment
(1)
Saki Male 60 37 10�12 40 Visual impairment (1)
Physical impairment: lack
of grip strength and
ambulatory difficulties (1)
PDD: autism and MR;
Parkinson’s disease (1)
Yoshi Male 27 5 10�12 25 Moderate hearing
impairment (1)
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Parkinson’s disease). A personal assistant was available to support this class but no
adaptive equipment was available. Lastly, Yoshi taught an integrated PE class of 25
students, including a student with a moderate hearing impairment.
These teachers had not taken courses in adapted physical education (APE) during
their academic preparation, nor had they received in-service training on teaching
students with disabilities. This is common as APE teacher preparation programs do
not currently exist in Japan and integrated programming is an emerging trend
(Kusano & Chosokabe, 2001).
Research method and instruments
An in-depth, semi-structured interviewing approach was utilized (Seidman, 1998).
The researchers selected this approach because it was the most economically feasible
and least time-consuming strategy that would allow the gathering of data to describe
the beliefs of Japanese PE teachers in their own words about integration and teaching
students with disabilities. Seidman (1998) states that interviewing as a method is ‘a
powerful way to gain insight into educational issues through understanding the
experience of the individuals whose lives constitute education’ (p. 7). For this study,
a veteran Japanese teacher trained in the use of interviewing served as the data
collector. For each teacher, demographic data were gathered using a teacher
questionnaire and in-depth interviews were conducted (Seidman, 1998; Fontana &
Frey, 2000). Together, the lead researcher (TS) and two physical education teacher
education (PETE) faculty members, who were members of the research team, were
responsible for data analysis and oversaw the conduct of the study.
Teacher questionnaire. To gather demographic data on the teachers, a questionnaire
(developed by Lienert et al ., 2001) was used. Data gathered included information
about the composition of the teachers’ classes (e.g., grade level, class size and
students’ disability types), teachers’ gender, age, educational history, working
conditions, teaching experience and access to services and support, and added
responsibilities for students with disabilities, such as physical lifting and medical
assistance.
Interviews. Using a semi-structured protocol, interviews were face-to-face verbal
interchanges (Seidman, 1998; Fontana & Frey, 2000) with each of the teachers.
Interview questions were given to the teachers several days prior to the interview to
allow them time to reflect on their beliefs about integration and teaching students
with disabilities. A modified interview guide (originally developed by Lienert et al .,
2001) formed the basis for the interview questions. Examples include:
1. When thinking about teaching students with disabilities in your PE classes, what
experiences come to mind and why?
2. Does including students with disabilities in your classes affect your abilities to be
an effective teacher?
Teaching students with disabilities 215
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3. Thinking back to the first experiences you had teaching students with
disabilities, how prepared were you for teaching such students?
Interview questions were designed and modified with the aim of answering the
research question guiding this study.
The interview sessions lasted 90 minutes (Seidman, 1998). All were audiotaped
with the teachers’ permission, transcribed verbatim and then translated from
Japanese into English. First for clarification, and later for confirmation of
interpretation, the teachers were contacted via telephone or email with follow-up
questions.
Data reduction, analysis and triangulation
The data were first prepared by transcribing and translating the audiotaped
interviews. The lead researcher is fluent in Japanese, his first language (English is
his second language). In addition, a second research team member is fluent in both
languages. Nonetheless, some errors of interpretation must be assumed in translating
interview data from Japanese to English. Secondly, the lead researcher listened to
each audiotaped interview while reading the written transcription to check for
accuracy, and corrections were made as needed. Thirdly, the transcriptions were
independently examined by the investigators; later they conferred to ensure
verifiability of the findings (Huberman & Miles, 1998).
More specifically, transcripts subsequent to translation were analysed using a
constant comparative method (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994) and narrative analysis
procedures (Manning & Cullum-Swan, 1994). The researchers independently
examined the transcripts for units of meaning, a process originally described by
Lincoln and Guba (1985). Units of meaning representing similar themes were
grouped together in categories. Next, these data were shared between the
researchers, and they identified and analysed common themes across the five
teachers. After independent analysis of the data, the researchers conferred to ensure
verifiability of the findings by establishing agreement (Huberman & Miles, 1998).
Later, thematic narratives were developed and agreed upon, with direct quotes from
teachers being used to illustrate the themes (Manning & Cullum-Swan, 1994). Data
triangulation was accomplished as each teacher’s interview data were compared and
cross-checked against the others’ (Patton, 1990). From this process, themes emerged
(Manning & Cullum-Swan, 1994) and were agreed upon, with direct quotes from
teachers being used to exemplify the themes.
Trustworthiness of the data. Member checking was used to reduce the impact of
subjective bias, while establishing trustworthiness (Patton, 1990). All audiotapes
from interviews with the teachers were transcribed and sent back to each respective
teacher for member checking. This process was used to ensure that the transcribed
data accurately represented the teachers’ beliefs about integration and teaching
students with disabilities. In addition, member checking was used to help confirm the
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accuracy of our interpretations. Each teacher verified the accuracy of the data and
our interpretations.
‘Transferability refers to whether particular findings from a qualitative study can
be transferred to another similar context or situation and still preserve the
particularized meanings, interpretations, and inferences from the completed study’
(Leininger, 1994, p. 106). Hence, transferability of our findings is contingent upon
the degree to which there is relevance to another similar context or situation, while
still preserving the particularized meaning, interpretations and inferences from the
study; that is, the ‘fittingness’ of the findings to similar environmental conditions,
contexts or circumstances (such as teaching students with disabilities in PE classes
elsewhere) (Leininger, 1994).
Findings
The five teachers in this study were accustomed to using the phrase ‘koryu kyoiku ’
(interactive education) rather than ‘integration’. When queried, however, they
understood this as synonymous with integrated classes. That is, koryu kyoiku refers
to integrating students with disabilities into general education classes (Kusano &
Chosokabe, 1997). Despite semantic differences, it is clear that these teachers taught
students with disabilities who were integrated into their PE classes. Hence, when
interviewed, they were able to reflect and articulate their beliefs based on experiences
teaching such students. From the data reduction and analyses, recurring themes
emerged. These were: satisfactions, ambivalences and concerns; professional
preparation inadequacies; and communication, collaboration and support. Themes
are described below with exemplary quotes from the teachers.
Satisfactions, ambivalences and concerns
In general when taken in context, these teachers’ beliefs were influenced by both
satisfying and challenging experiences teaching students with disabilities in inte-
grated PE classes. The teachers spoke of experiences that were satisfying, typified by
positive, constructive, sympathetic, approving, encouraging, complimentary, flatter-
ing, kind, beneficial and compassionate acts. However, they also had encountered
difficulties, which were typified by averse, doubtful, hostile, critical, inauspicious,
harsh, fault-finding, unflattering, unsympathetic, antisocial, difficult, skeptical and
opposing acts, which were cause for concern. The teachers expressed beliefs that
ranged from favorable (affected by satisfying experiences) to skeptical or unfavorable
(affected by difficulties experienced) about the philosophical intent and their school
districts’ practice of integrated schools. For example, Kono stated: ‘All teachers can
treat disabled students equally with regular students. That is possible also. However
when students with disabilities cannot do various activities, is it efficient for these
students to be in regular PE classes? I doubt it’. 2Kono continued: ‘I doubt it is
meaningful for them . . . because there are some activities they can do and some they
Teaching students with disabilities 217
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cannot do’. All in all, Kono spoke of his experiences teaching integrated PE classes
both as satisfying (affected by witnessing and experiencing social benefits) and as
being of concern (witnessing antisocial behaviors). He also believed that some
students, particularly those with severe disabilities, would be ‘better off’ in
individualized programs (i.e., traditional special classes). Kono stated:
In my experiences, students with physical disabilities handle PE classes much easier
than students with mental deficits. There is a big difference in how students interact
with classmates depending on their disability type and severity. Osaka [a student
with autistic tendencies and mental retardation] was bullied and discriminated
against by his classmates initially. But they began to understand his condition and
many students have changed their attitudes from negative to positive.
Kono proclaimed his acceptance of teaching students with disabilities in PE, yet
asserted that integrated classes are not appropriate for students with severe
disabilities. He stated:
I do not think integrated classes are necessary all the time . . . I do not know if only
integrated class as an option is appropriate for students with disabilities. Integration
helps them to have social interaction with classmates, but individual instruction is
necessary also. It depends on the type of disability to provide appropriate
instruction for them. For example, I have an autistic student with low motor skills.
There are large differences in the motor skill levels between him and regular
students. Integrated PE is not appropriate for students with severe disabilities, but if
I teach skills individually all the time, there are no social interactions with other
students, so we should have both traditional special classes and integrated classes.
Mori’s beliefs about integration and teaching students with disabilities reflected
both skepticism and opposition. This was particularly evident concerning Kanto, a
student with physical disabilities who was included in one of Mori’s classes. He had
doubts about Kanto’s ability to function independently. Mori strongly questioned the
logic of integrating such a student in PE classes. In discussing this, Mori stated:
When Kanto requires special assistance from others, I do not think he should be in
my PE classes . . . General education requires that all students perform at a certain
academic level . . . When disabled students cannot achieve this without assistance,
they need to leave this school and go to special classes to get appropriate
individualized instruction.
In contrast, Mori believed that integrated classes could result in social benefits for
various students. He explained: ‘When disabled students are in general education
classes, many students influence and socially interact with them in positive ways.
Many students become thoughtful at giving them special attention’. Mori had
witnessed the demeanor of students without disabilities change from negative to
positive toward peers with disabilities. He stated that:
regular students look at the disabled student in strange ways. When students with
disabilities were doing something wrong, the regular students did not say anything
to them. They never complained at all. After a while, they started to help them.
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Akita also believed that teaching students with disabilities could be satisfying
(influenced by gaining social benefits, including favorable attitude changes) for both
herself and the students in integrated classes. Reflecting on teaching Kim (a student
with a severe hearing impairment), Akita asserted that:
students without disabilities began to change their attitudes toward disabled
students. The attitudes of disabled students are also essential factors for successful
PE classes. Kim did not tell us she had a disability. Every student respected her as a
leader of the class. Promoting koryu kyoiku depends on students’ disability type and
severity and personalities. When students with disabilities do not interact well with
others, it may be difficult to promote koryu kyoiku .
Akita believed there were some difficult aspects to teaching integrated classes. She
stated:
I feel integrated class is positive, but there is a negative factor also, because when
students with mental deficits attend regular PE classes, it is very difficult to
teach . . . because they do not understand what the teacher says.
Such instructional difficulties raise concerns about aspects of these teachers’
experiences.
Saki’s beliefs included some that were favorable, resulting from satisfying positive
interactions between him and his students and among the students (with and without
disabilities), and some that were ambivalent to unfavorable (e.g., doubtful or
opposing), due to concerns about teaching students with disabilities in integrated PE
classes. Saki was influenced by the reactions of his students without disabilities. For
instance, he reflected on an experience where most students’ initial reactions to the
integration of a classmate with disabilities into the PE program were negative, but
their eventual interactions with that student were positive. Saki explained:
First, regular students do not know how to interact, and the student with disabilities
also feel anxieties. However when they start PE classes, it does not matter if they
have disabilities or not. They interact really well. For example, when all students
start the warm-up activities, some students become peer tutors and help the student
with disabilities. That is good social interaction with each other.
Even so, Saki expressed opposition (unfavorable beliefs) to integrating students
with more severe disabilities into his classes and believed that such students would be
better served in individualized programs (i.e., traditional special classes). In
discussing an experience teaching a student with severe disabilities, Saki’s dilemma
was apparent. He stated:
Well, when a student with multiple disabilities [Jimmu, a student with autistic
tendencies concomitant with mental retardation and Parkinson’s disease] was
included in my PE class, many students began to volunteer as peer tutors for
Jimmu. Some of them developed positive attitudes and interacted with him.
However, Jimmu functions at the cognitive level of an 18-month-old child. So, I’m
skeptical about teaching him . . . in PE classes . . . I see pros and cons to promoting
integrated education.
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Yoshi’s beliefs conveyed a favorable view toward teaching students with mild to
moderate disabilities. He stated, ‘I have had only one student with moderate hearing
impairment. In her case, she did not have any problems participating in my PE
classes.’ In contrast, Yoshi had doubts (i.e., ambivalent to unfavorable beliefs) about
the logic of integrating students with severe or profound disabilities in PE classes. He
stated, ‘I do not know whether or not koryu kyoiku is necessary for all disabled
students’. Even so, Yoshi described psychological and social benefits to integrated
classes:
All students who have disabilities develop self-confidence, when participating in
regular PE classes. Perspectives on disabled students might change in peers when
they participate in PE classes. Regular students will not feel sorry for the disabled
students, and all students may be able to respect each other as human beings.
In essence, this theme of satisfactions, ambivalences and concerns captures the
complexity of the experiences common to these teachers. Satisfying experiences were
offset by ambivalence about the teacher’s efficacy, for example, and by daily concerns
about teaching students with disabilities in integrated PE classes. This theme was
gleaned from teachers’ comments about experiencing an enhanced appreciation,
satisfaction and sense of achievement on witnessing positive social interactions
between students with disabilities and their classmates. Paradoxically, the teachers
were ambivalent and voiced concerns about contextual (overcrowded classes, lack of
personnel support and limited or inadequate equipment), managerial (class
organization and management) and instructional (difficulties associated with
teaching students with disabilities in various class activities) issues. The teachers
typically taught in large and at times overcrowded classes, characterized by a lack of
available personnel support (i.e., teaching assistants) and limited or no adaptive
equipment and other resources. Related to this, the teachers were concerned about
the added complexity of class organization and management, and particularly about
the integration of students who had severe disabilities into their classes. Kono
worried that, ‘If I have students with severe disabilities or blindness, I have no idea
how to manage the PE classes.’ Mori was also concerned about class management in
terms of some students’ inappropriate behaviors toward classmates with disabilities.
He stated:
Sometimes, when the students with mental retardation are in regular PE classes,
their classmates can tell that they do not comprehend whatever is said, then they
start to make fun of them. It is very difficult for me to teach integrated PE classes.
These teachers were also concerned that students with severe disabilities required
more of their time for providing individualized attention, instruction and support.
Budget constraints added to these teachers’ concerns, as well as working conditions,
typified by inadequate facilities and equipment. Separately and collectively, these
concerns hindered the teachers’ ability to provide appropriate learning experiences
for their students, especially those students with severe disabilities. Kono’s
comments highlight some of the frustration he experienced:
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Sometime, Osaka [a student with autistic tendencies and mental retardation] tells
me what he wants to do in PE class. It is like a puzzle to organize my classes. This is
a frustrating aspect to teaching in a koryu kyoiku program.
Further, Kono explained his concerns about class management: ‘[the] average is 40
students in my classes and there are elective courses, so maximum class size is 60
students in one class. I do not have . . . any personal assistance’. He stated, ‘I need
support to help take care of my classes. I have to keep an eye on students with
disabilities individually in some activities. Volunteers are OK also’. To address this
concern, Kono relied on students without disabilities to help support their classmates
with disabilities during class activities. He explained:
With help from regular students, we find possibilities for disabled students to
participate in regular PE classes . . . I must find out what they can and cannot do. If
they cannot participate independently, I need to ask classmates to help or support
them. These kinds of concerns such as management need to be resolved in PE
classes.
Similarly, Mori stated:
I think a disabled student should participate in regular PE, but I cannot . . . keep my
eyes on that student all the time during classes. I have regular students also . . . I do
not have any assistance or volunteers in my classes to help.
Mori was concerned about modifying activities to provide adequate learning
experiences for students both with and without disabilities. He commented:
I do not say specifically which activities students with disabilities can do or not.
They need individual instructions . . . but modifying rules or equipment is not
integrated PE, because regular students may not receive appropriate instruction,
and disabled students cannot follow the same instructions and rules which
classmates do.
Akita was also concerned about class size and management issues. She declared, ‘I
have 39 to 41 students in my classes and I do not have any assistance to help with
disabled students’. It was clear that these teachers desired personnel support. Saki
believed that: ‘It is good the disabled students and regular students have instruction
in the same environments. However we need support systems or services. If we do
not have supports, we cannot provide appropriate instructions for all students’. Yoshi
expressed a similar concern: ‘I do not have any assistance . . . It is hard to teach
disabled students by myself. I need a budget that allows for assistants or volunteers
for my classes. These things are my wishes’.
The teachers, with one exception, voiced concern that they did not have access to
adequate facilities or (adaptive) equipment for teaching students with disabilities in
integrated settings. On that concern, Kono asserted, ‘I want to have enough facilities
and budget’. Succinctly stated, Mori’s position was, ‘When we start accepting
disabled students into regular schools, the school system should provide facilities
which are equipped for such students’. Akita’s comments reflect the overarching
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budgetary concerns these teachers voiced in relation to teaching students with
disabilities:
Japan is in economic depression, so our budget from the government has been cut
off by at least 10%. Educational costs are not supposed to be cut, however budget
cuts do affect what we can do for disabled students. There is no monetary support
for training PE teachers at their schools or to go to workshops for training on
teaching students with disabilities. Budget issues are costly to integrated teaching
environments.
A related concern was that most of the school buildings and PE facilities had
limited access (e.g., no wheelchair ramps), which created barriers, mostly for
students with physical disabilities who used walkers or wheelchairs for mobility.
In sum, these teachers held favorable, ambivalent and unfavorable beliefs about
teaching students with varied disabilities. The teachers were in favor of integrated
programming for some students (those with mild to moderate disabilities), but they
were ambivalent about the benefits of integration for all students, particularly those
with severe disabilities. In fact, some teachers expressed opposition to the integration
of students with severe disabilities into their PE classes. The teachers contrasted their
personal beliefs with their professional obligation (the subjective norm) to teach
students with disabilities in integrated PE classes.
Professional preparation inadequacies
These teachers’ beliefs were adversely affected by what they viewed as inadequate
academic preparation and knowledge to effectively teach students with disabilities in
integrated PE classes. Mostly they felt ill-prepared to adapt and modify class
activities to effectively include students with severe disabilities in class activities. This
in turn adversely affected their confidence to do so, and ultimately some teachers
excluded some students with disabilities from class activities. For example, drawing
on his experiences, Kono stated, ‘I do not have confidence to teach all activities to
disabled students. I doubt that I could provide appropriate instructions for all
students. When disabled students have trouble participating in various activities, I do
not let them’. These teachers were particularly concerned about teaching students
with severe disabilities. Mori stated, ‘I think, what should I do when I have students
with multiple or severe disabilities in PE classes?’ Yoshi also had strong doubts and
reservations about his preparedness to teach students with severe disabilities. He
explained, ‘I do not think I can organize my PE classes well if a student with severe or
profound disabilities is included. But I do not want to segregate them from their
classmates’. Yoshi claimed, ‘I do not think I can teach a student with severe
disabilities’.
These teachers considered that what they believed to be inadequate academic
preparation hindered their ability to ensure best practices in teaching students with
disabilities. This adversely affected the meaning they constructed with regard to
teaching such students, particularly those students with severe disabilities. They
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asserted that PETE programs ought to better prepare teachers for integrated
practices. Like the other teachers interviewed, Akita believed that teachers need
proper training to be effective at teaching in integrated settings. She stated, ‘teachers
should be trained like specialized PE’. This is captured in Akita’s remarks: ‘we need a
lot of chances to study integration strategies. We need a lot of training’. She
explained: ‘universities need to provide coursework and training on teaching disabled
students . . . if they do not, teachers definitely will have a hard time trying to teach
students with disabilities’.
Communication, collaboration and support
This broad category included communication involving the PE teachers’ interactions
with colleagues at their schools, students in their classes and parents. Most instances
of communication that these teachers reflected on concerned collaborating with
colleagues to facilitate integrated teaching practices, lesson planning, adapting
lessons and modifying class activities, interactions between students with disabilities
and their classmates and, to a lesser degree, interacting with parents. These teachers’
beliefs about integration varied in the degree to which they engaged in open lines of
communication and collaboration with colleagues and parents. However, they all
believed it was important to effectively communicate with colleagues and parents as
an essential step to achieving successful inclusion. For example, Kono reflected on
the importance of communicating and collaborating with colleagues and parents to
better serve students with disabilities. He stated, ‘One salient thing in promoting
koryu kyoiku is to collaborate with other classroom teachers and parents. I attempt to
report the improvements of the social or motor skills of students with disabilities’.
Also, Akita was inspired by her level of communication and collaboration with
colleagues and parents. She said:
Collaboration with other teachers and parents of disabled students is essential to
promote koryu kyoiku classes effectively. All teachers try to input ideas, which is the
best way to collaborate. The atmosphere in our office became much better [with the
integration of Kim, a student with a hearing impairment] than before.
Typically, the PE teachers communicated instructional, managerial and behavioral
information to their students with and without disabilities. They also experienced
mostly affirming interactions with students with and without disabilities in their
classes on a daily basis. There were occasional class management and disciplinary
concerns, though not unusual ones (e.g., off-task behaviors, talking at inappropriate
times, horseplay and teasing).
Moreover, the teachers varied in their efforts to contact and interact with the
parents of students they taught. Most communication with parents generally
occurred for brief periods of time, typically by telephone, regarding particular school
events, reports on students’ status (e.g., improvements in social and motor skills) and
school announcements, and was less about disciplinary issues. In essence, whether
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frequent or occasional, communicating with colleagues and parents affected the
teachers’ beliefs about teaching students with disabilities.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to describe Japanese PE teachers’ beliefs about
teaching students with disabilities in integrated classes. To do this, experienced
middle- and high-school Japanese PE teachers were interviewed. Overall, these
teachers had developed beliefs about teaching students with disabilities that fell
within a continuum that ranged from favorable (influenced by satisfying experiences)
and ambivalent (teachers’ doubts about the benefits of integration for some students
and their own efficacy) to unfavorable (opposition to integrating students with severe
disabilities). Benefits of integration involved satisfying experiences the teachers had
had teaching students with disabilities. In addition, they had opportunities to witness
positive attitude shifts and interactions (helping, befriending and supporting
behaviors) between students with and without disabilities.
Paradoxically, the teachers’ ambivalence and at times disfavor or opposition to
integrated programming were probably manifestations of the degree to which they
encountered difficulties teaching in integrated classes. Moreover, they believed that
they were inadequately prepared and lacked resources (inadequate facilities and
equipment) and support (teaching assistants) for effectively managing their classes
while also teaching students with disabilities, especially severe disabilities. That is,
their self-doubts were magnified by concerns about the greater complexity of class
organization and management in teaching such students, particularly in large and
overcrowded classes with a lack of available personnel support and limited resources.
In contrast, the teachers valued experiences where they communicated and
collaborated with colleagues and parents as meaningful and essential to teaching
students with disabilities.
These teachers believed that psychosocial benefits were desired outcomes of
integrated classes; however, they were much less convinced that students with severe
disabilities accrued psychomotor benefits (skill development and learning) in such
classes. As such, their experiences were more satisfying in teaching students with
mild disabilities, who could better ‘fit in’ or engage in class activities, compared with
teaching students with moderate to severe disabilities. An apposite interpretation,
explicable using the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 2001b), is that these
Japanese PE teachers believed that it was more difficult (that is, involving less
perceived behavioral control or PBC) to teach students with moderate to severe
disabilities (e.g., students with autistic tendencies, cognitive deficits, visual impair-
ments and physical disabilities) than those with mild disabilities. This finding is
consistent with previous results (Conatser et al ., 2002; Hodge et al ., 2004). For
instance, Conatser et al . (2002) concluded that aquatics instructors’ PBC toward
teaching integrated swimming classes was much more favorable for youngsters with
mild disabilities than for peers with severe disabilities.
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The teachers we interviewed had intentions to honor their professional obligations,
which in this case meant teaching students with disabilities. Nonetheless, they were
affected by experiences typifying the degree of ease and difficulty in doing so (i.e.,
PBC). These involved variables that either facilitated (e.g., students without
disabilities assisting their classmates with disabilities) or impeded (e.g., inadequate
academic preparation and lack of adequate equipment, facilities and personnel
support) their teaching efficacy. To a large degree teachers’ academic preparation is
affected by the decisions and actions of others. For example, PETE faculty routinely
make decisions on curriculum content and learning experiences that directly
influence future teachers’ degree of preparedness to teach students with disabilities.
To enhance teachers’ self-efficacy at teaching students with mild to severe disabilities,
PETE faculty ought to prioritize curricular elements in which future PE teachers
gain meaningful hands-on experiences teaching such students (Hodge et al ., 2003).
The extant literature confirms that PETE students’ attitudes and perceived
competence in teaching students with disabilities improve after taking APE courses,
coupled with practicum experiences (Folsom-Meek et al ., 1999; Hodge et al ., 2002).
Hodge et al . (2003) assert that APE coursework, coupled with practicum experiences
and keeping a self-reflective journal, provides a medium for PETE students to
identify issues, address problems and think critically about best practices. It is
reasonable to suggest that Japanese PETE students as well as practicing PE teachers
would benefit similarly from such academic preparation. Typically, however,
Japanese PETE students do not receive training in APE coursework or practicum
experiences. The teachers we interviewed had not received such training, nor had
they received other professional development training on teaching students with
disabilities. This is a problem that is not easy to resolve, as currently APE training
programs do not exist in Japan.
Increasingly, scholars have advocated restructuring PETE programs into an
‘infusion-based’ curriculum approach, which provides information and experiences
for novice teachers to practice effective pedagogy with students with varied
disabilities throughout their academic preparation (Kowalski, 1995; Kowalski &
Rizzo, 1996). PETE faculty in Japan and elsewhere should consider the training
approaches of coursework plus practicum training, keeping a self-reflective journal
and using an infused-based curriculum to better prepare teachers to teach students
with disabilities in their classes.
Given our current findings and similar findings in this area (LaMaster et al ., 1998;
Lienert et al ., 2001; Hodge et al ., 2004), it appears that despite cultural and language
differences, PE teachers in Japan, Germany and the USA have similar concerns
about teaching students with disabilities in integrated classes. Comparably, Lienert et
al . (2001) reported that teachers from the USA and Germany had concerns at four
of the seven stages of Hall et al .’s (1973) concerns-based adoption model (i.e.,
personal, management, consequence and collaboration). The teachers we inter-
viewed had similar concerns, reflecting the following stages: personal (e.g.,
skepticism and doubt about their efficacy to meet daily concerns); management
(e.g., complexities of organizing and managing large inclusive classes with
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inadequate facilities and equipment); and consequence (e.g., differential psycho-
motor benefits accrued in relation to a student’s disability type and severity). They
also believed that communicating and collaborating with colleagues and parents was
a necessary component for success in integrated PE programs.
Furthermore, our findings are consistent with previous findings (LaMaster et al .,
1998; Lienert et al ., 2001; Hodge et al ., 2004), which indicate that PE teachers have
a desire for improved academic preparation, access to personnel support and
adequate facilities and equipment for teaching students with disabilities. Moreover,
we found that Japanese PE teachers were willing to voice disagreement with
integrated programming, under conditions where students with disabilities had
difficulty ‘fitting in’ or participating in class activities, or where they had serious
doubts about their efficacy to provide meaningful learning (psychomotor) experi-
ences for such students. It is clear that proper academic preparation is a must for
achieving successful integrated PE programs.
The Japanese PE teachers we studied believed that they were not adequately
prepared to achieve successful integration, particularly with students who had severe
disabilities (e.g., severe autistic tendencies concomitant with mental retardation).
This finding is also consistent with previous results (Hodge et al ., 2004). In this case,
teachers’ self-doubts were even more problematic, given the increased complexity of
teaching students with disabilities in overcrowded classes, especially if they had no
support personnel or lacked adequate resources (LaMaster et al ., 1998; Lienert
et al ., 2001; Hodge et al ., 2004).
All five teachers we studied stated that they sought to provide direct individualized
instruction to students with disabilities, but they often lacked confidence in their
abilities to adapt and modify lessons, equipment or activities in teaching students
with moderate to severe disabilities, and to provide individualized instruction for
such students in large or overcrowded classes, as management issues were of
concern. This finding is not surprising, given that none of the teachers had received
training in APE or any other professional development training in teaching students
with disabilities. Moreover, these teachers held differential levels of PBC in teaching
students with disabilities as a result of variables that either facilitated or impeded
their efficacy. For them, a lack of support and large class sizes made teaching
students with disabilities more difficult and had an adverse impact on their beliefs
about doing so (perceived as difficult). It is believed that having classes larger than 30
in teaching students with disabilities contributes to teacher burn-out, intensifies
discipline problems and is a barrier to individualizing instruction (Sherrill, 2004).
We found that a lack of support in large and overcrowded classes made teaching
students with disabilities, particularly severe disabilities, more difficult for these
teachers. We know that the teachers felt inadequately prepared (as they stated as
much). Therefore, they perceived it as too difficult to regularly modify or adapt their
instruction to meet the needs, interests and abilities of students with disabilities,
particularly students with severe disabilities (less perceived control beliefs). Given
such conditions, the use of peer tutors is advocated as a helpful strategy (Houston-
Wilson et al ., 1997). The teachers we interviewed also stressed the importance of
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establishing and maintaining open lines of communication and collaboration with
colleagues and parents. In addition, PETE programs must ensure that their trainees
engage in meaningful, high-quality academic experiences such that they gain
confidence and competence at teaching students with disabilities in varied contexts
(Hodge et al ., 2003).
We also found that Japanese PE teachers experienced difficulties (class manage-
ment issues) in teaching students with severe disabilities in large, and at times
overcrowded, classes with no support personnel, which possibly infringed on their
PBC (Ajzen, 2001a, 2001b). It is sensible to suggest that reducing class sizes (to 25
or fewer, say) and regular access to support personnel (e.g., teaching aides, peer
tutors and APE specialists) would help teachers in Japan and elsewhere in providing
appropriate learning experiences for all students. Scholars have emphasized the
importance and benefits of personnel support within integrated PE classes
(Houston-Wilson et al ., 1997; Vogler et al ., 2000).
On the whole, the beliefs of the Japanese PE teachers we studied are comparable to
those expressed by PE teachers in the USA and elsewhere on teaching students with
disabilities in integrated classes (LaMaster et al ., 1998; Leinert et al ., 2001; Hodge
et al ., 2004). Time and again, research confirms that PE teachers tend to possess
favorable beliefs about teaching students with disabilities (favorable attitude toward
the behavior and subjective norms) (Hodge et al ., 2004). However, if teachers feel
inadequately prepared, and where conditions such as overcrowded classes with no
support personnel and limited resources hinder their efficacy (decreasing their PBC),
such inclinations are expected to be repressed by self-doubts and skepticism about
whether or not they can actually do so effectively. This can lead to opposition to
integration, and is particularly evident in teaching students with severe disabilities.
The teachers’ beliefs ranged from favorable (affected by satisfying experiences) to
ambivalent to unfavorable (affected by difficult experiences). Clearly, teaching
students with disabilities presents a dilemma for some teachers. Those teachers who
had serious doubts about their efficacy in teaching students with severe disabilities
expressed opposition; that is, a belief that such students should not be integrated into
PE classes, but rather should receive individualized instruction in specialized classes.
Importantly, our study brings to the literature information about the paradoxes
experienced in teaching students with disabilities, as constructed by Japanese PE
teachers. Further, we provide a format for these teachers to express their beliefs
about teaching students with disabilities in integrated classes as they start to grapple
with the current societal and educational transition in Japan from traditional
segregated to integrated schools. Transferability of our findings is contingent
upon the degree to which there is relevance to other similar contexts, while still
preserving the particularized meaning, interpretations and inferences from the study
(Leininger, 1994). The initial indications are that, although much more research is
warranted, and despite differences in cultures, languages and terminologies, teachers
in Japan, the USA, Germany (LaMaster et al ., 1998; Lienert et al ., 2001; Hodge et
al ., 2004) and probably elsewhere share similar beliefs about teaching students with
varied disabilities in integrated PE classes.
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In conclusion, the extant physical education literature indicates that teachers who
have had high-quality educational experiences tend to exhibit confidence in teaching
a diversity of students with and without disabilities (Hodge et al ., 2002, 2003).
Scholars have long called for PETE faculty to take a proactive approach (i.e., by
delivering training that provides disability content and learning experiences teaching
diverse populations, infused across the PETE curriculum) to better prepare future
teachers for teaching in integrated classes (Kowalski, 1995; Kowalski & Rizzo, 1996;
Hodge et al ., 2003; Burden et al ., 2004). We concur, and encourage PETE faculty in
Japan and elsewhere to do as much.
Notes
1. The theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985) posits that attitudes toward behavior,
subjective norms and perceived behavioral control are the underlying aggregates of
behavioral intention (Ajzen, 1991). TPB proposes three conceptually independent determi-
nants of intention: (a) the attitude toward the behavior, which refers to the degree to which a
person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question; (b)
the subjective norm, which refers to the perceived social pressure to perform or not to
perform the behavior; and (c) perceived behavioral control (PBC), which refers to the
perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior. These determinants of intention are
in turn assumed to be a product of three accessible belief systems: (a) behavioral beliefs,
which are posited to influence attitudes toward the behavior; (b) normative beliefs, which
constitute the underlying determinants of subjective norms; and (c) control beliefs, which
provide the basis for perceptions of behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991). From these three
accessible belief systems, behavioral intention is the immediate antecedent of a particular
behavior.
2. Although not conforming to ‘person-first, disability-second’ language (IDEA, 1997), we use
the terms ‘disabled student’ and ‘regular student’ (i.e. without disabilities) to accurately
reflect the words of the teachers interviewed.
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