Chapter 1Historic Overview of the Terrorist Threat

The actions of the US Government in the wake of 9/11 to reorganize emergency management and public safety and security may have seemed unprecedented, but such is not the case. Previous reorganizations and historical emergency management experience offer insight into Homeland Security’s future. While no single definition of emergency management exists, it is generally accepted that the practice in the United States is the discipline dealing with the identification and analysis of public hazards, the mitigation of and preparedness for public risk, and the coordination of resources in response to and recovery from associated emergency events. The emergency management discipline has expanded and contracted in response to events, the desires of Congress, and leadership styles, which has complicated classification efforts. The range of events that could possibly involve emergency management is extensive. It has expanded through time, becoming integral to the security of our daily lives, and integrated into our daily decisions. Emergency management is no longer called upon only in times of disaster – it is an essential role of government whose strong foundation was built over a period of many decades. This chapter provides an historical context to present day homeland security. Early History: 1800-1950; The first federal involvement in disaster management began with an 1803 Congressional act to provide financial assistance to a New Hampshire town. During the 1930s, the Reconstruction Finance Corporation and the Bureau of Public Roads made disaster loans available for public facilities, and the Tennessee Valley authority was created to reduce flooding (in addition to generating electricity). The Flood Control Act of 1934 gave the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers authority to design and build flood control projects.

The Cold War and the Rise of Civil Defense: 1950s; The threat of nuclear war and its consequences during this era spurred the creation of Civil Defense programs throughout the country. The Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA) was created to support State and local civil defense directors, bringing the concept of emergency management to every community. The Office of Defense Mobilization, which eventually merged with the FCDA, was established to produce, stockpile, and transport emergency supplies and effectively creating emergency preparedness. Congressional response to disasters during this period continued to be ad hoc and primarily involved financial assistance to affected areas.

Natural Disasters Bring Changes to Emergency Management: 1960s; Several major disasters resulted in significant human and financial losses. Hurricane Betsy, in particular, incited the passage of the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, effectively creating the NFIP and introduced the concept of community-based mitigation. However, the voluntary insurance program was not meeting expectations for the reduction of Federal relief expenditures. In 1972, NFIP participation was linked to homeowner loans, and the program’s efficacy rose significantly. However, emergency management continued to evolve in a fragmented manner.

The Call for a National Focus to Emergency Management: 1970s; The disaster relief act of 1974 gave HUD the greatest EM authority, though EM functions existed concurrently in several other federal agencies. Under President Carter, with strong state support and following the accident at Three Mile Island, the Federal Emergency Management Agency was created in 1978.

Under FEMA, the majority of federal EM tasks were consolidated. However, a resistance to such integration marked FEMA’s first years.

Civil Defense Reappears as Nuclear Attack Planning: 1980s; During the Reagan years, FEMA’s top priority was nuclear attack preparedness. Statutory authority steadily moved from the State to the Federal level, and funding for State and local programs decreased. The threat of the New Madrid fault led to the creation of the Federal Response Plan, which later became the operating Bible for all federal agencies’ response operations.

An Agency in Trouble: 1989-1992; FEMA at the end of the 1980s was an agency suffering morale problems, disparate leadership, and conflicts with partners. Inadequate responses to several major disasters challenged the Agency’s need, and the GAO demanded reform. President Clinton, who had response experience during his Arkansas Governorship, recognized FEMA's value and set out early in his term to reinvigorate the agency.

The Witt Revolution: 1993-2001; James Lee Witt, the first FEMA director with prior EM experience, recognized the value of cooperation between Federal, State, and local agencies. His sweeping FEMA reforms restored America’s trust, and created a stronger partnership with State and local agencies, and with Congress, other Federal agencies, and the media. Successful response to an unprecedented series of disasters proved FEMA’s worth and helped to eliminate ineffective, antiquated policies. President Clinton affirmed FEMA’s value by elevating the position of director into the Cabinet. Witt’s term was marked by many important EM initiatives and legislation, including Project Impact, and FEMA was ultimately recognized as the world leader in EM (despite what some analysts see as a failure to secure authority for terrorism response following the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing). EM as a profession was evolving such that it became a respected, challenging, and sought-after profession.

Terrorism Becomes Major Focus: 2001; Before 9/11, the Nunn-Lugar-Domenici legislation provided the authority and focus for domestic Federal terrorism preparedness activities. Several agencies were involved, all jockeying for leadership, and each pursued their own agenda. State and local governments, who were confused and unprepared for terrorism, complained of their vulnerability, and the TOPOFF exercise reinforced their concerns. President G.W. Bush named Joe Allbaugh FEMA director, recreated the Office of National Preparedness, first established in the 1980s for WWIII planning, within the agency. FEMA’s mission was already moving towards an overall focus upon terrorism adopted by the administration as a whole.

The Creation of The Department of Homeland Security: 2001 – 2004; After the attacks, the President created the Office of Homeland Security within the White House, with Tom Ridge to lead. The office, having only 120 employees and what was derided as a prohibitively small budget in light of the gravity of the events the nation had just witnessed, began to be seen as just another government bureaucracy. In March of 2002, President Bush signed Homeland Security Presidential Directive-3 (HSPD-3), which created the Homeland Security Advisory System. On November 25, 2002, President Bush signed into law the Homeland Security Act of 2002, with Ridge as the first Secretary of a new Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to be created. DHS was charged with a three-fold mission of protecting the United States from further terrorist attacks, reducing

the nation’s vulnerability to terrorism, and minimizing the damage from potential terrorist attacks and natural disasters.

Hurricane Katrina and its Aftermath: 2005 – 2006; In the initial years following DHS’s creation, many growing pains arose and were managed. Of the criticisms vaulted, one of the most vocal was that the emergency management focus at all government levels was abandoning the all-hazards philosophy for terrorism. A failed response to Hurricane Katrina exposed cracks in the nation’s emergency management system, judged by both government and independent after action reports. Many of the problems were found to be the result of a priority focus on terrorism. While elected officials and response agencies stumbled, NGOs stepped up to provide the extraordinary services to storm victims. Congress drew up legislation (the Post Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act) to patch many of the holes that had been exposed, and developed new systems to reduce future failure. For the moment, at least, it seemed as if the nation’s emergency management focus was willing to regain its all-hazards approach.

The Future: 2008 and Beyond; FEMA and DHS, together with partners in emergency management, fire, police, and public health at the state and local government levels, have been charged with expanding and enhancing our nation’s emergency management system. Billions of dollars have been allocated to state and local governments to expand existing programs and establish new ones designed to meet the new terrorism threat. A budgetary focus on the preparedness for and prevention of terrorist attacks has steadily increased at the expense of other social and governmental programs. There have been advancements in transportation security and commerce security, large increases in budgetary allowances for first responder terrorism training and related equipment acquisitions, the emergence of homeland security management structures at the state and local levels, a widespread public cognition of and preparedness for the terrorism threat, and many other positive changes. The professional and operational environment of emergency management has continued to grow, and the quality, skill base, technical demands, and caliber of its practitioners have only increased. The hyper-attention that is given to the terrorist threat has provided an unexpected opportunity to expand that base.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Emergency management is a discipline that deals with which of the following?a. Response and Mitigationb. Preparednessc. Risk and risk avoidanced. All of the above*

2. The constitution tasks which of the following government levels with the responsibility for managing public health and safety? a. Local b. County c. State* d. Federal

3. The first time the federal government became involved in a local disaster following which of the following? a. A town in New Hampshire was destroyed by a fire in 1803* b. St. Louis, Missouri is flooded in 1815 c. A series of tornadoes devastates several communities in Oklahoma in the 1830s d. Hurricane Oswald causes severe damage in five Atlantic states in 1877

4. During the 1930s, the Reconstruction Finance Corporation and the Bureau of Public Roads were both given authority to do which of the following? a. Prevent construction that increased slope failures, thereby reducing landslide risks b. Buyback properties in the floodplain and create ‘green spaces’ c. Perform annual ‘controlled burns’ to reduce wildfire risk d. Design and build flood control projects*

5. The Civil Defense programs in the 1950s were established primarily to protect American communities from which of the following hazards? a. Rioting and other civil disobedience b. Technological disasters brought about by increased industrial production c. Nuclear fallout brought on by a Soviet nuclear attack* d. Invasion into American soil of a foreign military’s troops

6. The primary functions of the Office of Defense Mobilization, which merged with the Federal Civil Defense Administration in 1958, were which of the following? a. Production, stockpiling, and quick mobilization of critical materials in the event of war* b. Mobilization of disaster relief supplies in response to major natural disasters c. Transportation of military troops to disaster sites for response assistance d. All of the above

7. The Hebgen Lake Earthquake, which measured 7.3 on the Richter scale, brought attention to which of the following: a. Earthquake retrofitting in older structures was desperately needed

b. The nation’s earthquake risk went beyond the California borders* c. The federal response to natural disasters would require the use of the military d. Secondary disasters sparked by an initial disaster can have severe consequences

8. Which of the following disasters is credited with starting the discussions that eventually led to the creation of the National Flood Insurance Program? a. Hurricane Betsy (1965)* b. The Ash Wednesday Storm (1962) c. Hurricane Donna (1960) d. Hurricane Camille (1969)

9. With the passage of the Disaster Relief Act of 1974, which federal agency possessed the most significant authority for natural disaster response and recovery a. DOD b. HUD* c. FEMA d. DHS

10. Prior to September 11th, which of the following pieces of legislation provided the primary authority and focus for domestic Federal preparedness activities for terrorism?

a. Civil Defense Act of 1950b. Defense Against Weapons of Mass Destruction Act of 1996*c. Terrorism Reduction Act of 1980d. None of the above

11. President Carter sought to consolidate emergency preparedness, mitigation, and response activities into one government agency at the federal level. This plan, called Reorganization Plan Number 3, resulted in the creation of which of the following? a. Defense Civil Preparedness Agency b. Federal Emergency Management Agency* c. Federal Disaster Assistance Administration d. Federal Preparedness Agency

12. As director of FEMA, John Macy developed which of the following disaster management concepts? a. Integrated Emergency Management System (IEMS)* b. Comprehensive Emergency Management (CEM) c. Holistic Disaster Management (HDM) d. Multi-Agency Emergency Management (MEM)

13. FEMA Director Louis Guiffrida was most concerned with government preparedness for which of the following hazards? a. Hurricanes b. Floods c. Technological disasters d. Nuclear attack*

14. General Becton is uniformly credited for doing which of the following for FEMA? a. Elevating the position of Director to the Cabinet level b. Restoring integrity to the operations and appropriations of the agency* c. Creating stronger partnerships with state and local response agencies d. All of the above

15. Which of the following FEMA directors was the first to have had prior emergency management experience? a. John Macy b. Louis Guiffrida c. General Julius Becton d. James Lee Witt*

16. HSPD-3 did which of the following?a. Created the Office of Homeland Securityb. Created the Homeland Security Advisory System*c. Abolished the civil defense directorsd. Created a fund to support first responder terrorism preparedness

17. Which of the following reforms was not performed by Director James Lee Witt? a. Customer service training was introduced b. The agency was reorganized to break down ‘bottlenecks’ c. New technologies in Emergency Management were explored d. The focus of Emergency Management was shifted from mitigation to response*

18. The failed response to Hurricane Katrina resulted in which of the following? a. Greater Federal funding for first responders aimed at natural hazard managementb. Removal of FEMA from the Department of Homeland Securityc. A transfer of disaster command authority from the local level to the state leveld. Passage of the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act*

19. Which of the following events first raised the issue of America’s preparedness for terrorism events? a. The bombing of the World Trade Center b. The Oklahoma City bombing* c. Ruby Ridge d. The September 11th Terrorist Attacks in New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania

20. Which of the following was an important disaster mitigation initiative set forth by Director Witt, which helped communities to become ‘disaster resistant’. a. Project Impact* b. Project Mitigation c. The State and Local Disaster Reduction Initiative d. Public/Private Resilience Partnership

21. The September 11th Terrorist attacks were the primary impetus for the creation of which of the following agencies? a. The Office of Domestic Preparedness b. The Office of National Preparedness c. The Department of Homeland Security* d. The National Security Agency

True or False Questions

1. Terrorism has long been the focus of emergency management in the United States, even before the creation of FEMA.a. True b. False*

2. Emergency management is more effective if it is integrated into daily decisions and not just called upon during times of disaster.a. True* b. False

3. The State government intervenes in disaster response when the Federal government is overwhelmed.a. True b. False*

4. The philosophy that man can control nature, thereby eliminating the risk of floods, has resulted in numerous long-term, efficient flood management systems.a. True b. False*

5. The Civil Defense directors of the 1950s ran local programs that were well funded by the federal government.a. True b. False*

6. Local and state civil defense directors were the first recognized face of emergency management in the United States.a. True* b. False

7. During the Cold War years of the 1950s, there were few major natural disasters.a. True* b. False

8. The National Flood Insurance Program was established by the Federal Flood Reduction Act of 1968.a. True b. False*

9. The National Flood Insurance Program brought the concept of community-based mitigation into the practice of emergency management.a. True* b. False

10. Responsibility for implementation of the National Flood Insurance Program was initially

given to the federal government.a. True b. False*

11. In 1974, more than 100 federal agencies were involved in some aspect of risk and disasters.a. True* b. False

12. Because the fundamental mission of the various agencies integrated into FEMA in its inception were similar, consolidation required less effort than anticipated.a. True b. False*

13. The Federal Emergency Management Agency gained prominence during the Reagan Administration for its efficient and effective response to several successive disasters.a. True b. False*

14. During the time that Louis Guiffrida was director of FEMA, the agency’s national security responsibilities were elevated.a. True* b. False

15. At the end of the 1980s, FEMA suffered from various problems including low morale, disparate leadership, and conflicts with state and local partners.a. True* b. False

16. In late 1992, when Hurricane Andrew and Hurricane Iniki struck within months of each other, FEMA performed outstandingly well in responding to the disasters.a. True b. False*

17. President Clinton was never required to respond to a disaster while Governor of Arkansas, so disaster response was a low-level policy issue during his administration.a. True b. False*

18. The changes to FEMA made by Director James Lee Witt were not tested until James Allbaugh took control of the agency during the George W. Bush administration.a. True b. False*

19. The elevation of the FEMA director position to the Cabinet level ultimately weakened the agency.a. True b. False*

20. In the mid-1990s, following the introduction of the Nunn-Lugar legislation, FEMA failed to claim the role as lead agency for terrorism events.a. True* b. False

21. The failed federal government response to Hurricane Katrina was deemed to be primarily the result of a misguided focus on terrorism hazards by the newly formed Department of Homeland Security.a. True* b. False

Essay Questions

1. Describe the evolution of Emergency Management from 1800 to present day.

2. Compare and contrast three FEMA directors.

3. Choose one natural disaster and one terrorism disaster, each of which had a significant impact on the practice of emergency management, and describe that influence.

4. Describe the creation of the National Flood Insurance Program, and explain how greater participation was achieved.

5. Explain briefly how FEMA failed to garner lead agency status for the terrorism hazard.

Chapter 2Statutory Authority

Legislation creating the Department of Homeland Security began long before 9/11. Terrorists, domestic and international, have been striking Americans, American facilities, and American interests, both within and outside the nation’s borders, for decades. Prior to 9/11, support for much of this legislation was weak and successes rarely made the front-page. Federal agency culture also served as a barrier to change. The attacks of September 11th, 2001, however, brought about a complete trend reversal. Years later, legislative changes continue. Many of the original legislative actions may have been taken in haste, but were symbolic of the nation’s coming together in a time of need to address a common problem. Changes continue seven years after the 9/11 attacks. Hindsight allows us to ensure that laws serve the common good of the American people, with respect to their constitutional and human rights, while at the same time ensuring their safety from this emerging global threat. Additionally, the increasing risk from natural hazards has mandated that all-hazards be considered in the justification of time, resources, and people committed to the management of the nation’s hazard portfolio.

Pre-911 Actions Nunn Lugar Domenici WMD Act: resulted in greater funding, training, and equipment for 1st

responders, and addressed post-attack scenario – did little to address prevention. FRP Terrorism Annex – followed Atlanta Olympics bombing. This annex addressed the

criminal element of terrorist attacks, which had previously confounded response to terrorism. The Three Commissions - Hart-Rudman Commission (domestic terrorism - recommended

creating a National Homeland Security Agency); Gilmore Commission (WMD Risk); and Bremer Commission (international terrorism).

PDD 62 - called for the establishment of the Office of the National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection and Counterterrorism, tasked with overseeing a broad variety of relevant policies and programs including counterterrorism, critical infrastructure protection, Weapons of Mass Destructions (WMD) preparedness and consequence management.

PPD-63: tasked Federal agencies to assessing their cyber and physical vulnerabilities. Attorney General’s 5-Year Interagency Counterterrorism and Technology Crime Plan: FBI

given Federal lead for responding to and investigating terrorism. GAO Findings: national security strategy lacking, DOJ plan had no measurable outcomes or

framework, Federal government was ill-equipped and unprepared to counter a major terrorist attack, and government had failed to put in place an effective critical infrastructure system.

Immediate Response to the 9/11 Terrorist Attacks September 20th, Office of Homeland Security established by Executive Order September 24th, USA Patriot Act announced, signed into law on October 26th October 29th, HSPD-1: Organization and Operation of the Homeland Security Council March 11th, 2002, HSPD-3: Creation of the Homeland Security Advisory System November 25th, 2002, Homeland Security Act of 2002.

The Patriot Act of 2001: Introduced to deter and punish terrorist acts and to enhance law enforcement investigation tools. The Act was passed less than a month after 9/11 with little deliberation. The principal focus is to provide law enforcement with the proper legal authority to

support their efforts to collect information on suspected terrorists, to detain those suspected of being or aiding terrorists, to deter terrorists from entering and operating within the US, and to limit terrorist money-laundering. This act sparked concern about the protection of civil rights. DOJ countered that such authority is necessary to effectively track and detain terrorists. Since passage, over 400 US communities have already passed resolutions opposing parts or all of the act’s contents, and another 275 communities are in the process of doing the same. Many of the act’s provisions were set to expire on December 31, 2005, but after heavy debate most of the ‘sunset’ provisions were extended. It is expected that most Patriot Act authorities will persist.

Homeland Security Act of 2002: The legislation to establish DHS was first introduced, in the H.R., on June 24, 2003, following soon after in the Senate. The Homeland Security Act of 2002 was passed by both houses and signed into law by President Bush on November 25, 2002. This act provided authorization for a full range of Federal Government changes that came in response to not only the events of September 11th, but the perceived inefficiencies in the government organization and operation that directly resulted in the vulnerabilities that allowed for such an event or possible future attacks to occur. The act established the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) as within the executive branch with the DHS secretary reporting directly to the president. The act outlined the DHS management structure, identified those agencies and programs to be migrated to DHS, and detailed the roles and responsibilities of the five directorates that make up DHS — Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection, Science and Technology, Border and Transportation Security, Emergency Preparedness, and Response and Management. The act called for the migration of the Secret Service and the Coast Guard to DHS and transfers the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives from the Treasury Department to the Department of Justice. The act also established the Homeland Security Council to advise the president on homeland security matters and the Office for State and Local Coordination and Preparedness reporting to the DHS secretary.

HSPD-5: On February 28, 2003, the White House released Homeland Security Presidential Directive (HSPD)-5 to enhance the ability of the US to manage domestic incidents. The directive proclaimed that this would be done through the establishment of a single, comprehensive National Incident Management System (NIMS). HSPD-5 tasked the DHS Secretary to develop and administer NIMS, and subsequently a National Response Plan (NRP) which would replace the Federal Response Plan (FRP). As of January 2005, all of these actions had taken place. NIMS was designed to integrate emergency management practices, including mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery, of all government levels, including Federal, State, and local, into a comprehensive national framework. The NIMS’ central mission is to enable responders at all levels to work together more effectively to manage domestic incidents no matter what the cause, size or complexity. The National Response Plan (NRP) is a single, comprehensive framework for the management of domestic incidents, which directly addresses the prevention of terrorism, as well as the reduction in vulnerability to all natural and man-made hazards. It also offers guidance on minimizing the damage and assisting in the recovery from any type of incident that occurs.

The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act: After Hurricane Katrina, FEMA and DHS were heavily criticized. In response, Congress passed Public Law 109-295, on October 4, 2006, which established new DHS leadership positions, moved additional functions into FEMA

and within DHS, and amended the Homeland Security Act. The law determined that the head of FEMA would be called the Administrator, supported by two Deputy Administrators (Deputy Administrator and Chief Operating Officer, and Deputy Administrator for National Preparedness.) Several other changes were made, most of which increased the standing and authority of FEMA.

Future Legislation: Numerous considerations exist for future legislation and executive action concerning homeland security. Each year scores of bills are introduced on the topic of homeland security, but only a handful ever make it through the entire process.

9/11 Commission: Created by congress to allow for a full investigation into the 9/11 attacks, and to make recommendations on preventing future attacks. The Commission released their report on July 22nd, 2004, which included 37 recommendations to help prevent future terrorist attacks, divided into three subject areas: (1) Attacking terrorists and their organizations, (2) Preventing the continued growth of Islamist terrorism, and (3) Protecting and preparing for terrorist attacks. To implement this strategy, the Commission proposed a five-part plan, which included: (1) Closing the foreign-domestic divide by linking intelligence and operational planning in a new National Counterterrorism Center, (2) Bringing the intelligence community together under a National Intelligence Director and national intelligence centers, (3) Encouraging information sharing through government through decentralized networks, (4) Centralizing and strengthening Congressional oversight of intelligence and homeland security issues, and (5) Strengthening the national security workforce within the FBI and clarifying the missions of the departments of Defense and Homeland Security. Congress’ response to these findings was the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, which established a Director of National Intelligence (DNI) and addressed many other issues. However, this was criticized because it did not centralize management of the Intelligence Community, did little to promote international anti-terrorism cooperation, did not address Islamic extremism, and did not adequately address WMD threats. In December of 2005, the 9/11 Commissioners released a ‘report card’ that graded the Bush Administration and Congress on their implementation of the 9/11 Commission’s recommendations. The grades both received were very poor, and included 5 F's, 12 D's, 9 C's, and 2 Incompletes. In 2007, the first action of the new Democratically-controlled congress was to pass H.R. 1, The Implementing Recommendations of the 9/11 Commission Act of 2007 on January 9, 2007. This law, which will see the outlay of approximately $21 billion between 2007 and 2012, sought to shore up the remaining shortfalls that remained according to the 9/11 Commission report.

Budget Appropriations: The DHS budget has steadily increased since 2003. With budget figures so high, agency sustainability comes into question, as support requires the commitment of Congress, and the citizens who elect those officials. The memory of 9/11 has been kept fresh in citizens’ minds, and major terror attacks have struck with similar consequences in Indonesia, Spain, and the United Kingdom, among other countries, thereby keeping a great many American citizens willing to expensive budgetary support. However, such enthusiastic support is likely to wane as more time passes without another domestic attack transpiring.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following prompted the creation of the Nunn-Lugar-Domenici legislation?a. 1995 Tokyo Subway Sarin Gas Attackb. 1993 Bombing of the World Trade Centerc. 1995 Oklahoma City Bombingd. All of the above*

2. The primary result of the “WMD Act” was to:a. Create a bioterrorism center under the direction of the Department of Health and

Human Servicesb. Provide greater funding for training and equipment of the nation’s first

responders*c. Finance a mass vaccination program that targeted the nation’s health care

workers.d. None of the above

3. The 1996 Olympic bombing in Atlanta was instrumental in spurring the creation of which of the following:

a. NIMSb. National Response Planc. Terrorism Annex to the Federal Response Plan*d. The Office for State and Local Coordination and Preparedness

4. Which of the following had been particularly confounding to response agencies that were responding to acts of terrorism within the United States

a. Mass casualtiesb. The criminal element*c. Detecting airborne pathogensd. Financing science and technology

5. Which of the following commissions appointed by President Clinton made strategic recommendations on how the U.S. Government could ensure the nation’s security in coming years?

a. Hart-Rudman Commission*b. 9/11 Commissionc. Gilmore Commissiond. Bremer Commission

6. Which of the following commissions appointed by President Clinton addressed the nation’s WMD risks?

a. Hart-Rudman Commissionb. 9/11 Commissionc. Gilmore Commission*d. Bremer Commission

7. Which of the following commissions appointed by President Clinton addressed the international terrorist threat?

a. Hart-Rudman Commissionb. 9/11 Commissionc. Gilmore Commissiond. Bremer Commission*

8. Presidential Decision Directive-62 created which of the following?a. Office of the National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection and

Counterterrorism*b. Office for Counterterrorism Intelligence Coordinationc. Office for the Integration of Civil Defense, Terrorism Preparedness, and

Infrastructure Protectiond. All of the above

9. Presidential Decision Directive-63 tasked all Federal agencies with which of the following?

a. Participating in the Federal Response Planb. Realigning their budget such that response to natural disasters became central to

their missionc. Assessing their cyber and physical infrastructure vulnerabilities*d. Naming a Representative for Counterterrorism Coordination to participate in the

Presidential Counterterrorism Council

10. The Attorney General’s Five-Year Interagency Counterterrorism and Technology Crime Plan named which of the following agencies to be the principal agency in responding to acts of terrorism.

a. NSAb. CIAc. DODd. FBI*

11. The General Accounting Office report entitled ‘Combating Terrorism: Comments on Counterterrorism Leadership and National Strategy’ found that:

a. The Attorney General’s Five-Year Interagency Counterterrorism and Technology Plan did not have measurable outcomes

b. The Attorney General’s Five-Year Interagency Counterterrorism and Technology Plan should include goals that improve State and local response capabilities

c. Both of the above*d. Neither of the above

12. The General Accounting Office report entitled ‘Combating Terrorism: Selected Challenges and Related Recommendations’ found that:

a. The Federal Government was ill-equipped and unprepared to counter a major terrorist attack*

b. The Federal Government was well equipped and prepared to counter a major

terrorist attackc. The Federal Government had succeeded in establishing an effective critical

infrastructure systemd. The Terrorism Annex to the Federal Response Plan was fatally flawed

13. Which of the following did the GAO not recommend to prevent terrorist attacks?a. A single focal point to oversee coordination of Federal programsb. Coordinating research and development to combat terrorismc. Creating an Office of Homeland Security*d. A national strategy to combat terrorism and computer-based attacks

14. President George W. Bush announced the establishment of the Office of Homeland Security within the White House how many days after the September 11th Attacks?

a. 1b. 9*c. 21d. 45

15. The Homeland Security Council was created to do which of the following?a. To perform a vulnerability assessment of the nation’s critical infrastructureb. The determine the perceived level of terrorist threat facing the United States, and

to issue warnings that would advise the public of what action to take. c. To develop and coordinate the implementation of a comprehensive national

strategy to secure the United States from terrorist threats or attacks*d. None of the above

16. Opponents to The Patriot Act of 2001 feel that the act is flawed because of which of the following?

a. It infringes upon the privacy and civil liberties of U.S. citizens*b. It allows for the government to seize property without just compensationc. It permits targeted assassinationsd. All of the above

17. The National Incident Management System was created as result of which of the following?

a. The USA Patriot Actb. HSPD-5*c. The Homeland Security Act of 2002d. PDD-64

18. Which of the following is not stipulated by The USA Patriot Act ?a. It is illegal to knowingly harbor a terroristb. Law enforcement officials have greater subpoena power for e-mail records of

terrorist suspectsc. “Roving wiretaps” are permitted.d. Suspected terrorists can be held within the United States indefinitely.*

19. The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States is more commonly known as which of the following?

a. Hart-Rudman Commissionb. 9/11 Commission*c. Gilmore Commissiond. Bremer Commission

20. Many of the PATRIOT Act’s provisions were set to expire on December 31, 2005. What happened to these provisions?

a. They were all extendedb. Some were extended*c. They all expiredd. None of the above

21. The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act did all but which of the following?

a. Established FEMA as an independent, cabinet-level agency*b. Gave the head of FEMA the title of “Administrator”c. Created a new FEMA division “Readiness, Prevention, and Planning”d. Moved the Office of Grants and Training into FEMA

True of False Questions

1. The September 11th, 2001 terrorist attacks were the first time a foreign terrorist had successfully carried out an attack on American soil.a. True b. False*

2. The September 11th, 2001 terrorist attacks have been considered the first national disaster event.a. True* b. False

3. President Bush issued several Presidential Decision Directives (PDDs) after the September 11th terrorist attacks.a. True b. False*

4. The primary result of the WMD Act was the provision of greater funding for training and equipment for the nation’s first responders.a. True* b. False

5. Terrorist attacks differ from Natural Disasters in that there exists a criminal element that must be addressed by the responding agencies.a. True* b. False

6. President Clinton petitioned in favor of forming the Hart-Rudman commission.

a. True* b. False

7. The idea for a National Homeland Security Agency originated 9 days after the September 11th attacks occurred.a. True b. False*

8. The Gilmore Commission was most concerned with weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)a. True* b. False

9. The Bremer Commission was created to determine whether or not the government of Saddam Hussein was involved in financing the September 11th hijackers.a. True b. False*

10. No major government reorganization resulted from the reports initiated by the Gilmore Commission.a. True* b. False

11. The primary goal of Presidential Decision Directive 62 was to create a new and more systematic approach to fighting the terrorist threat a. True* b. False

12. Presidential Decision Directive 63 was effective in tearing down walls that prevented interagency sharing of information.a. True b. False*

13. The GAO reported that the nation was ill-equipped to prevent terrorist attacks.a. True* b. False

14. The GAO recommended that there be a single focal point to oversee coordination of Federal programs addressing terrorisma. True* b. False

15. HSPD stands for Homeland Security Presidential Decision.a. True b. False*

16. Executive Order 13260 established the President's Homeland Security Advisory Council.a. True* b. False

17. The USA Patriot Act was passed only after contentious debate in Congress.a. True b. False*

18. Thanks to a perception by the public that the terrorism risk has decreased, the DHS budget reached its peak in 2005 and has fallen slightly every year since.a. True b. False*

19. The PREPARE Act, created to help local jurisdictions prepare for and respond to acts of terrorism, was passed in 2005 after two years of contentious debate.a. True b. False*

20. The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act created two new positions under the FEMA Administrator, including the Deputy Administrator and Chief Operating Officer, and the Deputy Administrator for National Preparedness.a. True* b. False

21. The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act specifically excluded certain elements of the former DHS Preparedness Directorate from transfer into FEMA.a. True* b. False

Essay Questions

1. Describe the pre-September 11th legislation that was passed to address counterterrorism efforts within the United States. Provide examples.

2. In what ways was the United States Government ineffective in addressing the terrorist threat, as reported by the 9/11 commission? What have they done to address the concerns of the 9/11 commission? What concerns remain?

3. Was the immediate government response to the September 11th attacks ‘knee-jerk’, hasty, or a combination of the two? Explain.

4. Should municipal governments be allowed to ban the Patriot Act within their jurisdiction? Why or why not?

5. How did the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act change emergency management in the United States? Did the provisions of this legislation go far enough, or too far? Will the nation’s counterterrorism operations suffer as a result of this legislation? Explain your answer.

Chapter 3Organizational Actions

Before 9/11, the Nunn-Lugar-Domenici legislation provided the primary authority and focus for domestic Federal preparedness activities for terrorism, with several agencies (including FEMA, DOJ, HHS, DOD, and the National Guard) jockeying for leadership in the terrorism issue. Coor-dination attempts were launched, but were unsuccessful because of individual agency agendas. Most State and local governments were confused and unprepared, and most rarely considered the possibility of an attack. The first TOPOFF exercise highlighted many of these concerns and demonstrated problems that would arise in a real event. 9/11 validated that the US emergency management system was unprepared for catastrophic terrorism. These events precipitated a major shift in the way the terrorism hazard was handled by all levels of government, beginning with the Federal government.

The goal of emergency management is to addresses the acts of terrorists, not the terrorists themselves. Emergency managers attempt through mitigation and preparedness to eliminate the success of these actions, and to respond to them effectively when they do occur. More terrorist attacks will happen, so it is vital that emergency managers apply equal diligence to preparing for them as they have for natural disasters. The focus of emergency management in this war on terrorism has been and will remain on reducing the danger to first responders, the general public, the business community, the economy, and the American way of life, from the effects of future terrorist attacks. The establishment of DHS was done, in part, to achieve this goal. However, when DHS absorbed FEMA, the FEMA director lost their Cabinet-level status. and DHS’s terrorism-oriented mission was imposed heavily upon FEMA’s regular programming priorities.

The changes that have occurred are not isolated to one, or a few government agencies, but to virtually all of them. By nature of the terrorist threat, every government agency is a target. But, every government agency has some specialty to offer in the fight against terrorism, be it financial, environmental, transportation-related, or health-related.

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS)On November 25, 2002, President Bush signed into law the Homeland Security Act of 2002 with Tom Ridge as Secretary, and authorized the greatest Federal government reorganization since Truman created the DOD. DHS ended a legislative process that addressed shortfalls in Federal inter-agency cooperation that could have prevented 9/11. DHS was charged with a protecting the US from further attacks, reducing vulnerability, and minimizing the damage from terrorism and natural disasters. The reorganization began on January 24, 2003 and joined over 179,000 employees from 22 agencies. The act also affected other Federal agencies outside of DHS. The act created a centralized Federal agency that coordinated public safety and security issues (despite failing to incorporate NSA, FBI, and CIA). Ridge was given exactly 1 year to develop a DHS framework and to name leadership. The move into DHS began on March 1, 2003.

In 2005, Ridge was replaced by Michael Chertoff, who immediately began a plan to reorganize DHS to discover ways in which leadership could better manage the terrorism risk. On July 13, 2005, Chertoff announced a six-point agenda that outlined several organizational changes, including dismantling the EP&R Directorate such that FEMA reported directly to the DHS

Secretary, and removing the preparedness and mitigation functions from FEMA in the process. After the failed response to Hurricane Katrina, DHS was again reorganized according to the requirements of the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006.

Major DHS components include: Office of the Secretary: cabinet-level office that leads the overall direction of DHS. Several

offices exist within this office, including (but not limited to):

o FEMA : responsible for ensuring the nation is prepared for all hazards (including the management of grant programs), manages the Federal response and recovery efforts that follow Presidentially-declared disaster incidents, and administers the NFIP

o Privacy Office : minimizes DHS’s impact on the privacy of individualso Office of Civil Rights and Liberties : provides leadership with legal and policy advice on

civil rights and civil liberties issues, and investigates and resolves complaintso Office of Counternarcotics Enforcement : provides policy advice to DHS leadership for

DHS counternarcotics issues and activities, and coordinates efforts to monitor and combat connections between illegal drug trafficking and terrorism

o US Coast Guard : responsible for Maritime safety, National defense, Maritime security, Mobility, Protection of natural resources

o US Secret Service : protects the President, senior officials, the nation’s currency and financial infrastructure, and providing security for designated national events

o Federal Law Enforcement Training Center : serves as the Federal government’s principal provider of federal law enforcement personnel training

o Transportation Security Administration : protects the nation’s transportation systems in order to ensure the freedom of movement for people and commercial goods and services

o Inspector General : inspection, audit, and investigative body that promotes efficiency and prevents and detects fraud, abuse, mismanagement, and waste

o US Citizenship and Immigration Services : facilitates legal immigration for people seeking to enter, reside, or work in the U.S.

o US Customs and Border Protection : protects US borders (air, land, and sea), and is responsible for ensuring that all persons and cargo entering the United States do so both legally and safely

o US Immigration and Customs Enforcement : enforces federal immigration and customs laws, by investigating domestic and international activities arising from the movement of people and goods, and, through the Federal Protective Service, facilities security on federal property

o Office of Intelligence and Analysis (I&A) and Operations Coordination : I&A identifies and assesses current and future threats to the United States, and ensures information is gathered from all relevant DHS field operations and is fused with information from throughout the intelligence community. Operations Coordination monitors US security and coordinates activities within DHS and with governors, Homeland Security Advisors, law enforcement partners, and critical infrastructure operators in all 50 states and more than 50 major urban areas.

o Office of Policy : formulates and coordinates homeland security policy and procedures

DHS contains three directorates, each of which is led by an Undersecretary. They include: National Protection and Programs : charged with accomplishing the risk-reduction

mission central to DHS through five separate offices; The Office of Cybersecurity and Communications, The Office of Infrastructure Protection, The Office of Intergovernmental Programs, The Office of Risk Management and Analysis, and the United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology office.

Science and Technology : directs, funds and conducts research, development, test, and evaluation, and procurement of technologies and systems that can prevent the importation of chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear and related weapons and material, and will help the national protect against and respond to terrorist threats.

Management : handles budget, appropriations, expenditures, accounting; procurement; HR; information technology systems; facilities, property, equipment, and other tasks.

Other Agencies: Several Federal agencies maintain homeland security programs outside of DHS, and/or support State and local efforts preparedness and mitigation activities. U.S.A. Freedom Corps: includes Peace Corps, CNCS, and Citizen Corps. USDA: focused on Food supply and agricultural production, the protection of USDA

facilities, and USDA staff and emergency preparedness. US Department of Commerce: promotes homeland security through actions conducted in

three offices, including BIS, NIST, and NOAA. Dept. of Education: establishes school safety standards through the office of Safe and Drug

Free Schools, and provides emergency management materials and guidance Environmental Protection Agency: concerned with the release of oil, radioactive materials

or hazardous chemicals that have the potential to affect communities and the environment. NRF Participant Agencies: Many federal agencies are involved in homeland security efforts

through their obligation to provide emergency management assistance to situations that are declared disasters or emergencies by the President, or for which it is determined Federal resources are required. These actions occur as result of their contractual obligations set out in National Response Framework (NRF).

State and Local Participation: State and local governments expend considerable human and financial resources to secure their jurisdictions, and significant federal funding goes towards helping state and local agencies to better prepare for the terrorist threat. As early as September 2002, the municipal organizations (including USCM, NLC, NACo, and NGA) and the emergency management organizations (including NEMA and IAEM) began fighting for first responder funding for state and local governments. These organizations continue to be involved in shaping the federal government’s approach to funding state and local homeland security efforts.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Prior to the 9/11 attacks, which of the following provided the primary authority and focus for domestic preparedness activities for terrorism?

a. The Gilmore Reportb. PDD-62c. Nunn-Lugar-Domenici Legislation*d. Civil Defense Act

2. The first TOPOFF exercise highlighted which of the following?a. Coordination between the Federal and the State and Local emergency response

agencies was weak in relation to terrorism*b. Local agencies were well equipped to deal with the terrorist hazard, and well

funded, but lacked the training needed to perform well.c. Terrorists were less likely to attack rural areas than urban centers, despite that

targets were ‘softer’ outside of major cities.d. All of the above.

3. Which of the following groups is more concerned with the acts of terrorists than with the terrorists themselves.

a. The Diplomatsb. The Intelligence Communityc. The Militaryd. The Emergency Management Community*

4. Which of the following did the Director of FEMA lose when that agency was absorbed into DHS?

a. The President’s “Ear”*b. The Secretary’s “Direct Line”c. The Director’s “Word”d. The Undersecretary’s “Arm”

5. The Office of National Preparedness, created in May of 2001, was primarily focused upon which of the following?

a. Terrorism*b. Earthquakesc. Floodsd. All of the above

6. Which of the following of the original DHS Directorates has existed through all of its transformations?

a. Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protectionb. Border and Transportation Securityc. Management*d. Emergency Preparedness and Response

7. Which of the following documents was developed first?a. The National Response Planb. The National Response Frameworkc. The National Incident Management Systemd. The Federal Response Plan*

8. During the legislative debates that ultimately led to passage of the Homeland Security

Act of 2002, Lawmakers were particularly mired on which of the following issues?a. Civil Rightsb. Employee rights*c. Wiretappingd. The number of directorates

9. Which of the following intelligence agencies was successfully incorporated into the new Department of Homeland Security?

a. The National Security Agencyb. The Federal Bureau of Investigationc. The Central Intelligence Agencyd. None of the above*

10. How long was Tom Ridge, the Secretary of the new Department of Homeland Security, given to develop a comprehensive structural framework for DHS and to name new leadership for the five directorates and other offices created under the legislation?

a. 1 weekb. 1 monthc. 6 monthsd. 1 year*

11. Which of the following agencies was not absorbed into one of the original five DHS directorates?

a. FEMAb. The National Communications Systemc. The United States Secret Service*d. The Office of Domestic Preparedness

12. The Homeland Security Act of 2002 transferred the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms from the Department of the Treasury to where?

a. DHSb. DOJ*c. DODd. None of the above

13. The Posse Comitatus Act prohibits which of the following?a. Use of the Armed Forces in law enforcement activities*b. The arming of deputized airline pilotsc. Non-sworn citizens performing law enforcement activitiesd. All of the above

14. The United States Coast Guard performs which of the following missions?a. Maritime safetyb. Protection of natural resourcesc. Maritime securityd. All of the above*

15. The United States Secret Service is not responsible for protecting which of the following?

a. The nation’s currencyb. The President, vice president, and other senior executive personnelc. The Super Bowld. The United States Capitol Building*

16. The DHS Office of the Inspector General is in charge of which of the following tasks?a. Inspecting all cargo that passes through US portsb. Performing the former duties of the US Customs Servicec. Auditing and assessing the DHS and its programs*d. Issuing visas and residency cards to intending immigrants

17. Which of the following offices within the Office of the DHS Secretary serves as the primary liaison between members of Congress and their staffs, the White House and Executive Branch, and other federal agencies and governmental entities that have national security roles and concerns?

a. Office of Legislative Affairs*b. Office of General Counsel c. Citizenship and Immigration Ombudsmand. Executive Secretariat

18. Which of the following is not a responsibility of the DHS Directorate for National Protection and Programs (NPPD)?

a. Protecting the Nation’s critical infrastructure, both physical and virtualb. Ensuring operable and interoperable communications systems c. Delivering grants and related preparedness program and training activities*d. Enhancing the security of citizens and people traveling to the U.S. through the

use of biometric capabilities 19. Which of the following three mitigation programs were continued under FEMA after

its move to the Department of Homeland Security?a. Hazard Mitigation Grant Programb. Pre-Disaster Mitigation Grant Programc. Flood Mitigation Assistance Programd. All of the above*

20. Which of the following is not a component of USA Freedom Corps?a. Peace Corpsb. Citizen Corpsc. Safe Corps*d. Corporation for National and Community Service

21. In disaster situations, the Environmental Protection Agency is most concerned with which of the following?

a. The release, or threatened release, of oil, radioactive materials or hazardous chemicals*

b. The loss of forested land and protected wetlandsc. Both of the aboved. Neither of the above

True of False Questions

1. The Homeland Security Act of 2002 affected only those agencies that were absorbed into the new Department.

a. True b. False*2. The mission of the United States Secret Service changed when it was absorbed into the

Department of Homeland Security.a. True b. False*

3. FEMA was returned to its pre-DHS stature through the passage of the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act.

a. True b. False* 4. The Nunn-Lugar-Domenici legislation preceded the 9/11 attacks.

a. True* b. False5. The main goal of emergency management in regards to the terrorist threat is stopping

the terrorists.a. True b. False*

6. The consolidation of Federal agencies required in fighting the war on terrorism followed similar logic to that which resulted in the creation of FEMA in 1979.

a. True* b. False7. The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) existed before the establishment of

the Department of Homeland Security.a. True* b. False

8. SAFECOM is a DHS administered program that provides liability protection to private sector developers of homeland security technologies and other applications.

a. True b. False*9. Almost every government agency has some specialty to offer in the fight against

terrorism.a. True* b. False

10. The creation of DHS was the greatest government reorganization of Federal employees since Roosevelt’s ‘New Deal.’

a. True b. False*11. The creation of DHS was the culmination of an evolutionary legislative process that

began largely in response to criticism that increased inter-agency cooperation between Federal intelligence organizations could have prevented the September 11th terrorist attacks.

a. True* b. False12. The Homeland Security Act of 2002 was unsuccessful in coordinating the actions of

the government’s various intelligence agencies.a. True* b. False

13. Those tasked with the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security did not meet many of the deadlines outlined in the Homeland Security Act of 2002.

a. True b. False*14. The National Homeland Security Council, within the Executive Office of the

President, assesses U.S. objectives, commitments, and risks in the interest of Homeland Security, and oversees and reviews Federal homeland security policies.

a. True* b. False15. The DHS Inspector General answers to both Congress and the DHS Secretary.

a. True* b. False16. The Coast Guard has lost significant funding overall since being moved into DHS.

a. True b. False*17. The DHS Office of Immigration and Customs Enforcement is responsible for the

detention and removal of illegal aliens.

a. True* b. False18. The Surgeon General of the United States leads the new DHS Office of Health Affairs.

a. True b. False*19. The Transportation and Security Administration focuses only upon security in the

airline industry.a. True b. False*

20. The Federal Law Enforcement Training Center trains officials from agencies outside of DHS.

a. True* b. False21. The US Department of Commerce is tasked with protecting the nation’s food supply.

a. True b. False*

Essay Questions

1. Describe how the Federal Government changed because of the Homeland Security Act of 2002. How has it changed since, and why? Have these changes been effective?

2. What Federally-supported programs can private citizens become involved in if they wish to participate in homeland security at the community level?

3. What agencies have been transferred intact into the DHS structure? How, if at all, have their missions changed as a result?

4. What are the primary functions of the three DHS directorates? How do they go about fulfilling these missions?

5. How do Federal agencies outside of DHS participate in Homeland Security? Give examples to support your answer.

Chapter 4Hazards

Terrorism has introduced an expanded set of hazards, often referred to by the acronym CBRNE: chemical, biological, radiological/ nuclear, and explosive. These hazards must now be considered in concert with natural and technological hazards. The two main differences traditional hazards and terrorism are the 1) More is known about traditional hazards because of years of research, actual occurrence, and experience. The 1st responder community, emergency managers, and the public are mostly uninformed about these hazards and have little experience with their consequences. 2) Terrorism hazard differs from natural and technological hazards in that it is intentional, directly seeking death and destruction. These hazards are weapons, primarily targeting civilians, and are used to advance political, ideological, or religious agendas.

Determining actual risk from terrorism is exceedingly difficult. One particular index from 2003 ranked the US 4th among the top 5 countries likely to be targeted by terrorists in the following 12 months. In the year that followed, actual incidents differed drastically from these predictions, with the United States ranking 14th by number of attacks that had occurred (and falling even lower in the years since). However, insufficient knowledge of terrorism and its deliberate nature has resulted in skewed risk perception by nearly all Americans. Terrorism must be considered a national risk. To reduce fear, there must be better information and understanding.

Conventional Explosives and Secondary DevicesConventional explosives have existed for centuries, and are the easiest weapons to obtain and use. Explosives can cause massive property destruction and significant injuries and fatalities. They can also be used to disperse chemical, biological, or radiological agents. Conventional bombs can be explosive or incendiary. Explosives rely upon the expansion of gasses t o cause physical destruction. Incendiary devices (firebombs) ignite fires to cause damage or harm. Explosions and fires can be delivered as a missile, and nontraditional delivery methods are regularly discovered. Explosives are the most common terrorist device (almost 50%) because they rely on low technology and are easy to deliver. Warnings precedes less than 5% of bombings. The graphic nature of the consequences of explosives makes them effective as a terror-spreading device.

Chemical Agents Chemical weapons have existed for centuries and have been used throughout history, most notably during the two world wars. These weapons are created solely for killing, injuring, or incapacitating people. They can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, or through the skin or eyes. There are 6 categories of chemical weapons, according to their physiological effects on victims, including Nerve Agents, Blister Agents, Blood Agents, Choking/Pulmonary Agents, Irritants, and Incapacitating Agents. There are also many delivery mechanisms, including aerosol devices, explosives, breach of containers, and mixing with water or food supplies, to name a few. Chemical attacks are generally recognized immediately, and can be persistent or non-persistent. Their effects are usually fast and severe. Identification can be difficult, and without proper training, response is dangerous.

Biological Agents

Biological weapons are live organisms (bacteria or viruses) or the toxic byproducts generated by living organisms, that are manipulated to cause illness, injury, or death in humans, livestock, or plants. Their use dates back as early as the 14th century, but technological advances have made bioweapons much more deadly. Bioweapons can be dispersed overtly or covertly. When covertly applied, they can be difficult to recognize because consequences can take weeks to appear (though toxins are usually more immediate). Attack recognition is made through a range of methods, including identification of a credible threat, the discovery of weapons materials, and victim diagnosis. Detection depends on a collaborative public health system, trained and aware physicians, patients who seek care, and appropriate equipment. Detection is likely to be made by the public health community.

Bioweapons are so deadly because attacks are difficult to recognize. They can disrupt the economy or industry when animals or plants are targeted. The primary defense against bioweapons is recognition, achieved though proper 1st responder and public health training. These agents are grouped into three categories, designated A (have great potential for causing a public health catastrophe, and which may be easily spread over a large geographic area), B (low mortality rates, but may easily be spread over a large geographic area), and C (common pathogens, have potential for being engineered for terrorism or weapon purposes). Indicators of biological attack include a stated threat, unusual occurrence of dead or dying animals, unusual casualties or illness, or unusual liquid, spray, vapor, or powder. Nuclear/Radiological WeaponsNuclear and radiological weapons utilize the movement of energy through space and through material for their devastating effects. There are 3 primary mechanisms by which radiation is used for terrorism: 1) detonation of a nuclear bomb; 2) dispersal of radiological material; or 3) attack on a facility housing nuclear material. Nuclear weapons are the most devastating of these three, but are the most difficult to develop or acquire. Nuclear weapons cause damage through two separate processes; a blast (which includes heat and shock waves), and subsequent radiation (which can persist for years). Radiological dispersion devices are simple explosives that spread radioactive material upon detonation, often called ‘dirty bombs’. Some RDDs do not require explosives. These devices are effective at spreading terror but not nearly as dangerous as nuclear explosions. Initial detection can be difficult. Attack on a nuclear facility, of which there are many dispersed throughout the country, could result in a release of radiological material into the atmosphere, which would pose a threat to life and certainly cause fear among those that live nearby.

Combined Hazards Terrorist can combine two or more attack methods to achieve a synergistic effect (thereby increasing the efficacy of each agent, creating a sum total consequence that is more devastating than each individual agent). Following combined attacks, agent identification is further compounded and extremely difficult.

Other Armed Attacks Using Firearms or Other TacticsTerrorists may employ tactical methods to instill terror and cause death and destruction. In 2006, only 67% of attacks involved armed assault. Terrorists generally use weapons that match their budget, expertise, target, and available resources. Attacks using more simple methods can be

devastatingly effective, together causing over 50% of all terrorism-related fatalities worldwide in both 2005 and 2006.

Role of the CDC in Preparedness and ResponseThe CDC is a full partner in the nation’s emergency management system. CDC has assumed a significant role in defining the characteristics of the new terrorist hazards and how they may be used as weapons. This information is critical in preparing first responders, community leaders, businesspeople, and individuals to deal with these hazards. These data are also useful in the design and development of protective gear and clothing, mitigation and prevention measures, and response and cleanup protocols and practices. The CDC helps the nation to prepare for and respond to terrorist attacks using CBRNE by providing information and training, conducting and supporting research, detecting when attacks have occurred, and containing the spread of a biological attack when the agent in question is transmissible.

Cyber-TerrorismCyber-terrorism is the use or destruction of computing or information technology resources aimed at harming, coercing, or intimidating others in order to achieve a greater political or ideological goal. Cyber-terrorism has only recently become a major threat, but one which continues to increase in severity with each passing year. While much action has already been taken to protect these systems from attack, the reliance on technology of all of these systems that only increases from year to year greatly increases the potential consequences were these systems to be compromised, disrupted, or destroyed. Additionally, criminals and terrorists are constantly developing new and innovative ways to compromise the ever-more complex systems upon which we rely.Cyber-terrorism was addressed through Homeland Security Presidential Directive (HSPD) 7: Critical Infrastructure Identification, Prioritization, and Protection. DHS was tasked with managing the nation’s cyberterrorism threat through its risk management division, the Directorate for National Protection and Programs.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is not a CBRNE agent?a. Anthraxb. Dirty Bombc. Pipe bomb d. None of the above*

2. The primary difference between a chemical attack and an accidental chemical release is:a. Intent*b. Sourcec. Chemical propertiesd. Personal protective equipment

3. Which of the following was among the top 15 countries ranked by number of terrorist-related fatalities in 2005 and 2006?

a. Nepalb. Thailandc. The United States*d. Nigeria

4. In the United States, all people, regardless of where they live, are at some risk of being the victim of which of the following hazards?

a. Volcanob. Terrorism*c. Floodd. Avalanche

5. Most Americans tend to consider their risk from terrorism in the following way:a. Overstate it*b. Understate itc. Deny it existsd. Disregard it

6. In 2003, Deputy Secretary of Health and Human Services Claude Allen stated that which of the following was the next likely location for a terrorist attack?

a. Major US citiesb. The transportation sectorc. The nation’s food supplyd. Rural America*

7. Cyber-terrorism was addressed by the Federal Government through which of the following?

a. HSPD-7*b. PDD-3c. EO-13449d. All of the above

8. Which of the following weapons are the easiest to obtain?a. Explosives*b. Chemicalc. Biologicald. Nuclear/Radiological

9. IED stands for which of the following?a. Internal Explosive Detectionb. International Energy Divisionc. Improvised Explosive Device*d. None of the above

10. Which of the following is an incendiary device?a. Satchel bombb. Rocket propelled grenade (RPG)c. Napalm bomb*d. Mail bomb

11. How many terrorist attacks involving explosives are preceded by a threat or warning?a. Less than 5%*b. Between 6% and 15%c. Between 16% and 50%d. Between 51% and 75%

12. The first organized modern use of chemical weapons occurred during which of the following?

a. World War I*b. World War IIc. The Vietnam Ward. The 1991 Gulf War

13. Which of the following is not a category of chemical weapon?a. Nerve agentb. Blood agentc. Disfiguring agent*d. Incapacitating agent

14. Chemical agents are delivered as which of the following:a. A gasb. A solidc. A liquidd. All of the above*

15. Which of the following describes a nonpersistent chemical?a. Heavier than airb. Evaporates slowlyc. Lose their ability to kill after about 10 or 15 minutes*d. None of the above

16. Which of the following is typical of a terrorist attack involving a bacterial agent?a. A lack of insectsb. Unexplained odorsc. Low lying cloudsd. None of the above*

17. Which of the following is not considered a biological agent?a. Virusesb. Bacterial Toxinsc. Bacteriad. Amoeba*

18. Which of the following describes the incubation period of biological weapons?a. The period when the pathogen is grown in the laboratoryb. The phase within which the pathogen is weaponizedc. The period between when a victim is infected and when symptoms appear*d. The period when vaccinations are most effective

19. Category C biological agents tend to be described as which of the following?a. Have great potential for causing a public health catastrophe, and which are

capable of being disseminated over a large geographic areab. Common pathogens that have the potential for being engineered for terrorism or

weapon purposes*c. Have low mortality rates, but which may be disseminated over a large geographic

area with relative eased. All of the above

20. Which of the following forms of terrorist attack is associated with a heat wave?a. Radiological Dispersion Device (RDD)b. Dirty Bombc. Attack on a nuclear facilityd. Nuclear bomb*

21. Combined hazards tend to do what to the individual components involved in the attack?a. Minimize their effectsb. Increase their effects*c. Make detection easierd. Decrease infection rates

True False Questions

1. Prior to the 2001 Anthrax attacks, a biological agent had never been successfully used for terrorism within the United States.

a. True b. False*2. Commercial explosives in the United States are required to contain a chemical signature

that can be used to trace their source should they be used for criminal meansa. True* b. False

3. Chemical attacks, in general, are recognized immediately.a. True* b. False

4. Biological attacks, in general, are recognized immediately.a. True b. False*

5. Without proper training and equipment, there is little these first response officials can do in the immediate aftermath of a chemical terrorist attack.

a. True* b. False6. Biological weapons can be dispersed covertly.

a. True* b. False7. Of the CBRNE weapons, biological weapons cause the greatest initial harm.

a. True b. False*8. Colombia was the country most affected by terrorist attacks in 2006.

a. True b. False*

9. The most effective way to limit public fear of terrorism is to limit coverage of terrorist attacks in the media.

a. True b. False*10. Explosives are effective at causing massive death and destruction, but are not considered

effective weapons for causing terror.a. True b. False*

11. The Allied forces used chemical weapons against the Germans in World War II.a. True b. False*

12. Not all chemical weapons are designed to kill.a. True* b. False

13. Non-persistent chemicals tend to be oily.a. True b. False*

14. Biological Agents and Germ Agents are the same.a. True* b. False

15. People infected by biological weapons can infect others before symptoms appear.a. True* b. False

16. People affected by chemical weapons can affect others after they leave the scene of the attack.

a. True* b. False17. Toxins generally elicit an immediate response.

a. True* b. False18. Because of globalization, it is becoming much harder to disseminate biological weapons

over great geographic areas.a. True b. False*

19. Nuclear and radiological weapons are those that involve the movement of mass through space.

a. True b. False*20. The Office of Cybersecurity and Communications is located in the DHS Directorate for

National Protection and Programs.a. True* b. False

21. A “Dirty Bomb” is an example of a combined hazard.a. True* b. False

Essay Questions

1. Provide three main differences between terrorism hazards and natural hazards. Provide examples to support your answer.

2. What special difficulties are presented when a terrorist uses a biological weapon?3. What kinds of things must first responders consider when preparing for CBRNE threats?

Which of these are specific to terrorism, and which are common to technological hazards?

4. Why is it so difficult to determine where terrorists will strike next? How is the analysis of terrorist risk different than that of natural hazard risk?

5. What is cyber-terrorism? Why is cyber-terrorism expected to grow as a terrorist risk over time? What is being done to manage the risk from cyber-terrorism?

Chapter 5Safety and Security

The attacks of September 11, 2001 precipitated many changes in the American way of life, as well as in the political structure and organization of the American government. Securing the safety of the American people became a critical priority. The creation of DHS was the most significant change to occur, but remains but one of a great many additions and alterations to the way people and governments establish both safety and security from all hazards.

THE INTELLIGENCE COMMUNITY Within the US Government, the intelligence community is spread out across a vast range of civilian and military departments. The Cold War era was the period that most significantly pushed the expansion of intelligence activities that ultimately resulted in the extensive facility that exists today. By the mid 1980’s, the intelligence community included over 100,000 people, disbursed throughout 25 individual organizations, with a combined budget of over $30 billion. After the Cold War ended, the number of agencies and employees was reduced by consolidation of activities and reduction of budgetary allocation. Because the intelligence capacity grew so large during the Cold War era, however, a vast intelligence capacity remains despite these cuts. Today there are 4 four primary US Government intelligence organizations, described below. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA): Grew out of the National Security Act of 1947,

established as an independent agency within the Executive Office of the President to replace the Central Intelligence Group.

The National Security Agency (NSA): Created in 1952 to have national, not just military, responsibilities. The NSA has two primary responsibilities; Information Assurance and Signals Intelligence.

The National Reconnaissance Office (NRO): established in 1961 to coordinate CIA reconnaissance activities with those of the DOD. The NRO’s primary function has been to oversee the research and development, procurement, deployment, and operation of imaging, signals intelligence, and ocean surveillance satellites, as well as design, build and operate the nation's reconnaissance satellites.

The National Geospatial Intelligence Agency: Formerly the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), created in 1995 to join 4 existing imagery interpretation and mapping organizations such that the national imagery capability was centralized into a single agency.

OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL INTELLIGENCEThe 911 Commission recommended in its final report that a National Intelligence Director be created to replace the Director of Central Intelligence, with the responsibility for (1) overseeing national intelligence centers on specific subjects of interest across the government and (2) to manage the national intelligence program and oversee its various agencies. Congress approved a bill to carry out these recommendations, proposed by Senators Collins and Lieberman, entitled the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act, on December 8, 2004. The President signed the bill and nominated John Negroponte, the former U.S. Ambassador to the UN for the position of National Intelligence Director. John Negroponte was confirmed by the Senate on April 21, 2005 and was officially sworn in on May 18, 2005. In this position, he was expected to: Control the national intelligence budget

Transfer personnel and funds to ensure that the intelligence community is flexible and can respond to emerging threats

Create a Privacy and Civil Liberties Board to protect privacy and civil liberties concerns potentially created by proposals to fight terrorism

Establish an information-sharing network

In its first three years, this office has accomplished several of these goals. In October of 2005, Director Negroponte created the National Clandestine Service within the CIA to boost the nation’s human intelligence capabilities and released the National Intelligence Strategy document to detail the national intelligence framework. In February of 2006 the Drug Enforcement administration became the 16th member of the intelligence community. In 2007 John Negroponte was appointed Deputy Secretary of State, and replaced by Admiral Mike McConnell. Admiral McConnell created the Information Sharing and Steering committee within the DNI to further improve intelligence coordination and collaboration. Soon after, the Department of Defense Chief Information Officer (CIO) and the DNI created a Unified Cross Domain Management Office to enhance information sharing between the DoD and the intelligence community. In March of 2007 the DNI announced the National Counterintelligence Strategy detailing intelligence community goals and priorities. The combined budget for the intelligence community’s program activities was $43.5 billion for FY2007.

BORDER CONTROL The borders of any country are strategically important because of the critical role they play in the economic vitality and commerce of the country. Borders also provide access for illegal immigrants and goods. Their security and control is therefore important in the drive to mitigate the risk posed by terrorists and criminals, and was a primary focus of the methodology behind creation of the DHS. In its initial organization, DHS consolidated the various agencies responsible for the safety, security, and control of the borders – including the Immigration and Customs Enforcement Agency (previously named the Immigration and Naturalization Service), the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (previously named the Customs Service), the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), and the Transportation Security Agency (TSA) - under the Directorate of Border and Transportation Security (BTS). With the reorganization effort that was initiated in the later half of 2005, BTS policy issues were moved to the new Directorate of Policy, while the separate agency components now report directly to the DHS Secretary. Specific program categories of border control managed by these offices include:

Improving Border Control through installation of Physical Barriers Improving Border Control through better surveillance Improving Border Control through better Technology and Information Management Use of manned and unmanned airborne vehicles (UAV)

Several components within DHS that carry out individual border control tasks include: The US Coast Guard: lead federal agency for maritime drug interdiction and air

interdiction (shared with US Customs). The Coast Guard’s mission is to reduce the supply of drugs from its source by denying smugglers the use of air and maritime routes. The Coast Guard is also tasked with enforcing immigration law at sea.

US Customs and Border Protection (CBP): the single agency responsible for protecting the sovereign borders of the U.S. at and between the official ports of entry.

CBP also regulates and facilitating the lawful movement of goods and persons across U.S. borders. The primary mission of the Border Patrol is the detection and apprehension of illegal aliens and smugglers of aliens at or near the land border. CBP officials are also deployed overseas at seaports through the Container Security Initiative (CSI).

US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE): promotes public safety and national security by deterring illegal migration, preventing immigration-related crimes, and removing individuals, especially criminals, who are unlawfully present in the United States. The customs enforcement component combats smuggling, and has expanded to include terrorist financing, money laundering, arms trafficking, technology exports, commercial fraud, and child pornography, to name a few.

TRANSPORTATION SAFETY AND SECURITY In the US, the Department of Transportation (DOT) and the DHS Transportation Security Administration (TSA) are the main stakeholders assuring transportation safety and security. TSA’s security focus is on identifying risks, prioritizing them, managing these risks to acceptable levels, and mitigating the impact of potential incidents that may arise as result of these risks. The Federal Air Marshal Service (FAMS) is responsible for promoting confidence in the nation’s civil aviation system through the deployment of federal air marshals to detect, deter, and defeat hostile acts targeting U.S. air carriers, airports, passengers, and crews. Specific transportation safety and security topical areas include:

Air Transportation Safety and Security: The primary agency for aviation safety is the Office of System Safety of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) within the Department of Transportation (DOT), whose principal function is to develop and implement improved tools and processes for hazard identification, risk assessment, and risk management. The Aviation and Transportation Security Act, signed on November 19, 2001, created the Transportation Security Administration (TSA). Because of 9/11, aviation security is one of the highest priority responsibilities of TSA.

Trucking Security: TSA is tasked with managing the security risk to the U.S. surface transportation systems while ensuring the freedom of movement of people and commerce. For these systems, TSA addresses these security responsibilities in partnership with other components of the DHS as well as the DOT and other Departments.

Ports and Shipping Security: Securing maritime transportation is a critical task for DHS, because a successful terrorist attack on any major US port could result in significant loss of life, tremendous physical damage, and serious disruption to the economy and commerce of the US and its trade partners. As mandated by the SAFE Port Act of October 2006, DHS is responsible for assuring the security of the maritime transportation system and the ports and for the creation of a resumption plan to minimize the disruption to economic activity in the case of a major terrorist attack to the nation’s seaports. USCG is tasked with protecting the U.S. maritime domain and the U.S. marine transportation system and denying their use and exploitation by terrorists. TSA’s main role in maritime and port security has been in providing grants to support port security and related issues. From 2002 to until 2007, the Department of Homeland Security awarded more than $1 billion in grants to many port owners, operators and service providers as part of the Port Security Grant Program within its broader Infrastructure Protection Grant Program. In 2008 the Port Security Grant Program budget has been increased to $388.6 million.

Bus Transportation Security: Bus transportation remains vulnerable to terrorist attack. The bus transportation system became a terrorist target in London in 2007. The bus transportation network is considered a ‘soft’ for terrorists searching for less risky but high consequence attacks. TSA provides grants for intercity bus security projects.

Railway Transportation Security: The railroad system is another highly utilized and valuable component of the US transportation infrastructure that must now be protected against potential terrorist and other vulnerabilities. In April of 2004, the Senate approved the Rail Security Act of 2004, authorizing a funding increase for rail security of $1.1 billion over the initial funding of only $65 million, and requiring DHS to conduct a vulnerability assessment of the nation’s rail systems. In 2007 the GAO conducted an extensive study of passenger rail security. The study found that as of early 2007, the TSA was about to complete the risk and vulnerability assessment for the largest rail transit agencies, but the agency is not yet in a position to have complete information that can be used to prioritize the different rail infrastructures based on their security risks and vulnerabilities in a nationwide setting.

INFORMATION AND NATIONAL NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE SECURITY DHS acts as the coordinating body of the U.S. government to secure the cyberspace and the network infrastructure in the United States. The National Cyber Security Division within the Office of Cyber-security and Communications of the Directorate of National Protection and Programs (NPP) and the Directorate of Science and Technology (S&T) are the main units within DHS that identify and assess current and future terrorist threats, assess and mitigate risks to the nation’s critical infrastructure systems, and disseminate threat information. NPP is in charge of protecting the cyber-infrastructure from terrorist attack by unifying and focusing the key cyber-security activities performed by the Critical Infrastructure Assurance Office (formerly within the Department of Commerce) and the National Infrastructure Protection Center (formerly within the FBI). The directorate augments those capabilities with the response functions of the National Cyber Security Division’s (NCSD’s) U.S. Computer Emergency Response Team (US-CERT). S&T develops methods and capabilities to test and assess threats and vulnerabilities, to prevent technological surprise, and to anticipate emerging threats.

UTILITIES AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES Protection of the nation’s utilities infrastructure is another of DHS’s many security responsibilities, performed primarily by the Directorate of National Protection and Programs. This task is complex and extremely difficult, mainly because almost 85% of the utilities infrastructure of the United States is owned or operated by the private sector. The most notable utilities focused upon by DHS efforts include:

Water Energy (Electricity, Oil and Natural Gas) Telecommunications Pipelines Public Works, and Landfills

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following spurred the greatest increase in US Government intelligence activities?

a. World War Ib. The Civil Warc. The Cold War*d. The Korean War

2. After the 1980’s increase in Federal intelligence activities reversed, which of the following saw the greatest losses in terms of budgetary cuts?

a. The CIAb. The Military*c. The National Security Agencyd. The Executive Office of the President

3. Which of the following is not one of the primary intelligence activities of the U.S. Government?

a. Open Source Collectionb. Covert Actionc. Shared Intelligenced. Unilateral Cooperation*

4. Which of the following, created in October of 2005, absorbed all of the functions of the CIA Directorate of Operations?

a. The National Reconnaissance Officeb. National Clandestine Service*c. The Defense Investigative Serviced. None of the above

5. Which of the following was disbanded by executive order from President Harry Truman?a. National Security Agencyb. Office of Strategic Services*c. National Infrastructure and Mapping Agencyd. Central Intelligence Group

6. Which of the following became the newest member of the intelligence community in February of 2006??

a. The Department of Energy Intelligenceb. The Defense Intelligence Agencyc. The Federal Emergency Management Agencyd. The Drug Enforcement Administration*

7. The National Security Agency began as which of the following in 1949?a. The Federal Security Administrationb. The National Security Administrationc. The Armed Forces Security Agency*d. The Interagency Intelligence Bureau

8. Which of the following agency’s primary function has been to oversee the research and development, procurement, deployment, and operation of imaging, signals intelligence, and ocean surveillance satellites.

a. The Central Intelligence Agency

b. The National Reconnaissance Office*c. The National Security Agencyd. The National Geospatial Intelligence Agency

9. The 911 Commission recommended that a National Intelligence Director be created, and that which of the following be replaced by this official?

a. Special Assistant to the President for National Intelligenceb. Director of Central Intelligence*c. Director of National Intelligenced. Defense Intelligence Coordinator

10. As of 2008, the number of TSA personnel had grown to a size represented by which of the following ranges?

a. 3,000 – 5,000b. 26,000 – 28,000c. 50,000 – 52,000*d. 75,000 – 77,000

11. Which of the following is the single agency responsible for protecting the sovereign borders of the U.S. at and between the official ports of entry?

a. US Department of State Consular Affairsb. U.S. Customs and Border Protection*c. The United States Coast Guardd. The National Border Control Initiative

12. CBP officials are also deployed overseas at major international seaports through which of the following?

a. The Port Security Initiative (PSI)b. The Container Security Initiative (CSI)*c. The Seaway Cooperation Act (SCA)d. The Marine Safety Act (MSA)

13. Which of the following estimates the impact of the drug trade on US National Security?a. Drug Eradication Administrationb. Office of National Drug Eradicationc. Crime and Narcotics Center*d. Narcotics Affairs Agency

14. The Office of Iraq Analysis falls under the direction of which of the following agencies?a. The Central Intelligence Agency*b. The Federal Bureau of Investigationc. The National Security Agencyd. The Department of Defense

15. The primary focus of the TSA is which of the following?a. Rail Securityb. Aviation Security*c. Surface Transportation Securityd. None of the above

16. TSA was originally created within the Department of Transportation by the authority of which of the following?

a. HSPD-3b. The Homeland Security Act of 2002

c. The National Transportation Safety Actd. The Aviation and Transportation Security Act*

17. Trucking is considered a priority of the TSA because of which of the following factors?a. Major roadway accidentsb. Hazardous Materials*c. Smuggling of Illegal Immigrantsd. Organized Crime

18. Which of the following is the often-neglected link in transportation security?a. Bus Transportation*b. Public Transportationc. Subway Transportationd. None of the above

19. Which of the following is responsible for protecting the nation’s utilities?a. National Protection and Programs Directorate*b. Science and Technology Directoratec. National Security Agencyd. All of the above

20. The actual percentage of utilities in the United States that privately owned falls within which of the following ranges?

a. Less than 5 percentb. Between 5 and 50 percentc. Between 51 and 95 percent*d. Greater than 95 percent

21. SCADA encryption systems pertain to which of the following?a. Federal intelligence databasesb. Pipelines*c. Water Treatment Plantsd. Rail Transportation Protection

True-False Questions

1. Today, the intelligence structure of the US Government is spread out across 25 individual organizations.

a. True b. False*2. Technical Collection, one of many intelligence activities, involves the gathering of

intelligence through the use of satellites, aircraft, and antenna arrays.a. True* b. False

3. The Central Intelligence Agency began as the Office of Strategic Services (OSS).a. True* b. False

4. The principal functions of the Directorate of Plans were clandestine collection and covert action.

a. True* b. False5. The CIA’s Information Assurance Directorate (IAD) is dedicated to providing

information assurance solutions that serve to protect United States information systems from harm.

a. True b. False*6. The NRO has historically been one of the most clandestine intelligence organizations in

the US, but many parts of its operations have now been declassified.a. True* b. False

7. NIMA became the National Reconnaissance Office in 2003 according to the 2004 Defense Reauthorization Bill.

a. True b. False*8. John Bolton was selected as the first National Intelligence Director.

a. True b. False*9. Enhanced border and transportation security were primary foci of the methodology

behind creation of DHS.a. True* b. False

10. 14 of the 16 steps in the process flow of international cargo into the United States occur outside the jurisdiction of the United States.

a. True b. False*11. HUMINT activities include the use of recruited foreign nationals for the use of collecting

intelligence information.a. True* b. False

12. Customs and Border Protection is considered the “Front Line” in protecting the nation against terrorist attacks.

a. True* b. False13. The United States Border Patrol was dissolved in 2003 when the Department of

Homeland Security was created, as stipulated in the Homeland Security Act of 2002.a. True b. False*

14. Nearly one half of air cargo in the United States is shipped on passenger planes.a. True b. False*

15. The primary agency for aviation safety is the Office of System Safety of the Federal Aviation Administration.

a. True* b. False16. Trains are a notable security threat because they often carry hazardous materials.

a. True* b. False17. The TOPOFF Exercises are developed specifically to test the response to a cyber security

attack.a. True b. False*

18. As of 2008, there are 56 international ports that take part in the CSI and those ports account for 90% of all transatlantic and transpacific cargo imported into the U.S. that is subject to prescreening prior to loading.

a. True* b. False19. Water treatment plants often contain cyanide for treating water, which in turn becomes a

terrorist target because of the potential for the gas to be used as a terrorist weapon.a. True b. False*

20. Businesses are normally not affected by disasters unless their facilities are directly hit by the disaster.

a. True b. False*21. Businesses are considered ‘Soft’ targets.

a. True* b. False

Essay Questions

1. Do you believe that the Office of the National Intelligence Director will ever be able to reverse decades of cultural differences and turf battles between the various intelligence agencies of the U.S. Government such that terrorist plots like the one that led to 9/11 can be better prevented in the future? Why or why not?

2. Is the U.S. Government doing enough to protect the borders of the country? In your opinion, is this the most important element of preventing terrorist attacks within the country? Can you name any shortfalls that exist with regards to Border Security in the United States that could be exploited by terrorists?

3. Is it possible to secure the various transportation systems in the US such that they can be considered ‘Safe’ from terrorism? Explain your answer.

4. Why do you believe that air transportation security has been given priority over the other forms of transportation? Do you consider this approach appropriate, or is it merely done to address perceived rather than actual proportional threat levels?

5. Is it possible for the US Government to employ dual use, all-hazards systems to protect US transportation systems and critical infrastructure? Provide an example of a dual use security/safety system for both a transportation system and a component of critical infrastructure that would address the risk of terrorism and other non-intentional hazards (either man-made or natural).

Chapter 6Mitigation, Prevention and Preparedness

Mitigation and preparedness constitute one half of the classic emergency management cycle. These activities generally occur before disasters, though post-disaster mitigation and preparedness, conducted in recognition that similar events are likely in the future, make these two activities somewhat general to the entire emergency management cycle.

Mitigation is conducted to reduce or eliminate risk, addressing a hazard’s probability or consequence. Mitigation for natural hazards tends to focus upon consequence management. For man-made hazards there are more opportunities to minimize both probability and consequence. Preparedness is a state of readiness to respond to a disaster. Preparedness activities generally involve the human component of hazard management, with training and public education the most common activities. While preparedness does little to prevent the disaster from occurring, it is very effective at ensuring people know what to do once the disaster is presented.

Mitigation and preparedness concepts changed after 9/11 when the terrorism risk began to be perceived as being much greater than before. The National Response Plan introduced responders and citizens alike to a new sequential disaster management terminology defined as “prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation.” Of note was that mitigation was placed last in this cycle, and that the term ‘prevention’ was introduced not only as a concept but also as a distinct phase in the cycle (defined as “actions taken to avoid an incident or to intervene to stop an incident from occurring, which involve actions taken to protect lives and property”). With the release of the National Response Framework in 2008, however, mitigation regained some of its previous stature.

With terrorism, mitigation requires a much different approach. Minimizing the likelihood of event occurrence is very possible, and is often done successfully through intelligence about terrorist activities, locations, networks, and communication strategies. This complex task requires very large expenditures to build and manage necessary systems, establish international partnerships, and build networks to identify and detain terrorists. Terrorism consequences can also be mitigated, but the range of possible consequences makes this expensive and difficult.

FEMA Mitigation DirectorateThe FEMA Mitigation Directorate is responsible for a majority of Federal mitigation activities. Their mission is to protect lives and property from hazards, employing an all hazards approach. They do this through the work of three separate divisions:

The Risk Analysis Division: provides technical expertise and analytical capability in identifying and quantifying risks, hazards and vulnerabilities. The division runs following FEMA Mitigation programs:o National Flood Map Modernization Program: improves existing flood maps in the United

States and to create new maps based on new technology and standards for those localities that require flood maps for which no previous maps existed.

o National Dam Safety Program: addresses dam safety and security, and includes resources for the development and maintenance of a national dam safety information network and

the development by the National Dam Safety Review Board of a strategic plan that establishes goals, priorities, and target dates to improve the safety and security of US dams.

o Mitigation Planning Program: creates multi-hazard mitigation planning manuals, “How to” guidelines, and best practice documents.

o National Hurricane Program: helps protect communities from hurricanes by reducing the damage caused by winds and flooding through improvements in the built environment, including residential and non-residential buildings and their utility systems.

Risk Reduction Division: reduces risk and vulnerability through pro-active intervention measures including but not limited to land use planning, code design, and dissemination of best practices. The division is in charge of following programs:o National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program: seeks to reduce the risks of life and

property from future earthquakes. 4 Federal agencies participate, including FEMA, NIST, the NSF, and the USGS.

o Hazard Mitigation Grant Program: provides grants to states and local governments to implement long-term hazard mitigation measures.

o Flood Mitigation Assistance Program: assists states and communities in implementing measures to reduce/eliminate the long-term risk of flood damage to buildings, manufactured homes, and other structures insurable under the NFIP.

o Pre-Disaster Mitigation Program: assists states and local governments in implementing hazard mitigation activities that complement a comprehensive mitigation program.

o Severe Repetitive Loss Program: reduce or eliminate flood related damages and insurance claims for the approximately 83.000 residential properties that qualify as structures with severe repetitive flood damage potential.

o Repetitive Flood Claims Program: conceptually similar to the Severe Repetitive Loss Program but the criteria to qualify for the program is more relaxed.

o Community Rating System: a voluntary incentive program that recognizes and encourages community floodplain management activities that exceed the minimum NFIP requirements.

Risk Insurance Division: runs the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), through which affordable flood insurance is provided to communities vulnerable to flood hazards, and impacts of floods are minimized through enforcement of floodplain management for new and altered buildings and structures.

PREVENTION ACTIONS AND PROGRAMS Prevention refers to actions taken to avoid an incident or to intervene in an effort to stop an incident from occurring. The NRF may be implemented for threats or potential major disaster events to prevent or intervene in order to lessen the impact of an incident. Activities include: heightened inspections; improved surveillance and security operations; public health and agricultural surveillance and testing; immunizations, isolation, or quarantine; and, as appropriate, specific law enforcement operations aimed at deterring, preempting, interdicting, or disrupting illegal activity and apprehending potential perpetrators and bringing them to justice.

PREPAREDNESS ACTIONS AND PROGRAMSPreparedness is defined as a state of readiness to respond to a disaster, crisis, or any other type of emergency situation, and includes those activities, programs, and systems that exist before an

emergency that are used to support and enhance response to an emergency or disaster. Preparedness is important to the overall emergency management cycle because it provides for the readiness and testing of all actions and plans before actual application occurs in response to a real incident or disaster. In the aftermath of September 11, terrorism preparedness has become a more pressing issue.

PREPAREDNESS AGAINST BIO AND CHEM ATTACKS AND ACCIDENTSPreparedness against biological and chemical attacks and accidents poses a distinct challenge due to the unique consequences they inflict and the relatively limited experience of emergency management professionals in dealing with them. The majority of DHS preparedness funding targets these WMD hazards. These agents present public health threats that not typically seen in either day-to-day or even major incidents of natural or unintentional man-made nature. As such, the methods by which citizens and response officials can prepare for these attacks have only just begun to emerge in the past few months and years. Chemical incidents do occur with regularity, but it is very rare for them to deliberately target a human population.

NUCLEAR AND RADIOLOGICAL PREPAREDNESSThe NRC is the primary agency in charge of regulating the commercial radiological operations within the US, addressing civilian use of byproduct, source, and special nuclear materials to ensure adequate protection of public health and safety, promoting common defense and security, and protecting the environment. The overall objective of NRC Emergency Preparedness (EP) is to ensure that nuclear power plant operators are capable of implementing adequate measures to protect public health and safety in the event of a radiological emergency.

COMMUNITY PREPAREDNESS: The following programs promote community preparedness in the United States: The Corporation for National and Community Service: helps to prepare the nation for

disasters through several volunteer programs, including: Senior Corps, AmeriCorps, and Learn and Serve America. Members and volunteers serve with national and community nonprofit organizations, faith-based groups, schools, and local agencies to help meet community needs.

Citizen Corps: created to help coordinate volunteer activities that can make communities safer, stronger, and better prepared to respond to emergencies. Programs include: Community Emergency Response Teams, the Medical Reserve Corps, Neighborhood Watch Program, Volunteers in Police Service, and Fire Corps.

The American Red Cross: has always been one of the most important partners of the Federal, State, and local governments in disaster preparedness and relief operations. Chapters have begun to develop homeland security programs to provide training for community volunteers.

PRIVATE SECTOR ROLE9/11 exposed the importance of private sector involvement in crisis, emergency, and disaster management. Since that time, an ever-expanding list of private entities has begun focusing on their needs in this area, including business continuity planning and disaster management. Large, publicly-held corporations are required to perform these tasks according to the new Sarbanes-Oxley act.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is described by “a sustained action taken to reduce or eliminate risk to people and property from hazards and their effects.”

a. Mitigation*b. Preparednessc. Response d. Recovery

2. Which of the following is not normally considered a component of risk?a. Range*b. Consequencec. Probabilityd. Likelihood

3. Which of the following include the two most common preparedness activities?a. Training and Shelteringb. Sheltering and Building Codesc. Public Education and Training*d. Building Retrofitting and Floodplain Management

4. The National Response Plan (NRP) introduced a fifth term into the traditional cycle of emergency management. What was that term?

a. Reductionb. Evacuationc. Readinessd. None of the above*

5. To simplify the difficulties associated with determining exact values for consequence and probability of risk, which of the following have been developed?

a. Risk Matricesb. Qualitative Measurements*c. Prevention Measuresd. None of the above

6. Risk matrices were developed to allow which of the following?a. Determination of likelihoodb. Determination of Consequencec. Determination of Probabilityd. Risk Comparison*

7. Which of the following could be considered an intangible loss?a. Lost productionb. Clean-up costsc. Lost business opportunities*d. Loss of economically active individuals

8. Flood damage is reduced by how much each year because of communities implementing sound floodplain management requirements and property owners purchasing of flood insurance?

a. Nearly $1 millionb. Nearly $100 millionc. Nearly $1 billion*

d. Nearly $10 billion9. Which of the following is in charge of managing NEHRP?

a. FEMAb. NIST*c. USGSd. NSF

10. Which of the following divisions is not part of the FEMA Mitigation Directorate?a. Risk Assessment Division*b. Risk Analysis Divisionc. Risk Reduction Divisiond. Risk Insurance Division

11. Which of the following is not a program area under the Flood Mitigation Assistance Program?

a. Analysis*b. Planningc. Technical Assistanced. Project

12. Which of the following is not a prevention measure that may be taken by the federal government before a terrorist attack occurs?

a. Implement countermeasures such as surveillance and counterintelligenceb. Conduct tactical operations to prevent, interdict, preempt, or disrupt illegal

activityc. Conduct investigations to determine the full nature and source of the threatd. Conduct initial damage assessments to determine the full nature of attack

consequences*13. Evacuation drills are classified as which of the following?

a. Preventionb. Preparedness*c. Mitigationd. Response

14. Which of the following Federal agencies provides information dedicated to preparing US citizens for terrorist attacks?

a. DHSb. CDCc. The Department of Educationd. All of the above*

15. Which of the following is a component of the National Flood Insurance Program?a. Severe Repetitive Loss Programb. Repetitive Flood Claims Programc. Both of the above*d. None of the above

16. MaHIM stands for which of the following?a. Medical and Health Incident Management*b. Mortuary and Hospital Interaction Manualc. Massive Health Intrusion Mechanismd. None of the above

17. Which of the following regulates the Nation's civilian use of byproduct, source, and special nuclear materials to ensure adequate protection of public health and safety, to promote the common defense and security, and to protect the environment.

a. NISTb. NLCc. NRC*d. NERC

18. Which of the following is not a program of the Corporation for National and Community Service?

a. Citizen Corps*b. Senior Corpsc. Learn and Serve Americad. Americorps

19. Which of the following is coordinated nationally by FEMAa. Americorpsb. Learn and Serve Americac. Senior Corpsd. Citizen Corps*

20. Approximately how many CNCS volunteers participated in the response to Hurricane Katrina on the Gulf Coast?

a. 3,500b. 6,000c. 35,000*d. 600,000

21. Which of the following FEMA programs is responsible for creating “How-to” guidelines and best practice documents?

a. National Mitigation Libraryb. Mitigation Planning Program*c. Mitigation Assistance Programd. National Program for Mitigation and Preparedness Publications

True False Questions

1. Mitigation and preparedness can be performed both before AND after disasters occur.a. True* b. False

2. Unlike terrorism, it is generally easy to reduce both the likelihood and consequence of natural hazards.

a. True b. False*3. Prevention activities are mainly geared toward natural hazard events.

a. True b. False*4. For the majority of hazards, it is easier to determine consequence than likelihood.

a. True* b. False5. Qualitative risk measurements use numbers to describe a hazard’s consequences or

probability.a. True b. False*

6. There is no limit to the number of qualitative systems that can be developed to describe hazard risk.

a. True* b. False7. It is possible to mitigate the consequences of terrorism.

a. True* b. False8. After 9/11, the FEMA Mitigation division stopped employing the all-hazards approach.

a. True b. False*9. Communities must participate in floodplain management to qualify for the National

Flood Insurance Program.a. True* b. False

10. Hazard Mitigation Grant Program funds are available only to communities affected by a disaster.

a. True* b. False11. Individual homeowners may apply directly to the HMGP.

a. True b. False*12. When the NRP was replaced by the NRF, the word ‘mitigation’ was completely

eliminated from the Federal plan.a. True b. False*

13. The 9/11 Commission did not refer specifically to prevention measures as they relate to terrorism.

a. True b. False*14. Preparedness provides for the readiness and testing of all actions and plans before actual

application occurs in response to a real event or disaster.a. True* b. False

15. The response to chemical and biological terrorism poses few additional challenges to responders because the response mechanisms employed are basically the same.

a. True b. False*16. The existence of a chemical attack may be hard to verify.

a. True* b. False17. The Corporation for National and Community Service was created to allow citizen

participation in homeland security activities.a. True b. False*

18. CERT is a citizen emergency response training program sponsored by Citizen Corps.a. True* b. False

19. The National Flood Insurance Program paid out more than $100 billion in claims after Hurricane Katrina.

a. True b. False*20. TOPOFF stands for Top Officials

a. True* b. False21. The Sarbanes-Oxley act mandates that businesses prepare for disasters by conducting

“Business Continuity Planning.”a. True b. False*

Essay Questions

1. Why is it important for a community to be able to compare and rank risks against each

other?2. Create two qualitative systems for earthquakes - one that measures consequence and

another that measures likelihood.3. What are the primary difference between Mitigation and Preparedness? Give three

examples of each.4. Name one FEMA mitigation activity and one FEMA mitigation grant program. Describe

each.5. What is prevention? How is it different than mitigation or preparedness? What types of

prevention activities can be conducted in advance of a terrorist attack?

Chapter 7Response and Recovery

The 9/11 attacks, the 2001 anthrax attacks, and Hurricane Katrina each revealed systemic weaknesses that needed to be addressed. In the shadow of each of these events, government agencies at all levels evaluated and improved their response procedures and protocols. Many evaluations focused on a relatively new concept for most of the agencies: protecting first responders from harm in future attacks. The Federal Response Plan was replaced with the more prescriptive National Response Plan (NRP), justified by the changing nature of threats facing the country that required a unified national effort. The National Incident Management System was developed to coordinate NRP operations. Following Hurricane Katrina, the NRP was replaced by a more concise National Response Framework (NRF), which was criticized from the start for undermining local response authority. The Homeland Security Act of 2002 dictated the movement of FEMA into the new DHS. FEMA retained trademark and was transferred largely intact, and it continues to be the center point of disaster response and recovery.

When a disaster’s response requirements exceed local responder capacity, and costs exceed local available funds, local executives turn to the governor. States maintain emergency management offices, funded primarily by DHS and state budgets. The principal response resource available to governors is the National Guard, which can provide personnel, equipment, and other resources. The Governor decides whether to intervene with personnel, equipment, or funding. If the event exceeds state capacity, then the Governor may request from DHS that a Presidential Emergency or Disaster Declaration be made, thereby initiating the Federal response mechanism outlined in the NRF.

Local responders face routine events daily, utilizing a systematic and well-planned course of action. They secure the scene, maintain order, rescue and treat the injured, contain hazards, and retrieve the dead. Their actions are driven by procedures and protocols developed by the agencies themselves. Most communities have developed emergency plans, which were reworked in the aftermath of 9/11 to include methodologies for responding to terrorism. These changes are most often driven by federal and state funds. The local emergency manager is responsible for developing and maintaining the community emergency plans. The federal government has spent more than $16B on responders since 9/11, in recognition of their importance.

States form the second tier of emergency response. States provides mitigation and preparedness support throughout the year, but respond only when called upon by an overwhelmed community. Each state and territory maintains an Office of Emergency Management. Funding for state emergency management offices is provided principally through a combination of DHS support and state budgets. The National Guard is their principal response resource, entailing personnel, communications, air and road transport, construction equipment, mass care and feeding, and emergency supplies such as beds, blankets, and medical supplies.

Volunteer groups work collaboratively with local, state, and federal authorities to address disaster victims’ immediate needs, providing shelter, food, and clothing. The response role of volunteer groups grows annually. In addition to the many independent volunteer organizations that respond to disasters (many of which are organized under national, state, or local VOADs),

DHS supports several volunteer groups including:

Citizen Corps Councils Community Emergency Response Teams (CERT) Volunteers in Police Service (VIPS) Medical Reserve Corps Neighborhood Watch Fire Corps

FEMA is the Federal agency tasked with responding to and recovering from disasters. FEMA’s Response Division provides the core operational, and logistical disaster response capability, called upon when communities are overwhelmed. Response activities entail the coordination of emergency response operations spanning dozens of federal and nongovernmental organizations that participate according to the NRF. There are several other Federal agencies that maintain a response capacity, oftentimes operating without any day-to-day interaction with DHS during non-disaster times. These include the FBI, DOD, Department of Energy, DHHS, EPA, Department of Agriculture, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, for example.

NIMS: HSPD-5 called for a nationally-based incident command system (ICS) to provide a consistent nationwide approach for all government agencies to use to prepare for, prevent, respond to and recover from domestic incidents regardless of size or complexity. On March 1, 2004 the National Incident Management System was released, representing a core set of doctrine, principles, terminology, and organizational processes to enable the management of disasters at all government levels. NIMS was built upon the ICS concept.

NRF: Almost every facet of the nation’s emergency response system has changed since 9/11. The most significant adjustments have been at the federal level, where a shift toward increased federal control and direction has occurred. Expanded Federal authorities first appeared in the NRP, and remained unchanged in the NRF for which the president maintains the ultimate discretion in declaring disasters. The NRF is a single document by which emergency management efforts at all levels of government are structured. FEMA describes it as “a guide to how the Nation conducts all-hazards response.” It is meant to be scalable, flexible, and adaptable in coordinating the key roles and responsibilities of response participants at all levels in and outside of government. The NRF was built upon the structure of NIMS, and describes specific authorities and practices for managing incidents ranging the full spectrum of severity. The NRF is comprised of:

A core document : Describes the principles guiding national response roles and responsibilities, response actions, response organizations, and planning requirements that together work to achieve an effective national response to any incident

The Emergency Support Function (ESF) Annexes : Group Federal resources and capabilities into functional areas that are most frequently needed in a national response (e.g., Transportation, Firefighting, Mass Care)

The Support Annexes : Describe essential supporting aspects that are common to all incidents (e.g., Financial Management, Volunteer and Donations Management, Private-Sector Coordination)

The Incident Annexes : Address the unique aspects of how the Federal government responds to seven broad incident categories (e.g., Biological, Nuclear/Radiological, Cyber, Mass Evacuation)

Partner Guides : Provide ready references describing key roles and actions for local, tribal, State, Federal, and private-sector response partners

Recovery The recovery function often begins in the initial hours and days following a disaster event and can continue for months and in some cases years. Recovery is characterized by a complex set of issues and decisions that must be made by individuals and communities. Since the establishment of DHS, the recovery function has remained relatively constant other than some new nomenclature and a few grant programs that have been modified. The recovery function has long-lasting impacts and high costs, and the participants are often numerous. The federal government plays the largest role in providing the technical and financial support for recovery. Federal disaster assistance available under a major disaster falls into three general categories: Individual assistance to individuals, families, and business owners; public assistance to aid public and certain private nonprofit entities for emergency services and the repair or replacement of disaster-damaged public facilities; and hazard mitigation assistance for measures designed to reduce future losses to public and private property.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. When a natural disaster such as a flood, earthquake, or hurricane occurs, or when a technological incident or terrorist attack happens, who is generally the first official resource to respond?

a. FEMA b. Local first responders*c. DHS d. The National Guard

2. Which of the following was billed as an “all-discipline, all-hazards plan”?a. NIMSb. Terrorism Annex to the FRPc. NRP*d. CRP

3. In order to carry out the coordinated response approach prescribed in the National Response Plan, the Federal Government created which of the following?

a. NIMS*b. CTRGc. MMRSd. NDMS

4. Which of the following has jurisdiction over the National Guard during disaster response?

a. The Mayor or County Officialb. The Governor*c. The FEMA Directord. The DHS Secretary

5. One of the greatest accomplishments of the Office of Domestic Preparedness (ODP) was the consolidation of six individual grant programs into which of the following?

a. Homeland Security Grant Program*b. State Homeland Security Programc. Law Enforcement Terrorism Prevention Programd. Emergency Management Performance Grants

6. How Many MMRS jurisdictions were there in 2008?a. 14b. 58c. 124*d. 422

7. The actions of local first responders are driven by procedures and protocols developed by which of the following?

a. The responding agency agencies themselves*b. State offices of emergency managementc. Local emergency management officesd. FEMA

8. Local emergency planning was mandated by which of the following?a. The Homeland Security Act of 2002b. The Stafford Act

c. Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000*d. The USA Patriot Act of 2001

9. Which of the following is not a primary area of Federal support to first responders?a. Planningb. Trainingc. Facilities*d. Equipment

10. Federally-funded emergency management courses are primarily administered through which of the following?

a. FEMA Universityb. Emergency Management Institute*c. DHS Emergency Management Academyd. FLETC

11. Which of the following was formerly known as FIRESAT?a. The Integrated Hazard Information System*b. HAZUSc. Digital Ortho-image Quarter Quads (DOQQs)d. The National Domestic Preparedness Office

12. Which of the following are associations of volunteer groups that respond to events ranging in size from everyday occurrences to Incidents of National Significance.

a. VOADs*b. DVCsc. TRIADsd. None of the above

13. FEMA is in charge of which of the following citizen participation programs?a. USA Freedom Corpsb. The Corporation for National and Community Servicec. Citizen Corps*d. All of the above

14. Which of the following is a Federally-supported program that aims to train citizens in basic emergency response and preparedness issues?

a. VIPSb. CERT*c. Neighborhood Watchd. MRC

15. Which of the following are components of the National Disaster Medical System?a. DMATsb. DMORTsc. VMATsd. All of the above*

16. 12-hour ‘Push Packages’ are a component of which of the following?a. The Strategic National Stockpile*b. National Disaster Medical Systemc. Urban Search and Rescue Systemd. FLETC

17. Which of the following is the coordinator for incidents that fall under the Nuclear /

Radiological Incident Annex of the National Response Framework?a. Nuclear Regulatory Commissionb. Department of Energyc. Department of Defensed. All of the above*

18. NIMS was based upon the concepts originally developed for which of the following?a. Incident Command System*b. Disaster Response Systemc. Federal Response Pland. National Response Plan

19. Which of the following NRF components address contingency or hazard situations requiring specialized application of the NRF?

a. ESFsb. Support Annexesc. Incident Annexes*d. Appendixes

20. Which of the following was transferred from the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) into DHS per the Homeland Security Act of 2002, and returned to HHS from DHS per the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act?

a. The National Disaster Medical System (NDMS)*b. The Strategic National Stockpile (SNS)c. The Metropolitan Medical Response System (MMRS)d. All of the above

21. The NRF has fifteen of which of the following?a. ESFs*b. Signatory agenciesc. Incident Annexesd. Support Annexes

True-False Questions

1. An Emergency Declaration is defined by FEMA to be “any occasion or instance for which, in the determination of the President, Federal assistance is needed to supplement State and local efforts and capabilities to save lives and to protect property and public health and safety, or to lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe in any part of the United States.”

a. True* b. False2. HSPD-5 directed DHS to create the National Response Framework.

a. True b. False*3. When a disaster response exceeds the capacity of local agencies, the local official can contact

DHS to request a Federal Disaster Declaration.a. True b. False*

4. Disaster assistance may be obtained from the Federal Government without a Presidential Declaration.

a. True* b. False5. Once FEMA becomes involved in the response to a disaster, they assume full command of all

resources at Federal, State, and local levels.a. True b. False*

6. There are over 1 million firefighters in the United States, of which approximately 750,000 are volunteers.

a. True* b. False7. Most communities in the United States have developed community-wide emergency plans.

a. True* b. False8. The roles and responsibilities of first responders are rarely detailed in the community

emergency plan.a. True b. False*

9. There are more opportunities for local emergency managers to receive emergency management education than there were in the 1980s.

a. True* b. False10. The majority of states maintain offices of emergency management within the office of the

Governor.a. True b. False*

11. The scope of the NRF includes domestic incidents of all sizes, regardless of state or federal involvement.

a. True* b. False12. The period of short-term recovery involves the restoration of lives and livelihoods beyond

the emergency phase of the disaster.a. True b. False*

13. The United States Coast Guard is responsible for Maritime Search and Rescue.a. True* b. False

14. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which participates in Federal homeland security activities, is located within the Department of Commerce.

a. True* b. False15. The president has the authority to pre-deploy resources to a location where a disaster

declaration is imminent due to an impending disaster.a. True* b. False

16. Businesses may qualify for assistance under FEMA’s individual assistance recovery programs.

a. True* b. False17. “Disaster Recovery Loans” is one of the seven categories of assistance under FEMA’s Public

Assistance Program.a. True b. False*

18. The NRF addresses the role that private citizens play in disaster response.a. True* b. False

19. The ESFs are coordinated by FEMA through its National Response Coordination Center (NRCC)

a. True* b. False20. Cooperating agencies are responsible for implementing the processes detailed in the NRF

Support Annexes.a. True b. False*

21. One of the problems that Hurricane Katrina exposed about the National Response Plan was that the document was too short in length.

a. True b. False*

Essay Questions

1. Describe the Federal disaster declaration process.2. What is the incident command system? How does it work and why is it a good basis for

NIMS?3. How can private citizens participate in homeland security?4. What are ESFs, incident annexes, and support annexes? Choose one ESFs, one incident

annex, and one support function of the National Response Framework, and describe their functions and the agencies involved in performing those functions.

5. Name three of the homeland security grant programs administered by FEMA, and describe how they contribute to national homeland security efforts.

Chapter 8Communications

Communicating messages to the general public is a critical and underdeveloped aspect of emergency management. Such messages fall under three basic categories: Risk communications (alerting and educating the public about the risks they face and how to prepare for and mitigate those risks); Warning (delivering pre-event warning for individuals and communities to take shelter, evacuate, or take other mitigation action); and Crisis communication (timely, useful, and accurate information to the public during response and recovery.) The Emergency Management community is experienced with both risk communication and warning, having been part of the EM mission for decades. New technologies have been introduced to better disseminate disaster information to the general public. Warning systems have similarly become more sophisticated and widely used, and the news media are often called upon to issue emergency messages.

The importance of communicating with the public during the disaster response and recovery has only recently been embraced EM officials. A shift began in the 1990s as FEMA marshaled resources for an aggressive public affairs program designed to deliver timely and accurate crisis messages, focusing on measures government and private sector officials were taking to help disaster-affected communities and methods to acquire disaster relief. FEMA established a working partnership with the news media to deliver these messages and created Recovery Times, a supplement distributed by local newspaper outlets. The threat of terrorism has altered the playing field for emergency managers by introducing new hazards that are not fully understood, creating an altered risk perception among members of the public (who are concerned about terrorism victimization), and presenting new response and recovery (mostly cleanup) procedures and practices, new information uncertainties, new restrictions on the release of information to the public, and new demands for public information.

The Federal Government, through DHS, has initiated several programs to achieve community and individual resilience to terrorism and other hazards. One of the primary methods employed to achieve such preparedness is public education. While the news media has often been blamed for inciting a “culture of fear,” they have also been integral in helping to create what could be considered the most risk-free era in recorded history.

Citizens have indicated through polls that terrorism is a primary concern, and they have looked to their leaders for personal preparedness guidance. The Federal government recognized this concern confronted preparedness through actions taken to address vulnerability. DHS also embarked on a public education campaign. The media has been heavily involved, never before having played such a central role in risk communication.

News Media InvolvementThe news media play a significant role in disaster and emergency management both before and after disasters, transmitting warning messages and alerts and give instructions on where to evacuate, where to seek medical care and shelter, and where to go for more specific information. The emergency response community has recognized that they will be the primary, if not the only, means of informing large masses of potential victims. In preparedness, the primary risk communication tasks that have been assumed by the media include raising citizen awareness to

the presence of an existing or future hazard and providing information to those citizens regarding prevention or protection. An area of concern when considering the media’s communications ability is their ability to give the public an accurate perception of risk.

There are numerous components of an effective risk communication campaign. They include authoritative and trustworthy sources, message characteristics (amount of material, speed of presentation, number of arguments, repetition, style, clarity, ordering, forcefulness, specificity, consistency, accuracy, and extremity of the position advocated), and understandability by the receiving population.

Federal Government Efforts Ready.gov is the government’s official risk communication website, providing information to three primary groups: Americans (adult citizens), Businesses, and Kids. Ready America, the original focus of the website, instructs the American public to perform three preparedness activities, namely: Get a kit (containing water, food, and materials for clean air, first aid, and other needs); Make a plan (determine actions to be taken during disasters); and Be informed (generally by obtaining information about hazards, mitigation, and preparedness). This site also provides more specific emergency preparedness information for older Americans, people with disabilities, and pet owners. Ready Business was the second component developed in the DHS public education effort, focusing on business continuity and crisis management concepts to help businesses prepare for and respond to disasters. Businesses are instructed to take action in three primary subject areas: (1) plan to stay in business; (2) talk to your people; and (3) protect your investment. The third and final component is Ready Kids, designed to help parents and teachers educate children in grades 4 and 5 about emergency preparedness, emergency response, and how to help their family to prepare for disasters. The site contains simple and illustrated step-by-step instructions about the kinds of things families can do to be better prepared, and the role that children can play in this effort. The Federation of American Scientists (FAS) criticized Ready.Gov in 2006 for containing information that was reputed to be inaccurate and incomplete.

In March 2002, the White House unveiled the Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS), a color coded system with accompanying descriptions identifying the threat level for possible terrorist attacks. Since then, concerns shared by both the public, first responders, and local officials have voiced concerns about the system. Several organizations have expanded on the information provided by DHS by developing additional guidance on actions that individuals, families, neighborhoods, schools, and businesses should take. Critics also complained that the warnings are too vague, or are geographically too broad to be useful for local or state emergency management agencies. Since then more targeted alerts have been made, including one for the financial sector in NY, NJ, and DC, and another for mass transit systems.

Crisis Communications During the 1990s, FEMA established a strong communications capability that worked well in many disasters. This model stated that the foundation of an effective disaster communications strategy is built on the four critical assumptions: 1) Customer focus, 2) Leadership commitment, 3) Inclusion of communications in planning and operations, and 4) Media partnership. FEMA built a substantial communications infrastructure to support these communications objectives. Local emergency managers developed similar capabilities on a smaller scale in communities

around the country. The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Against the United States, also known as the 9/11 Commission, found that inadequate communications within the response community hindered the abilities of responding agencies, and led to many police and fire department fatalities. The commission recommended that more funding and research be set aside to ensure that first responder interoperable communication is improved to prevent these issues in the future.

9/11 Commission Findings on First Responder CommunicationsThe 9/11 Commission found that inadequate communications hindered the response agencies and led to a high number of responder fatalities in the 9/11 attacks. It was discovered that many first responders were unable to communicate either with each other or with their commanders, and many of the open channels were quickly overcome by heavy traffic. The commission recommended that more funding and research be set aside to ensure that first responder interoperable communication is improved to prevent these issues in the future.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following involves providing timely and accurate information to the public during the response and recovery phases of a disaster event?

a. Crisis Communications*b. Warning Communicationsc. Risk Communicationsd. Preparedness Communications

2. Under whose administration did FEMA begin to place more emphasis on communicating with the public during and after disaster events?

a. Joe Allbaughb. James Lee Witt*c. Wallace Stickneyd. Louis Giuffrida

3. Recovery Times is which of the following?a. A FEMA weekly newspaper providing information about disaster preparednessb. An online news publication maintained by DHS describing Federal disaster

management projectsc. A FEMA generated newspaper supplement distributed in areas affected by

disasters*d. None of the above.

4. Which of the following public education campaigns involved the media as a key player?a. Safe Roomsb. Tsunami Warningc. Terrorism Preparednessd. All of the above*

5. Which of the following have been blamed on the Media?a. The inciting of a “Culture of Fear”b. Reporting on events rather than issuesc. Applying biases to risk messagesd. All of the above*

6. Which of the following is seen as the most effective means of conducting public risk education?

a. Phone book insertsb. In-school teaching programsc. A mix of several approaches*d. None of the above

7. Which of the following was not an initiative taken by James Lee Witt?a. Inviting average citizens to serve on a media advisory panel*b. Training of news media personnelc. Promotion of ‘responsible reporting’ by the news mediad. Institutionalization of public service announcement creation

8. DHS has repeatedly acknowledged that, even in the event that a terrorist attack is declared a national disaster, local communities will need to be prepared to be self-sufficient for a minimum of how many hours?

a. 12

b. 24c. 36d. 48*

9. Which of the following is not one of the three major components listed on the Ready.Gov website to increase personal preparedness from disasters?

a. Get a Kitb. Make a Planc. Stay tuned*d. Be Informed

10. DHS added two new groups to its Ready.Gov website in 2004. They were which of the following?

a. Businesses and Schoolsb. Businesses and Children*c. Schools and Childrend. Children and Local Governments

11. Which of the following was described by Baruch Fischhoff, M. Granger Morgan, Ann Bostrom and Cynthia Atman to be “communication intended to supply laypeople with the information they need to make informed, independent judgments about risks to health, safety, and the environment”

a. Crisis Communicationb. Warning Communicationc. Risk Communication*d. Hazard Communication

12. Which of the following is a quote by M. Furman, describing the important role of the media following disasters?

a. “people will die if they don’t get good information.”*b. “people will panic in the absence of solid information.”c. “people are unable to make up their own minds in the aftermath of a disaster.”d. “emergency management is handicapped without a good media partnership.”

13. Most research on the role of media in terms of preparedness has focused upon which of the following?

a. Disaster managementb. Public Health*c. Public Policyd. None of the above

14. Research by Dennis Mileti found that personal preparedness was most likely to be undertaken by those people who:

a. Are attentive to the news media*b. Receive all of their information to from their social networksc. Pay little attention to the mediad. Receive all of their information from the news media

15. The primary source of the news media’s ability to effectively communicate and educate most likely lies where?

a. By means of a perceived position of authority granted by the general publicb. In the publics blind trust in media outletsc. In institutionalized methods of attracting viewers and providing timely

information*d. Through the use of salient advertising

16. In 1997, J. Willis wrote that because the media’s depiction of public health and safety-related issues has either an indirect or a direct effect on public behavior, which of the following is vital?

a. Believability of the sourceb. Accuracy*c. Timelinessd. Availability

17. Since its inception, which of the following has been a major concern about the HSAS by state and local response agencies?

a. The amount of information provided* b. The speed with which information is providedc. The length of time alerts are allowed to lastd. None of the above.

18. The American Red Cross has expanded upon HSAS guidance provided by DHS by providing guidance for which of the following groups?

a. Businessesb. Neighborhoodsc. Familiesd. All of the above*

19. Which of the following happened in late 2004?a. The Homeland Security Advisory System was createdb. Funding for first responder interoperable communications was added to the

Homeland Security budgetc. The Partnership for Public Warning was createdd. Terror alerts became location specific*

20. Which of the following is not a critical assumption under the FEMA Model?a. Customer focusb. Leadership Commitmentc. Incident Command*d. Media Partnership

21. What did the 9/11 Commission determine about first responder communications?a. First responder communications show a high level of interoperability b. Funding levels for first responder communications capabilities is sufficient to

accommodate the modern needs of emergency response agenciesc. Inadequate communications contributed to increased first responder fatalities at

the response to the World Trade Center*d. All of the above

True / False Questions

1. The Ready.Gov website has provided more specific emergency preparedness information on three groups, including older Americans, people with disabilities, and pet owners.

a. True* b. False

2. There is very little existing information about effective means to communicate hazard risk messages for natural disaster and selected technological disaster risks to the public.

a. True b. False*3. Flood watch notices are a form of risk communication.

a. True* b. False4. The importance of communicating with the public during the response and recovery

phases of a natural or technological disaster event has only recently been fully embraced by emergency officials.

a. True* b. False5. Public education is just recently becoming recognized for the contribution it can play in

decreasing the damaging potential of hazards and risks.a. True b. False*

6. Significant research has looked into measuring the efficacy of the media in informing and educating the public about terrorism and other “intentional” hazards.

a. True b. False*7. Citizens have indicated through polls that the threat of terrorist attacks on American soil

is one of their primary concerns.a. True* b. False

8. Ready.Kids was developed to help parents and teachers of educate children of any age about how to help themselves and their families prepare for disasters.

a. True b. False*9. Although terrorism had been a considered a high-risk hazard by the federal government

for some time, it was not seen as a significant risk to the general American public before 9/11.

a. True* b. False10. The HSAS is DHS’s primary effort to increase individual citizen preparedness at the

community level.a. True b. False*

11. A reporter reporting on any existing or proposed hazard, regardless of the story’s ability to result in any increase in public awareness, knowledge, or preparedness, can be considered risk communication.

a. True* b. False12. The news media play a significant role in disaster and emergency management only after

disasters occur.a. True b. False*

13. The emergency response community has embraced the media for their capability in response, recognizing that they will be the primary, if not the only, means of informing large masses of potential victims.

a. True* b. False14. In extreme hazards, like terrorism, most people will obtain disaster preparedness

information from personal experience.a. True b. False*

15. McCombs and Shaw’s 1972 research found that audiences are alerted to important issues by the media but how much importance they attach to the issue or topic depends upon factors independent from media actions.

a. True b. False*

16. There are many social scientists that feel the media, for various reasons, are ineffective at informing the public about the risks they face.

a. True* b. False17. Thus far, research has found that the media tend to understate the risk of the hazards on

which they focus while they overstate commonly occurring hazards.a. True b. False*

18. In 2003, at the annual meeting of the National Governor’s Association, DHS Secretary Tom Ridge agreed to provide all the information about threats that the Governors sought.

a. True b. False*19. The first incidence of location specific terrorist warnings under the HSAS were in

response to terror threats against the financial sector.a. True* b. False

20. Crisis communications at the response to the Oklahoma City Bombing response were considered to be strong.

a. True* b. False21. Recent research has shown that many jurisdictions in the Washington, DC, metropolitan

area have built communications infrastructure that served them well during recent natural and man-made events.

a. True* b. False

Essay Questions

1. Why do you think location specific warnings under the HSAS are so important to local first response agencies? What hardships would they have to endure without such a refined system?

2. How is the media an effective risk communicator? In what ways are they poor at communicating disaster information?

3. How do people learn about disasters? Provide examples from your own experience that support your answer.

4. If you worked for DHS, and were tasked with increasing the number of groups that the Ready.Gov website targeted, what groups would you propose, and why?

5. Who is best positioned to educate the public about disasters? What does this entity, group, or other designation currently do, and what more could they do to increase effective preparedness of the public?

Chapter 9Technology

Technology is the fastest developing field in the homeland security effort. DHS announced at the time of its establishment that it is committed to using cutting-edge technologies and scientific talent, and formed the Directorate of Science and Technology (S&T) to do so. Tens of billions of dollars have already been spent by DHS and other agencies on developing and exploiting technologies for use in the fight against terrorism and emergency management, and most (though not all) of this work has resulted in innovative and useful systems. There are conflicting opinions on the value of technology, with many feeling the push toward technological solutions increases reliance on technologies that could fail. Despite these controversies, it is undeniable that the way of life in the United States continues to change as result of Federal technology investments.

DHS has the most prominent stake in homeland security-related research efforts, but there are many other Federal agencies involved. In fact, several research programs predating the 9/11 attacks, conducted by organizations other than DHS, were almost instantly given new direction and resources to respond to terrorism’s new threats. The Federal homeland security R&D investment is currently $4.902 billion (FY08), with almost one-fifth of that amount managed by DHS. The S&T Directorate, where all R&D efforts dispersed throughout DHS were consolidated in FY06, manages the Department’s contribution. In late 2006, S&T underwent a major reorganization stipulated by Secretary Chertoff’s Six Point plan, which led to the creation of six major divisions:

Borders and Maritime Security Division Chemical and Biological Division Command, Control, and Interoperability Division Explosives Division Human Factors Division Infrastructure and Geophysical Division

S&T funding under DHS steadily increased each year from inception until FY 2007, when it fell for two years straight. R&D funding under DHS will likely rise again in 2009 according to the President’s budget request. This funding is indicative of the steadily increasing role technology is playing in modern emergency management, especially for terrorism. S&T funding for FY08 is $830 million, which is just a fraction of the total amount allotted to all Federal agencies.

S&T sets the national agenda for R&D efforts in other departments and agencies, regardless of their funding source. S&T is unique among Federal R&D agencies in that it is responsible for the entire R&D cycle, from product research to deployment. S&T established HSARPA, which distributes resources within the directorate; awards money for the extramural grants; develops and tests potential technologies, and; accelerates or prototypes development of technologies for deployment. S&T also created a Homeland Security Advisory Committee consisting of 20 members representing 1st responders, citizens, researchers, engineers, and businesses, to advise the Under Secretary. S&T focuses on four areas:

1. Weapons of Mass Destruction: Efforts are subdivided into two fields – chemical and

biological, and radiological and nuclear, in which the directorate’s aim is to develop sensors to detect such weapons from production to employment. The Federal organizations supporting these efforts include the Department of Homeland Security, the DOD Chemical and Biological Defense Information and Analysis Center, The Defense Threat Reduction Agency, the Department of State, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and the Nuclear Regulatory commission.

2. Information and Infrastructure: DHS has primary responsibility for detecting and deterring attacks on the national information systems and critical infrastructures, and S&T is developing a national research and development enterprise to support this mission. Their three main concerns include: Internet security, telecommunication, and security systems. Several organizations assist in this mission, including: the National Operations Center, the US Computer Emergency Response Team (US CERT), the National Cybersecurity Division of DHS, the SANS institute (including the Internet Storm Center and the Center for Internet Security), and the National Communications System.

3. Laboratories and Research Facilities: S&T’s R&D function is its most important component, relying on several existing agency programs to accomplish this task including: DOE National Nuclear Security Administration Labs (Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratory), DOE Office of Science Labs (Argonne National Laboratory, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, other DOE laboratories), DHS labs (Environmental Measurements Laboratory, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, National Agro- and Bio-Defense Facility), DHHS labs (HHS operates several laboratories focused on wide-ranging health and disease prevention issues), the US Customs Laboratory and Scientific Services, and the Academic Research Institutions (including the Homeland Security Centers of Excellence).

4. Maritime Research: The US Coast Guard Research and Development Center is in charge of conducting research to support maritime defense research. The Research and Development Center is the Coast Guard’s sole facility performing research, development, test and evaluation in support of the Coast Guard’s major missions. This program produces two types of products: the development of hardware, procedures, and systems that directly contribute to increasing the quality and productivity of the operations and the expansion of knowledge related to technical support of operating and regulatory programs.

There are several Federal R&D efforts that are conducted completely external to the coordination and management of DHS. These include the following: The Department of Health and Human Services maintains the National Institutes of Health

(NIH), which focuses $1.8 billion in annual funding on bioterrorism-related research through the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease; the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), which focuses on biological terrorism indicators; and the Biodefense Advanced Research and Development Agency (BARDA), which funds R&D of new biodefense countermeasures to better supply the Strategic National Stockpile.

The Department of Defense, whose primary agency for homeland security R&D is the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), which works mainly on

applications that serve the needs of the military (and later applied to civilian use). The DOD Chemical and Biological Defense Program also devotes over $300 million to research.

The US Department of Agriculture, which invests research towards developing security mechanisms to protect dangerous pathogens located in labs throughout the US which could be used as terror weapons.

The Environmental Protection Agency, which has two focus areas: Drinking water security research and decontamination research. EPA also conducts threat and consequence assessments and testing potential biodefense and other decontamination technologies.

The National Institute of Standards and Technology, which funds R&D in cryptography and computer security.

The National Science Foundation, which funds research to combat bioterrorism in the areas of infections diseases and microbial genome sequencing.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The amount of Federal funding dedicated to homeland security R&D efforts throughout the federal government was which of the following?

a. $49.02 millionb. $490.2 millionc. $4.902 billion*d. $49.02 billion

2. Which of the following Federal agencies are involved in homeland security R&D?a. Department of Agricultureb. National Aeronautic and Space Administrationc. Department of Commerced. All of the above*

3. What percentage of homeland security R&D funding is handled by DHSa. One-tenthb. One-fifth*c. One-thirdd. One-half

4. Which of the following DHS S&T offices establishes and administers the University Centers of Excellence?

a. Office of Plans, Programs and Budgets (PPB)b. Homeland Security Advanced Research Projects Agency (HSARPA)c. Office of Research and Development (ORD)*d. Office of Systems Engineering and Development (SED)

5. Which of the following is not a DHS S&T Division?a. Man-Portable Air Defense*b. Explosivesc. Human Factorsd. Command, Control, and Interoperability

6. Which of the following, administered by S&T, provides liability protections for sellers of qualified antiterrorism technologies?

a. Business Best Interests Actb. SAFETY Act*c. SAFECOMd. EO 35543

7. Which of the following is a Department of Health and Human Services component created in FY 2008 that funds advanced research and development of new biodefense countermeasures?

a. DARPAb. MARPAc. BARDA*d. MARDA

8. What critical issue drove the initial effort, outlined in the National Strategy for Homeland Security, to develop better information management?

a. The existence of many disparate databases dispersed throughout the various government agencies and levels which prevented information sharing.*

b. The findings of the Grenville Commission, which stated that information management must be a priority in light of the new terrorist threat.

c. The inability of customs agents to search more than 5% of containers that arrived at the various ports dispersed throughout the nation.

d. All of the above.9. The Homeland Security Advanced Research Projects Agency was based upon which

agency’s existing model?a. CDCb. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratoriesc. NASAd. DARPA*

10. Which of the following is not one of the four research areas focused upon by DHS S&T?a. Weapons of Mass Destructionb. Laboratories and Research Facilitiesc. Maritime Researchd. Agricultural Research*

11. Which of the following laboratories funds R&D on cryptography and computer security?a. Environmental Protection Agencyb. National Institute of Standards and Technology*c. National Science Foundationd. Defense Threat Reduction Agency

12. Which of the following Federal laboratories will replace the Plum Island Animal Disease Center?

a. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratoryb. CERT Coordination Centerc. Brookhaven National Laboratoryd. The National Agro- and Bio-Defense Facility*

13. Drinking water research is a priority for which of the following Federal agencies?a. Department of Agricultureb. Environmental Protection Agency*c. Department of Health and Human Servicesd. Department of Defense

14. Which of the following laboratories houses the Internet Storm Center?a. The SANS Institute*b. Federal Computer Incident Response Centerc. CERT Coordination Centerd. National Communications System

15. Which of the following laboratories is managed by the US Department of Energy?a. Argonne National Laboratoryb. Brookhaven National Laboratoryc. Oak Ridge National Laboratoryd. All of the above*

16. Through which program has DHS invested in university-based partnerships, to develop centers of multi-disciplinary research where important fields of inquiry can be analyzed and best practices developed, debated, and shared?

a. The Universities Advanced Research Program

b. Homeland Security Centers of Excellence*c. The Biodefense University Partnership Programd. None of the above

17. Which of the following laboratory’s current programs focus on issues associated with environmental radiation and radioactivity?

a. Environmental Measurements Laboratory*b. Plum Island Animal Disease Centerc. Centers for Disease Controld. Air and Earth Research Center

18. Which of the following is a full-time service established to notify critical government personnel during emergencies using multiple communication channels, including telephone, Short Message Service (SMS), pager, and e-mail?

a. Emergency Broadcast Systemb. Emergency Communications Systemc. Emergency Notification Service*d. None of the above

19. Decontamination research is a priority at which of the following Federal agency’s laboratories?

a. Department of Energyb. Department of Defensec. Environmental Protection Agency*d. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

20. Which of the following agencies performs R&D aimed at protecting the nation’s food supply from acts of sabotage and terrorism?

a. National Institutes of Healthb. Centers for Disease Control and Preventionc. Environmental Protection Agencyd. Department of Agriculture*

21. Which of the following is considered the leader in Federal homeland security R&D efforts, as a measure of its budget allocation?

a. National Institutes of Health*b. Centers for Disease Control and Preventionc. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratoryd. National Science Foundation

True-False Questions

1. The Homeland Security R&D budgets for all Federal Government agencies combined increased every year from FY2002 to FY2008

a. True b. False*2. Homeland security R&D efforts within the Department of Homeland Security have always

been consolidated under the Bureau of Science and Technology (S&T).a. True b. False*

3. The S&T Directorate is responsible for setting the national agenda and giving direction and setting priorities for R&D efforts in other departments and agencies, regardless of their

funding source.a. True* b. False

4. Most, but not all Federal agencies involved in homeland security R&D have a responsibility for the entire cycle of science and technology, from product research to bringing the product to the market and deploying it.

a. True b. False*5. Research conducted at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory provides information

about nuclear and radiological weapons.a. True* b. False

6. DHS has been given the primary responsibility for detecting and deterring attacks on the national information systems and critical infrastructures.

a. True* b. False7. The National Communications System was established under the Homeland Security Act of

2002.a. True b. False*

8. Immediately after the September 11th attacks, other agencies throughout the Federal Government performing homeland security R&D lost significant amounts of their federal funding.

a. True b. False*9. The Research and Development function is the most important aspect of the S&T

Directorate.a. True* b. False

10. FedCIRC was absorbed into the DHS National Cyber Security Division in 2007.a. True* b. False

11. The U.S. Coast Guard maintains its own laboratory that is focused upon maritime research.a. True* b. False

12. Nobel Prizes have been awarded for discoveries made at Brookhaven National Laboratory.a. True* b. False

13. The products of the Department of Defense research cannot be applied to the civilian domain because of their military affiliation.

a. True b. False*14. The Department of State provides information that allows for assessment of potential

chemical and biological weapons, and analyzes what resources are possessed by different countries and groups.

a. True* b. False15. HSARPA is a Department of Homeland Security think tank.

a. True b. False*16. The S&T Office of Systems Engineering and Development oversees specialized pilot

systems in the field, through the use of local program offices, which apply technologies developed for use in real-world situations.

a. True* b. False17. The National Infrastructure Protection Center is the leading Federal laboratory studying

cyber-threats.a. True b. False*

18. University Centers of Excellence are entirely new universities, constructed through DHS grant funding, that study various aspects of homeland security defense.

a. True b. False*19. Many critics of homeland security S&T feel the push towards technologies is not necessarily

decreasing vulnerabilities, but instead is increasing reliance on technologies that could fail.a. True* b. False

20. It is expected that the extraordinary S&T budget will provide the first responder communities with many new capabilities.

a. True* b. False21. The S&T Directorate Human Factors Division applies the social and behavioral sciences to

improve detection, analysis, and understanding and response to homeland security threats.a. True* b. False

Essay Questions

1. How homeland security R&D funding change immediately after the September 11th, 2001 terrorist attacks occurred, and how has it changed in the years since? To what do you attribute these changes?

2. What kind of homeland security research is being conducted outside of DHS. Give examples to support your answer.

3. Why is information management a DHS priority? What kind of research and development is being conducted to support advances in information management.

4. Identify three laboratories that are working to create countermeasures for weapons of mass destruction, and describe the focus of each lab’s efforts.

5. What kind of research is being conducted by the nation’s laboratories to protect critical infrastructure. Provide examples.

Chapter 10The Future of Homeland Security

Just as FEMA has been the Federal government leader in the national emergency management system since 1979, DHS has assumed a similar leadership role in the creation and management of a national security system of the nation. A measure of DHS’ effectiveness in this position, and exactly what role emergency management and disaster assistance functions will ultimately play within the department and the national homeland security system, has not been adequately developed. The massive failure of the Federal government’s response to Hurricane Katrina in August 2005 and the ongoing failure of the recovery efforts three years later indicate very clearly that this single critical issue has yet to be resolved.

FEMA’s history offers two lessons for DHS as it progresses. The first is that it is critical to take all necessary steps to ensure that national emergency management and disaster assistance capabilities, especially at the Federal level, are not marginalized. These agencies must be given tools that enable them to manage the terrorist threat confronting them. The second lesson is that terrorism, in all of its forms, must not become the singular risk driving DHS policy. In the absence of an all-hazards approach coupled with the growing risk caused by global warming, the scene will surely be set for a repeat of the Hurricane Katrina fiasco.

There are also two critical lessons to be learned from the FEMA experience that provide perspective on how DHS may function in the future. First, it will take time for DHS to become fully-functional. DHS was cobbled together in much the same way that FEMA was, quickly joining almost 180,000 Federal workers from 22 agencies and programs. It took FEMA nearly 15 years and several reorganizations to effectively perform its mission. DHS is less than 3 years old and it is already undertaking its first reorganization. If FEMA’s experience is any kind of indicator it will be at least another decade before DHS will achieve full functionality. Second, the DHS focus on a low probability/high impact event will undermine agency capabilities in responding to high probability/low impact events. This is especially critical for the FEMA response, recovery, preparedness, and mitigation programs. These programs’ natural and manmade disaster management capabilities have been marginalized. The 2004 hurricane season and the resulting Congressional and media investigations of fraud and incompetence that characterized the Federal response and the miserable performance in Hurricane Katrina are clear evidence of the negative impact of this single focus can have in an all-hazards world.

Clearly, DHS has repeated the mistakes made by FEMA in the past and at this time, seems intent on continuing on this path in the future. These mistakes will impact all of the department’s functions but none more so that the traditional emergency management functions: mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. DHS’ primary mission is to prevent domestic terrorism. The traditional FEMA emergency management functions contribute little to this mission. However, should another attack occur in the future, such functions will be critical to preparing citizens, reducing impacts, and mounting response and recovery efforts that quickly returns America to normal. Marginalizing these capabilities is a mistake that DHS cannot afford to repeat.

Rebuilding the nation’s emergency management system does not conflict with the DHS mission.

We feel several steps must be taken to rebuild and enhance the Nation’s emergency management system and to return the federal government to a leadership role in this area.

Reestablish FEMA as an Executive Branch AgencyMoving FEMA out of DHS and consolidating its traditional mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery programs will ensure that the reinstatement of the all-hazards approach, allowing FEMA and State and local partners to again focus on all hazards (including terrorism). The post-Katrina reorganization of DHS and FEMA has returned the preparedness, mitigation, response and recovery programs to FEMA. But this reorganization did not provide the FEMA Administrator direct access to the President of the United States. Only the President can vest the authority in the FEMA Administrator that is needed for a successful Federal response. Reestablishing FEMA outside of DHS will not conflict with DHS’s primary mission to prevent terrorist attacks on American soil and will enhance those critical elements in the homeland security system that will be called on when the next event occurs.

Recreate the Federal Response Plan The Federal Response Plan (FRP) successfully guided the Federal government’s response to over 350 Presidentially-declared disasters, including the September 11 attacks. The FRP, which was replaced first by the National Response Plan (NRP) in 2004 and most recently by the National Response Framework (NRF) in 2008, was developed through extensive planning and negotiations over a five-year period. The NRP was developed by DHS in less than a year with limited outside involvement. The NRF was developed by the DHS Deputy Secretary’s office after an aborted attempt by the emergency management community to reform the NRP. The NRP attempted to build on the FRP but instead confused the roles of the individual departments and agencies and marginalized the FEMA Director’s authority. The NRF is just what its title indicates, a framework for how the Nation as a whole will prepare for and respond to major disaster. It is not a plan for managing the Federal response to a major disaster and like the NRP it fails to designate what agency will direct the Federal response. A major step in rebuilding the Nation’s emergency management system and rebuilding the trust of the State and local emergency managers and the public must be recreating of the FRP with FEMA returned to the role of directing the plan. The FRP is a proven method for delivering Federal resources in support of State and local efforts in a timely and cost efficient manner.

Community-Based Homeland SecuritySince 9/11, the Federal government has taken the lead in homeland security and the majority of policy and program initiatives have focused on Federal capabilities and responsibilities. With the exception of the Citizen Corps program and web based awareness campaigns there has been little to involve American citizens. Studies have shown that the public is ready and willing to participate in planning efforts and to be part of a community-based homeland security. Project Impact could serve as a model for this effort. The Project Impact model is based on an all-hazard approach and including the new terrorist’s risks into this model would be very simple.

CommunicationsCommunicating with the public needs to be improved if the nation is to have an effective homeland security system. To date, DHS has shown little interest in doing so, and when it has the results have been poor. There are three factors that DHS and its State and local partners need

to address to improve its communications with Americans. First, there must be a leadership commitment to communicate timely and accurate information to the public not only at DHS and its State and local partners but at all government levels. Second, homeland security officials at all levels must resolve the conflict of information sharing with the public in advance of and in the aftermath of terrorist incidents. Third, more effort must be invested by Federal departments to better understand the terrorist threats our nation faces, and develop communications strategies that educate and inform the public about these threats more effectively.

Partnering with the Business SectorA partnership between government and business must be established as part of the nation’s homeland security efforts. This is logical considering almost 85 percent of US infrastructure is privately. Currently, no overall strategy exists. One possible avenue for establishing and nurturing an effective partnership with the business sector is to start at the community level.

ConclusionWe believe the FEMA experience may serve as a warning to DHS as it struggles to establish an integrated and effective national homeland security system. The Hurricane Katrina experience should also serve as a warning to DHS that a coordinated Federal response is critical during a major catastrophic event and that marginalizing the strong national emergency management system built on a partnership of Federal, State and local emergency operations in the 1990s was a terrible mistake. Reestablishing FEMA as the leader of the nation’s emergency management system, recreating the FRP, supporting community-based homeland security efforts involving the general public, communicating timely and accurate information to the public and establishing a strong and vital partnership with the business sector could ease DHS’ growing pains and pave the way for the establishment of a comprehensive homeland security system in this country. At the core of FEMA’s success in the 1990s was its focus on the needs of its customers, the American people. Since its inception, DHS and its Federal partners have been focused almost exclusively on their own needs. Policies and programs have been designed and implemented that meet the needs of these government departments and agencies and that were not informed by the needs of the public, their supposed customers. If the officials at DHS and those working in homeland security at the State and local levels change one thing in the future, it is critical that they shift their focus from themselves to the public, and that they plan and implement policies and programs with the full involvement of the public and their partners.

Essay Questions

1. What can be gained by moving FEMA, and all of its emergency management functions, outside of DHS? What do you believe will be lost by doing so?

2. Do you believe, based upon your own knowledge and what you have learned in this text, that the DHS mission of preventing terrorist attacks is greater, the same as, or less significant than its mission to prepare for, mitigate, respond to, and provide relief following natural and more traditional manmade hazards? Explain your answer with examples.

3. The authors single out three major factors that will come into play as DHS progresses in asserting itself as an effective Federal department focused upon protecting the United States from all hazards. Can you think of any other issues that DHS will need to address in the coming years, based upon what you have read in this text, that were not mentioned in this concluding chapter?

4. The authors contend that the FRP should be recreated, with FEMA returned to the role of directing the Federal emergency response effort. Do you agree or disagree with this assessment? Explain your answer.

5. In the absence of any major terrorist attacks, do you believe DHS will be dismantled? Why or why not?