IUCN National Parks and Protected Areas Priorities for Action

by

JEFFREY A MCNEELY

Executive Officer IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected AreasWorld Conservation Centre Avenue du Mont-Blanc 1196 Gland Switzerland

amp

KENTON R MILLER PhD(Syracuse)

Chairman IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected AreasDirector Center for Strategic Wildland Management Studies

University of Michigan School of Natural ResourcesAnn Arbor Michigan 48105 USA

INTRODUCTION

The 20th century has seen the most far-reaching ecolo-gical change in human history Using readily-availablesources of energy (petroleum and coal) from plants andanimals that have long been extinct Homo sapiens hasexpanded its ecological niche to such an extent that therehas been a more-than-doubling of the total populationof the species in the past few decades What were oncemarginal habitats have been brought into food produc-tion by using new machines new agricultural strainspesticides fertilizers and social organizations mdash oftenproducing for consumers living far away Habitats ofspecies which formerly were masters of their niche havebeen usurped in order to provide for the needs of theexpanding human population

For the first time in history a single species has thecapability of driving large numbers of other species toextinction Informed estimates are that as many as amillion species may be gone for ever by the turn of thecentury (Myers 1980)

Equally Man has it within his power to ensure thatspecies and ecosystems are maintained as part of thehuman habitat A major means of accomplishing this isthrough the establishment of national parks and othertypes of protected areas It is therefore no coincidencethat the International Union for Conservation of Natureand Natural Resources (IUCN) has been deeply involvedwith national parks from its very beginnings This in-volvement has included- Publishing lists and directories of protected areas

(IUCN 1961 1971 1975 1977 1980a 1982 1982rfCarp 1980) The Protected Area Data Unit (PADU)was established in 1981 to computerize the data heldby IUCN and to promote greater application of thosedata

- Publishing the quarterly journal Parks now in itsseventh year with a circulation of some 7000

- Establishing the Commission on National Parks in1960 Now enlarged to become the Commission onNational Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) theirbody has a current membership of 258 from 89 coun-tries

- Publishing basic conceptual papers dealing withprotected-area matters (IUCN 1978 1979 1980ftEidsvik 1980 Poore amp Gryn-Ambroes 1980 Lau-sche 1981)

- Establishing a system of biogeographic provinces ofthe world (Udvardy 1975) now widely used for assess-ing protected-area coverage and suggesting regions forpriority attention

- Cooperating closely with United Nations agencies in-volved in protected-area matters (FAO UNEPUNESCO) at both conceptual and field levels Thisincludes providing technical evaluations of naturalsites nominated for the World Heritage List toUNESCOs World Heritage Committee see IUCN1982ft) and acting as the Secretariat for the RamsarConvention on Wetlands of International ImportanceEspecially as Waterfowl Habitat

- Supporting field projects especially in developingcountries aimed at establishing and managing nation-al parks and protected areas Funded primarily by theWorld Wildlife Fund some 1500 projects involvingthe expenditure of over $40 million had been im-plemented in support of protected areas by the end of1982 Countries with major programmes have in-cluded China Costa Rica Ecuador India IndonesiaMadagascar Mali Tanzania and Zambia

- Holding meetings in various parts of the world topromote protected areas CNPPA holds two meetingsper year rotating among the biogeographic realms(see for example IUCN 1980c 1981) In additionIUCN has organized major international meetings todiscuss protected areas including the First WorldConference on National Parks in Seattle Washingtonin 1962 (Adams 1964) the Second World Conferenceon National Parks in Grand Teton Wyoming in 1972(Elliott 1974) the International Conference on Mar-ine Parks and Reserves Tokyo 1975 (IUCN 1976)and the World National Parks Congress Bali In-donesia October 1982 (IUCN 1982c)The Bali Congress was of particular interest because

it was directed specifically at defining the role of protec-ted areas in supporting social and economic develop-ment Based on the philosophy of the World Conserva-

13

Environmental Conservation Vol 10 No 1 Spring 1983mdashcopy1983 The Foundation for Environmental ConservationmdashPrinted in The Netherlands

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14 Environmental Conservation

tion Strategy (1980) the Congress sought ways andmeans for protected areas to contribute to developmentby helping to maintain genetic diversity conserve ecolo-gical processes and life-support systems and ensure thatany use of renewable resources is sustainable This paperwill describe the process by which the Congress arrivedat the new priorities then present the major points of theBali Action Plan (IUCN 1982) and describe IUCNseffort to help ensure that protected areas will play apermanent part in maintaining the human habitat

THE WORLD NATIONAL PARKS CONGRESS

At its closing session the World National Parks Con-gress issued a Declaration (printed on page 73 of thisissue) for wide dissemination This document providesthe broad policy-framework to guide future action basedon the conviction that protected areas when designedand managed appropriately can bring major sustainablebenefits to society indeed protected areas can play acentral role in the social and economic development ofrural environments and can contribute to the economicwell-being of urban centres and the quality of life of theirinhabitants

The Congress also showed that as options are decreas-ing for choosing how the natural environment may beconserved the scientific foundation of conservation hasbecome more and more sophisticated Island biogeo-graphic theory centres of endemism minimum criticalsize optimal design of reserves population genetics pop-ulation dynamics the new economies and other ad-vances relevant to conservation have allowed those char-ged with the task of planning and establishing protectedareas to determine much more precisely than formerlythe requirements of design and management

A major problem identified at Bali is that most protec-ted areas were selected for reasons other than the objec-tives for which they are now managed or were establish-ed before the scientific tools that are now at hand becameavailable A first priority in this regard is to ensure thatto the extent that may be possible existing protectedareas are capable of sustaining living resources where theexisting areas fall short of this basic objective plannersand managers must take the appropriate steps to remedythe situation while options remain open

To establish priorities for the coming critical yearsthe Congress prepared a series of 20 Recommendations(IUCN 1982e) In addition working groups from theworlds eight biogeographic realms presented reports onpriorities for each realm and ipany of the case-studiesand other presentations provided examples which shouldbe emulated the Future Directions addresses from eachrealm were particularly pertinent in providing thoughtfulanalyses of future trends Based on this material themajor points of an Action Plan were presented to theclosing session of the Congress Further work on the planwas done at the IUCN Secretariat by the present Au-thors The resulting Bali Action Plan (IUCN 1982) isnow being circulated widely to enlist support and developprojects for implementing the Plan

THE BALI ACTION PLAN

The Bali Action Plan recognizes that there are alreadycompetent government agencies in most countries whoseresponsibility is the management of national parks andother protected areas and that each of these agencies isalready carrying out a programme of work that is re-levant to the needs and priorities of the country involvedHowever the 450 specialists and others attending theCongress also recognized that there was a serious lack ofunderstanding of management tools (biogeographyzoning monitoring training procedures protected-areaeconomics etc) that budgets are not always allocated tothe most important priorities that management plans arethe exception rather than the rule that relevant informa-tion is not flowing as well as it should do that trainingis lagging far behind needs and that government officialsand the public generally undervalue the role of protectedareas in environmentally-sound development

The Bali Action Plan aims to provide guidance andassistance to those agencies which are interested in im-proving their own management effectiveness in meetingthe objectives for which their protected areas were esta-blished Clearly this is not the work of the IUCN Se-cretariat alone it must involve all parts of the Unionmdash State Parties Government Agencies and Nongo-vernmental Organizationsmdashas well as IUCNs major in-ternational partners in conservation UNEP UNESCOFAO and the World Wildlife Fund

The ten interrelated and mutually-reinforcing objec-tives of the Bali Action Plan with a brief backgroundand summary of necessary activities are as follows

Objective 1

TO ESTABLISH BY 1992 A WORLD-WIDE NETWORK OFNATIONAL PARKS AND PROTECTED AREAS EXEMPLIFYING

ALL TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGICAL REGIONS

Some 2600 protected areas covering nearly 4 millionsquare kilometres have already been established by 124countries During the 1970s the number of protectedareas increased by 46 and the total area protectedincreased by over 80 (Harrison et ah 1982) Impressiveas these figures are they still fall far short of the need

Modern theoretical island biogeography (eg Mac-Arthur amp Wilson 1967) suggests that as the area of ahabitat is reduced the number of species which will besupported by it is also reduced (and the populations ofthe species which do survive are likely to be reduced inrough proportion to the loss of habitat) Therefore anyreduction of habitat carries a degree of threat to thesurvival of some species

Rather paradoxically the increase in protected areasin recent years has been paralleled by an increase in landproducing crops and timber the area devoted to growinggrain in developing countries for example increasedfrom 22 million sq km in 1950 to 41 million sq km in1981 and there is no indication of the trend slowing

Not to be confused with the much briefer Bali Declarationprinted on page 73 of this issuemdashEd

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McNeely amp Miller IUCN National Parks and Protected Areas Priorities for Action 15

down as increasing food-production feeds population-growth (Barr 1981)

How much land should societies devote to conservespecies and ecosystems The above very condensed dis-cussion of island biogeography and trends in land-useallocation makes it fairly clear that the answer to thisquestion is as much political as biological Biologists havealready presented overwhelming evidence that species arebecoming extinct at an alarming rate which is sure to in-crease in the coming years (Myers 1980 Ehrlich amp Ehr-lich 1981) so it is now up to politicians (and all thosewho have influence on politicians) to decide how muchland will be used for conservation (or conversely whatlevel of species-loss is acceptable)

Countries have answered this question differentlyNine countries of over 20000 sqkm area have over 10of their land-area protected as national parks and re-serves they are Austria Benin Bhutan Botswana Cen-tral African Republic Rwanda Senegal Tanzania andZimbabwe countries with over 5 of their land protec-ted include Chad Ivory Coast Japan Malawi NewZealand Sri Lanka Thailand USA Upper VoltaVenezuela and Zambia On the other hand EgyptFrench Guiana Iraq Laos North Yemen South Ye-men Syria United Arab Emirates and Vietnam have noprotected areas at all (Harrison et ah 1982) These fig-ures suggest that somewhere around 10 might be areasonably optimistic target figure for many countries

But this must be the right 10 identified and selectedon the basis of objectives of conservation and supportingdevelopment of an appropriate size and shape andcovering the range of habitats which require protectionThis will require the development of biogeographicalclassification systems with a flexibility of scale which canbe used in the analysis of protected-area coverage at avariety of regional and national levels and the detailedexamination at the regional and country level ofprotected-area coverage New Zealand has alreadyprovided an excellent example of this process (Dingwall1982)

Objective 2

TO INCORPORATE MARINE COASTAL AND FRESHWATERPROTECTED AREAS INTO THE WORLD-WIDE NETWORK

Aquatic protected areas present a number of biologi-cal administrative and political problems (IUCN1976) For reasons which are largely historical and ad-ministrative the scientists managers administratorsand supporters of aquatic habitats have been linkedprimarily with fisheries departments and have been rath-er separated from the traditional protected-areas com-munity The extension of present littoral areas into theaquatic environment may provide a means of bringingthe fisheries managers into effective contact with terres-trial protected-area managers to the benefit of both

The Law of the Sea provides a framework for movingahead and IUCN has provided a set of principlescriteria and guidelines for the selection establishmentand management of marine and coastal protected areas(IUCN 19806) Furthermore IUCN is currently de-

veloping a system of marine biogeographic provinces forconservation purposes (Hayden et al 1982) which willbe used rather in the manner of the IUCN system ofterrestrial biogeographic provinces (Udvardy 1975) toassess coverage and focus priorities based on this globalsystem more refined systems will need to be developedfor use at the national and regional levels

Perhaps the most important current activity of IUCNin this area is the preparation of a handbook on Manag-ing Coastal and Marine Protected Areas based on a seriesof the following 12 workshops held at the Bali CongressThe need for coastal and marine protected areas Therole of coastal and marine protected areas in the con-servation of genetic resources Classifying marine hab-itats for conservation purposes Categories criteria andobjectives for coastal and marine protected areas Prin-ciples of management planning for coastal and marineprotected areas Implementing management of coastaland marine protected areas Selection and managementof coral-reef protected areas Selection and managementof protected areas in estuaries mangroves and othercoastal areas Protected areas in the open seas Protectedareas in polar regions Protecting island habitats andThe role of coastal and marine protected areas in theprocess of social and economic development

Objective 3

TO IMPROVE THE ECOLOGICAL AND MANAGERIAL QUALITYOF EXISTING PROTECTED AREAS

The first item discussed was the quantity of area re-quired to attain conservation objectives but clearlyquality is at least as important The need is to developand make available tools and guidelines for (a) evalua-tion of the ecological capacity of protected areas tomaintain living resources and (b) evaluation of areamanagement to ensure that appropriate measures arebeing applied This will include accurate documentationof the living resources contained in protected areas thedevelopment of a system of reporting on protected areasunder particular threat and the development of conceptsand methods which will lead to the application of scien-tific principles for management while supporting thecontinuous analysis of conservation requirements foreach area

Using the strengthened conceptual foundation that isexpected to be available as a result of the Bali ActionPlan IUCN seeks to support a systematic approach tothe preparation of area and system management planswhich provide for management and development to bein accordance with an appropriate range of conservationobjectives Guidelines for designing systems plans andarea management plans will be prepared and workshopswill be held in priority countries on how to apply theguidelines on the ground

A strong effort will be made to reinforce measures toreduce the external threats to protected areas includingdesign of model legislative and administrative measurespromotion of measures to relieve the pressures of localpopulations around protected areas promotion of reha-bilitation of degraded lands and the regeneration of dam-

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16 Environmental Conservation

aged natural areas through reafforestation and othermeasures and the preparation of manuals to guide plan-ners managers and decision-makers outside theprotected-area system on implementing integrated en-vironmental approaches which will enhance the securityof protected areas

Objective 4

TO DEVELOP THE FULL RANGE OF WILDLAND MANAGEMENTCATEGORIES

IUCN (1978) has provided a system of ten manage-ment categories based on objectives for management(Table I) applications from around the world (eg Mos-ley 1982) have indicated the value of this approach inexpanding the range of management tools available forprotecting natural habitats While Categories I and II arewell known and broadly applied many of the othercategories are still poorly understood in some countriesPilot protected areas for each category need to be esta-blished within each biogeographic realm to demon-strate alike to political leaders and local people theimportance of these alternatives for supporting socialand economic development through approaches to sus-tainable resource management

It is expected that having a range of protected-areaoptions will provide enhanced protection to the strictly-protected categories by removing people-pressures to

areas which are able to sustain heavy visitor pressureCountries will then be able to meet their responsibilitiesfor the protection of Nature while providing for humandevelopment on a sustainable basis

The range of protected-area categories can address abroad spectrum of conservation issues and objectivessuch that conservation can be identifiably linked to wateravailability protein production ecosystem productivityand diversity production of Pharmaceuticals agricultureand livestock breeding wood and wood productsscience education and the human environment ingeneral This will enable conservation to obtain a moreimportant place at the development table For examplea project to develop the water resources of a major rivershould include financial and technical support to con-serve the upstream catchment even if the area is not ofnational park quality or contains a limited human po-pulation one of the other categories such as CulturalLandscape may address the local situation quite ade-quately whereupon a recognized form of conservationwill be provided (IUCN 1978)

The Bali Congress noted that while National Parksand Nature Reserves must be strictly protected againstefforts to exploit their natural resources for such pur-poses as timber cutting mining hydroelectric worksindustrial facilities commercial fishing sport and com-mercial hunting farming and grazing of domestic ani-mals multiple-use management areas and other manage-ment regimes of intermediate intensity can neverthelessbe established with advantage around the strictly-

TABLE I Categories and Management Objectives of Protected Areas

I Scientific ReserveStrict Nature Reserve To protect Nature and maintain natural processes in anundisturbed state in order to have ecologically representative examples of the natural environmentavailable for scientific study environmental monitoring education and for the maintenance of geneticresources in a dynamic and evolutionary state

II National Park To protect natural and scenic areas of national or international significance for scientificeducational and recreational uses

III Natural MonumentNatural Landmark To protect and preserve nationally significant natural featuresbecause of their special interest or unique characteristics

IV Managed Nature Reserve Wildlife Sanctuary To assure the natural conditions necessary to protectnationally significant species groups of species biotic communities or physical features of theenvironment where these require specific human manipulation for their perpetuation

V Protected Landscapes To maintain nationally significant natural landscapes which are characteristic ofthe harmonious interaction of Man and land while providing opportunities for public enjoyment throughrecreation and tourism within the normal life-style and economic activity of these areas

VI Resources Reserve To protect the natural resources of the area for future use and prevent or containdevelopment activities that could affect the resource pending the establishment of objectives which arebased upon appropriate knowledge and planning

VII Natural Biotic AreaAnthropological Reserve To allow the way of life of [human] societies living inharmony with the environment to continue undisturbed by modern technology

VIII Multiple-use Management AreaManaged Resource Area To provide for the sustained productionof water timber wildlife pasture and outdoor recreation with the conservation of Nature primarilyoriented to the support of the economic activities (although specific zones may also be designed within theseareas to achieve specific conservation objectives)

IX Biosphere Reserve To conserve for present and future use the diversity and integrity of representativebiotic communities of plants and animals within natural ecosystems and to safeguard the genetic diversityof species on which their continuing evolution depends

X World Heritage Site To protect the natural features for which the area was considered to be of WorldHeritage quality and to provide information for world-wide public enlightenment

Adapted from IUCN (1978)

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McNeely amp Miller IUCN National Parks and Protected Areas Priorities for Action 17

protected areas to prevent them from becoming biolog-ically impoverished islands (IUCN 1982e)

Objective 5

TO PROMOTE THE LINKAGE BETWEEN PROTECTED-AREAMANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

While Objective 4 provides a fairly simple and straight-forward means of giving the protected area concept moreflexibility in dealing with development issues Objective5 builds on this foundation to promote actively the lin-kage between protected areas and appropriate sustain-able development The first requirement is to work withgovernments and development assistance agencies toachieve the incorporation of protected-area considera-tions within development projects Several examples ofhow protected areas can support development and viceversa were presented at the Bali Congress Goodland(1982) outlined a number of cases where the World Bankhas become involved with protected-area issues Sumard-ja et al (1982) described in detail a World Bank projectinvolving Indonesias Dumoga National Park and Alwis(1982) showed how the US Agency for InternationalDevelopment is supporting the establishment of a net-work of protected areas in Sri Lanka as part of a majorwater-resources development project in the MahaweliBasin

Additional conceptual development is still required toovercome the trepidation that some environmentalistsfeel about linking conservation with development in-terests Policy guidelines and legal instruments need to bedeveloped regarding the use of protected areas for re-search environmental monitoring and the collection ofscientific materials in order to ensure that protected-areavalues are not compromised

A topic of particular concern is the use of protectedareas as in situ gene-banks It is quite clear that manyprotected areas contain genetic materials of considerablevalue to agriculturists fisheries biologists pharmacistsand foresters and that the areas will have value as gene-banks only as long as they are protected (Polunin 1982Prescott-Allen amp Prescott-Allen 1982) Guidelines needto be developed to promote the value of protected areasas gene-banks while allowing appropriate use of thegenetic materials zoning regulations guidelines for col-lection and appropriate financial measures need to bedesigned and implemented in a few selected areas as pilotprojects

It is apparent that some people have already learnedhow to live in balance with their available resourcesSadly these people are now considered primitive eventhough their technology has sustained their society forhundreds of generations in a quite satisfying way Fewwould suggest that such people should be kept in abackward state if they desire to become part of moderntelevision society but it is important to document thetraditional wisdom of these people before it is lost Fur-thermore if such traditional people desire to maintaintheir way of lifemdashand many of them actually enjoy alife where 20 hours of work a week produces enough of

lifes necessities to allow plenty of free time to play withtheir children flirt with their mates practise religiousbeliefs daily and tell stories around the firemdashthenprotected areas can provide a means by which they cando so (Category VII in Table I) in such cases jointmanagement arrangements should be made betweenprotected-area authorities and societies which havetraditionally-managed resources

Finally the linkage between protected areas and de-velopment will only work effectively if there is strongpublic support for the values of protected areas Assis-tancemdashfinancial technical and informationalmdashneedsto be provided to voluntary conservation organizationsfor enlisting public support youth activities in supportof protected areas such as tree-planting campaignswork-study camps field studies and curricular elementsneed to be promoted and model interpretive pro-grammes which emphasize the social and scientific valuesof protected areasmdashgiving specific attention to issuesof public concernmdashneed to be widely disseminated andadapted to local conditions

Objective 6

TO DEVELOP THE FULL CAPACITY TO MANAGE PROTECTEDAREAS

Linking protected-area conservation with develop-ment is a highly complex undertaking requiring well-trained professionals at all levels While a few countrieshave university curriculamdasheven graduate programmesmdash dealing with protected-area management there isstill a major need for training seminars courses andworkshops at the regional and local levels for protected-area managers Existing regional and national trainingschools need to be strengthened and new schools estab-lished Schools such as the College of African WildlifeManagement (Mosha amp Thorsell 1982) the Ecole deFaune in Cameroon (Allo 1982) and the Ciawi Con-servation Training School in Indonesia (Duryat amp La-vieren 1982) provide examples of the sort of trainingthat is needed at the field level

Most managers state that their area is run by therangers so local in-service training programmes mustbe developed and implemented for all levels of protected-area personnel The ultimate objective is to promote theestablishment and recognition of protected-area manage-ment as a professional career of vital relevance to society

To help attain this objective IUCN will publish in1983 a manual on Training Protected-area Personnelbased on a series of 13 workshops at the Bali CongressThese were Training the key to developing the capacityto manage The skills required to manage protected areaseffectively Manpower requirements for protected areasOptions for developing management capacity Regionalinstitutions for protected-area personnel National train-ing for protected-area field personnel Internationalprofessional training Professional training at univer-sities and colleges Training at the senior policy levelOvercoming institutional obstacles to training Sharingexperience Training the public and The protected-areamanager becomes a professional

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18 Environmental Conservation

Objective 7

TO DEVELOP ECONOMIC TOOLS FOR SUPPORTING PROTECTEDAREAS

Economic tools such as cost-benefit analysis highinterest rates discount rates inflation and many othersare sometimes used to weaken support for protectedareas By and large protected-area managers have beenpoorly prepared to respond to economists who arguethat their area should be allocated for example to log-ging If protected areas are to continue to serve theirfunctions they must be philosophically competitive atthe market-place

The first step is to ensure that the intangible non-fiscalvalues are strongly supported where it countsmdashat thehigh levels of government The nongovernmental or-ganizations need to be strengthened and encouraged intheir lobbying efforts and the general public needs to bemobilized in support of the ethical aesthetic andspiritual values of protected areas

At the same time it seems wise to develop new eco-nomic tools for supporting protected areas Moore(1982) has argued that a protected area which is designedand managed without consideration of its potential foruse as a centre for human education employment re-search and enjoyment may be underutilized Operatinga protected area in such a way sows the seeds of potentialfuture disaster Conversely by focusing on the ability ofa protected area to contribute to human improvementthe resource manager demonstrates that the area is afundamental link in local national and internationaleconomics By so doing the manager increases his abilityto obtain the freedom and the resources to maintain theprotected area in a manner that both preserves the integ-rity of the ecosystems involved and satisfies the needs ofthe human population

IUCN intends to carry out three major activities fordeveloping the above economic tools (1) Develop anddistribute guidelines for the analysis of values associatedwith protected natural areas (2) promote the quantifica-tion of values which relate conservation to developmentincluding watershed protection genetic resources pollu-tion control soil formation amelioration of climateprovision of recreation and tourism and others of Na-tures services and (3) develop concepts which relateecology with economics to promote a more consistentperspective than formerly existed for analysing the roleof protected areas in sustaining development

Objective 8

TO IMPLEMENT AN EFFECTIVE INVENTORY AND MONITORINGSERVICE

The Protected Areas Data Unit (PADU) and relatedcomponents of the IUCN Conservation MonitoringCentre provide the data management capacity to supportIUCNs field activities PADU provides information onprotected areas guides the determination of prioritiesand supports development agencies (both national andinternational) in relating the design of developmentprojects to critical protected areas

As part of UNEPs Global Environmental MonitoringService (Gwynne 1982) PADU links with other data-bases around the world to provide significantly moreinformation on protected areas than has previously beenavailable Much of the information is computerizedthough manual files are also maintained It is expectedthat the unit will produce one realm-based directory eachyear the first such volume the IUCN Directory on Neo-tropical Protected Areas was published very recently(IUCN 1982a)

Perhaps more important however is the circumstancethat PADU will also be able to (a) respond to requestsfrom development agencies so that they can design theirprojects to enhance sustainable development and avoidadversely affecting sensitive areas (b) provide informa-tion to international conservation agencies to help eval-uate priority areas for allocation of scarce conservationfunds (c) tell plant breeders where wild ancestors ofdomestic agricultural crops can be found in protectedareas in order to locate sources of genetic diversity forimproving crops (d) enable scientists to make com-parisons over a wide range of habitat types or over acomplete species-range and (e) inform governments onhow protected areas are being managed in other coun-tries in order to enhance their own efforts and avoidrepeating mistakes

Objective 9

TO IMPLEMENT INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION MECHANISMS

A wide range of international cooperation mechanismsalready exists but most of them are generally un-derutilized in support of protected areas Ties must bestrengthened with the Man and the Biosphere Pro-gramme the Global Environmental Monitoring Systemthe World Heritage Convention the Ramsar Conventionon Wetlands the Migratory Species Convention and thevarious regional conservation conventions In additioncountries should be encouraged to request appropriateallocations for protected areas in projects with FAO(Child 1982) UNESCO (Droste 1982) UNEP (Olem-bo 1982) and the various bilateral sources available(Dalfelt 1982 Simons 1982 Wetterberg 1982) There isalso scope for cooperation with appropriate multination-al corporations (Balzer 1982)

Another matter which was mentioned at Bali andwhich is receiving increased international attention is thedevelopment of mechanisms for the fair sharing of costsand benefits associated with protected areas manage-ment both among nations and between protected areasand adjacent communities The World Heritage Conven-tion is one important means of sharing the costs but itcovers only relatively few areas and its budget is stillsmall Perhaps the Law of the Sea Convention will leadto breakthroughs for marine areas but countries that areusing their budgets to conserve resources for the benefitof all mankind also need to be appropriately supported

The Bali Action Plan is itself an international coopera-tion mechanism which if fully implemented would go along way towards helping protected areas to earn the

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McNeely amp Miller IUCN National Parks and Protected Areas Priorities for Action 19

support which is commensurate with their contributionto societys well-being

Objective 10

TO DEVELOP AND IMPLEMENT A GLOBAL PROGRAMME TOSUPPORT PROTECTED-AREA MANAGEMENT

Based on the preceding 9 objectives regional actionprogrammes should be designed and implemented toensure practical accomplishments on the ground takinginto account relevant cultural and institutional diversityand also responsiveness to local needs The IUCN net-work provides an ideal mechanism for initiating suchaction programmes in cooperation with nationalgovernments UNEP FAO UNESCO and the WorldWildlife Fund

Another contribution that IUCN can make is by thecontinued provision of technical and scientific guidancethrough the publication of a series of documents onpractical subjects of global concern to protected-areamanagement The first such publication will be the Pro-ceedings of the Bali Congress followed by a manual onManaging Protected Areas based on a series of 12 work-shops held at Bali as follows Policies to meet expandingneeds Categories criteria and objectives of protectedareas The biogeographical basis for protected-area sys-tems The legal and administrative basis for managementProtected areas and regional planning Socio-economicfactors in managing protected areas Developing prin-ciples of resource management Management planningImplementing management Determining effective man-agement International cooperation in management ofprotected areas and Ensuring that the right messagereaches the right audiences

It is apparent that all protected areas around the worldshare problems concerns and opportunities A com-munications network involving the global communityresponsible for or supporting protected areas wouldensure the flow of information and support the identityof the protected-area profession The World NationalParks Congress expressed its strong support for the de-velopment of such a communications network

CONCLUSION

The Bali Action Plan is a revolutionary advance inlinking the conservation of protected areas with socialand economic development no matter what the futuremay hold in store it is apparent that the natural re-sources contained in protected areas are a sound invest-ment The ten objectives of the Bali Action Plan ifbroadly supported by governments and conservationagencies and implemented together in a reasonablycoherent way can help ensure that protected-area re-sources are conserved to form an inseparable part of themodern human heritage

In a period of shrinking budgets global inflation andwidespread pessimism about the future governmentsmust still find the resources to support their protectedareas many countries including some with the lowest per

caput GNP are continuing to expand their protected-area systems at a rapid rate and will need the appro-priate resources to finance this expansion It is much tobe hoped that the Bali Action Plan will help demonstrateto governments and international assistance agenciesthat the conservation of protected areas should be con-sidered just as important as national defence educationcommunication and public health when priorities forlimited budgets are being considered

With greatly increased public realization of their re-sponsibilities for helping to ensure that social and ec-onomic development meets the real needs of humansocieties protected areas can be expected to receive asignificantly increased amount of support from govern-ments international development agencies and localpeople

The Bali Action Plan concludes Thus as those profession-ally involved in protected-area planning managementresearch and promotion we go forth from Bali with theconviction that the contribution of national parks andprotected areas to people and to life on Earth is fundamentalif sustainable welfare ways of life and peace are to beattained with the vision of an emerging enterprise asambitious and vital as any in the history of humanity and acommitment to solidarity with our children and generationsyet unborn that they shall inherit this unique small andfragile planet rich in options for determining their owndestiny

SUMMARY

In order to ensure that the full range of species andnatural ecosystems continue to form part of the humanhabitat national parks and other types of protected areasmust be better designed and managed than is usually thecase at present While IUCN has a long history of in-volvement in protected areas often in cooperation withUNESCO the World Wildlife Fund and UNEP theWorld National Parks Congress (held in Bali Indonesiaduring 11-22 October 1982) marked a major turning-point in promoting protected areas as part of the socialand economic development process In this approachthe Congress provided ways and means for the philos-ophy of the World Conservation Strategy (1980) to be putinto action on the ground

A ten-point Bali Action Plan was developed com-prising the following (1) To establish by 1992 a world-wide network of national parks and protected areas ex-emplifying all terrestrial ecological regions (2) to incor-porate marine coastal and freshwater protected areasinto the world-wide network (3) to improve the ecologi-cal and managerial quality of existing protected areas (4)to develop the full range of wildland managementcagegories (5) to promote the linkage between protected-area management and sustainable development (6) todevelop the full capacity to manage protected areas (7)to develop economic tools for supporting protectedareas (8) to implement an effective inventory and mon-itoring service (9) to implement international coopera-tion mechanisms and (10) to develop and implement aglobal programme to support protected-area manage-ment

The implementation of the Bali Action Plan will re-quire the cooperation of international agencies non-

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20 Environmental Conservation

governmental conservation organizations and nationalprotected-area management agencies With the imple-mentation of the Plan protected areas will assumegreatly-increased responsibilities for helping to ensurethat social and economic development meets the realneeds of human societies and that human societies meettheir responsibilities to Nature This expanded roleshould lead to significantly greater support for protectedareas from governments international developmentagencies and local people

REFERENCES

ADAMS ALEXANDER B (1964) First World Conference on Na-tional Parks US Department of the Interior WashingtonDC USA xxxiii + 471 pp illustr maps

ALLO ANDREW (1982) School for the Training of Wildlife Spe-cialists at Garoua Cameroon Paper presented at WorldNational Parks Congress Bali Indonesia 6 pp preprint

ALWIS LYN de (1982) River-basin Development and ProtectedAreas in Sri Lanka Paper presented at World NationalParks Congress Bali Indonesia 8 pp preprint

BALZER LEROY (1982) Development and Conservation Coexis-tence through Rational Planning Paper presented at WorldNational Parks Congress Bali Indonesia 5 pp preprint

BARR TERRY N (1981) The world food situation and globalgrain prospects Science 214 1087-95

CARP ERIK (1980) Directory of Wetlands of International Im-portance in the Western Palearctic IUCNUNEP Glandamp Nairobi 506 pp maps

CHILD GIL (1982) FAO and Protected Area Concerns Promot-ing Increased Support Paper presented at World NationalParks Congress Bali Indonesia 22 pp (typescr)

DALFELT ARNE (1982) The Role of International DevelopmentAgencies in Promoting Effective Management of ProtectedAreas Paper presented at World National Parks CongressBali Indonesia 16 pp preprint

DINGWALL PAUL (1982) New Zealand Saving some of every-thing Ambio 11(5) pp 296-301

DROSTE BERND VON (1982) How UNESCOs Man and theBiosphere Programme is Contributing to Human WelfarePaper presented at World National Parks Congress BaliIndonesia 28 pp (typescr)

DURYAT MOHAMMED amp LAVIEREN BART VAN (1982) IndonesiasExperience in Training Protected Areas Personnel Paperpresented at World National Parks Congress Bali In-donesia 17 pp preprint

EHRLICH PAUL [R] amp EHRLICH ANNE [H] (1981) ExtinctionThe Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Spe-cies Random House New York NY USA xiv + 305 pp

EIDSVIK HAROLD K (1980) National Parks and other protectedareas Some reflections on the past and prescriptions forthe future Environmental Conservation 7(3) pp 185-90

ELLIOTT SIR HUGH (1974) Second World Conference on Na-tional Parks IUCN Morges Switzerland 504 pp illustr

GOODLAND ROBERT [S A] (1982) Environmental Requirementsof the World Bank Including Wildland Conservation Paperpresented at World National Parks Congress Bali In-donesia 52 pp (mimeogr)

GWYNNE MICHAEL D (1982) The Global Environment Mon-itoring System (GEMS) of UNEP Environmental Con-servation 9(1) pp 35-41 4 figs

HARRISON JEREMY MILLER KENTON R amp MCNEELY JEFFREYA (1982) The world coverage of protected areas Develop-ment goals and environmental needs Ambio 9(5) pp238^5

HAYDEN BP DOLAN ROBERT amp RAY G CARLETON (1982) ASystem of Marine Biophysical Provinces for Conservational

Purposes Paper presented at World National Parks Con-gress Bali Indonesia 15 pp preprint

IUCN (1961) The United Nations List of National Parks andEquivalent Reserves IUCN Morges Switzerland [notavailable for checking]

IUCN (1971) United Nations List of National Parks and Equiv-alent Reserves (2nd edition) IUCN Publ (NS) 15 ampHayez Brussels Belgium 601 pp illustr

IUCN (1975) World Directory of National Parks and OtherProtected Areas (Vol I) IUCN Morges Switzerland(looseleaf approx 350 pp)

IUCN (1976) An International Conference on Marine Parksand Reserves IUCN Publ (NS) 37 131 pp

IUCN (1977) World Directory of National Parks and OtherProtected Areas (Vol II) IUCN Morges Switzerland(looseleaf approx 400 pp)

IUCN (1978) Categories Objectives and Criteria for ProtectedAreas IUCN Morges Switzerland 26 pp

IUCN (1979) The Biosphere Reserve and its Relationship toOther Protected Areas IUCN Morges Switzerland 19 pp

IUCN (1980a) 7950 United Nations List of National Parks andEquivalent Reserves IUCN Gland Switzerland 121 ppmap

IUCN (19806) Principles Criteria and Guidelines for the Selec-tion Establishment and Management of MediterraneanMarine and Coastal Protected Areas UNEP NairobiKenya 35 pp (mimeogr)

IUCN (1980c) Conserving Africas Natural Heritage The Plan-ning and Management of Protected Areas in the Afrotropi-cal Realm IUCN Gland Switzerland 230 pp

IUCN (1981) Conserving the Natural Heritage of Latin Americaand the Caribbean The Planning and Management ofProtected Areas in the Neotropical Realm IUCN GlandSwitzerland 329 pp

IUCN (1982a) IUCN Directory of Neotropical Protected AreasIUCN Gland Switzerland xxv + 436 pp maps

IUCN (19826) The Worlds Greatest Natural Areas An Indica-tive Inventory of Natural Sites of World Heritage QualityIUCN Gland Switzerland 69 pp illustr maps

IUCN (1982c) 1982 United Nations List of National Parks andProtected Areas IUCN Gland Switzerland 154 pp

IUCN (1982a) The World National Parks Congress IUCNGland Switzerland 131 pp

IUCN (1982e) Recommendations from the World NationalParks Congress IUCN Bulletin (NS) 13(10-11-12) 8 pp(insert)

IUCN (1982) The Bali Action Plan IUCN Gland Switzer-land 28 pp preprint

LAUSCHE BARBARA (1981) Guidelines for protected area legisla-tion IUCN Env Policy Law Paper 16 108 pp

MACARTHUR R amp WILSON EO (1967) The Theory of IslandBiogeography Princeton University Press Princeton NewJersey USA xi + 203 pp

MOORE MICHAEL (1982) Economic Concepts and Methods forValuing Protected Natural Areas Paper presented atWorld National Parks Congress Bali Indonesia 13 pppreprint

MOSHA GT amp THORSELL JAMES W (1982) Training WildlifeManagers in East Africa Paper presented at World Na-tional Parks Congress Bali Indonesia 9 pp preprint

MOSLEY JG (1982) Protected Areas and Environmental Plan-ning in Australia Paper presented at World National ParksCongress Bali Indonesia 14 pp preprint

It is understood that these papers will be published by orthrough IUCN in a book of proceedings of the Bali CongressmdashEd

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McNeely amp Miller IUCN National Parks and Protected Areas Priorities for Action 21

MYERS NORMAN (1980) The Sinking Ark A New Look at theProblem of Disappearing Species Pergamon Press OxfordEngland UK xiii + 305 pp 9 tables

OLEMBO REUBEN (1982) UNEP and Protected Area ConcernsPaper presented at World National Parks Congress BaliIndonesia 24 pp (typescr)

POLUNIN NICHOLAS VC (1982) The Role of Protected Areasin Conserving Coastal and Marine Genetic Resources Paperpresented at World National Parks Congress Bali In-donesia 16 pp preprint

POORE DUNCAN amp GRYN-AMBROES PAULE (1980) Nature Con-servation in Northern and Western Europe IUCNUNEPGland Switzerland amp Nairobi Kenya 408 pp maps

PRESCOTT-ALLEN ROBERT amp PRESCOTT-ALLEN CHRISTINE(1982) Park Your Genes Managing Protected Areas forGenetic Conservation Paper presented at World NationalParks Congress Bali Indonesia 8 pp preprint

SIMONS Ross (1982) Ten Years Later The Smithsonian Interna-tional Experience Since the Second World Parks CongressPaper presented at World National Parks Congress BaliIndonesia 11 pp preprint

SUMARDJA EFFENDI TARMUDJI amp WIND JAN (1982) NatureConservation and Rice Production in Dumoga North Sul-awesi Paper presented at World National Parks CongressBali Indonesia 7 pp preprint

UDVARDY MIKLOS (1975) A classification of the biogeographicprovinces of the world IUCN Occas Paper 7 pp 1-44

WETTERBERG GARY (1982) The Exchange of Wildland Technol-ogy A Management Agency Perspective Paper presentedat World National Parks Congress Bali Indonesia 11 pppreprint

WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY (1980) World ConservationStrategy Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable De-velopment IUCN-UNEP-WWF (obtainable from IUCNAvenue du Mont-Blanc 1196 Gland Switzerland pack ofca 50 unnumbered pp illustr in stiff paper folder)

It is understood that these papers will be published by orthrough IUCN in a book of proceedings of the Bali CongressmdashEd

httpswwwcambridgeorgcoreterms httpsdoiorg101017S0376892900011826Downloaded from httpswwwcambridgeorgcore University of Basel Library on 11 Jul 2017 at 124020 subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use available at