ITHI121 - Study Guide (V1.0)...Compiled by Andalé van Heerden Updated by Robert Matiwa Quality assured by Handsome Mpofu Version 1.0 NQF Level 5 Credit value: 12 July 2017 CTI EDUCATION

Human Computer Interaction

ITHI121

Compiled by Andalé van Heerden Updated by Robert Matiwa Quality assured by Handsome Mpofu Version 1.0 NQF Level 5 Credit value: 12 July 2017 CTI EDUCATION GROUP

TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1

SUMMARY OF LEARNING OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA ............................ 2

LECTURES ................................................................................................................... 4 CLASS EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES ........................................................................... 4 INFORMATION RESOURCES ........................................................................................ 5 PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK ............................................................................................. 5 RECOMMENDED INFORMATION SOURCES ................................................................... 5 USING THIS STUDY GUIDE ......................................................................................... 6 PURPOSE .................................................................................................................... 6 STRUCTURE ................................................................................................................ 7 INDIVIDUAL UNITS .................................................................................................... 7 GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 8 THE USE OF ICONS ..................................................................................................... 8 ALIGNMENT TO PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK .................................................................... 9 STUDY GUIDE/PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK ALIGNMENT .................................................. 9 UNIT 1: HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION (HCI) ..................................................... 11

1.1.1 What to design ......................................................................................... 12

1.2.1 Components of interaction design ............................................................... 13 1.2.2 Who is involved in interaction design ........................................................... 13

UNIT 2: COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF DESIGN ................................................................. 17

UNIT 3: INTERFACES ................................................................................................ 23

3.1.1 Command-based interfaces ........................................................................ 23 3.1.2 WIMP and GUI .......................................................................................... 24

Module aim ........................................................................................................... 1Module abstract .................................................................................................... 1Learning outcomes and assessment criteria ......................................................... 1

Module content ..................................................................................................... 3

Learning objectives ............................................................................................ 11Prescribed reading ............................................................................................. 11Introduction ....................................................................................................... 121.1 Good and poor design ............................................................................. 12

1.2 What is interaction design? .................................................................... 12

1.3 The User Experience (UX) ....................................................................... 131.4 The process of interaction design ........................................................... 131.5 Interaction design and the User Experience ........................................... 141.6 Understanding the problem space and conceptualising interaction ........ 141.7 Conceptual models ................................................................................. 151.8 Interface metaphors ............................................................................... 151.9 Interaction types .................................................................................... 151.10 Paradigms, visions, theories, models and frameworks utilised to constrain

and create scope for design .................................................................... 16

Learning objectives ............................................................................................ 17Prescribed reading ............................................................................................. 172.1 What is cognition? .................................................................................. 182.2 Cognitive frameworks ............................................................................. 192.3 Emotions and the user experience .......................................................... 202.4 Expressive interfaces .............................................................................. 202.5 Annoying interfaces ................................................................................ 212.6 Detecting emotions and emotional technology ....................................... 212.7 Persuasive technologies and behavioural change ................................... 212.8 Anthropomorphism and Zoomorphism .................................................... 21

Learning objectives ............................................................................................ 23Prescribed reading ............................................................................................. 233.1 Interface types ....................................................................................... 23

3.1.3 Multimedia ............................................................................................... 24 3.1.4 Virtual reality ........................................................................................... 24 3.1.5 Information visualisation and dashboards ..................................................... 24 3.1.6 Web interfaces ......................................................................................... 24 3.1.7 Consumer electronics and appliances ........................................................... 24 3.1.8 Mobile interfaces ...................................................................................... 24 3.1.9 Speech interfaces ..................................................................................... 24 3.1.10 Pen ......................................................................................................... 24 3.1.11 Touch ..................................................................................................... 25 3.1.12 Air-based gestures .................................................................................... 25 3.1.13 Multi-modal ............................................................................................. 25 3.1.14 Shareable ................................................................................................ 25 3.1.15 Tangible interfaces .................................................................................... 25 3.1.16 Augmented and mixed reality ..................................................................... 25 3.1.17 Wearables ............................................................................................... 25 3.1.18 Robots and drones .................................................................................... 26 3.1.19 Brain-Computer interfaces ......................................................................... 26 3.1.20 Natural User Interfaces .............................................................................. 26

UNIT 4: DATA GATHERING ....................................................................................... 27

4.1.1 Setting goals ............................................................................................ 27 4.1.2 Identifying participants .............................................................................. 28 4.1.3 Relationship with participants ..................................................................... 28 4.1.4 Triangulation ............................................................................................ 28 4.1.5 Pilot studies ............................................................................................. 28

4.4.1 Questionnaire structure ............................................................................. 29

UNIT 5: THE PROCESS OF INTERACTION DESIGN ..................................................... 31

5.1.1 Lifecycle model for interaction design .......................................................... 32 5.1.2 Practical issues in design ........................................................................... 32

5.2.1 What are requirements? ............................................................................ 33

5.3.1 Data gathering guidelines for requirements .................................................. 33

5.4.1 Brainstorming for innovation ...................................................................... 34

5.6.1 Hierarchical Task Analysis .......................................................................... 34

UNIT 6: DESIGN, PROTOTYPING AND CONSTRUCTION ............................................. 35

6.2.1 Low-fidelity prototypes .............................................................................. 36 6.2.2 High-fidelity prototypes ............................................................................. 36

Learning objectives ............................................................................................ 27Prescribed reading ............................................................................................. 274.1 Five key issues........................................................................................ 27

4.2 Data recording ........................................................................................ 284.3 Participant evaluation ............................................................................. 294.4 Questionnaires ....................................................................................... 29

4.5 Observation ............................................................................................ 304.6 Choosing and combining data gathering techniques ............................... 30

Learning objectives ............................................................................................ 31Prescribed reading ............................................................................................. 315.1 What is involved in interaction design? .................................................. 32

5.2 Establishing requirements ...................................................................... 32

5.3 Data gathering for requirements ............................................................ 33

5.4 Data analysis, interpretation and presentation....................................... 33

5.5 Task description ..................................................................................... 345.6 Task analysis .......................................................................................... 34

Learning objectives ............................................................................................ 35Prescribed reading ............................................................................................. 356.1 Interface design guidelines .................................................................... 366.2 Prototyping ............................................................................................. 36

6.3 Conceptual design .................................................................................. 366.4 Developing the initial conceptual design ................................................ 36

6.4.1 Interface metaphors .................................................................................. 37 6.4.2 Interaction types ...................................................................................... 37 6.4.3 Interface types ......................................................................................... 37

UNIT 7: EVALUATION ............................................................................................... 39

7.1.1 Evaluation types ....................................................................................... 40 7.1.2 Issues for consideration during evaluation .................................................... 40

7.3.1 Conducting a heuristic evaluation ................................................................ 41

7.4.1 Cognitive walkthrough ............................................................................... 42

7.5.1 Fitts’ Law ................................................................................................. 43

7.6.1 Issues in user support ............................................................................... 43 7.6.2 Types of user support ................................................................................ 43 7.6.3 Requirements for user support.................................................................... 43 7.6.4 Approaches to user support ........................................................................ 44

GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................ 45 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 47

Learning objectives ............................................................................................ 39Prescribed reading ............................................................................................. 407.1 Evaluating interactive systems ............................................................... 40

7.2 Usability evaluations .............................................................................. 417.3 Heuristic evaluations .............................................................................. 41

7.4 Walkthroughs ......................................................................................... 42

7.5 Predictive models ................................................................................... 43

7.6 User support ........................................................................................... 43

Introduction Page 1

© CTI Education Group

Introduction Humans interact with computer systems and therefore, it is important that these systems are designed in such a manner that it makes this interaction process a pleasant one. This means that the user making use of a system is able to do their tasks quickly and effectively and enjoys making use of the interactive system. Failure to do so, will result in numerous issues, including user frustration and error and in the case of commercial software, individuals choosing to rather purchase other systems that they feel will provide them with a better experience.

Module aim This module aims to introduce you to effective and acceptable design practices in order for you to design systems that are usable.

Module abstract Technology is constantly evolving – opening all sorts of opportunities in terms of system design. These designs need to meet certain requirements however – specifically the requirements set by the individuals who will make use of the system. Designing for users as opposed to designing based on available technology is therefore paramount to the creation of a successful system.

Learning outcomes and assessment criteria

On successful completion of this module, you will be able to: 1. Explain recent human computer interaction related developments

2. Explain the issues related to a chosen human computer interface.

3. Develop a human computer interface. The following table outlines the assessment criteria that are aligned to the learning outcomes.

Introduction Page 2


Summary of learning outcomes and assessment criteria Learning outcomes Assessment criteria to pass

On successful completion of this module you will be able to: You can:

1. Explain recent human computer interaction related developments

1.1 Evaluate recent HCI related developments and their applications

1.2 Discuss the impact of HCI in the workplace

2. Explain the issues related to a chosen human computer interface

2.1 Discuss the issues related to user characteristics for a chosen HCI

3. Develop a human computer interface

3.1 Design and create a human computer interface for a specified application

3.2 Explain the principles that have been applied to the design

3.3 Critically review and test an interface 3.4 Analyse actual test results against expected

results to identify discrepancies 3.5 Evaluate independent feedback and make

recommendations for improvements 3.6 Create onscreen help to assist the users of an

interface 3.7 Create documentation for the support and

maintenance of an interface These outcomes are covered in the module content and they are assessed in the form of written assignments and semester tests. If you comply with and achieve all the pass criteria related to the outcomes, you will pass the module. Learning and assessment may be performed across modules, at module level or at outcome level. Evidence may be required at outcome level, although opportunities exist for covering more than one outcome in an assignment.

Introduction Page 3


Module content

On successful completion of this module you will be able to:


HCI: historical development; motivation; techniques; guidelines; principles; standards. Developments in technology: changing workstation environments e.g. screens, keyboards, pointing devices; other non-standard input/output devices e.g. speech recognition; related processing developments and information storage possibilities. Developments in HCI: examples e.g. virtual machines with command line input, graphical interfaces, screen design for intensive data entry; intelligent HCIs; virtual personas; changing concepts of ‘look and feel’. User issues: range of users e.g. expert, regular, occasional, novice, special needs; ergonomics; human information processing; impact on the workplace. Development of systems: new developments e.g. event-driven systems, use of multimedia; modelling techniques; implication of new developments on user interfaces; implication of developments on hardware e.g. storage, processing requirements; convergence of systems. Applications: selection of HCIs e.g. touchscreen, voice activated.


User characteristics: human memory: knowledge representation; perception; attention; reasoning; communication; skills and skills acquisition; user’s cognitive model; use of metaphors and the consequences on the design of HCI. Health and safety considerations: ergonomics and the surrounding environment e.g. lighting, seating; specific concerns e.g. Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI); legal implications. Wider considerations: costs; training; system requirements e.g. hardware, software, communications; information storage; health and safety.

Introduction Page 4



Modelling the interface: mapping the system functionality to the conceptual model; grouping of the tasks into logical sets. Analysis: task analysis; user-centred methodologies e.g. storyboarding, user needs analysis; HCI options; usability objectives e.g. performance or response requirements. Design: rules and heuristics for HCI design; review of proprietary examples; supporting information e.g. context sensitive help, online help/documentation; design tools; design principles e.g. tolerance, simplicity, consistency, provision of feedback. Production: selection of tools; production of interface; testing. Evaluating an HCI: functionality characteristics e.g. keystroke effort per task; ability to navigate within the system; ability to configure the HCI; user satisfaction against requirements; use of quality metrics e.g. Fitt’s Law, Keystroke Level Method; test documentation.

Lectures Each week has four compulsory lecture hours for all students. It is recommended that the lecture hours be divided into two sessions of two hours each, but this may vary depending on the campus. Each week has a lecture schedule, which indicates the approximate time that should be allocated to each activity. The week’s work schedule has also been divided into two lessons.

Class exercises and activities You will be required to complete a number of exercises and activities in class. These activities and exercises may also contribute to obtaining a pass, therefore, it is important that you are present in class so that you do not forfeit the opportunity to be exposed to such exercises and activities. Activity sheets that are submitted should be kept by the lecturer so that they can be used as proof of criteria that were met, if necessary.

Introduction Page 5


Information resources You should have access to a resource centre or library with a wide range of relevant resources. Resources can include textbooks, e-books, newspaper articles, journal articles, organisational publications, databases, etc. You can access a range of academic journals in electronic format via EBSCOhost. You may have to ask a campus librarian to assist you with accessing EBSCOhost.

Prescribed textbook Preece, J., Rogers, Y. & Sharp, H. 2015. Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction. 4th edition. United Kingdom: Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Recommended information sources Carroll, J.M. (2002). Human Computer Interaction – A brief intro. https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/book/the-encyclopedia-of-human-computer-interaction-2nd-ed/human-computer-interaction-brief-intro Dix, A.; Finlay, J.; Abowd, G.D. & Beale, R. 2004. Human-computer interaction. New York: Prentice Hall. HCI bibliography: human-computer interaction resources. 2015. Available at: www.hcibib.org Kieras, D.E. & Meyer, D.E. 1997. An overview of the EPIC architecture for cognition and performance with application to human-computer interaction. Human-computer interaction, 12:391–438. Stephanidis, C. 2001. User interfaces for all: concepts, methods and tools. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. User Experience Professionals Association. 2015. Available at: www.upassoc.org UX Booth. (2015). Complete Beginner’s Guide to Interaction Design. http://www.uxbooth.com/articles/complete-beginners-guide-to-interaction-design/ NOTE Web pages provide access to a further range of Internet information sources. Students must use these resources with care, justifying the use of information gathered.

Introduction Page 6


Using this Study Guide As we indicated earlier, the prescribed textbook is your main source of information for this module and the Study Guide serves as a guide to the prescribed textbook. The purpose of the Study Guide is to facilitate your learning and to help you to master the content of the prescribed textbook and other material. It, further, helps you to structure your learning and manage your time; provides outcomes and activities to help you master said outcomes; and directs you to the appropriate chapters/sections in the prescribed textbook. It is, therefore, important that you start with the Study Guide. The Study Guide has been carefully designed to optimise your study time and maximise your learning so that your learning experience is as meaningful and successful as possible. To deepen your learning and enhance your chances of success, it is important that you read the Study Guide attentively and follow all the instructions carefully. Pay special attention to the module outcomes at the beginning of the Study Guide and at the beginning of each unit. It is essential that you complete the exercises and other learning activities in the Study Guide as your module assessments (examinations, tests and assignments) will be based on the assumption that you have completed these activities. The Study Guide accompanies the prescribed textbook and, therefore, it should be read in conjunction with such: it should not be deemed as a replacement for the prescribed textbook.

Purpose The purpose of the Study Guide is to facilitate the learning process and to help you to structure your learning and to master the content of the module. The textbook covers certain themes in detail. Where applicable, more simplified explanations are provided in the Study Guide. It is important for you to work through both the prescribed textbook and the Study Guide attentively and to follow all the instructions set out in the Study Guide. In this way, you should be able to deepen your learning and enhance your chances of success.

Introduction Page 7


Structure The Study Guide is structured as follows: Introduction Unit 1 Human Computer Interaction (HCI) Unit 2 Cognitive Aspects of Design Unit 3 Interfaces Unit 4 Data Gathering Unit 5 The Process of Interaction Design Unit 6 Design, Prototyping and Construction Unit 7 Evaluation Glossary Bibliography

Individual units The individual units in the Study Guide are structured in the same way and each unit contains the following features, which should enhance your learning process:

Unit title Each unit title is based on the title/content of a specific learning outcome or assessment criterion (criteria) as discussed in the unit.

Learning outcomes and assessment criteria

The unit title is followed by an outline of the learning outcomes and assessment criteria, which will guide your learning process. It is important for you to become familiar with the learning outcomes and assessment criteria as they represent the overall purpose of the module as well as the end product of what you should have learned in the unit.

Learning objectives

Learning objectives, which follow the learning outcomes and assessment criteria, are statements that define the expected goal(s) of the unit in terms of the specific knowledge and skills that you should acquire as a result of mastering the unit content. Learning objectives clarify, organise and prioritise learning and they help you to evaluate your own progress, thereby taking responsibility for your learning.

Prescribed reading

The learning objectives are followed by information outlining prescribed reading. This section indicates the relevant chapters/sections in the prescribed textbook that you are expected to study for the unit.

Introduction The prescribed reading section is followed by an introduction that identifies the key concepts of the unit.

Content

The content of each unit contains a very brief overview of some of the key concepts and the theoretical foundation of the module and is based on the work of experts in the field of the module. This serves as a supplement to your textbook and you are expected to use the textbook as your primary study source.

Introduction Page 8


Glossary A glossary has been included at the end of the Study Guide. Please refer to it as often as necessary to familiarise yourself with the exact meaning of terms and concepts involved in HCI.

The use of icons Icons are used to highlight (emphasise) particular sections or points in the Study Guide, to draw your attention to important aspects of the work, or to highlight activities. The following icons are used in the Study Guide:

Activity This icon indicates learning activities/exercises that have to be completed, whether individually or in groups, in order to assess (evaluate) your understanding of the content of a particular section.

Case study This icon points to a case study in the learning material content.

Definition This icon appears when definitions of a particular term or concept are given in the text.

Example This icon points to a section in the text where relevant examples for a particular topic (theme) or concept are provided.

Internal reference This icon is used when you are referred to a specific section or page within the Study Guide.

Learning outcome alignment This icon is used to indicate how individual units in the Study Guide are aligned to a specific outcome and its assessment criteria.

Prescribed reading This icon indicates reference to relevant chapters and/or sections in the textbook that you are expected to study.

Introduction Page 9


Test your knowledge This icon appears at the end of each unit in the Study Guide, indicating that you are required to answer self-assessment questions to test your knowledge of the content of the foregoing unit.

Useful website This icon appears when you are referred to a particular website, which you should consult for more information.

Alignment to prescribed textbook The following table reflects the alignment between the learning outcomes, assessment criteria, units in the Study Guide and chapters in the prescribed textbook.

Study Guide/prescribed textbook alignment

Learning outcome Assessment criteria Study guide unit

Textbook chapter


1.1 Evaluate recent HCI related developments and their applications

1.2 Discuss the impact of HCI in the workplace

Unit 1 Chapters 1 and 2


2.1 Discuss the issues related to user characteristics for a chosen HCI

Unit 2 Chapters 3 and 5


3.1 Design and create a human computer interface for a specified application

3.2 Explain the principles that have been applied to the design

3.3 Critically review and test an interface

3.4 Analyse actual test results against expected results to identify discrepancies

3.5 Evaluate independent feedback and make recommendations for improvements

3.6 Create onscreen help to assist the users of an interface

3.7 Create documentation for the support and maintenance of an interface

Unit 3 – 7 Chapters 6, 7, 9 – 11, 13-15

Introduction Page 10


Unit 1: Human Computer Interaction (HCI) Page 11


Unit 1: Human Computer Interaction (HCI)

Unit 1 is aligned with the following learning outcomes and assessment criteria: Learning outcomes 1. Explain the concept of Human Computer Interaction and

interface design. Assessment criteria 1.1 Evaluate recent HCI related developments and their

applications 1.2 Discuss the impact of HCI in the workplace

Learning objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Describe what and who is involved in the process of interaction design. Explain the difference between good and poor interaction design. Describe what interaction design is and how it relates to human-computer

interaction and other fields. Explain what is meant by the problem space. Explain how to conceptualise interaction. Describe what a conceptual model is and how to begin to formulate one. Discuss the use of interface metaphors as part of a conceptual model. Outline the core interaction types for informing the development of a

conceptual model. Introduce paradigms, visions, theories, models, and frameworks informing

interaction design. Prescribed reading

Preece, J., Rogers, Y. & Sharp, H. 2015. Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction. 4th edition. United Kingdom: Wiley & Sons Ltd. Chapters 1 and 2.



Introduction Interactive systems are all around us. People who design these systems should try to design these interactive systems in such a way that people who use these systems do not get frustrated or annoyed when they use them – designing systems that are not only easy and effective to use, but provide us with enjoyment when we use them. This (our feelings when using interactive systems) is known as the user experience of the UX (Preece, Rogers and Sharp 2015). 1.1 Good and poor design The main aim of interaction design is to design usable systems: Systems that are easy to learn, effective to use and are pleasurable to use (Preece et al. 2015). 1.1.1 What to design When designing any interactive system, consideration needs to be given to the following aspects (Preece et al. 2015): Who will be using the system (your users); What do they need to do and what will they be doing with the system; and Where are they going to be using the systems? Understanding the users of the system is vitally important and involves amongst other things (Preece et al. 2015): Consideration of what people are good and bad at; Consideration of things that might be useful and helpful to the way in which

people are currently performing their tasks; Consideration for what might provide quality user experiences; Interacting with and involving the people using the system in the design

process and listening to what they want; and Using user-based techniques that have been tried and tested when

designing the system. 1.2 What is interaction design? Interaction design is the design of interactive products in such a way that they support the manner in which people communicate and interact in their day-to-day lives. A wide array of methods, techniques and frameworks are utilised in this process, making interaction design a process that involves multiple disciplines (Preece et al. 2015).



1.2.1 Components of interaction design Interaction design is a fundamental aspect of ALL disciplines, fields and approaches relating to the research and design of computer-based systems. Figure 1.4 in your textbook illustrates some of these disciplines. Please note however, that interaction design is NOT the same as software engineering, as there are some differences in the methods and philosophies that are used (Preece et al. 2015).

1.2.2 Who is involved in interaction design As interaction design involves aspects from multiple disciplines, a multidisciplinary design team is usually assembled to design the system. The size and exact composition of this team will depend on numerous factors including the organisation’s size, budget, product line, philosophy and purpose (Preece et al. 2015).

1.3 The User Experience (UX) User Experience (UX) – how the product behaves and is used by real-world users - is central to interaction design. Designers design FOR this experience. UX aspects such as usability, functionality, aesthetics, content, the look and feel of the system and the sensual and emotional appeal of the system are all things that need to be considered during the design process (Preece et al. 2015). McCarthy and Wright (2004) in Preece et al. (2015) proposed four threads that encompass the holistic experience that may assist designers in thinking and talking more clearly and concretely about the relationship between technology and experience: Sensual thread; Emotional thread; Compositional thread; and Spatio-temporal thread.

1.4 The process of interaction design Four basic activities are involved in the interaction design process (Preece et al. 2015): Requirements establishment; Designing alternatives; Prototyping; and Evaluating.



1.5 Interaction design and the User Experience When designing interactive systems, gaining clarity on the primary objectives of the interactive system is important. This can be accomplished in part by identifying usability and user experience goals (Preece et al. 2015). 1.5.1 Usability goals Nielsen (2012) defines usability as a quality attribute that is used to assess how easy user interfaces are to use and consists of the following goals: Effectiveness; Efficiency; Safety; Utility; Learnability; and Memorability. 1.5.2 User experience goals Table 1.1 in your textbook lists both desirable and undesirable emotions and felt experiences relating to user experience (Preece et al. 2015). 1.5.3 Design principles Design principles are utilised by interaction designers as an aid in their thinking whilst designing for the user experience and are intended to orient designers towards thinking about different aspects of their designs (Preece et al. 2015). Numerous design principles can be utilised to optimise user experience (Preece et al. 2015): Visibility; Feedback; Constraints; Consistency; and Affordance.

1.6 Understanding the problem space and conceptualising

interaction Starting the design process by determining how the physical interface should be designed and which technology and interaction styles would be best for the design may be problematic in that this may result in overlooking usability and user experience goals. In order to have a full understanding of the exact problem space, understanding of the above issues are key. The identification and expression of the problem space involves a team approach, resulting on multiple opinions and inputs. In order to effectively define the problem space, it is necessary for the design team to ask and answer the following questions (Preece et al. 2015):



What problems exist with the current product or with the user experience with the current product? If there are problems, what are the problems?

What are possible reasons for these problems? How could the suggested design ideas solve these problems? If a new system (without any problems) is designed, how would the

suggested ideas support, change or extend the current way in which things are done?

Successful and correct conceptualisation of the problem space result in certain benefits (Preece et al. 2015): Orientation – the design team is able to ask very specific types of questions

regarding how the conceptual model will be interpreted by the target users; Open-mindedness – the design team will not have a focus that is too

narrow; and Common ground – the design team is able to create common terms that are

understood and agreed upon by all, thereby reducing the likelihood of misunderstanding and confusion at a later stage.

1.7 Conceptual models Conceptual models create working strategies and a framework for general concepts and how these concepts are related to each other. It is preferable that conceptual models are obvious and the operations supported by the conceptual models are intuitive (Preece et al. 2015). According to Preece et al. 2015 conceptual models consist of: Metaphors and analogies; Concepts people are exposed to via the product; The relationships between these concepts; and The mapping between these concepts and the user experience.

1.8 Interface metaphors Interface metaphors provide structures that are similar to a known entity, yet have their own behaviours and properties. Interface metaphors should utilise familiar concepts and in doing so enables users to quickly and easily understand a system’s underlying conceptual model and know what to do when confronted with a new system interface (Preece et al. 2015).

1.9 Interaction types Users interact with systems in different ways. The identification and use of the correct interface type (what interface type to use and why), may be useful in helping designers to create a conceptual model before committing to a specific interface within which to implement the selected interaction type.



Four types of interaction can be utilised, namely:

Instructing; Conversing; Manipulating; and Exploring (Preece et al. 2015).

1.10 Paradigms, visions, theories, models and frameworks utilised to constrain and create scope for design

Design can also be informed, and research guided by paradigms, visions, theories, models and frameworks (Preece et al. 2015). Paradigms – a set of practices that has been agreed upon by a community Visions – where an organisation sees itself or a product in the future Theories – cognitive, social and organisational theories Models – abstracted from theory in a specific discipline that are directly

applicable to interaction design

Unit 2: Cognitive Aspects of Design Page 17


Unit 2: Cognitive Aspects of Design

Unit 1 is aligned with the following learning outcomes and assessment criteria: Learning outcomes 2. Explain the issues related to a chosen human computer

interface. Assessment criteria. 2.1 Discuss the issues related to user characteristics for a chosen

HCI. Learning objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Enable you to try to elicit a mental model and be able to understand what it

means. Explain what cognition is and why it is important for interaction design. Discuss what attention is and its effects on our ability to multitask. Describe how memory can be enhanced through technology aids. Explain what mental models are. Provide an overview of the many different kinds of interfaces. Highlight the main design and research issues for each of the interfaces. Discuss the difference between graphical (GUIs) and natural user interfaces

(NUIs). Consider which interface is best for a given application or activity. Prescribed reading

Preece, J., Rogers, Y. & Sharp, H. 2015. Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction. 4th edition. United Kingdom: Wiley & Sons Ltd. Chapters 3 and 5. Chapter 4 can be read for background information but is not for examination purposes.



2.1 What is cognition? Thinking, remembering things, learning, making decisions, seeing, reading, writing and talking are all examples of kinds of cognition. There are two modes of cognition namely, experiential and reflective cognition, where experiential cognition refers to a state of mind where we intuitively and effortlessly perceive, act and react to things that happen around us. Reflective cognition and slow thinking entails mental effort, attention, judgement and the making of decisions (Kahnemann 2011 in Preece et al. 2015). Cognition can also be described using context or in terms of specific kinds of processes such as attention; perception; memory; learning; reading, speaking and listening; and problem solving, planning, reasoning and decision-making – many of these processes being interdependent and have an impact on how we design systems. It is therefore important to pay attention to the implications each of these processes have on the actual design process (Preece et al. 2015).

2.1.1 Attention

Selecting what things to concentrate on at a particular point in time is known as attention and this process involves both auditory and/or visual senses. The ease or difficulty with which we are able to pay attention to something is dependent on our goals, the manner in which information is presented and our ability to multitask (Preece et al. 2015).

2.1.2 Perception

The manner in which information is obtained from the environment by means of our senses is known as perception. It is a complex process that involves memory attention and language. Information needs to be presented in such a way that the user is able to readily perceive the information in a manner in which the designer intended the user to perceive it (Preece et al. 2015).

2.1.3 Memory

The recollection of numerous kinds of knowledge, which in turn allows people to act in an appropriate manner is known as memory. Though memory is important, it is not humanly possible to remember everything we see, hear, taste, smell or touch due to a filtering process that takes place The amount of attention that is paid to something, as well as the amount of processing is that is involved in thinking about something and comparing it to existing knowledge, will determine how easily something will be remembered. Context also influences the ability to remember. Furthermore, the ability of humans to recognise rather than recall things is a well-known fact.



The design of digital content systems in such a way as to optimise both recall-directed and recognition-based scanning memory – i.e. users are able to use whatever memory they have to create more focused searches and thereby limit search results and more easily find the information that they are looking for (Preece et al. 2015).

2.1.4 Learning

Research has shown that people prefer to learn by doing instead of following a set of instructions. This method of learning can be supported by means of GUIs and direct manipulation interfaces as they support exploratory interaction and allow users to undo actions without consequence (Preece et al. 2015).

2.1.5 Reading, speaking and listening

Reading, speaking and listening are forms of language processing that both share properties and differ with regards to certain properties. Though a sentence that is written or spoken will always carry the same inherent meaning, but the ease with which people are able to read, listen or speak will differ based on the individual, the task that is being performed and the context in which the task is being performed (Preece et al. 2015).

2.1.6 Problem solving, planning, reasoning and decision making

Reflective cognition is involved in problem solving, planning, reasoning and decision making and involves thinking about what we should do, the options available to us and the consequences of taking a specific action. It frequently involves conscious processes, discussions with others and the use of different types of artefacts (Preece et al. 2015).

2.2 Cognitive frameworks Numerous conceptual frameworks and theories (all based on cognition theories) exist to explain and predict behaviour (Preece et al. 2015): 2.2.1 Internal Mental models – used by people to establish what to do when something unexpected happens when using a system or when they are confronted with a system that is unfamiliar to them. The accuracy of the mental model will impact on the success with which a user is able to use a system. Gulfs of execution and evaluation – the gaps that exist between the user and the interface (Norman 1986; Hutchins et al 1986 in Preece et al. 2015).



The gulf of execution refers to the distance from the user to the physical system, whilst the gulf of evaluation refers to the distance between the physical system and the user. Figure 3.7 in your textbook provides and illustration of this. Information processing – the information processing model provides a means of predicting human performance (see Figures 3.8 and 3.9 in your textbook). 2.2.2 External Distributed cognition – allows us to describe interactions in terms of how information is propagated through the various media. External cognition – how cognitive processes are involved when we interact with different external representations (Scaife and Rogers 1996 in Preece et al. 2015). 2.3 Emotions and the user experience Emotional interaction relates to how users feel and react when they are interacting with a system or some form of technology. Feelings such as joy, frustration, anger and even fear are but some of the emotions users may experience. We need to consider what makes people happy, sad, annoyed, anxious or frustrated and design systems accordingly, focusing on designing for experiences that will create positive rather than negative emotions (Preece et al. 2015).

2.4 Expressive interfaces is difficult to convey emotions via interactive systems and as a result, designers have turned to the use of emoticons, sounds, icons and virtual agents to accomplish this and also to convey system status. Other methods of conveying system status include: Dynamic icons; Animations; Spoken messages; Various sonifications; and Vibrotactile feedback (Preece et al. 2015).



2.5 Annoying interfaces Designers need to be careful to not design interfaces that elicit negative responses and emotions from users. Situations that can potentially cause emotional responses include (but are not limited to): Applications that do not work properly and/or that crash; Systems that does not do what the user wants and/or expects it to do; Not meeting user expectations; Systems not providing sufficient information to inform the user what they

are expected to do; Vague and/or obtuse error messages; Noise, too bright, gimmicky or condescending interfaces; Interfaces that are tedious in task completion and does not allow for error

correction; Overly busy websites (too much text and/or graphics); Over-use of sound effects, animations and music; Too many operations (featuritis); and Poor layout (keyboards, pads, control panels etc.) (Preece et al. 2015).

2.6 Detecting emotions and emotional technology Affective computing is aimed at the development of systems that attempts to recognise and express emotions in a manner similar to humans. The emotional state of humans can be identified or measured using numerous methods including eye-tracking, finger pulse, speech and analysis of words/phrases used in online communication (Preece et al. 2015).

2.7 Persuasive technologies and behavioural change Persuasive technologies can be used to deliberately change our behaviour or how we think and can be used to persuade or sweet-talk people into doing things that they may not have done otherwise.

2.8 Anthropomorphism and Zoomorphism Anthropomorphism refers to people’s tendency to attribute human qualities to animals and objects. The shaping of an object or design into animal form, is referred to as zoomorphism. Children in particular have been very accepting of and enjoyed interacting with objects that have human-like qualities. Objects that exhibit these qualities make the interaction process more pleasant and fun; however, some can appear patronising and annoying in certain contexts (Preece et al. 2015).



Unit 3: Interfaces Page 23


Unit 3: Interfaces

Unit 1 is aligned with the following learning outcomes and assessment criteria: Learning outcomes 3. Develop a human computer interface. Assessment criteria 3.1 Design and create a human computer interface for a

specified application. Learning objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Provide an overview of the many different kinds of interfaces. Highlight the main design and research issues for each of the interfaces. Discuss the difference between graphical (GUIs) and natural user interfaces

(NUIs). Consider which interface is best for a given application or activity. Prescribed reading

Preece, J., Rogers, Y. & Sharp, H. 2015. Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction. 4th edition. United Kingdom: Wiley & Sons Ltd. Chapter 6.

3.1 Interface types Due to the large number of interfaces that have been developed, only certain interface types is covered in your textbook (Preece et al. 2015). The twelve interface types are: 3.1.1 Command-based interfaces Early computer interfaces were very simple and required the user to type commands to which the system would respond (provided that the user used the correct command) (Preece et al. 2015).



3.1.2 WIMP and GUI Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointing devices (WIMP) followed the command-based interface and lead to the development of the Graphical User Interface (GUI) (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.3 Multimedia These interfaces combine different types of media (graphics, text, video, sound and animations) into a single interface and links these with different types of interactivity (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.4 Virtual reality Virtual Reality (VR) refers to the creation of a synthetic environment to create the illusion of a real-world situation or location or the participation in a real-world activity. The user interacts with the artificial (virtual) environment (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.5 Information visualisation and dashboards Information visualisation (infoviz) consists of complex data (interactive and dynamic data) that take the form of computer-generated graphics – the aim being to allow users to see patterns, trends and irregularities in data (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.6 Web interfaces Web interfaces refer to the interfaces created for websites. These websites can be sites that are either viewed on desktop or laptop computers, tablet computers or mobile/smart phones (Preece et al. 2015).

3.1.7 Consumer electronics and appliances Modern machinery that we use in our homes, at work or even in our cars and use on a daily basis such as washing machines, microwave ovens, DVD and Blu-Ray players and even modern fridges all feature interfaces that must be designed in order to allow users to perform tasks in short periods of time (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.8 Mobile interfaces The usage of mobile devices has increased substantially – being utilised both for a variety of personal and business functions (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.9 Speech interfaces Speech/Voice interfaces allow people to talk with a system as a means of user input (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.10 Pen Devices utilising pen-based interfaces allow people to use a special pen called a stylus to write, draw, select and/or move objects on their device screens (Preece et al. 2015).



3.1.11 Touch Touch screens detect the presence and location of a person’s touch (where and how the person is touching) and allow the user to select options and give instructions to the interface (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.12 Air-based gestures The body, arm and hand gestures of individuals can be recognised through camera capture, sensors and computer vision techniques and can be used to control devices (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.13 Multi-modal Multimodal interfaces multiply the way information is experienced and controlled at the interface by using different input modes such as touch, speech, sight and sounds to provide for a richer and more complex user experience (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.14 Shareable Interfaces that allow more than one person to utilise the interface simultaneously (many people can provide input at the same time) are known as shareable interfaces (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.15 Tangible interfaces Tangible interfaces utilise sensor-based interaction. Physical objects are coupled with digital representations so that a user can use a physical object which is then detected by a computer system by means of a sensing mechanism that is contained within the physical object. This causes something to happen to the physical device such as the emission of a sound or vibration (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.16 Augmented and mixed reality Virtual representations are superimposed onto physical devices or objects. With mixed reality, real world views are combined with virtual environment views (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.17 Wearables Electronic devices that form part of clothing items or are worn as accessories are known as wearables. Wearables can perform similar tasks to a cell phone or laptop, notebook or tablet computer and can provide sensory and scanning features that are not available on the above-mentioned devices (Tehrani and Michael 2014).



3.1.18 Robots and drones Robots serve a variety of purposes. They operate on factory production lines, can assist with operations conducted in hazardous conditions, perform domestic tasks such as gardening and cleaning and can even serve as companions to humans. Unmanned aircraft that are controlled remotely by an operator are known as drones and serve a variety of purposes both domestically and in the military (Preece et al. 2015). 3.1.19 Brain-Computer interfaces Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI), create a communication channel between an external device and the brain waves of an individual. 3.1.20 Natural User Interfaces Natural User Interfaces (NUIs) allow people to interact with computers by means of their voice, hands and bodies – therefore in a manner similar to how they would interact in the physical world (Preece et al. 2015).

Unit 4: Data Gathering Page 27


Unit 4: Data Gathering

Unit 1 is aligned with the following learning outcomes and assessment criteria: Learning outcomes 3. Develop a human computer interface. Assessment criteria 3.3 Critically review and test an interface 3.4 Analyse actual test results against expected results to identify

discrepancies 3.5 Evaluate independent feedback and make recommendations

for improvements. Learning objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Discuss how to plan and run a successful data gathering program. Enable you to plan and run an interview. Enable you to design a simple questionnaire. Enable you to plan and carry out an observation. Prescribed reading


4.1 Five key issues 4.1.1 Setting goals When designing systems, we gather data in order to gather information. Before you can start gathering data however, you need to know what the system is supposed to do. What is the goal of the system? This allows you to not only gather the correct type and amount of data, but also allows you to choose the data gathering techniques that would be best to get the correct type and amount of data (Preece et al. 2015).



4.1.2 Identifying participants The goals that were identified allows the designer to identify the correct people to gather data from. We call them the population (Preece et al. 2015). You want to gather data from people who will actually be using the system, because you are designing for them. 4.1.3 Relationship with participants The relationship between the person or people that gather data and the people data is being gathered from needs to be clear and professional (Preece et al. 2015). One way in which to accomplish this is by means of an informed consent form, an example of which can be found in Table 7.1. 4.1.4 Triangulation A phenomenon that is investigated from two different perspectives is referred to as triangulation. We can distinguish between four types of triangulation (Preece et al. 2015): Triangulation of data; Investigator triangulation; Triangulation of theories; and Methodological triangulation. 4.1.5 Pilot studies Pilot studies are small trial studies (a trial run) that are conducted before the main study is conducted and aims to ensure that the methods that are proposed (what you intend to do) are indeed feasible and practical (Preece et al. 2015) 4.2 Data recording Data that is gathered during testing must be captured and then analysed. Some data gathering techniques are self-recording (you don’t need to do further recording with the data), but other techniques require further recording. When you record a voice recording during testing, you will need to transcribe that recording and cut out unnecessary data – further data recording). Data can be recorded in numerous ways including: Notes and photographs; Audio and photographs; and Video (Preece et al. 2015). When using video, it is important to note that video is an intrusive recording method and therefore needs to be planned very carefully by: Deciding whether to use a roving (moving) camera recording or to have a

fixed camera (on a tripod) Where must the camera be pointed? What impact does the recording have on the participants? (Preece et al.

2015)



4.3 Participant evaluation Interviews are essentially conversations that have a very specific purpose (Kahn and Cannell, 1957 in Preece and Rogers, 2015) and therefore need to be planned very carefully. Depending on what the goal of the interview is, numerous interview techniques can be utilised: Unstructured interviews; Structured interviews; Semi-structured interviews; and Focus groups. During the interview it is important that the person conducts the interview listens attentively to the person/s they are conducting the interview with. The following steps are suggested by Robson (2011) when conducting interviews: Introduce yourself and explain why you are doing the interview. Affirm

issues regarding ethics and ask permission to record the interview (get consent). The same process needs to be followed for each person or group interviewed;

Utilise a warm-up where you ask easy and non-threatening questions to put the interviewee at ease;

The main session should present questions in a logical sequence – probing questions being asked towards the end of the interview;

Follow with a cool-off period with some easy questions to alleviate any tension that may have arisen; and

Close the interview by thanking the interviewee, switch off recording devices, put notes away and signal that the interview has concluded.

Interviews can also take other forms. Interviews via Skype, e-mail or the telephone may be necessary based on geographic location or due to other logistical difficulties (Preece et al. 2015). 4.4 Questionnaires Questionnaires are frequently used to collect demographic data and information regarding user opinion. Questionnaires can consist of closed and/or open-ended questions and can be sent to large numbers of people (Preece et al. 2015). 4.4.1 Questionnaire structure Questionnaires normally start with a demographic information section, followed by specific questions for the gathering of the data required. When developing a questionnaire, the following checklist can be useful: Consider the order of questions; Decide whether different versions of the questionnaire will be required for

different user populations; Ensure that questionnaire instructions are clear; and Space the questionnaire appropriately (Preece et al. 2015).



4.5.2.1 Question and response format Commonly used question and response formats include: Check boxes and ranges; Rating scales; and Semantic differential scales (Preece et al. 2015). 4.5.2.2 Question administration When administering questionnaires, one should aim to reach a representative participant sample and achieve a reasonable response rate. With larger surveys, respondent selection will be based on the use of sampling (Preece et al. 2015). 4.5 Observation Observation can be used at any stage of system development and serves as a useful data gathering technique. Observations can be done either through direct observation in the field (you observe people in their natural environment), direct observation in controlled environments (participants are observed in an environment that you created or tailored to your needs) or through indirect observation (e.g. by using diaries or interaction logs) (Preece et al. 2015). 4.6 Choosing and combining data gathering techniques Though time consuming, combining different data gathering techniques is beneficial in that this allows for the gathering of multiple perspectives. The exact combination will of data gathering techniques used, will depend on the exact situation and project and should consider: The focus of the study; Participants involved; Nature of the technique; and Available resources (Preece et al. 2015).

Unit 5: The Process of Interaction Design Page 31


Unit 5: The Process of Interaction Design

Unit 1 is aligned with the following learning outcomes and assessment criteria: Learning outcomes 3. Develop a human computer interface Assessment criteria AC3.1 Develop and create a human computer interface for a

specified application AC3.2 Explain the principles that have been applied to the design AC3.3 Critically review and test an interface AC3.4 Analyse actual test results against expected results to

identify discrepancies AC3.5 Evaluate independent feedback and make

recommendations for improvements Learning objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Explain some advantages of involving users in development. Explain the main principles of a user-centered approach. Present a simple lifecycle model of interaction design. Ask and provide answers for some important questions about the interaction

design process. Consider how interaction design activities can be integrated into the wider

product development lifecycle. Describe different kinds of requirements. Identify different kinds of requirements from a simple description. Explain how different data gathering techniques may be used during the

requirements activity. Develop a scenario from a simple description. Perform hierarchical task analysis on a simple description. Prescribed reading

Preece, J., Rogers, Y. & Sharp, H. 2015. Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction. 4th edition. United Kingdom: Wiley & Sons Ltd. Chapters 9 and 10.



5.1 What is involved in interaction design? The design of a system involves the determination of requirements, the design of a solution, production of an interactive version of the solution and lastly, the evaluation of the solution that was produced. Design involves trade-offs though, as there may be certain requirements that are in conflict with each other (Preece et al. 2015). The involvement of the user in the design process is critical, however the degree of user involvement will vary. The application of the principles proposed by Gould and Lewis (1995) in Preece et al. (2015), namely early focus on the user and their tasks; empirical measurement; and iterative design increases the likelihood of the creation of a design that is both useful and easy to use. 5.1.1 Lifecycle model for interaction design Numerous models that illustrate the system development lifecycle exist, including the waterfall, spiral and Rapid Applications Development (RAD) model. Figure 9.3 in the textbook illustrates a simple interaction design lifecycle model that can be utilised as a guideline during the design process (Preece et al. 2015). 5.1.2 Practical issues in design Interactive system design involves the addressing of issues that exist and in order to identify these issues, the following questions need answers: Who are the users? What is meant by needs? How will alternate designs be generated? How can a choice be made between alternatives? How can interaction design activities be integrated with other lifecycle

models? 5.2 Establishing requirements Requirements analysis has two aims: We want to understand as much as possible about the users, the activities they perform and the context in which these activities take place. This allows for the system that is being developed to support users in the achievement of their goals. The second goal of requirements analysis is to establish a stable requirements set which will allow for the initiation of the design process from a solid basis. The data gathering that was discussed in Unit 4 allows for the gathering of data for the system requirements (please note that this is an iterative process – it repeats itself) which can then be used to design a system that meets the exact requirements of the user and prevents the need for expensive error correction late in the software development cycle (Preece et al. 2015).



5.2.1 What are requirements? Requirements are statements that specify exactly what a product should do and/or how the product should perform. We distinguish between two types of requirements, namely functional (what the system should do) and non-functional (constraints on the system and development). These requirements can become quite detailed and structured. Table 10.1 in your textbook provides an extensive list of requirements that may be considered during the design process (Preece et al. 2015).

5.3 Data gathering for requirements Data collection for requirements is aimed at collecting enough relevant and appropriate information in order to allow the designer to formulate a stable set of requirements to be used during the design process. Data pertaining to system requirements can be gathered by means of: Interviews; Focus groups; Questionnaires; Direct observation; Indirect observation; Studying documentation; and Researching similar problems The method or methods utilised to gather this data will be dependent on the nature of the task, the participants, the analyst and available resources. Again, it may be useful to combine methods instead of using a single method of data gathering (Preece et al. 2015). 5.3.1 Data gathering guidelines for requirements Focus on identifying stakeholder needs; Involve all stakeholder groups; Involve multiple representatives from each stakeholder group; and Support data gathering sessions with suitable additional material such as

task descriptions and prototypes (Preece et al. 2015) 5.4 Data analysis, interpretation and presentation Chapter 8, which you should have read through for background information provides information on various data analysis techniques. For the purpose of this module you only need to be aware of them and know that there are four techniques that can be utilised to understand the user goals and tasks: Scenarios; Use cases; Essential use cases; and Task analysis (Preece et al. 2015).



5.4.1 Brainstorming for innovation Brainstorming is a technique used throughout various disciplines that can be used to generate, refine and develop both existing and new ideas. In the interaction design process, brainstorming can be used to generate alternative designs and/or to suggest new or better designs. Successful brainstorming sessions can be facilitated by: Including participants from a wide variety of disciplines; Using catalysts to further enthuse designers; Keeping records; Keeping the focus of the brainstorming session (have clear goals and

descriptions of the problem); and Using warm-up sessions and make the brainstorming sessions enjoyable

(Preece et al. 2015). 5.5 Task description Task descriptions are utilised throughout the design process including early requirements analysis, prototyping, evaluation and testing. Three description types can be utilised: Scenarios; Use cases; and Essential use cases (Preece et al. 2015). 5.6 Task analysis Task analysis is utilised in order to investigate an existing situation and to analyse the underlying reasoning for- and purpose of conduct – specifically what people are trying to accomplish, why they are trying to accomplish something and how effective they are in accomplishing their tasks (Preece et al. 2015). 5.6.1 Hierarchical Task Analysis Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) is a technique that is used to perform a task analysis when designing an interactive system. It involves the identification of a specific task and then breaking this task down into subtasks, sub-subtasks and so forth. Essentially a step by step breakdown of how one would perform a task. This enables the designer to understand how a task is performed in a real situation. Though HTA is an extremely useful tool, it must be remembered that real-world tasks are complex, which could lead to a complex and clumsy structure. HTA also does not work well in instances where tasks overlap or are in parallel and it cannot model interruptions (Preece et al. 2015). On the positive side, HTA does allow for objective comparison of different designs, provides a good understanding of the interaction and supports design reuse (Preece et al. 2015).

Unit 6: Design, prototyping and construction Page 35


Unit 6: Design, Prototyping and Construction

Unit 1 is aligned with the following learning outcomes and assessment criteria: Learning outcomes 3. Develop a human computer interface Assessment criteria AC3.1 Design and create a human computer interface for a



recommendations for improvement AC3.6 Create onscreen help to assist the users of an interface

Learning objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Describe prototyping and different types of prototyping activities. Produce simple prototypes from the models developed during the

requirements activity. Produce a conceptual model for a product and justify your choices. Explain the use of scenarios and prototypes in design. Prescribed reading




6.1 Interface design guidelines Prototypes are demonstrations of a design that allows the stakeholders to interact with the prototype in order to see whether the proposed design is suitable. Different types of prototypes can be used depending on the current stage that the design process is in. Prototypes are useful for discussing or evaluating ideas and explore possible design options (Preece et al. 2015). 6.2 Prototyping Prototypes are demonstrations of a design that allows the stakeholders to Prototypes are demonstrations of a design that allows the stakeholders to interact with the prototype in order to see whether the proposed design is suitable. Different types of prototypes can be used depending on the current stage that the design process is in. Prototypes are useful for discussing or evaluating ideas and explore possible design options (Preece et al. 2015). 6.2.1 Low-fidelity prototypes Low-fidelity prototypes are very basic representations of the envisaged system. It can consist of storyboards, stretching or even prototyping with index cards (Preece et al. 2015).

6.2.2 High-fidelity prototypes High-Fidelity prototypes are higher level prototypes that can look very similar to the final product and can potentially provide a much higher level of functionality than a low-fidelity prototype and frequently utilises both hardware and software components unlike low-fidelity prototypes (Preece et al. 2015). 6.3 Conceptual design The process of transforming requirements into a conceptual model is known as conceptual design. It essentially provides an outline of what people can do with a product/system and also what concepts the user needs to understand in order to interact with the product/system. There are certain key principles that guide conceptual design: Be open to possibilities and alternatives, but do not forget the users and

their context; Ideas should be discussed with stakeholders on a frequent basis; Prototyping should be utilised to receive rapid feedback; and Iterate (Preece et al. 2015). 6.4 Developing the initial conceptual design The requirements identified in the requirements analysis can assist in an understanding and knowledge of the concepts involved in a task, as well as the relationships between these concepts (Preece et al. 2015).



6.4.1 Interface metaphors Familiar knowledge is combined with new knowledge in a manner that helps the user to understand how the product works. The designer should therefore choose suitable metaphors that will aid in the user’s understanding of how the system or product functions. These metaphors should also be evaluated: How much structure does the metaphor provide? How much of the metaphor is relevant to the problem? Is it easy to represent the interface metaphor? Will the end user understand the metaphor? Can the metaphor be extended on? (Preece et al. 2015) 6.4.2 Interaction types The type of interaction that is selected for the system will be dependent on the application domain, as well as the kind of product that the designers are developing (Preece et al. 2015). 6.4.3 Interface types Though early, it is important to consider interface types both for practical and design purposes. This involves consideration for how different interface types will influence the system and the overall user experience (Preece et al. 2015).



Unit 7: Evaluation Page 39


Unit 7: Evaluation

Unit 1 is aligned with the following learning outcomes and assessment criteria: Learning outcomes 3. Develop a human computer interface Assessment criteria AC3.1 Design and create a human computer interface for a



recommendations for improvement AC3.6 Create onscreen help to assist the users of an interface AC3.7 Create documentation for the support and maintenance of

an interface. Learning objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Explain the key concepts and terms used in evaluation. Introduce a range of different types of evaluation methods. Show how different evaluation methods are used for different purposes at

different stages of the design process and in different contexts of use. Show how evaluators mix and modify methods to meet the demands of

evaluating novel systems. Discuss some of the practical challenges that evaluators have to consider

when doing evaluation. Illustrate through short case studies how methods discussed in more depth

in Chapters 7 and 8 are used in evaluation and describe some methods that are specific to evaluation.

Explain how to do usability testing. Select suitable evaluation methods for an interface. Evaluate an interface.



Prescribed reading

Preece, J, Rogers, Y and Sharp, H. 2015. Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction. 4th edition. United Kingdom: Wiley & Sons Ltd. Chapters 13, 14 and 15.

7.1 Evaluating interactive systems Users expect interfaces that are easy to use, but are also aesthetically pleasing. Interfaces should be design so that the exact wants and needs of the user are met. The exact aspect that is evaluated will be determined by what the evaluation aims to accomplish, whilst the aspect that is being evaluated will impact on where the evaluation takes (and can take) place. The product type influences the stage in the product life cycle during which the evaluation of the product is conducted. Formative evaluations are conducted during the design process to check that the product meets the needs of the user (Preece et al. 2015).

7.1.1 Evaluation types Evaluations fall under three categories as determined by the setting, user involvement and level of control – each with its own advantages and disadvantages: Controlled settings; Natural settings; and Any setting. By combining some or all of the methods listed above, evaluators are able to gain a richer understanding of potential issues and/or problems with a design. Before an evaluation method is decided upon, careful consideration should be given to the advantages and disadvantages of each method in order to select the method or combination of methods that will deliver the best results (Preece et al. 2015). 7.1.2 Issues for consideration during evaluation Ethics and ethical conduct is should always be a primary consideration when conducting evaluations. It is therefore important that participants are informed of their rights and that consent is provided by the participants before they participate in an evaluation. In addition to ethical considerations, the reliability and validity, as well as ecological validity, bias and scope are further issues to consider when conducting an evaluation of a system design or interactive system (Preece et al. 2015).



7.2 Usability evaluations Usability testing is aimed at determining whether a product is usable – can the intended users use the system to achieve the tasks for which the system has been designed. This is accomplished by collecting data relating to user’s performance in completing predetermined tasks. Different types of usability tests can be done. Though a usability lab (a special lab with equipment designed to test various things) can be used to test for usability, there are also less expensive means of testing known as discount usability techniques (Preece et al. 2015). 7.3 Heuristic evaluations Heuristic evaluations are a form of usability evaluation where an interface is evaluated based on certain design heuristics. Though there are some different heuristic sets, the most notable set of heuristics was developed by Jacob Nielsen (2014) in Preece et al. (2015): Nielsen (2014) identified a list of ten heuristics to be evaluated: 1. Visibility of system status; 2. Match between system and the real world; 3. User control and freedom; 4. Consistency and standards; 5. Error prevention; 6. Recognition rather than recall; 7. Flexibility and efficiency of use; 8. Aesthetic and minimalist design; 9. Help users recognise, diagnose and recover from errors; and 10. Help and documentation. Due to the diversity in devices and interface types (and also the difference in functionality, screen space etc.) it is wise to check for design guidelines, heuristics and design patterns that are formulated for a specific type of interface. Box 15.1 lists specific heuristics for web design as suggested by Budd (2007) in Preece et al. (2015) It is also suggested that you take cognisance of ISO standards pertaining to interactive system and design (Preece et al. 2015). 7.3.1 Conducting a heuristic evaluation A typical heuristic evaluation will normally be conducted by an expert in the field and consists of three stages: Briefing; Evaluation period; and Debriefing.



The expert will normally use a checklist consisting of the heuristics to be evaluated and rate each heuristic on a scale from one to ten. It is always good to have an area next to each heuristic for comments (you want to know why a specific heuristic received a bad rating, so the comments section allows the evaluator to provide additional information). You can also add a section at the bottom of the checklist for additional comments (Preece et al. 2015). 7.4 Walkthroughs Walkthroughs have been used for a number of years for the purpose of code inspection and provides an alternative to heuristic evaluation. Though there are a few different walkthrough techniques, the one utilised most frequently is the cognitive walkthrough (Preece et al. 2015). 7.4.1 Cognitive walkthrough Cognitive walkthroughs involve the simulation of the problem-solving process of the user and check whether the user’s goals and memory for actions will result in the correct action being taken. Cognitive walkthroughs consist of a number of steps: 1. Typical user characteristics are identified and documented and sample

tasks are developed in line with the interface aspect to be tested 2. A designer and one or more expert evaluators get together and the

evaluators walk through the action sequences related to each task a user would be required to do (this is done in scenario format to make it more realistic).

3. The evaluators attempt to answer the following questions Will the correct action be sufficiently evident to the user? Will the user notice that the correct action is available to him? Will the user associate and interpret the response from the action

correctly? 4. Throughout the walkthrough, all critical information is recorded 5. Based on the outcome of the cognitive walkthrough, design revisions are

made (Preece et al. 2015) Another form of walkthrough is the pluralistic walkthrough – a walkthrough method that is more focused on the user than the cognitive walkthrough. Here, users, developers and evaluators work together and work through a task scenario in order to discuss usability issues. The evaluator will assume the role of a typical user and use a few prototype screens to write down the sequence of actions they would take to progress from one screen to another (they are not permitted to consult with the other individuals). Again, the goal is to see whether a task can be completed successfully using the available screen and interface options (Preece et al. 2015).



7.5 Predictive models Predictive models allow for the evaluation of a system without the user, utilising formulas to determine user performance. 7.5.1 Fitts’ Law Fitts (1954) developed a law that can predict the time it takes for a pointing device to reach a target. In the context of interaction design, Fitts’ Law allows us to predict the time it takes to select objects on a screen, thereby enabling designers to decide where to locate physical or digital buttons (Preece et al. 2015). 7.6 User support 7.6.1 Issues in user support Users of a system or an application may require assistance at different times and on different aspects of the application. Issues that are faced in user support are linked to the following: Different types of support is required at different times. How to implement and present HELP is important. Careful design is required.

7.6.2 Types of user support There are different types of user support, and the list below is merely a guide: Quick reference; Task-specific help; Full explanation; and Tutorial.

Provided by help and documentation: Help – problem-oriented and specific; and Documentation – system-oriented and general. The same design principles apply to both of the above. 7.6.3 Requirements for user support Availability; Accuracy and completeness; Consistency; Robustness; Flexibility; and Unobtrusiveness.



7.6.4 Approaches to user support 1. Command assistance

User requests help on a particular command, e.g. UNIX man, DOS help;

Good for quick reference; and Assumes user knows what to look for.

2. Command prompts

Provide information about correct usage when an error occurs; Good for simple syntactic errors; and Also assumes knowledge of the command.

3. Context-sensitive help

Help request interpreted according to context in which it occurs, e.g. tooltips.

4. Online tutorials

User works through basics of application in a test environment; and Can be useful but are often inflexible.

5. Online documentation

Paper documentation is made available on computer; Continually available in common medium; Can be difficult to browse; and Hypertext used to support browsing.

7.6.1 Onscreen help 7.6.2 Documentation for support of interface

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Glossary Accessibility The process of granting access Activity A small task that is executed to achieve a goal

Classification The process of recognising that things can be collected together; dealing with a class of things is simpler than dealing with individual items

Cognition The ability to conceptualise a picture in the mind Conceptual design The process of using thoughts to conceptualise design Ethics Moral rules that apply to behaviour Hierarchy A top-down organisation structure

Mental map The product of a series of psychological processes that register, code, store, call to mind and decode all information in our everyday spatial environment

Metaphor A concept taken from one domain (called the ‘source domain’ or ‘vehicle’) and applied to another (called the ‘target’ or ‘tenor’)

Navigation Concerned with finding out about and moving through an environment

Task A goal with an ordered set of actions

Glossary Page 46


Bibliography Page 47


Bibliography Budd, A. (2007). Web Heuristics. www.andybudd.com/archives/207/01/heuristics_for_modern_web_application_development/ Fitts, P.M. (1954). The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling amplitude of movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology 47, 381 - 391 Gould, J.D. and Lewis, C.H. (1985). Designing for usability: Key principles and what designers think, Communications of the ACM 28(3), 300 - 311 Hutchins, E., Holan, J.D. and Norman, D. (1986). Direct manipulation interfaces. In D. Norman and S.W. Draper (eds) User Centered System Design. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. pp 87 - 124 Kahn, R and Cannell, C. (1957). The Dynamics of Interviewing. John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York Kahneman, D. (201). Thinking, fast and slow. Penguin McCarthy, J. and Wright, P. (2004). Technology as Experience. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Nielsen, J. (2010). Ten Usability Heuristics. www.useit.com/papers/heuristic/heuristic_list.html Nielsen, J. (2012). Usability 101: Introduction to Usability. https://www.nngroup.com/articles/usability-101-introduction-to-usability/ Norman, D. (1986). Cognitive engineering. In D. Norman and S.W. Draper (eds) User Centered System Design. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 31 - 62 Preece, J, Rogers, Y and Sharp, H. 2015. Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction. 4th edition. United Kingdom: Wiley & Sons Ltd. Robson, C. (2011). Real World Research. John Wiley & Sons. Scaife, M. and Rogers, Y. (1996). External cognition: How do graphical representations work? International Journal of Human –Computer Studies 45, 185 - 213 Tehrani, K. & Andrew, M. “Wearable Technology and Wearable Devices: Everything You Need to Know.” Wearable Devices Magazine, WearableDevices.com, March 2014. Web.

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ITHI121 - Study Guide (V1.0)...Compiled by Andalé van Heerden Updated by Robert Matiwa Quality assured by Handsome Mpofu Version 1.0 NQF Level 5 Credit value: 12 July 2017 CTI EDUCATION