J. Satisfaction Carey Job East Stroudsburg University … · The Effects of Leader Behavior and Organizational Climate on Intercollegiate Coaches' ... (LBDQ) are the most frequently

Journal of Sport Management, 1990, 4. 59-70

The Effects of Leader Behavior and Organizational Climate on Intercollegiate Coaches'

Job Satisfaction

Carey J. Snyder East Stroudsburg University

The effects of leader behavior and organizational climate on the job satisfaction of intercollegiate coaches were analyzed. The 117 subjects represented 17 California colleges and universities. The instruments used in data collection were the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire, the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire, and the Job Descriptive Index. Statisti- cal analysis revealed that the athletic director's behavior and the climate had direct and indirect effects on job satisfaction. The degree of consideration shown by the athletic director had a strong effect on satisfaction with work and supervision. Coaches' feelings of detachment and the lack of administrative support showed a negative relationship to satisfaction with work and supervision. Path analytic procedures showed male and female subjects differ- ing with respect to the factors shaping job satisfaction. Consideration helped female coaches feel integrated into the department and supported by the administration. Male subjects viewed consideration as important to the develop- ment of morale and rapport with colleagues.

Major changes in society and higher education during the past decade have significantly affected the work environment of intercollegiate athletics. Finan- cial difficulties stem from the inflationary economy of the past 15 years and decreasing enrollments in many institutions. Staff reductions, delays in facility maintenance and construction, and reduced athletic program resources are com- mon problems. An increasingly competitive market exists with professional sport for spectators and athletes. The availability of televised sports has had an impact on attendance at college sports events. The enlargement of intramural programs has placed a greater demand on facilities and funding. And, the growth in women's athletics has been identified as a primary factor in shaping the financial difficulties of intercollegiate athletics (Broyles & Hay, 1979; Bucher, 1983).

Carey J. Snyder is with the Athletic Department at East Stroudsburg University, East Stroudsburg, PA 18301.

ho the r factor that has affected intercollegiate coaching positions is related to changes in coaches' job responsibilities. In addition to actual coaching tasks, full-time and part-time coaches are often expected to raise hnds, recruit athletes, monitor academic progress, counsel athletes, maintain public relations, and ad- minister the program.

There has been a sharp decline over the past 115 years in the number of femde intercollegiate coaches (Cqenter 8: Acosb, 1985; Bdmen & Pa1&ouse, 1981; Inglis, 1988). It is inaapoaant to andyze factors that have affected the coaching profession, particularly the recruitment, professionali preparation, and retention of women as intercollegiate coaches.

Work environment and job satisfaction are topics that have been extensively researched in business and industry since 1935. Only in the past 20 years has this area been presented in the education literamre (Owens, 1991). Very few theo- retical studies have been conducted in athletics concerning the subject of job satisfaction and the work climate.

Cog~iitiase Dissonance Theory

The basis of cognitive dissonance theory is that humans are dynamic, creative, goal-seeking, and potentially satiable individuals (Pestinger, 1957). It was posh- Iated that people strive to be consistent in their beliefs and between their beliefs and behavior. Festinger's primary contribution was to identify the cognitive process of tension seduction in situations wherein beliefs and behavior conflict. In addition, when an individual's original goal is blocked, he or she will seek out substitute goals. When a substitute goal is established, the individual seeks sources of information to support his or her new goal effort (Festinger, 1957; Wickdund & Brehm, 1976).

The theory of cognitive dissonanace has an extremely wide scope of application. The theory's primary assumption is that the presence of dissonance gives rise to pressure to reduce the dissonance. The strength of the pressure to reduce the dissonance is a function of the magnitude of the existing dissonance. Dis- sonance may be reduced by changing its causes, adding new cognitive elements &at are consonant with existing thoughts, or decreasing the importance of the dissonant elements.

Leader Behavior and O~g~~\nizaBi~~rnaB CRirnaBe

Leader behavior has been defined as the observed behavior sf the leader and polarized into the areas of emphasis on structure and people (Fiedler, 196'7). The terms "initiating structure" and "consideration" have also been used to refer- ence the afosementioned aspects of leader behavior QWaBpin, 1966).

The construct of organizational clinaaate is important because it provides a conceptual! bridge between analysis at the organizational and individual liewe!:; (ILievv-in & Stringer, 1948; Payiae &L TMansfield, 1973). OrganizationaB climate is defined as the perceived internal state of the department Lhat arises from the interaction between the worker (coach) and the -wor1c enviromenl. Attitudes and performance in vvorli have been clearly related to the climaa within the organization (MaczEca 8: Kirlc, 1968; kitwin &c Stringer, 1968).

Effects of Leader Behavior 61

Although most climate instruments were utilized in the business environment, Halpin (1966) developed the Organizational Climate Description Question- naire specifically to analyze the nature of school climates. This instrument has eight scales that separate into two sets of factors. One cluster describes coaches' perceptions of co-workers' behavior. These factors include intimacy, disengagement, morale, and hindrance (difficulty in performing one's job). The other cluster consists of perceptions of the leader's behavior. The factors in this group are consideration, aloofness, production emphasis, and thrust (the degree to which the leader is a hard worker).

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction has been most frequently presented in the literature in theories of motivation and productivity (Adams, 1963; Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyder- man, 1959; Vroom, 1964). Herzberg et al. (1959) stated that work attitudes have two dimensions: motivational factors, which may lead to satisfaction, and maintenance factors, which must be sufficient to permit motivational factors to exist; when not sufficiently present, maintenance factors may lead to dissatisfaction.

Traditionally, the opposite of job satisfaction was viewed as job dissatisfaction; thus, by eliminating the sources of dissatisfaction, satisfaction would permeate the work environment. Herzberg et al. maintain that this is not a realis- tic approach to job satisfaction and that reducing the impact of job dissatisfaction will not necessarily enhance job satisfaction. Sources of dissatisfaction include salary, fringe benefits, departmental policies, supervision, interpersonal relations, and other extrinsic work aspects. If these factors were improved, Herzberg et al. postulated, job satisfaction would not necessarily be enhanced. The origins of satisfaction were identified as opportunities for recognition, achievement, advancement, growth, and the challenge of the work itself.

An ancillary concern in the literature focuses on the relationships of certain demographic variables to job satisfaction. Demographic considerations include employment status (full-time vs. part-time), environmental setting (urban vs. suburban), and gender. Berrnan (1979) found full-time faculty members to be higher in job satisfaction than part-time faculty. Others concluded that the environmental setting of the institution had a pronounced effect on faculty members' attitudes toward their jobs (Parkhouse & Holmen, 1980). Additional studies have analyzed gender differences in job satisfaction (Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969). Berman (1979) indicated that male faculty members with full-time status were more satisfied than females in either full-time or part-time positions.

In summary, it is appropriate to study the interrelationships of the organizational climate, leader behavior, and job satisfaction constructs for they aid in the understanding and prediction of organizational behavior. It has been well documented that leader behavior has an influence on organizational climate and that climate in the workplace shapes one's attitudes and behavior (Fiedler, 1967; Field & Abelson, 1982; Halpin, 1966; Muchinsky, 1977; Owens, 1981). The proposed model of job satisfaction is presented in Figure 1.

The topics reviewed above lead to several research questions. What are the effects of leader behavior and organizational climate on intercollegiate coaches' job satisfaction? Are there differences between full-time and part-time coaches' job satisfaction? What is the tenability of cognitive dissonance theory to the understanding of coaches' job satisfaction? And, is there a difference between the job satisfaction models of male and female intercollegiate coaches?

62 Snyder

LEADER BEHAVIOR +ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE- JOB SATISFACTION

(structure/ (morale/intimacy/ (supervision/ consideration) disengagemenVthrusV promotions/

hindrance/consideration/ nature of the work/ aloofness/production) pay/promotions)

Figure 1 - Proposed job satisfaction model.

Method

The data were collected from an initial cluster sample of 197 full-time and part- time coaches representing 17 California 4-year institutions. Cluster sampling is the random selection of groups of population members. Each member of the selected groups is included in the sample (Wiersrna, Hinkle, & Jurs, 1979). The respondent institutions were randomly selected from a list of all 4-year institutions in the state. These institutions comprised the clusters of the sample, and all coaches in the selected departments were included in the study. Urban institutions were defined as those situated in cities with populations of 500,000 or more. Suburban institutions were located in outlying regions (adjacent to an urban center) with populations of less than 500,000.

A response rate of 60% was obtained that included 36 female and 81 male coaches. Some 58% (N=68) of the subjects held full-time positions. The study was limited by differences between the respondent institutions in student enroll- ment, funding, coaching salaries, and program status (grants-in-aid, division, number of sports, and revenue production). Thus the generalizability of results may be restricted to similarly situated athletic departments in California.

The instruments used in the collection of the data were the Leader Behav- ior Description Questionnaire (Halpin, 1966), the Organizational Climate Descrip- tion Questionnaire (Halpin, 1966), and the Job Descriptive Index (Smith et al., 1969). The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) and the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) are the most frequently used instruments in the collection of such data in the educational setting (Owens, 1981; Parkhouse, Ulrich, & Soucie, 1982). The LBDQ has reliability coefficients of .93 on the consideration scale and .86 on the structure scale (Halpin, 1966). The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) has been widely used with many diverse samples (Smith et al., 1969).

The LBDQ assessed the coaches' perceptions of the athletic director's behavior on two scales (consideration and structure). The OCDQ measured the coaches' perceptions of the climate within their respective athletic departments. The JDI measures were taken on five aspects of satisfaction: nature of the work, supervision, colleagues, pay, and promotions;

The data were statistically treated by means of factor analysis, analysis of variance, multiple regression analysis, and path analysis. The alpha level was set at p<.05. A principal-components analysis was used to reduce the number of variables to a more manageable format. The two sets of data for employment status (full-time and part-time), gender, and environmental setting (urban and


suburban) were subject to analysis of variance. An F ratio was determined for the differences between and within the groups. Multiple-regression techniques were used to study the organizational climate dimensions as mediators of the relationship between leader behavior and job satisfaction. Path analysis was used to examine the effects of climate and leader behavior on male and female coaches' job satisfaction. According to Pedhazur (1982), path analytic procedures are used to evaluate the tenability of a causal model. Parallel path analyses were conducted wherein separate path models were developed for males and females to analyze whether differences existed.

Results The principal-components factor analysis reduced the number of independent variables from 89 items to 6 well-identified factors. Factor 1 (emphasis on consideration) and Factor 2 (emphasis on structure) pertained to leader behavior. Factors 3 through 6 reflected the organizational climate of the departments. These climate factors were labeled as intimacy/morale (Factor 3), disengagement (Factor 4), hindrance (Factor 5 ) , and socializing patterns (Factor 6). These six factors pro- vided the basis for further analyses.

Table 1

Dependent Variables, Job Satisfaction Scales, Means, and Standard Deviations

Standard Variable Mean deviation

Nature of the work Supervision pay Promotions Co-workers

Table 1 includes the means and standard deviations for the dependent variables (job satisfaction). The sex-by-locale-interaction effect was significant for the job satisfaction (supervision) scale, F(1,109) =4.41,6.05. All other ANOVA effects for supervision were not significant (see Table 2). The three-way ANOVA for job satisfaction (pay) yielded significant results, as shown in Table 3. Signifi- cant main effects for status were found, F(l, 109) = 18.78, p<.001. In addition, significant interaction effects for locale x status were obtained, F(l, 109) = 3.67, p<.05. Table 4 contains the ANOVA results for job satisfaction (promotions). Significant main effects for status were reported, F(l, 109) =6.34,6.01. No significant differences were recorded for any other main or interaction effect.

Snyder

Table 2

Three-way Analysis st Variance Job Satisfaction (sasperwbion) by Sex, Locale, and 98atus

Sum of Mean Source of variation squares DF square F ratio

Between subjects Sex 20.49 1 20.49 .I3 Locale 301.42 1 301.42 1.91 Status 78.82 1 78.82 .50

Within subjects Sex and locale 696.70 1 696.70 4.41 * Sex and status 1 18.20 1 1 18.20 .75 Locale and status 379.38 1 379.38 2.40 Sex, locale, status 4.87 1 4.87 .31

Error 17229.70 109 158.07

Table 3

Three-way Analysis of Variance Jab Satisfaction (pay) by Sex, Locale, and Status


Between subjects Sex Locale Status

Within subjects Sex and locale Sex and status Locale and status Sex, locale, status

Error

Effects of Leader Behavior

Table 4

Three-way Analysis of Variance Job Satisfaction (promotions) by Sex, Locale, and Status


Between subjects Sex Locale Status

Within subjects Sex and locale Sex and status Locale and status Sex, locale, status

Error

Further analyses included multiple-regression analysis wherein each of the dependent variables (intimacylmorale, disengagement, hindrance, socializing patterns, nature of work, supervision, pay, promotions, and co-workers) were regressed on the independent variables. The order of entry for the variables was determined by the stepwise method. The variable that explained the greatest amount of variance in the dependent variables was entered first. The variables that explained the greatest amount of variance unexplained by variables already in the equation were entered on subsequent steps (Pedhazur, 1982).

The results for the regression of job satisfaction (work, supervision, pay, promotions, and co-workers) on the leader behavior and climate variables are presented in Tables 5 and 6. Separate models are shown for females (Table 5) and males (Table 6). Consideration was the only significant variable in the female model for work and supervision satisfaction, accounting for 13 % and 45 % of the variance, respectively. Satisfaction with co-workers yielded a two-variable model. The intimacylmorale factor explained 18 % of the variance and structure accounted for an additional 11 % of the variance in co-worker job satisfaction.

The male model differed from the female mode1 in that a two-variable model emerged for the work satisfaction variable. Some 19% of the variance was accounted for by leader consideration and an additional 10% was explained by the disengagement variable. In addition, leader consideration accounted for 51 % of the variance in satisfaction with supervision. Satisfaction with pay was also a two- variable model. Leader consideration accounted for 23% of the variance, and hindrance explained an additional 6% of the variance.

Table 5

Snyder

Regression Results for Job Satisfaction Scales, Females

Independent Work Supervision variable

pay Beta F Beta F Beta F

Consideration .37 5.29' .67 28.31 * * - - Structure .16 1.11 - .03 < 1 - - Intimacy/morale .12 < 1 - .03 < 1 - - Disengagement - -06 < 1 - .26 4.13' - - Hindrance - .06 < 1 .21 2.54 - - Socializing - .27 2.98 - .04 < 1 - -

Promotions Co-workers Beta F Beta F

Consideration - - .22 2.44 Structure - - .33" 4.90* Intimacy/morale - - .43a 7.68* Disengagement - - - .19 1.64 Hindrance - - .02 < 1 Socializing - - .13 < 1

Note. If beta and Fare not indicated, no variables were entered or removed for this block. aEntered on Step 1; bentered on Step 2. "p < .05; * *p < .01.

The job satisfaction path diagram for females is shown in Figure 2. Consider- ation had direct (.76) and indirect (.09) effects on satisfaction with supervision for the female subjects. The indirect effect was through the mediating variable disengagement. In addition, consideration had direct effects on hindrance (- .37) and work satisfaction (.37). Structure (.49) and intimacyJmorale (.51) had direct effects on satisfaction with co-workers. Consideration had a negative influence on disengagement (- .36), and disengagement had a negative influence on satisfaction with supervision (-SO).

Figure 3 presents the job satisfaction path diagram for male coaches. Consideration had direct (.56) and indirect (.08) effects on satisfaction with pay. The indirect effect was through the mediating variable hindrance. Consideration also had direct effects on intimacyJmorale (.31), work satisfaction (.57), hindrance (- .32), supervision satisfaction (.71), and co-worker satisfaction (A). Disen- gagement had a negative influence on work satisfaction (- .55) and co-worker satisfaction (- .53). IntimacyJmorale had an influence on satisfaction with promotions (.38). Hindrance had a negative influence on pay satisfaction (- .40).

Effects of Leader Behavior

Table 6

Regression Results for Job Satisfaction Scales, Males

Independent Work Supervision pay variable Beta F Beta F Beta F

Consideration .43a 18.15."" .71 81.55*** .48 23.51 * * * Structure .09 < 1 - .03 < 1 -.lo 3.00 lntimacylmorale .OO < 1 -.lo 1.51 .14 1.99 Disengagement - .32b 10.91 *'* -.I1 1.75 .02 < 1 Hindrance - .03 < 1 -.I4 2.73 - .25 6.40' Socializing -.I8 3.32 - .09 1.36 .06 < 1

Promotions Co-workers Beta F Beta F

Consideration .21 3.58 .25b 6.70* Structure .OO < 1 .02 < 1 lntimacylmorale .29 7.35** .18 3.1 1 Disengagement .OO < 1 - .46a 21.70* * * Hindrance .13 1.61 - .08 < 1 Socializing .OO < 1 .17 2.91

aEntered on Step 1; bentered on Step 2. 'p < .05; **p < .01; **'p <.001.

LEADER BEHAVIOR-+ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE-JOB SATISFACTION

,Nature of the Work

Consideration =-* Hindrance

Disengagement

Intimacy/Morale

Structure * Co-Worker

Figure 2 - Job satisfaction model of female intercollegiate coaches.

68 Snyder

LEADER BEHAVlOR+ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE-+JOB SATISFACTION

Supervision

/pprornotions

Consideration -

Hindrance i" pay

\Nature of the Work

Figure 3 - Job satisfaction model of male intercollegiate coaches.

Discussion As expected, part-time coaches were much less satisfied with pay and promotions than were full-time coaches. Many part-time coaches receive an extremely small salary for the number of hours spent in coaching related duties. In addition, the opportunities for career advancement are often linked to producing a winning team. Although urban coaches holding part-time positions were less satisfied with pay than the other respondents, the urban coaches reportedly were more satisfied with the nature of the work.

Part-time coaches in urban institutions perceived more tension from the structure and demand of the department than did full-time respondents in suburban institutions. Part-time coaches are often expected to fulfill the same responsibilities as full-time coaches. Recruiting, fund raising, counseling athletes, monitoring athletes' eligibility, public relations, and administrative duties are essential job aspects. If the coach seeks to maintain the position as head coach and perhaps obtain a more lucrative position, there is pressure to perform these duties regardless of employment status.

In light of the theory of cognitive dissonance, coaches who are dissonant with certain job aspects would be expected to change their behavior or beliefs to reduce the dissonance that comes from remaining in the coaching profession (Festinger, 1957). Coaches who remain in the field believe that additional job aspects compensate for the dissatisfying aspects of work (Parkhouse & Holmen, 1980). The findings of the current study support cognitive dissonance theory. That is, coaches dissatisfied with pay and promotions reduce this dissonance by having high satisfaction with intrinsic job aspects, such as the nature of the work.

The job satisfaction model hypothesized that leader behavior would have an effect on organizational climate and that these variables would have direct and/or indirect effects on the job satisfaction of intercollegiate coaches. Two different


models emerged from the study for male and female coaches. In departments wherein the athletic director was viewed as considerate, female coaches felt integrated into the department and supported by the administration. The male model showed the consideration of the athletic director strongly influencing the morale of the coaches. Although gender differences were reported in some leader be- haviorlclimate relationships, both female and male coaches agreed on the relationship of leader behavior to the degree of hindrance in the department.

The leader's emphasis on structure showed a direct effect on female coaches' satisfaction with co-workers. One reason for this finding may be that females are generally acculturated to receive structure and direction more willingly than males (Berman, 1979; Gilligan, 1982). Males were more likely to prefer a high- ly considerate athletic director and the support to develop their programs. Female coaches may have been more comfortable with the structured leader for they were aware of the athletic director's expectations. If the athletic director was perceived as applying structure uniformly to all coaches, this knowledge of expectation and equitable treatment had an apparent impact on female coaches' satisfaction.

Consideration had direct and indirect effects on satisfaction with supervision for female coaches. The mediating variable for the indirect effect was the disengagement factor. For male coaches, consideration showed only a direct effect on satisfaction with the athletic director. Female coaches seemed to attribute their feelings of commitment to the athletic department, particularly to the degree of consideration shown by the athletic director.

Implications and Conclusions

Athletic directors were perceived by coaches as responsible for the degree of administrative support in the workplace. It is suggested that administrators strive to provide supportive work environments and help coaches achieve professional goals.

Due to the job requirements and time-consuming nature of coaching, full- time positions are strongly recommended. Administrators should work to obtain full-time coaching positions and improve part-time salaries.

A major finding of this study was that the job satisfaction models for males and females differed. This is not to say that job satisfaction scores differed but that differences were found in the factors contributing to job satisfaction. These differences are sufficient justification for additional study of the proposed male and female path analytic models of job satisfaction. Future research could study additional variables that affect job satisfaction. Due to the decreasing numbers of women coaches, particular attention should be given to the refinement and application of the female model in the preparation, recruitment, and retention of women in the coaching profession.

References

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Berman, M. (1979). A comparative study of job satisfaction and role conflict in men and women, full and part-time faculty at the University of Maryland (Doctoral Disser-

70 Snyder

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J. Satisfaction Carey Job East Stroudsburg University … · The Effects of Leader Behavior and Organizational Climate on Intercollegiate Coaches' ... (LBDQ) are the most frequently