(ISSUE: 17 YEAR: 2016)

(ISSUE: 17 YEAR: 2016)

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CONTENTS

RESEARCH and APPLICATIONS

A CORPUS BASED STUDY ON THE PREPOSITION ERROR TYPES IN TURKISH EFL LEARNERS ESSAYS 1-16Mehmet TUNAZ, Emrah MUYAN, Nursel MURATOĞLU

TESTING RANDOMNESS OF GENERATED NUMBERS BASED ON THE HENON MAP 17-34Arzu EREN ŞENARAS, Şahin İNANÇ

IMPROVING EFFECTIVENESS IN THE EMERGENCY SERVICE BY USING DATA ENVELOPMENT ANALYSIS 35-58Arzu EREN ŞENARAS

RESEARCH and REVIEW

COMMUNITY ISOMORPHISM AND CORPORATE SOCIAL ACTION: IS THERE ANY BOND BETWEEN COMMUNITY AND CORPORATE ISOMORPHISM? 59-83Őzgür ÖNDAY

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CHIEF EDITOR •Gülten HERGÜNER

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Dear Readers.,

We are happy and proud to publish the 17th volume of our journal. There are a total of 4 research and applied studies in this volume. Regarding these valuable papers; a data envelopment analysis was performed concerning the efficiency and improvement of emergency services where significant problems of today’s health sector occur and solution offers are required so much and a valuable paper was prepared. We congra-tulate relevant authors for this study. In the study analyzing the connection between corporate social action and corporate isomorphism, a solution offer was tried to be created from social and institutional perspective. We congratulate the author of this paper that will make great contribution to the field and wish this author continued success. The importance of learning a foreign language is of utmost significance today. However, it is very difficult for the individuals having a different culture to learn a foreign language and to reflect on life in a more qualified manner. Therefore, pre/postpositions and mistakes of a language were emphasized in the study discussing the importance of English learning as a foreign language for Turkish students. We congratulate our authors for this study and would like to wish them continued success in similar studies. We would like to thank our authors who prepared the study directed to the testing henon map based series by using different techniques of statistical analysis being an important resource for the field and researchers. Dear readers and esteemed scientists, our journal is published four times a year and continues to be a source of contribution for you-dear readers and authors. We would like to thank the volume referees, our editors, editorial board, gover-ning board and all other journal staff who made great scientific contribution and gave support in arrangement of the papers of this volume. Wish you peaceful, joyful and happy days to all until meeting you in our next volume to be published in December which is the last volume of the year. Best regards...

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Gülten HERGÜNERChief Editor

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A CORPUS BASED STUDY ON THE PREPOSITION ERROR TYPES IN TURKISH EFL LEARNERS ESSAYS 1

Mehmet TUNAZ 1, Emrah MUYAN 2, Nursel MURATOĞLU 3

1-2-3Erciyes University, School of Foreign Languages, Kayseri / Turkey

(1) Corresponding Author: Mehmet TUNAZ, Erciyes University, School of Foreign Languages, Kayseri / Turkey [email protected] Received: 14.04.2016 Accepted: 21.09.2016 Type ofarticle (Research and Practice) Conflict of Interest: None Ethics Committee: None

UHBAB ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ BEŞERİ VE AKADEMİK BİLİMLER DERGİSİ

INTERNATIONAL PEER-REVIEWED JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES AND ACADEMIC SCINENCE

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the categories of preposition errors made by EFL learn-ers of elementary and intermediate proficiency levels by comparing the rate of preposition errors (addition, omission, substitution) to their total preposition uses in their essays, and by comparing the overall preposition usage of learners of both proficiency levels. The study was conducted with 75 learners of elementary level (A2) and 75 learners of intermediate level at Erciyes University School of Foreign Languages. Initially, 550 elementary and 230 intermediate level essays were scanned, and 75 exam papers for each group were randomly chosen as the sample of the research. In the analysis, depending on Grammar of Spoken and Written English of Biber et al. (1999), total preposition numbers and erroneous preposition uses in each essay were counted and color coded by the researchers by blind-checking the papers separately to assure the reliability. Then, the erroneous prepositions were subcategorized as addition, omission and substitution according to Corder’s (1973) Common Errors in English and Categorization of Error Types. The results of the independent-sample t-test indicated that; a) there was no difference between groups in terms of addition type error; b) learners of elementary level made statistically more omission type errors than learners of intermediate learners; c) learn-ers of intermediate level made statistically more substitution type errors than learners of elementary level; d) percentages of preposition errors to total preposition usage in elementary level essays were statistically higher than those of intermediate level. In the light of the findings of this research, the importance of teaching preposition in chunks for elementary level, and providing learners of intermediate level with more detailed linguistic features of preposition were emphasized.

Key Words: Preposition, Proficiency Level, Error Types, Categorization, Essay

Doi: 10.17368/UHBAB.20161722361

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Uluslararası Hakemli Beşeri ve Akademik Bilimler DergisiTemmuz / Ağustos / Eylül – Yaz ve Sonbahar Dönemi Sayı: 17 Yıl:2016

International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic ScienceJuly / August / September - Summer and Autumn Period Number: 17 Year: 2016

JEL CODE: I20-M00-M10-M12-M54 ID:332 K:770ISSN Print: 2147-4168 Online 2147-5385

(ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880)(MARKA PATENT NO: TRADEMARK)

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Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015

International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015

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GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ

ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1

ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER

CUSTOM DUTIES

Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi

3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü

1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir.

Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları

Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes

INTRODUCTION

The proper use of prepositions in English is of perennial concern to the linguistics field in general. According to Loke and Anthony (2013), preposition usage is one of the most challenging aspects of English grammar for learners to master, and Swan (1988) also as-serts that it is not an easy task to learn to use prepositions correctly in a foreign language. Castro, M.C.S.A. (2013) defines prepositions as words that show the relationship between two words in a sentence. These relationships involve those of time, position, direction, and various degrees of mental and emotional states.

Though it is defined clearly in literature why prepositions are so difficult to master, there are many reasons why students still find learn-ing and using prepositions correctly difficult. Özışık (2014) states that there are no specific rules regarding the usage of prepositions, and this creates problems for both teachers and learners. Many course books just have a gen-eral overview of prepositions and do not pro-vide specific rules to facilitate the acquisition of preposition properly.

The other reason is the high number of prep-ositions and the high degree of polysemy, which make a great contribution to the dif-ficulties in acquiring correct usage (Catalán,

1996: 171-187). Learners may get frustrated when determining prepositional meanings and trying to use them appropriately (Koffi, 2010). The polysemous nature of prepositions makes the task of mastering rather difficult. A preposition might bear multiple meanings depending on the given context, and simi-larly some verbs might require an obligatory preposition. However, students fail to notice this rule, and they learn verbs by ignoring the idea that they may require a specific follow-up preposition (French, 1961: 274-277).

Different prepositional systems in different languages may cause confusion while choos-ing the correct preposition. Learners cannot depend on the knowledge of prepositions from their native language (Catalán, 1996: 171-187). In this regard, Lam (2009) states that the false assumptions of semantic equiva-lence between the first and second languages may induce prepositional errors.

REVIEW of LITERATURE

While learning English as a foreign language, students may make a number of errors. And, preposition errors may stand out as one of the most problematic areas in the process of producing the target language. Students’ writ-ing tasks usually indicate that they have dif-ficulty in using the correct prepositions. Her-met and Desilets (2009) claim that preposi-

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tion choice accounted for 17.2% of all errors. However, according to Corder (1967), errors are not only inevitable but also very impor-tant to observe improvement, so most of the errors are termed as developmental errors. Corder (1967) adds that errors are crucial to investigate how languages are learned and acquired and what strategies or procedures a learner is employing in the discovery of language. Hence, high numbers of preposi-tion errors in students’ essays have aroused the interest of many researchers who have tried to describe the problems regarding the achievement of these small units, and figure out the possible reasons behind these errors. Corder (1973) categorized errors as omission of some required elements; addition of some unnecessary elements; selection of incorrect elements; and disordering of some elements.

Bram (2005) examined prepositional errors in the writings of 50 students. He analyzed the most frequently occurring prepositional problems in three categories as the use of an incorrect preposition, the omission of a required preposition, and the use of an un-necessary preposition. The findings showed that the misuse of prepositions was the most frequent category, and the three categories of preposition problems proved to stem from the interference of the learners’ mother tongue.

Another study by Tahaineh (2010) in inves-tigating the types of errors of prepositions and determining the possible sources of the prepositions showed that interference from the native language and the influence of the target language itself were the main sources of prepositional errors. In addition to the problematic categories of prepositions and their possible sources, he was also interested in the relationship between different profi-ciency levels. He found out that learners’ per-formance differs significantly from one item to another among the three proficiency levels.

In another study conducted by Estevez, Go-mez and Gonzalez (2010), the use of prepo-sitions by the students of an upper interme-diate English course from the ELT program at Universidad Industrial De Santander was analyzed. It had as a basis a quantitative study whose results were analyzed qualitatively to find common cases of errors of prepositions. The data for this research was collected from the writing production section of the 3 exams which students took during the semester. 54 pieces of writing were collected. Quantita-tive findings showed 13 prepositions (to, on, about, in, of, at, for, from, with, by, above, because of, into) were the most problematic ones out of 71 errors of prepositions identi-fied. It was found that the most common error was the misuse of prepositions, which was

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present 30 different times, while the omission of prepositions appeared 25 different times, and the addition of prepositions occurred 16 different times.

The study by Khotaba (2013), conducted from a performance analysis perspective aimed to investigate the frequency and kind of prepo-sition and adverb particle errors. The findings of the study showed that the occurrence of the errors was related to native language interfer-ence or the learners’ inadequate knowledge of the target language, and their unawareness of multiple meanings and functions of English prepositions.

Castro (2013) conducted a study to investi-gate the extent of Filipino’s interference in the use of English prepositions in the com-positions written by college students at the University of the Philippines. The findings showed that the interference of Filipino is minimal because of the dominance of intra-lingual over inter-lingual errors.

In a study, Özışık (2014) aimed to find out to what extent Turkish EFL students are suc-cessful in the use of prepositions, and how much impact their mother tongue has on their errors. He gave a 60-sentence gap-filling test to 30 students in the upper-intermediate level of a university preparatory school. They were asked to fill in the gaps with a suitable prepo-

sition or put a (-) if no preposition is neces-sary. The result of the test showed that even at this level, students have great difficulty in finding the correct preposition, with a signifi-cant number of errors resulting from mother tongue interference.

As the literature reveals, students’ writings may be a useful source to analyse preposition errors since they provide substantial informa-tion about students’ awareness on preposition usage. In this vein, this study aims to define the types of errors, their possible sources, and the distribution of problematic preposition patterns. In this study, the incorrect usage of prepositions is aimed to be analysed in three categories: omission, addition and substitu-tion according to learners’ proficiency level. In this regard, this study attempts to find an-swers to following research questions:

1. Is there a significant difference between learners of elementary (A2) and interme-diate (B2) proficiency levels in terms of differing preposition error types (addition, omission, substitution)?

2. Is there a significant difference between learners of elementary (A2) and interme-diate (B2) proficiency levels in terms of total preposition error counts compared to total preposition use in their essays?

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By answering these research questions, the researchers aimed to reveal the kinds of preposition errors made by learners of differ-ent proficiency levels, and find out possible reasons behind these errors. Many research-ers confined their studies to the qualitative analysis of types of errors, but mostly ignored proficiency levels of the learners. However, in order to fill the gap in literature, this study considers the comparisons of learners’ profi-ciency levels in a quantitative research frame by examining the distribution of misused pat-terns of prepositions.

Language teaching cannot be separated from the findings of error analysis. Hence, stu-dents’ errors have always drawn the attention of researchers, teachers, test developers and material developers. The data from this study may provide a chance for educators to devel-op appropriate materials and effective teach-ing techniques, and construct tests suitable for different proficiency levels (e.g. Corder, 1986; Richards, 1974; Brown, 2000).

METHODOLOGY

Participants

The sample consists of 150 students study-ing at two different sections of English pre-paratory class at the School of Foreign Lan-guages, Erciyes University. The two sections

differ from one another in terms of the levels of English taught and the prospective depart-ments of the subjects. Students were classi-fied as A2 and B2 according to their level of proficiency in English. A2 level subjects are general preparation class learners (N= 75), and their prospective departments are mainly Nursing, Engineering, and Economics and Administrative Sciences. On the other hand, B2 level subjects (N=75) are the preparation class learners of either English Language Teaching or English Language and Literature departments. These are the only proficiency groups at the School of Foreign Language; therefore, only A2 and B2 levels are included in the research. Since the learners are enrolled in the university according to their perfor-mance in the university entrance exam, their scores are generally very close to each other. All the subjects in each category also have similar educational backgrounds in terms of language learning.

Research Design

The study’s research design included random assignment of subjects in each category. A2 level learners (N= 75) were randomly drawn from a population of approximately 1250 students at the School of Foreign Languag-es whereas B2 level learners (N= 75) were chosen out of nearly 250 learners in the same

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way. This design controls for linguistic back-grounds of subjects and testing threats to va-lidity. The theoretical basis for the study‘s design emerged from Corder’s (1973) Com-mon Errors in English and Categorization of Error Types. Additionally, the study was ecologically valid, observing real L2 students through their L2 essays written in the real exam.

Variables and Instrumentation

The independent variable of the research was the proficiency levels of the subjects which has two subcategories (A2 and B2 according to CEFRL), and the dependent variable was the number of erroneous preposition usage (error scores) of the learners in three catego-ries (addition, omission, and substitution). The study mainly aims to investigate and explain whether there is a meaningful effect of language proficiency level on the number of erroneous preposition (error scores) by L2 learners, and detect if the differences between two sets of scores are significant enough to assume that they come from two different groups. In this context, it is clear that the in-dependent variable is categorical with exactly two levels (A2 and B2) while dependent vari-able scale is interval, resulting with an inde-pendent sample t-test, which would be the

most appropriate statistical test for the design of the research.

Procedure and Data Collection

In order to investigate the erroneous use of preposition in three different sub-categories (addition, omission, and substitution), writ-ing exam papers of 550 A2 level learners and 230 B2 level learners were scanned, and 75 exam papers for each group were randomly picked out as the sample of the research. The number of erroneous prepositions was identified by the researchers by using color-coding on the printed versions of the essays according to Grammar of Spoken and Written English by Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad, Finegan, and Quirk (1999). Following the de-tailed analysis of the printed papers by blind-checking each essay separately to assure the reliability, the precise numbers of total prep-ositions and erroneous preposition uses in each exam paper were identified according to Corder’s (1973) Common Errors in English. Then, the erroneous prepositions were clas-sified into three subcategories: addition (us-ing a preposition when it is not necessary), omission (excluding a preposition when it is necessary), and substitution (using a prepo-sition instead of the proper one) according to Corder’s (1973) Categorization of Error Types. Moreover, total numbers of erroneous

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preposition of two groups (A2 and B2) were also identified and compared to have an over-all perspective of the results.

Limitations of the Study

This research involved learners of elemen-tary and intermediate level since these are the only proficiency level groups at the School of Foreign Languages, Erciyes University. However, other proficiency levels might be included in order to obtain more generaliz-able results by increasing the scope of the de-sign. Comparing these findings to the results of similar studies conducted at other univer-

sities (if any) might also provide wider and more profound perspective of the topic.

DATA ANALYSIS

In this research, both distribution and normal-ity of the data were checked and presented vi-sually. Table 1 contains the mean scores and standard deviations of the groups, and con-sidering the standard deviations in all score types, there are two or more standard devia-tions in either direction from the mean scores. This gives an overall idea on the distribution of the data which is also checked with Kol-mogorov-Smirnov test.

Table 1. Summary Data of the Proficiency Groups

A2 B2

Number of Add.Error Mean ,99 ,95

Sd ,385 ,364

N 75 75

Number of Omis.Error Mean 3,01 ,99

Sd ,450 ,419

N 75 75

Number of Subs. Error Mean 1,03 3,96

Sd ,434 ,505

N 75 75

Percentage of Error/Total Prep. Mean 33,0904 16,3717

Sd 7,49622 4,14812

N 75 75

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As seen in Table 2, the numbers of partici-pants is equal in both groups (A2= 75, B2= 75), and owing to the number of subjects, Kolmogorov Smirnov test results are tak-en into consideration. In order to check the distribution of the data, percentage of erro-neous preposition in total preposition uses were taken into account since it reflects the general characteristic of the data used in this

research. According to Kolmogorov Smirnov test results, significance level for B2 group’s Percentage of Error variable is over .05, meaning that these data are normally distrib-uted. Though significance level of the same variable for A2 group is very slightly below .05, it might also be assumed as normally dis-tributed.

Table 2. Test of Normality

Proficiency levels

Kolmogorov-Smirnov

Statistic df Sig.

Percentage of Error/Total Prep. A2 ,104 75 ,048

B2 ,088 75 ,200*

Figure 1 indicates that the distribution of er-ror percentage in total preposition uses for A2 and B2 levels seems very parallel to the

normality curve meaning that the data are suitable for a parametric test (independent-sample t-test).

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Figure 1. Distribution of Error Percentages in Proficiency Groups

The data (erroneous preposition counts) from A2 and B2 level learners’ essays were sub-jected to independent-sample t-test in order to test the null hypothesis of no difference between level groups in terms of preposition error types (addition, omission, and substitu-tion) and preposition error counts. An exami-nation of the data indicated that these data

are normally distributed and variances were equal for the groups (Sig.> .05), except for Percentage of Error variable (Sig.< .05) as seen in Table 3. Hence, the value of “equal variances not assumed” is presented while re-porting this variable.

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Table 3. Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances

Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances

F Sig.

Number of Add.Error Equal variances assumed ,119 ,731

Number of Omis.Error Equal variances assumed ,174 ,677

Number of Subs. Error Equal variances assumed 1,284 ,259

Percentage of Error/Total Prep. Equal variances not assumed 20,163 ,000

As shown in Table 4, the results of indepen-dent-sample t-test have four dimensions;

1. For the addition error count (A2 mean = .99, sd = .385, N = 75; B2 mean = .95, sd = .36, N = 75), the 95% CI for the difference in means is -.08, .16 (t = .65, p = .51, df = 148 using Welch’s procedure). The null hypothesis that “there is no difference be-tween the groups in terms of addition type preposition error” could not be rejected, and the effect size for the difference be-tween groups was very small (d = .11).

2. For the omission error count (A2 mean = 3.01, sd = .45, N=75; B2 mean = .99, sd = .42, N = 75), the 95% CI for the difference in means is 1.89, 2.17 (t = 28.5, p = .000, df = 148 using Welch’s procedure). The null hypothesis that “there is no difference between the groups in terms of omission type preposition error” can be rejected with a very large effect size (d = 4.85).

3. For the substitution error count (A2 mean = 1.03, sd = .43, N = 75; B2 mean = 3.96, sd = .51, N = 75), the 95% CI for the dif-ference in means is -3.1, -2.8 (t = 38.1, p = .000, df= 148 using Welch’s procedure). The null hypothesis that “there is no dif-ference between the groups in terms of substitution type preposition error” can also be rejected, and the effect size for the difference between groups was very large (d = 6.21).

4. For the overall percentage of preposition errors compared to total preposition used by each subject (A2 mean = 33.1, sd = 7.5, n = 75; B2 mean = 16.4, sd = 4.1, N = 75), the 95% CI for the difference in means is 14.76, 18.68 (t = 16.9, p = .000, df = 148 using Welch’s procedure). The null hypothesis that “there is no difference be-tween the groups in terms of total prepo-sition error percentage” can be rejected

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with a large effect size (d = 2.76), though smaller than item 2 and 3.

Table 4. Statistical Results

Prof. levels

Mean Sd. p t d 95% CI

Number of Add.Error A2 .99 .385 .51 .65 .11 -.08, .16

B2 .95 .36

Number of Omis.Error A2 3.01 .45 .000 28.5 4.85 1.89, 2.17

B2 .99 .42

Number of Subs. Error A2 1.03 .43 .000 38.1 6.21 -3.1, -2.8

B2 3.96 .51

Percentage of Error/Total Prep. A2 33.1 7.5 .000 16.9 2.76 14.76, 18.68

B2 16.4 4.1

DISCUSSION

Prepositions are one of the most challenging units which should be used correctly in learn-ing English as a foreign language as stated by Swan (1988) and Loke and Antony (2013). Parallel to the current research, the previous studies in literature have revealed that prepo-sition usage imposes a remarkable difficulty for learners in all proficiency levels (Bram, 2005; Tahaineh, 2010: 76-112; Estevez, Go-mez and Gonzalez, 2010; Özışık, 2014: 59- 69).

As the current study found out, while there is no significant difference between learners of elementary (A2) and intermediate (B2) profi-

ciency levels in terms of using a preposition when it is not necessary (addition), there is a significant difference in excluding a prep-osition when it is necessary (omission) and using a preposition instead of the proper one (substitution). Considering omission type er-rors, the research indicated that learners of el-ementary (A2) level usually tend to omit the necessary preposition. There might be a few reasons to explain this trend. As the first rea-son, French (1961) states that students com-monly learn verbs ignoring the idea that they may require a follow-up specific preposi-tion such as “listen (to), want (to), wait (for), look (after) baby, need (to)” (common errors from the elementary level students’ essays).

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Students generally look up the meaning of unknown words and they find the English equivalents, but because of their low level of proficiency, they may not know the rule that certain verbs require a preposition; therefore, they may fail to use appropriate prepositions when they are necessary. Another reason may be the learners’ L1 interference. Lam (2009) states that the false assumptions of semantic equivalence between the first and second lan-guages may induce prepositional errors. For example, in Turkish, it is proper to say “beni bekle” (wait me), which does not require a preposition in the Turkish form; therefore, students may assume that they do not need to use a preposition in the target language as well. Hence, they neglect the necessary prep-osition in the English form “wait for me”, which might deteriorate the transmission of ideas in the target language.

As for substitution errors, the study indicated that learners of intermediate level are inclined to misuse a preposition instead of the proper one more often than learners of elementary level. The reasons behind this finding may also stem from the interference of the learn-ers’ mother tongue. For example, learners of intermediate level repeatedly used in their es-says “He is married with Sally”, although the correct preposition should be “to” according to Biber et al. (1999). This may be consid-

ered to be an interlingual error since, in Turk-ish, the instrumental form “ile, (y)le, (y)la” are used with the phrase “be married”, which means that English instrumental form “with” would be a direct translation from Turkish. Similarly, learners usually misuse “on + day” especially when there is extra word between the preposition and noun. For example, some learners wrote “at your exam day, at this day, at next Monday” in their essays. It is clear that learners usually misuse preposition pat-terns which include extra words.

As opposed to learners of elementary level, learners of intermediate level usually have higher linguistic awareness to detect some verbs or adjectives which require a preposi-tion. However, they may have difficulty in re-calling or determining the appropriate prepo-sition during their in-class essays, which may explain the high percentage of substitution errors in their essays. The related studies in literature also have parallel results regard-ing substitution errors. In their study con-ducted with learners of upper intermediate ELT learners, Estevez, Gomez and Gonzalez (2010) found that the most common error was the misuse of prepositions which was present 30 different times out of 71 total preposition usages. Similarly, Bram’s (2005) study with 50 learners showed the misuse of preposi-

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tions was the most frequent category, which supports the findings of the current research.

Regarding the second research question of whether there is a significant difference be-tween learners of elementary (A2) and inter-mediate (B2) proficiency levels in terms of total preposition error compared to total prep-osition used in their essays, the findings of this study were not surprising due to the time span the learners have dedicated to language learning. As learners of intermediate level have been exposed intensively to the target language in various ways such as reading, lis-tening and speaking activities, and grammar/vocabulary materials, they are much more familiar with the correct use of prepositions. Therefore, the rates of preposition errors to the total preposition usage in intermediate learners’ essays were much less than in those of elementary learners’ essays.

In conclusion, it has been observed that proper preposition usage is still a lingering problem for learners regardless of their pro-ficiency levels. However, as understood from the findings of this study, the error types dif-fer from elementary to intermediate level. Hence, various teaching methods and mate-rials on prepositions should be adjusted for learners of different levels. For elementary level, lexical collocations might be used to

teach preposition in chunks, which might decrease the rate of omission errors by mak-ing it easier to retain. For intermediate level, learners’ awareness might be increased by providing them with more detailed linguistic features of prepositions to decrease the rate of substitution errors.

REFERENCES

AL KHOTABA, E., (2013). Errors in the use of prepositions and adverb particles by Arab ESL speakers: Performance analy-sis perspective. International Journal of Linguistics, 5(1): 273

BIBER, D., et. al., (1999). Longman gram-mar of spoken and written English (Vol. 2). MIT Press: Longman

BRAM, B., (2005). Some Common Problems Involving Prepositions in Writing Eng-lish in a Multilingual Context. Retrieved from: http://www. academia.edu

CASTRO, M. C. S. A., (2013). An analysis of prepositional errors of college students. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Foreign Language Learn-ing and Teaching: 97-108

CATALÁN, R. J., (1996). Frequency and variability in errors in the use of English prepositions. Miscelánea: A Journal of

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English and American Studies, 17: 171-187

CORDER, S. P., (1967). The significance of learners‟ errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 5(4): 161-169

CORDER, S. P., (1973). Introducing Applied Linguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

FRENCH, F., (1961). Common errors in English. London: Oxford UP: 274-277

ESTEVEZ, V. C., et. al., (2010). Identifica-tion of the errors regarding prepositions usage in students of the Upper inter-mediate English course from the ELT Program at Universidad Industrial de Santander. Research Project, retrieved from: http://repositorio.uis.edu.co/jspui/bitstream/123456789/9045/2/133976.pdf

KOFFI, E., (2010). Applied English Syntax: Foundations for word, phrase and sen-tence analysis. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt Publishing Company

LAM, Y., (2009). Applying Cognitive lin-guistics to teaching the Spanish preposi-tion Por and para. Language Awareness, 18(1): 2-18

LOKE, D. L., et. al., (2013). A Corpus Based Study on the Use of Preposition of Time ‘on’ and ‘at’ in Argumentative Essays of Form 4 and Form 5 Malaysian Stu-dents. English Language Teaching, 6(9): 128

LORINCZ, K., GORDON, R., (2013). Dif-ficulties in Learning Prepositions and Possible Solutions. Linguistic Portfo-lios, 1(1): 14

ÖZIŞIK, C., (2014). Identifying preposition errors of Turkish EFL students. ELT Re-search Journal, 3(2): 59-69

SWAN, M., (1988). Practical English usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press

TAHAINEH, Y. S., (2010). Arab EFL univer-sity students’ errors in the use of prepo-sitions. Modern Journal of Applied Lin-guistics, 1(6): 76-112

YUSUF, Y. Q., (2009). A Corpus-Based Lin-guistics Analysis on Written Corpus: Col-ligation of “TO” and “FOR”. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 5(2): 104-122

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İNGİLİZ DİLİNİ YABANCI DİL OLARAK ÖĞRENEN TÜRK ÖĞRENCİLERİN KOMPOZİSYONLARINDA YER ALAN EDAT HATA ÇEŞİTLERİ ÜZERİNE BİR

DERLEM ÇALIŞMASI

Öz: Edatlar, İngilizceyi yabancı dil olarak öğrenenler için sık sık problemle karşılaşılan bir ko-nudur. Bu sebeple, özellikle dilbilgisi öğretiminin en zorlayıcı olarak kabul edilen konularından birisidir. Bu durumun başlıca sebepleri, İngilizcede birçok edat kullanımının belirli kurallara bağlı olmaması ve İngilizcede çok fazla sayıda edat bulunmasıdır. Farklı dil becerisi düzey-indeki öğrencilerin edat kullanım sıklıklarının, hatalı edat kullanım sıklıklarının ve yapılan hata çeşitlerinin incelenmesi edatların daha etkin öğretilmesi hususunda önemli ipuçları verebilme-ktedir. Bu nedenle güncel çalışmanın araştırma soruları şu şekildedir: (1) İngilizceyi yabancı dil olarak öğrenen başlangıç düzeyi (A2) ile orta yeterlik (B2) düzeyine sahip öğrencilerin edat kullanım hataları (addition, omission, substitution) arasında anlamlı farklılık var mıdır?; (2) İngilizceyi yabancı dil olarak öğrenen başlangıç düzeyi (A2) ile orta yeterlik (B2) düzeyine sa-hip öğrencilerin kompozisyonlarında edat kullanım hataları ve edat kullanım sıklıkları arasında anlamlı fark var mıdır? Güncel çalışmanın temel amacı İngiliz dilini yabancı dil olarak öğrenen, başlangıç ve orta yeterlik düzeyine sahip öğrencilerin kompozisyon yazarken yaptıkları edat hatalarının gruplandırılması ve incelenmesidir. Edat hataları (gereksiz edat ekleme, ger-ekli edatı ihmal etme, gerekli edat yerine farklı bir edat kullanma) oranlarının öğrencilerin kompozisyonlarındaki toplam edat kullanım oranlarıyla kıyaslanması ve yeterlik seviyelerine göre öğrencilerin edat kullanım oranlarının kıyaslanması yöntemleriyle edat hata grupları incelenmiştir. Bu araştırma Erciyes Üniversitesi Yabancı Diller Yüksekokulunda 2015- 2016 akademik yılında eğitim hazırlık eğitimi gören 75 başlangıç (A2) seviyesine sahip öğrenci ve 75 orta (B2) yeterlik düzeyine sahip öğrenci ile yapılmıştır. İlk olarak 550 başlangıç düzeyi ve 230 orta seviye öğrencilerin kompozisyonları bilgisayar ortamında taranmış ve rastgele seçim yön-temiyle her iki gruptan da 75’er kompozisyon çalışmanın örneklem grupları olarak seçilmiştir. Analiz aşamasında, Biber ve arkadaşlarının (1999), Grammar of Spoken and Written English kaynağına dayanarak örneklem gruplardaki her bir kompozisyonda geçen toplam edat sayısı ve hatalı edat kullanımları tespit edilmiştir. Edatların hatalı ve doğru kullanımları araştırmacılar tarafından farklı renklerle kodlanmış ve çalışmanın güvenirliği açısından kompozisyonların her

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biri araştırmacılar tarafında üzerine herhangi bir düzeltme işareti konmadan bağımsız olarak incelenmiştir. Daha sonrasında, hatalı edat kullanımları Corder’un (1973) Common Errors in English and Categorization of Error Types kaynağına göre 3 gruba ayrılmıştır: gereksiz edat ekleme (addition), gerekli edatı ihmal etme (omission), ve gerekli edat yerine farklı bir edat kul-lanma (substitution). Bağımsız örneklem t-test sonuçlarına göre; a) çalışma grupları arasında gereksiz edat ekleme (addition) hatası yönünden bir farklılık bulunamamıştır; b) başlangıç yeterlik düzeyindeki öğrenciler, orta seviye yeterlik düzeyindeki öğrencilerden istatiksel olarak daha fazla gerekli edatı ihmal etme (omission) hatası yapmışlardır; c) orta yeterlik düzeyine sahip öğrenciler başlangıç düzeyindeki öğrencilere göre istatiksel olarak daha fazla gerekli edat yerine farklı bir edat kullanma (substitution) hatası yapmışlardır; d) hatalı edat kullanımının toplam edat kullanımlarına oranları, başlangıç düzeyindeki öğrencilerin kompozisyonlarında, orta yeterlik düzeyindeki öğrencilerin kompozisyonlarından istatistiksel olarak daha yüksek olarak bulunmuştur. Bu çalışmanın bulgularına dayanarak, başlangıç düzeyindeki öğrencilere edatların kelime gruplarıyla birlikte öğretilmesi ve orta yeterlik düzeyindeki öğrencilere edatların daha detaylı dil bilimsel özelliklerinin sağlanması gerekliliği vurgulanmıştır.

1717

TESTING RANDOMNESS OF GENERATED NUMBERS BASED ON THE HENON MAP 1

Arzu EREN ŞENARAS1, Şahin İNANÇ2

1 Uludağ University, Department of Econometrics, Bursa / Turkey 2Uludağ University, Department of Computer Programming, Bursa / Turkey

(1) Corresponding Author: Arzu EREN ŞENARAS, Uludağ University, Department of Econometrics, Bursa / Turkey [email protected] Received: 11.03.2016 Accepted: 29.09.2016 Type ofarticle (Research and Practice) Conflict of Interest: None Ethics Committee: None



Abstract: Random numbers facilitate analysts to conduct simulation studies. However, an important issue to be considered is that random numbers should be tested whether they are really random or not. Usually random numbers are generated by a digital computer as a part of simulation. The purpose of this study is to examine and validate randomness of the pseudo number generator in order to use this generator for simulation studies. The scope of the study is to examine the randomness of various henon maps which are generated by using different “a” parameters. A program based on C# is developed to test randomness of generated numbers. Chi-Square, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Poker, Gap and Run tests are applied for testing randomness. The pseudo number generator based on the henon map which satifies the criteria of randomness tests can be used for simulation projects as the pseudo random generator. However it is very difficult to provide randomness by a pseudo random generator; in practice when implementing simulation to reflect a system real behavior; using a pseudo random generator validated by most of statistical test can be sufficient. So this paper illustrates that the numbers generated based on the henon map which satisfy randomness tests can be used for simulation projects as the pseudo random generator.

Key Words: Simulation, Randomness Tests, The Henon Map, Chaotic Behavior

Doi: 10.17368/UHBAB.20161722358

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INTRODUCTION

Chaos is a kind of complex movement. Be-cause of basic features of chaotic sequences, such as good pseudo-randomness, complexi-ty, initial value sensitivity, etc., thus they have good prospects in the field of cryptography (Song and Ding, 2014: 267).

One of the most challenging topics in sci-ence is the study of chaos. Chaos is the term used to describe the apparently complex be-havior of what we consider to be simple, well behaved systems. Chaotic behavior, when looked at casually, looks erratic and almost random-almost like the behavior of a system strongly influenced by outside, random noise or the complicated behavior of a system with many, many degrees of freedom, each “doing its own thing”(Hilborn, 2000: 3).

According to Encyclopedia Britannica, the word “chaos” is derived from Greek and orig-inally meant the infinite empty space which existed before all things. The later Roman conception interpreted chaos as the original crude shapeless mass into which the Architect of the world introduces order and harmony. In modern usage chaos denotes a state of dis-order and irregularity (Schuster & Just, 2005: 2). The earliest studies of chaos theory were performed around the turn of the century, per-taining to the movement of physical body.

The science really emerged in the 50s and 60s with the study of weather and population dynamics. An equation known as the logistic map was developed to model the growth of different population, notably fisheries. The significance of this equation to chaos theory was largely ignored for sometimes (Kotwal, 2008: 3).

The fields of probability and statistics are built over the abstract concepts of probability space and random variable. This has given rise to elegant and powerful mathematical theory, but exact implementation of this concept on conventional computers seems impossible. In practice random variable and other random objects are simulated by deterministic algo-rithm. The purpose of this algorithm is to pro-duce sequences of numbers or objects whose behavior is very hard to distinguish from that of their truly random counterparts.

Random numbers generators are needed for practically all kinds of computer applications, such as simulation of stochastic systems, nu-merical analysis, probabilistic algorithms, se-cure communications, computer games, and gambling machines, to name a few (L’ecuyer & Simard, 2007:2) .

In computational statistics, random variate generation is usually made in two steps:

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1) Generating imitations of independent and identically distributed random variables having the uniform distribution over the interval (0, 1).

2) Applying transformations to these ran-dom variates to generate random variates and random vectors from arbitrary distri-butions.

The expression pseudo random generator usually refers to an algorithm used for step 1 (L’Ecuyer, 2012: 35).

A simulation of any system or process in which there are inherently random compo-nents requires a method of generating or ob-taining numbers that are random (Law and Kelton, 2000: 402). Random number genera-tors lie at the very heart of a stochastic simu-lation (Law & Kelton, 2000: 406).

Although it refers to the samples within simu-lation as being random, in actuality they are not random at all because the underlying ran-dom numbers are generated from a determin-istic algebraic equation (Pegden et al., 1995: 171).

The methodology of generating random num-ber has a long and interesting history. The earliest method was essentially carried out by hand, such as casting lots, throwing dice, dealing out cards or drawing numbered balls

from a well stirred urn. In the early twenti-eth century, statisticians joined gamblers in their interest in random numbers, and mecha-nized devices were built to generate random numbers more quickly (Law & Kelton, 2000: 403).

Later as computers became more widely used, studies focused on numerical or arithmetic ways to generate random numbers. More for-mal definitions of randomness in an axiom-atic sense are cited by Ripley, Niederreiter argues that statistical randomness may not even be desirable, and that other properties of generator numbers such as evenness of the distribution of points are more important in some application (Law & Kelton, 2000:405).

Several properties of a good arithmetic ran-dom number generator are listed below:

1) Uniformity: Number should appear to be distributed uniformly.

2) Independency: Number should not exhibit any correlation with each other.

3) Long Cycle Length: Cycle length should be long as much as possible.

4) Efficiency: Generator must be fast and does not need for a lot of storage (Sezen & Günal, 2009: 219).

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5) Replicalibity: Generator must reproduce a given stream of random numbers.

6) Ease of producing separate stream: There should be provision in the generator for easily producing separate streams of ran-dom numbers (Law & Kelton, 2000: 405).

According to the Banks et al. (2005), in the generation of pseudo random numbers cer-tain problems or errors can occur. These er-rors are following:

• The generated numbers might not be uni-formly distributed

• Random numbers might be discrete values instead of continues value

• The mean of generated numbers might be too low or too high

• Variance of generated numbers might be too high or too low

• There might be dependence

a. Autocorrelations between numbers

b. Numbers successively higher or lower than adjacent numbers

c. Several numbers above the mean fol-lowed by several numbers below the mean (Banks et al., 2005: 252).

Although linear congruential generators are probably the most widely used and best un-derstood generators, there are many alterna-tive types (Law & Kelton, 2000: 412).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Zheng et al. (2008) created a new algorithm to solve the problem of non-uniform distribu-tion of the sequence generated by the general-ized the Henon map. First, move the decimal point of elements in the sequence to the right; then, cut off the integer; and finally, quantify it into a binary sequence. Statistical test, se-curity analysis, and the application of image encryption have strongly supported the good random statistical characteristics, high linear complexity, large key space, and great sensi-tivity of the binary sequence. In this article, the generalized the Henon map was proposed as a pseudo-random sequence generator. To improve the pseudo-random characteristics of the sequence to better fit uniform distri-bution, the authors managed to construct a novel model, and then quantize the improved sequence into binary. This binary sequence has good randomicity, which is proved by a statistical test. Security analysis testified the key’s high sensitivity to the initial value, as well as its large space size and high linear complexity. Therefore, the proposed system

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is suitable to generate pseudo-random se-quence.

Galias (2016) shows examples that simula-tion studies of nonlinear systems as simple as the Henon map cannot, in general, pro-vide conclusive answer to the question what is the true nature of the attractor existing for fixed parameter values. It follows that what we observe in many examples reported in the literature, and what is claimed to be a cha-otic trajectory, might in fact be a transient to a periodic steady-state or an artifact caused by rounding errors. Numerical studies of the Henon map show that there is an abundance of periodic windows close to classical param-eter values. In this study he studied proper-ties of these periodic Windows. It is shown that in order to detect periodic windows in simulations one has to compute trajectories in a sufficient precision, which in many cas-es is much higher than the standard double precision. Moreover, it is shown that even if computations are carried out in a sufficient precision, one may need an extremely large number of iterations to observe convergence to a sink starting from random initial condi-tions, and hence the underlying steady state behavior may be practically undetectable us-ing the standard trajectory monitoring based approach.

Vajargah and Asghari (2015) investigated the properties of making a deterministic al-gorithm for generating a pseudo random se-quence of numbers for application in cryp-tography, are discussed. The Chaotic Henon Congruential Generator is proposed as a pseu-do random number generator. It is shown that what chaotic features of the Henon Map are useful for generating pseudo random num-bers in cryptographic point of view. To evalu-ate the randomness as well as independence of the number sequences, generated by the PRNGs, two well-known statistic tests were performed and the results approved that the generated sequences are statistically proper in cryptographic applications.

Bilal and Ramaswamy (2012) analyzed the bifurcations of a family of time-delayed Hé-non maps of increasing dimension and de-termine the regions where the motion is at-tracted to different dynamical states. As a function of parameters that govern nonlinear-ity and dissipation, boundaries that confine asymptotic periodic motion are determined analytically, and we examine their depen-dence on the dimension d. For large d these boundaries converge. In low dimensions both the period-doubling and quasiperiodic routes to chaos coexist in the parameter space, but for high dimensions the latter predominates and prior to the onset of chaos, the systems

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exhibit multistability. When the nonlinearity parameter is varied, the dimension of chaotic attractors in the systems changes smoothly with increasing number of non-negative Ly-apunov exponents.

Hu (2014) suggested that a fractional He-non map demonstrates a chaotic behavior with a new type of attractors. The interest-ing property of the fractional map is the long term memory. Computer simulations of the fractional discrete maps with memory prove that the nonlinear dynamical systems, which are described by the equations with Caputo discrete delta’s sense, exhibit a new type of chaotic motion. Through a discrete fractional Henon map it reveals that the dy-namical behavior holds the discrete mem-ory even the difference order is very small. El-Sayed et al. (2014) are concerned with a general form of the Henon map as a re-tarded functional equation. The existence of a unique solution is proved. The continu-ous dependence of the solution and the lo-cal stability of fixed points are investigated. Chaos, bifurcation and chaotic attractor of the resulting system are discussed. In addi-tion, we compare our results with the dis-

crete dynamical system of the Henon map.

Song et al. (2014) studied the typical two-dimensional Henon map. Firstly, the model of the Henon map is based on DSP Builder platform in Simulink library, so it can gen-erate digital output sequence of the Henon map. Then, its statistical properties are ana-lyzed for such output sequences, including balance test, run test and autocorrelation test. Finally, the numerical results show that such digital Henon sequences have good pseudo-randomness.

THE HENON MAP

Inspired by the studies of globular clusters and Lorenz system, the French astronomer Henon put forward the Henon map. It is de-fined as follows (Song and Ding, 2014: 268):

nn yax +−= 2

1+n 1x

nn bxy =+1

Where a and b parameters, n is the nth itera-tion, xn and yn are the nth states. Henon map is the simplest two-dimensional map. Figure 1 respectively present the bifurcation dia-gram and the largest Lyapunov exponent of the Henon map for b=0.3 and a∈[0,1.4].

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Figure 1. The Graph of Bifurcation

TESTING RANDOMNESS

In this study, randomness of the array, which is based on henon map, is investigated. In or-der to use this array for simulation studies,

randomness of the array must be validated. A program based on C# is developed to test randomness of the array. Figure 2 shows in-terface panel for the developed randomness program.

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Figure 2. Interface Panel for Developed Randomness Program

Chi-Square, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Poker, Gap and Run tests are applied for testing ran-domness. Providing chaotic behavior, param-eters of the henon map is assumed as a= 1,39-1,41; b = 0,3 and X0 = 1. The array is created by the second digit after the comma.

Table 1 (Iteration= 10000), Table 2 (Itera-tion= 20000), Table 3 (Iteration= 30000), Ta-ble 4 (Iteration= 40000), Table 5 (Iteration= 50000) show “a” parameters used in the he-non map which satisfy the criteria of random-ness tests for 0,00001 digits..

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Table 1. “a” Parameters Used in the Henon Map which Satisfy the criteria of Random-ness Tests For 0,00001 Digits (Iteration: 10000)

“a” Parameters

1 1,39016 1,39409 1,39486 1,39558 1,39627 1,39677 1,39728 1,39772 1,39818 1,3988 1,39953 1,40006

2 1,39018 1,3941 1,39487 1,39559 1,3963 1,39679 1,39729 1,39774 1,39819 1,39881 1,39955 1,40007

3 1,39031 1,39419 1,39488 1,39561 1,39635 1,3968 1,3973 1,39775 1,3982 1,39884 1,39956 1,40008

4 1,39043 1,3942 1,39489 1,3957 1,39636 1,39685 1,39732 1,39776 1,39821 1,39885 1,39957 1,40009

5 1,39069 1,39423 1,39492 1,39571 1,39637 1,39687 1,39735 1,39779 1,39822 1,39886 1,39958 1,40012

6 1,39082 1,39426 1,39494 1,39573 1,39638 1,39689 1,39737 1,3978 1,39826 1,39887 1,39961 1,40013

7 1,39093 1,39427 1,39497 1,39575 1,39639 1,3969 1,39738 1,39782 1,3983 1,39889 1,39962 1,40014

8 1,39131 1,39429 1,39499 1,39576 1,3964 1,39691 1,39739 1,39785 1,39831 1,3989 1,39963 1,40016

9 1,39173 1,3943 1,39505 1,39578 1,39641 1,39692 1,39742 1,39786 1,39833 1,39892 1,39964 1,40018

10 1,39189 1,39434 1,39508 1,39581 1,39642 1,39694 1,39743 1,39788 1,39839 1,39897 1,39966 1,40019

11 1,39196 1,39435 1,3951 1,39582 1,39643 1,39695 1,39746 1,39789 1,3984 1,39901 1,39967 1,4002

12 1,39229 1,39439 1,39513 1,39584 1,39644 1,39696 1,39748 1,39791 1,39841 1,39904 1,39968 1,40021

13 1,39263 1,39441 1,39516 1,39586 1,39646 1,39699 1,39749 1,39792 1,39842 1,39907 1,39969 1,40023

14 1,39271 1,39444 1,39518 1,39587 1,39647 1,39701 1,3975 1,39793 1,39843 1,39909 1,3997 1,40024

15 1,39288 1,39447 1,3952 1,39588 1,39648 1,39702 1,39752 1,39797 1,39844 1,3991 1,39971 1,40025

16 1,39307 1,39449 1,39524 1,39589 1,39649 1,39703 1,39753 1,39798 1,39846 1,39911 1,39972 ……….

17 1,39318 1,3945 1,39525 1,3959 1,39652 1,39706 1,39754 1,39799 1,39848 1,39917 1,39975 ……….

18 1,3932 1,39451 1,39526 1,39592 1,39654 1,39708 1,39755 1,39801 1,39849 1,39919 1,39979 ……….

19 1,39322 1,39452 1,3953 1,39594 1,39655 1,39709 1,39757 1,39802 1,39852 1,39922 1,3998 ……….

20 1,39325 1,39453 1,39533 1,39597 1,39657 1,3971 1,39758 1,39804 1,39855 1,39925 1,39981 ……….

21 1,39326 1,39454 1,39534 1,39599 1,39658 1,39711 1,39759 1,39805 1,39857 1,3993 1,39982 ……….

22 1,39335 1,39455 1,39535 1,39606 1,39659 1,39712 1,3976 1,39806 1,39858 1,39932 1,39986 ……….

23 1,39346 1,39458 1,39537 1,39612 1,3966 1,39717 1,39761 1,39808 1,3986 1,39933 1,39989 ……….

24 1,39349 1,39459 1,3954 1,39616 1,39661 1,39718 1,39762 1,39809 1,39863 1,39936 1,39992 ……….

25 1,39366 1,39464 1,39543 1,39617 1,39664 1,39719 1,39764 1,39811 1,39867 1,39937 1,39998 ……….

26 1,39382 1,39472 1,39544 1,39619 1,39666 1,3972 1,39765 1,39812 1,3987 1,39938 1,4 ……….

27 1,3939 1,39473 1,39546 1,3962 1,39668 1,39722 1,39766 1,39814 1,39871 1,3994 1,40001 ……….

28 1,39404 1,39481 1,39553 1,39622 1,39669 1,39725 1,39768 1,39815 1,39873 1,39941 1,40003 ……….

29 1,39407 1,39484 1,39554 1,39624 1,39672 1,39726 1,3977 1,39816 1,39878 1,39942 1,40004 1,40998

30 1,39408 1,39485 1,39556 1,39625 1,39676 1,39727 1,39771 1,39817 1,39879 1,39951 1,40005 1,40999

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“a” Parameters

1 1,39444 1,39967 1,40360 1,40428 1,40622 1,40694 1,40735 1,40772 1,40818 1,40877 1,40935 1,40978

2 1,39450 1,39981 1,40361 1,40429 1,40627 1,40695 1,40736 1,40773 1,40819 1,40879 1,40936 1,40979

3 1,39567 1,40001 1,40363 1,40430 1,40631 1,40696 1,40738 1,40774 1,40820 1,40881 1,40938 1,40980

4 1,39635 1,40002 1,40365 1,40431 1,40632 1,40697 1,40739 1,40775 1,40823 1,40882 1,40939 1,40981

5 1,39663 1,40010 1,40366 1,40432 1,40633 1,40699 1,40742 1,40776 1,40824 1,40886 1,40940 1,40984

6 1,39670 1,40024 1,40369 1,40434 1,40634 1,40700 1,40743 1,40777 1,40825 1,40887 1,40942 1,40985

7 1,39688 1,40029 1,40371 1,40442 1,40636 1,40702 1,40744 1,40779 1,40829 1,40891 1,40943 1,40986

8 1,39702 1,40030 1,40372 1,40444 1,40640 1,40704 1,40745 1,40780 1,40834 1,40894 1,40944 1,40988

9 1,39708 1,40038 1,40374 1,40453 1,40641 1,40705 1,40746 1,40781 1,40836 1,40896 1,40946 1,40989

10 1,39716 1,40053 1,40381 1,40470 1,40643 1,40706 1,40747 1,40782 1,40838 1,40901 1,40948 1,40993

11 1,39718 1,40066 1,40382 1,40484 1,40650 1,40709 1,40748 1,40784 1,40840 1,40904 1,40949 1,40996

12 1,39725 1,40086 1,40383 1,40489 1,40658 1,40711 1,40751 1,40785 1,40844 1,40907 1,40951 1,40997

13 1,39726 1,40094 1,40385 1,40511 1,40661 1,40713 1,40752 1,40786 1,40845 1,40908 1,40952

14 1,39746 1,40139 1,40388 1,40516 1,40662 1,40714 1,40753 1,40788 1,40846 1,40909 1,40954

15 1,39747 1,40146 1,40390 1,40532 1,40663 1,40715 1,40754 1,40789 1,40847 1,40910 1,40956

16 1,39751 1,40191 1,40391 1,40535 1,40664 1,40717 1,40755 1,40791 1,40849 1,40912 1,40957

17 1,39752 1,40200 1,40393 1,40537 1,40665 1,40718 1,40756 1,40792 1,40850 1,40913 1,40958

18 1,39762 1,40213 1,40403 1,40538 1,40666 1,40719 1,40757 1,40793 1,40851 1,40914 1,40959

19 1,39791 1,40220 1,40404 1,40543 1,40667 1,40721 1,40759 1,40794 1,40852 1,40916 1,40960

20 1,39792 1,40224 1,40408 1,40545 1,40670 1,40722 1,40760 1,40795 1,40854 1,40917 1,40962

21 1,39799 1,40265 1,40410 1,40551 1,40672 1,40724 1,40761 1,40797 1,40856 1,40919 1,40963

22 1,39817 1,40266 1,40411 1,40563 1,40674 1,40725 1,40762 1,40798 1,40858 1,40922 1,40964

23 1,39822 1,40313 1,40413 1,40577 1,40676 1,40726 1,40763 1,40800 1,40860 1,40925 1,40965

24 1,39850 1,40331 1,40416 1,40598 1,40678 1,40727 1,40764 1,40801 1,40864 1,40926 1,40967

25 1,39891 1,40334 1,40417 1,40599 1,40679 1,40728 1,40765 1,40804 1,40865 1,40927 1,40968

26 1,39896 1,40345 1,40418 1,40602 1,40683 1,40729 1,40766 1,40806 1,40867 1,40928 1,40971

27 1,39912 1,40347 1,40419 1,40608 1,40684 1,40731 1,40767 1,40811 1,40868 1,40929 1,40972

28 1,39923 1,40348 1,40423 1,40610 1,40687 1,40732 1,40768 1,40813 1,40870 1,40932 1,40973

29 1,39953 1,40354 1,40425 1,40616 1,40688 1,40733 1,40770 1,40816 1,40871 1,40933 1,40974

30 1,39956 1,40356 1,40427 1,40620 1,40693 1,40734 1,40771 1,40817 1,40873 1,40934 1,40975

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“a” Parameters

1 1,39977 1,40710 1,40751 1,40777 1,40824 1,40905 1,40953

2 1,40021 1,40711 1,40753 1,40778 1,40826 1,40908 1,40959

3 1,40039 1,40713 1,40754 1,40779 1,40830 1,40909 1,40960

4 1,40388 1,40714 1,40760 1,40788 1,40832 1,40910 1,40963

5 1,40390 1,40717 1,40763 1,40789 1,40834 1,40926 1,40964

6 1,40421 1,40722 1,40764 1,40793 1,40837 1,40933 1,40965

7 1,40425 1,40723 1,40765 1,40796 1,40844 1,40935 1,40967

8 1,40426 1,40727 1,40766 1,40803 1,40847 1,40936 1,40971

9 1,40632 1,40728 1,40767 1,40809 1,40855 1,40938 1,40974

10 1,40664 1,40729 1,40768 1,40810 1,40866 1,40943 1,40975

11 1,40672 1,40731 1,40770 1,40811 1,40868 1,40946 1,40979

12 1,40691 1,40732 1,40772 1,40813 1,40881 1,40948 1,40989

13 1,40702 1,40738 1,40773 1,40814 1,40886 1,40950 1,40990

14 1,40703 1,40748 1,40774 1,40817 1,40901 1,40951 1,40995

15 1,40709 1,40749 1,40775 1,40823 1,40904 1,40952

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Table 4. “a” Parameters Using in Henon Map That Satisfy Randomness Tests For 0,00001 Digits (Iteration: 40000)

“a” Parameters

1 1,40366 1,40753 1,40766 1,40780 1,40867 1,40946 1,40966

2 1,40672 1,40755 1,40769 1,40782 1,40930 1,40958 1,40988

3 1,40740 1,40757 1,40770 1,40784 1,40931 1,40963

4 1,40747 1,40759 1,40776 1,40832 1,40939 1,40964

5 1,40749 1,40762 1,40777 1,40840 1,40945 1,40965

Table 5. “a” Parameters Using in Henon Map That Satisfy Randomness Tests For 0,00001 Digits (Iteration: 50000)

“a” Parameters

1 1,40760 1,40784 1,40808 1,40877 1,40913

2 1,40768 1,40793 1,40815 1,40879 1,40924

3 1,40781 1,40807 1,40854 1,40907

Table 6 shows “a” parameters used in the he-non map which satisfy the criteria of random-ness tests for 0,0001 digits.

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Table 6. “a” Parameters Using in Henon Map That Satisfy Randomness Tests For 0,0001 Digits

Iteration Numbers

10000 20000 30000 40000 50000

1,3905 1,3974 1,4066 1,4075 -

1,3915 1,3981 1,4075 1,4087

1,3922 1,3994 1,4079 1,4093

1,3944 1,4001 1,408 1,4099

1,3945 1,4007 1,4082

1,3947 1,4019 1,4084

1,3948 1,4041 1,4086

1,3949 1,4055 1,4096

1,3952 1,4057

1,3955 1,4075

1,3956 1,4076

1,3958 1,4077

1,3959 1,4078

1,3961 1,4081

1,3964 1,4082

………

………

1,4095

1,4097

1,4098

1,4099

1,41

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CONCLUSION

To create the Henon map we used the soft-ware which developed in C # programming language. The results obtained from this soft-ware are as follows. X0 and Y0 parameters are chosen to be 1. The parameter b is chosen as constant 0,3. Different “a” parameters are se-lected from 1,39000 to 1,41000 increasing by 0,0001. Later the range is selected 0,00001 sensitively. The henon map has been created for a different value. The generated maps de-rived from these numbers do not pass some randomness tests. Therefore, the counts for the second digit after the comma are selected. These figures are random up to a specific iter-ation when tested. For example, the range of 0.0001 taken the first 10.000, 20.000, 30.000, 40.000 iterations are random while beyond 50.000 iterations are not random. The cause that the numbers are not random is that the calculated henon maps results were infinite. Similarly while intervals (for a parameter) are received in 0.00001 for 10.000, 20.000, 30.000, 40.000, 50.000 some of the henon maps results are random, the others are not random and beyond 60.000 iteration all of the henon maps results are not random. The reason is the same that the calculated henon maps results were infinite. When the inter-val became more sensitive the henon maps

results can pass the randomness tests for in-creased iteration.

However it is very difficult to provide ran-domness by a pseudo random generator; in practice when implementing simulation to reflect a system real behavior; using a pseudo random generator validated by most of sta-tistical test can be sufficient. So this paper illustrates that the numbers generated based on the henon map which satisfy randomness tests can be used for simulation projects as the pseudo random generator.

REFERENCES

AHMED, M. A., et al., (2014). “A New Cha-otic Behavior Of A General Model Of The Henon Map, Advances In Difference Equations, 107

BANKS, J., et al., (2005). Discrete-Event System Simulation, Prentice Hall Inch, USA

BEHROUZ, F. V., RAHIM, A., (2015). “A Pseudo Random Number Generator Based On Chaotic Henon Map (Chcg)”, International Journal Of Mechatronics, Electrical And Computer Technology, Vol. 5(15), Pp. 2120-2129

GALIAS, Z., (2016). “Are Numerical Stud-ies Of Long Term Dynamics Conclusive:

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The Case Of The Henon Map”, Jour-nal Of Physics: Conference Series 692 012001

HILBORN, R.C., (2003). Chaos And Nonlin-ear Dynamics, Oxford University Press, New York

HU, T., (2014). “Discrete Chaos In Fractional Henon Map”, Applied Mathematics, 5, 2243-2248

KOTWAL, J.A.P., (2008). The Modified Lo-gistic Map And Its Application To Cryp-tography, Thesis, Master Of Science In Electrical Engineering, Tufts University, United States

LAW, A. M., KELTON, D. W., (2000). Simu-lation Modeling And Analysis, Mcgraw Hill, Boston

L’ECUYER, P., (2012). Handbook Of Com-putational Statistics, Springer Berlin Hei-delberg

L’ECUYER, P., SIMARD, R., (2007). Tes-tu01: A C Library For Empirical Testing Of Random Number Generators. Acm Trans. Math. Software. 33(4), 22–Es

PEGDEN, C.D., SHANNON, R.E., SAD-OWSKI, R.P., (1995). Introduction To Using Siman, Mc Graw Hill.

SCHUSTER, H.G., JUST, W., (2005). Deter-ministic Chaos An Introduction, 4th Ed, Weinheim, Wiley Verlag

SHAKIR, B.,, RAMAKRISHNA R., (2013). The Generalized Time-Delayed Hénon Map: Bifurcations And Dynamics, In-ternational Journal Of Bifurcation And Chaos, Vol. 23, No. 03

SEZEN, H.K., GÜNAL, M.M., (2009). Yöneylem Araştırmasında Benzetim, Ekin Yayınevi, Bursa

SONG, B., PAN, J., DING, Q., (2014). “Dig-ital Henon Sequences Generation And Its Analysis”, Advanced Materials Re-search, Vol. 981, P793-796. 4p

SONG, B., DING Q., (2014). “Comparisons Of Typical Discrete Logistic Map And Henon Map”, Advances In Intelligent Systems and Computing, Volume 297, 267-275

ZHENG, F., et al., (2008). “Pseudo-Random Sequence Generator Based On The Gen-eralized Henon Map”, The Journal Of China Universities Of Posts And Tele-communications, 15(3): 64–68

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HENON HARİTASI TABANLI DİZİLERİN RASGELELİĞİNİN SINANMASI

Öz: Kaos ismi Britanika Ansiklopedisine göre Yunanca bir kelime türemiştir ve her şeydenönce var olan sonsuz boşluk anlamına gelmektedir. E.N.Lorenz birinci dereceden 3 bilinmey-

enli doğrusal olmayan bir denklem kümesinin garip davranışlar sergilediğini keşfetmiştir (1963). Lorenz haritası diye literatürde yer alan denklemlerle kaosu ilk koşullara hassas bağlılık fenomeni olarak tanımlamıştır. Diğer bir yaklaşım ise Kellert’in spesifik kaos tanımıdır. Kellert kaosu, iki başlangıç koşulu çok yakın olan fakat önemli derecede farklı sonuçlar alınan, ilk koşullara hassas olarak bağlı bir dinamik sistem olarak tanımlamıştır. Günümüzde ise kaos, düzensiz ve karmaşıklık anlatmakta kullanılmaktadır. Henon haritası ayrık zamanlı dinamik sistem tipinde bir haritadır. Birçok alanda üzerinde çokça çalışılan bir sayı dizisidir. Henon haritası düzlemde (xn,yn) noktalarından oluşmaktadır ve formülü

nnn yaxx +−= 21 ve

nn bxy =+1 şeklindedir. Henon haritası formülde yer alan a = 1.4 ve b = 0.3 değerleri civarı için harita kaotik çıkmaktadır. Bu kaotik sistem başlangıç şartlarına çok hassas olarak bağlıdır.Başlangıç şartlarındaki en ufak bir değişiklik sonuçlarda çok büyük farklılıklara sebep ola- bilmektedir. Kaotik sistemlerin birçok uygulama alanı vardır. Bu uygulama alanlarının başında da kriptoloji ve güvenilir haberleşme gelmektedir. Henon haritası kaotik bir yapıya sahip olduğundan bu harita rasgele sayı üretiminde de kullanılabilir. Bu haritadan elde edilen sayılar harita kaotik olduğundan dolayı rasgelelik testlerinden geçebilmektedir. Rasgele sayılar isebirçok alanda kullanılabilmektedir. Bu kullanım alanlarından bazıları doğa olaylarının simüla-

syonu, şifreleme, hücre simülasyonu, borsa modellemesi, sayısal analiz, dağılım fonksiyonları,atom ve molekül fiziği, yüksek enerji fiziği, nükleer fizik vb. sayılabilir. Rasgele sayılar benzetim çalışmalarında analiste kolaylık sağlamaktadır. Ancak göz önünde bulundurulması gerekenönemli bir konu, rasgele sayıların gerçekten rasgele olup olmadığının test edilmesidir. Benze- tim çalışmalarının bir parçası olarak rasgele sayılar genellikle bilgisayarlar tarafından üretilir.Benzetim tekniği, maliyetsiz olması, politikaların geliştirilen model sayesinde saniyelik bilgisayar zamanıyla karşılaştırılma imkanı sağlaması, deneylerin tekrarlanabilme olanağı ve sıra dışı koşulların etkilerini güvenlik açısından sorun yaratmadan öngörülmesi gibi sebeplerden dolayı günümüz yöneticilerinin en önemli karar araçlarından birisidir. Benzetim çalışmalarında önemli olan sahte rassal sayıların nasıl üretildiğinden çok, bu sayıların gerçekten rassal olup

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olmadıklarıdır. Sahte rassal sayıların gerçek rassal sayılarda doğal olarak bulunan rassallıközelliğine sahip olup olmadığı, rassallık testleriyle kontrol edilir. Sahte rassal sayılar determin-

istik olarak üretilse de, benzetimde kullanılabilmeleri için rassal olmaları gerekir. Benzetim diliyle konuşulurken telaffuz edilen rassal sayı, değeri 0 ile 1 arasında bulunan ve üretilme sansı bu aralıktaki diğer bütün sayıların üretilme sansına eşit olan sayıdır. Bu özellik kısaca U(0,1) olarak gösterilir. Rassal sayıların en önemli iki istatistiksel özelliği düzgün dağılıma uygunluk ve bağımsızlık olarak ifade edilebilir. Bu nedenle sayıların rassallığını incelemeden önce sayıların tekdüze dağılıma uygun biçimde dağılıp dağılmadıkları araştırılmalıdır. Ardışık olarak üretilen sayılar arasında ilişki bulunmaması gerekir. Özetle, sahte rassal sayıların gerçek rassal sayılarla aynı istatistiksel özellikler taşıması beklenir. Bu amaçla geliştirilmiş testlere tabi tutulmaksızın sahte rassal sayıların kullanılması doğru olmaz. Bu çalışmada, sözde rasgele sayı üretecinin rasgeleliği istatistiksel yöntemlerle analiz edilmiştir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, benzetim çalışmalarında kullanılabilmesi için sözde rasgele üretecinin rasgeleliğinin sınanması ve doğrulanmasıdır. Çalışmanın kapsamını farklı “a” parametreleriyle üretilen çeşitli henonharitalarının rasgeleliğinin sınanması oluşturur. Henon haritasını oluşturmak için C# programlama dilinde geliştirilen bir yazılım kullanılmıştır. Harita oluşturulurken özellikle a katsayısının 1,4 civarındaki değerleri denenmiştir. a katsayısının 1,4’e çok yakın değerleri için sistem kaotik çıkmaktadır. Üretilen binlerce henon haritasından her birinden binlerce yeni sayı türetilmiştir. Sayılar üretilirken formülde yer alan bir önceki değişkene bağımlılığı azaltmak için sayının virgülden sonra gelen ikinci hanesi ele alınmıştır. Her bir henon haritası için üretilen bu sayılar rasgele olup olmadıkları rasgelelik testleri ile sınanmıştır. Rasgelelik testlerinde kullanılan testler yine C# programlama dilinde yazılmıştır. Bu testler koşu, kikare, poker, GAP, Kolmogorov & Smirnov testleridir. Üretilen sayı dizilerinin bir kısmı bu testlerin tümünden geçmiştir. Testten geçemeyen sayılar henon haritasının hesaplanamaz durumları için geçerlidir. Bu durumlar formülde yer alan x0 veya y0 değişkenlerinin sonsuza doğru ıraksamasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Çok büyük sayılarda işlem güçlüğünden dolayı rasgelelik testleri de yapılamamaktadır. Yine benzer sebepten dolayı hem henon haritasını üretmek hem de rasgele sayı üretimi imkansız hale gelmektedir. Bir bakıma oluşturulan henon haritalarından istikrarlı olanlarının bıçak sırtında ilerlemesine benzetebiliriz. En ufak bir dengesizlikte ya da başlangıç koşullarındaki en ufak bir değişiklikte sonsuza doğru ıraksamaktadır. Henon haritasını sürekli olarak çizgiden sapmadan diğer bir deyişle sonsuza ıraksamadan üretebilmek için daha uygun

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a katsayısı değerleri seçmek gerekir. Bu nedenle de hangi a katsayılarının uygun olduğuna karar verebilmek için farklı a değerleri deneyerek binlerce henon haritası oluşturmak gerekir. Henon haritası oluşturmak için kullanılan yazılımda harita ile ilgili değişkenler ve katsayılar şu şekilde ayarlanmıştır. x0 veya y0 parametreleri 1 olarak seçilmiştir. b parametresi 0.3 olarak seçilmiştir. a parametresi ise 1.39000 ile 1.41000 arasında seçilmiş olup farklı haritalar oluşturmak için 0.001 artırılacak şekilde ayarlanmıştır. Böylece her bir a değeri için farklı bir harita ortaya çıkmaktadır. b parametresi için de benzer aralıklar seçilecek şekilde ayarlanmıştır fakat kullanılmamıştır. Kullanılmama sebebi de işlem sayısının çok fazla olması ve bu sebepten a parametresinin yeterince hassas seçilememesidir. Ayrıca b parametresinin sisteme etkisi a parametresi kadar etkili olmamaktadır. a parametresindeki en ufak değişiklik sistemi büyük ölçüde etkileyebilmektedir. Testlerde elde edilen sonuçlarda neredeyse bütün b değerleri için sistem çok çabuk sonsuza doğru gitmektedir. Bundan dolayı farklı b değerleri ile yeterince büyük henon haritaları oluşturulamamaktadır. Yine aynı sebepten dolayı rasgele olabileceğinidüşündüğümüz sayılardan yeterince sayı üretilememektedir. Sonraki adımlarda a parametresinin hassaslığı artırılarak en sonunda 0.00001 artırılacak şekilde seçilmiştir. Farklı a değerleriiçin farklı henon haritaları oluşturulmuştur. Henon haritalarından elde edilen bu rakamlar testlere sokulduklarında belirli bir iterasyona kadar rassal çıkmaktadır. Örneğin aralık 0.0001 alındığında ilk 10.000, 20.000, 30.000, 40.000 iterasyon için rassal çıkarken 50.000 iterasyon için rassal çıkmamaktadır. Rassal çıkmama sebebi henon sayısının sonsuza doğru gitmesinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Benzer şekilde aralık (a parametresi için) 0.00001 alındığında da 10.000,20.000, 30.000, 40.000, 50.000 iterasyon için haritaların bir kısmı rassal çıkarken 60.000 iterasyon için rassallık testini geçen hiçbir henon haritası mevcut değildir. Rassal çıkmama sebebi yine aynı şekilde haritadaki sayıların sonsuza doğru ıraksamasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Aralık hassaslaştırıldıkça iterasyon sayısı da daha çok artırılarak daha uzun henon haritası dizileri elde edilebilmektedir. Bir bakıma çok büyük henon haritaları elde edebilmek için uygun a değerlerinin önceden deneme yanılma yoluyla bulunup kullanılması gerekir. C# programlama dilinde yazılan program ile yeterince büyük henon haritaları oluşturabilmek için gerekli a ve b gibi katsayılar bulunabilir ve oluşturulan haritadan rasgele sayılar üretilebilir. Bu sayılar da kriptolojide,sayısal analizde, istatistik gibi birçok alanda kullanılabilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Benzetim, Rasgelelik Testleri, Henon Haritası, Kaotik Davranış

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IMPROVING EFFECTIVENESS IN THE EMERGENCY SERVICE BY USING DATA ENVELOPMENT ANALYSIS 1

Arzu EREN ŞENARASUludağ University, Department of Econometrics, Bursa, Turkey

(1) Corresponding Author: Arzu EREN ŞENARAS, Uludağ University, Department of Econometrics, Bursa / Tur-key [email protected] Received: 17.03.2016 Accepted: 27.09.2016 Type ofarticle (Research and Practice) Conflict of Interest: None Ethics Committee: None



Abstract: This study aims to analyze the efficiency of resource planning in an emergency service in a second stage public hospital in Turkey. All patients, frequenting hospitals are entities and our resources are doctors, nurses, lab technicians, registrars and x ray technicians. The aim of this paper is to develop methods to iden-tify efficient hospitalization admission control policies for the emergency department patients. Discrete event simulation (DES) is one of the most commonly used operation research tools in healthcare. Its unique ability to account for high levels of complexity and variability which exist in the real world, along with the animation capability provide faster and easier analyses for physicians and other clinical providers, compared to other black-box mathematical models offered by operation researches. The simulation model for the emergency department is developed by Arena 14.0 package program. The developed model could be evaluated as a base for new implementations in other hospitals and clinics. Health care system is a very expensive sector and related costs are very high. To raise service quality, the number of doctors and nurses has been increased but the system target is provided by the increased number of registrars. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) has grown into a powerful quantitative, analytical tool for measuring and evaluating the performance. According to the DEA results Scenario 1, Scenario 2, Scenario 10 and Scenario 12 are the most effective solutions for emergency services. On the other hand, Scenario 7, Scenario 8 and Scenario 9 are the least effective solutions.

Key Words: Discrete Event Simulation, Data Envelopment Analysis, Efficiency, Emergency Service

Doi: 10.17368/UHBAB.20161722359

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JEL CODE: C02-C44-C61-M11-I12-I18 ID:340 K:742ISSN Print: 2147-4168 Online 2147-5385


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INTRODUCTION

An Emergency Department (ED) is a depart-ment which needs to face uncertainty every-day; the ED should have sufficient resources to overcome unexpected injuries and dis-eases. The Emergency Department (ED) is the service within hospitals responsible for providing care to life threatening and other emergency cases over 24 hours daily, 7 days a week. Therefore, such departments are highly frequented by patients and this fre-quency is continuously increasing (Weng et al. 2011:1231; Saghafian et al. 2012: 1080, Ghanes et al. 2014:1421).

Emergency Departments (ED) are one of the most complex parts of hospitals to manage, and yet a major entry point for patients. It deals with patients without an appointment and with a wide range of illnesses. Even if most patients arriving at an ED leave the hos-pital after having seen a physician at the ED, a significant part of them need to be hospital-ized. In many hospitals, finding available beds for unscheduled patients is extremely compli-cated. Even if all patients arriving at the ED do not require the same level of care, many hospitals proceed with the following policy: accept any patient until no bed is available. However, more sophisticated policies, includ-ing bed booking strategies and dynamic de-

cisions, can lead to significant improvement of overall hospital performance (Prodel et al., 2014:1433).

DES models for healthcare facilities com-monly focus on improving wait time, patient flow and management of capacity (Hamrock et al. 2012:110; Jacobsen et al. 2006: 212). Al-though DES is adept at modeling the complex queuing structure for patients in healthcare environments, transition process variation driven by organizational and human factors is more difficult to capture mathematically. For example, analyses of patient location data used to construct DES models may find that patients are consistently waiting for servers (e.g., beds, imaging suites, clinicians) at time-points despite their availability. In the DES, queued patients would efficiently shift to open servers. However in clinical practices, transition process factors such as inefficient communication, lack of awareness of server availability, complex administrative guide-lines, interruptions, and cumbersome docu-mentation create further delays (Levin and Garifullin, 2015:1252; Shi et al. 2015:360). These delays are not inherent to queuing nor well understood from time-stamped patient flow data alone. To fully capture the dynam-ics of healthcare facilities or any flow-based socio-technical system, transition process variability should be understood.

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Not accounting for these processes can lead to results that severely under-estimate wait-ing. Moreover, DES wait time distributions may be difficult to validate against the ob-served healthcare system. To achieve suf-ficient validation, the model developer may be motivated to input additive time intervals to patients at transition points that are drawn from a distribution representing the differ-ence between the current model and observed waits (Shi et al. 2015:360). A more in-depth approach, borrowed from lean methods, may motivate the model developer to map out the transition process and measure or elicit ex-pert estimates of time distributions for each component; independent value of this inves-tigation exists (Kang et al. 2014: 335; Simon and Canacari 2012:86).

The growing cost of healthcare is a major concern for healthcare providers. As health-care organizations move towards the goals of reducing costs, optimizing patient experi-ence, and improving health of populations; operations research tool are becoming more important. These tools provide the ability to assess trade-offs between resource utiliza-tion, quality of service, and operating costs (Lal and Roh, 2015:1261).

The aim of this paper is to develop methods to identify efficient hospitalization admission

control policies for the emergency depart-ment patients.

LITERATURE REVIEW

It is impossible and impractical to have a whole hospital DES model that includes ev-erything in a hospital: all models are sim-plifications (Pidd,2009: 5). An appropriate level of abstraction and scope must be cho-sen when attempting whole hospital simula-tion. The literature has very few examples of such studies. Surprisingly, though, Fetter and Thompson (1965) is a very early example of DES that reports a whole hospital simulation, with a special interest in maternity processes. The aim of this work was to give a decision support tool to hospital administrations to predict the consequences of design changes and alternative policies. They created three models of hospital subsystems: (1) maternity suite, (2) a surgical pavilion, and (3) an out-patient clinic. The maternity model was used to analyze patient load and bed occupancy (Gunal and Pidd, 2010: 46). Recent examples of application of this method in healthcare include the study of Sundaramoorthi (2010), in which this technique was used to plan nurse resource allocation to patients based on workload needs. Ahmed (2009) used simula-tion based optimization to design a decision support tool to determine the optimal num-

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ber of doctors and other staff to maximize the number of patients seen. Ferrand et al. (2010), have compared two distinct resource-allocation policies to handle the flow of scheduled elective surgeries and unpredict-able emergency surgeries. The flexible policy is the historical way of assigning patients to operating rooms. Under the flexible policy, emergency surgeries access any operating room and have priority over electives. The new policy provides the surgeon with more focus as the operating rooms are divided into two subsets and patients access the subset of rooms that corresponds to their type, either elective or emergency. Roberts (2011), rec-ognizes that in healthcare it is often difficult to define a single performance characteristic. Especially in healthcare further investigation is often needed to understand how a change in the process leads to downstream impact. Hence simulation is considered an ideal tech-nique to be used. Zhang (2012) applied this integrated approach to determine the staff-ing requirements of a long term care facil-ity. Tan et al. (2013), presented an integrated framework for dynamic queue management from both demand and supply perspectives. Their experimental analysis showed that the demand-side strategies work seamlessly with both static and dynamic strategies of the sup-ply-side. Likewise, supply-side strategies are

performing well with each demand-side strat-egies. In addition, the dynamic staffing (sup-ply of doctors) can adapt to demand surges or cut cost when demand is reduced. The inte-grated framework allows healthcare decision makers to play a role in achieving the desired service quality and select from a list of pos-sible strategies which suit the operation needs of the ED. Ghanes et al (2014), proposed a Discrete Event Simulation (DES) model for an emergency department (ED). The model was developed in close collaboration with the French hospital Saint Camille, and is validat-ed by using real data. The objective of this model is to help ED managers better under-stand the behavior of the system and to im-prove the ED operations performance. Using DES in Arena software, they have built a re-alistic ED model taking into account all com-mon structural and functional characteristics of at least French EDs. Their experiments fo-cused on Human staffing levels and provided useful insights to decision makers.

Espinoza et al. (2014) studied the impact of the model’s ability to predict ER performance with a limited amount of input information, such that what-if questions may be asked to guide decision making. Towards this end, two input data scenarios are compared to a case of perfect information. One scenario considers only patient arrival times and the

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other assumes additional knowledge of pa-tient care pathways. Although both generate similar performance measures, the case with least information yields a slightly worse es-timate of patient care pathway composition. This project studies two different cases of real-time data obtained from an ER patient workflow, each representing less or more in-formation useful to feed a discrete event sim-ulation model of an emergency room. Moon et al. (2015) introduces EMSSim that is an agent-based simulation of emergency medi-cal services during disasters. We developed EMSSim to encompass the disaster victims’ pass-ways from their rescues to their defini-tive care. This modeling scope resulted that our model delivers the detailed geographical and medical modeling which are often mod-eled separately. This is an effort to fill the gap between the prehospital delivery and the in-hospital care over the disaster period. They specified the model with a variant of the dy-namic DEVS formalism so that the complex models could be better understood and uti-lized by others. Also, we suggest a modeling approach to create a profile with mathemati-cal modeling on the victims’ survival rates, which would enable our models to simulate the effectiveness of the treatments by the re-sponders. Finally, they provide a case study of virtual experiments that analyzes the sensitiv-

ity of rescue performances by varying the di-saster response resources. Frank et al (2015), have compared two different configurations in two different geriatric hospitals. The inte-grated care scenario (Saint-Etienne hospital) means that Short Stay and Rehabilitative Care are both in the same department and separated scenario (Clermont-Ferrand hospital) means that both services are located in different de-partments. They used Discrete Event Simula-tion to evaluate both scenarios and a design of experiment to study the impact of the bed ratio in SS and RC. The model uses a data collection (one year of hospitalization) from the Saint-Etienne Hospital. Performance in-dicators are occupancy rates, admissions (ad-mitted or refused), and the number of waiting patients, total LOS and total transfer time. Then a cost analysis considering the French hospital funding system was performed. The most interesting configuration is the one with integrated care. Lal et al (2015), discussed the methodology and applications of simula-tion based optimization, highlighting advan-tages, challenges and opportunities of using this method in healthcare. They summarized the needs of simulation based optimization in healthcare. They also introduce the key concepts and practical implications of using simulation based optimization to help the us-ers identify the need and model the problems

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appropriately. Levin and Garifullin (2015), describe a novel method to integrate regres-sion models for the survival data in DES ca-pable of quantifying the drivers of transition processes to estimate wait time. These meth-ods are illustrated by example within a large hospital DES. Pepino et al. (2015) proposed a prototype simulation of a hospital ward which permits the study of the workload and task distribution among nursing and auxiliary personnel. In our study, we took both X a ge-neric ward in a complex healthcare structure and a case study of a hospital immunology department as reference models. Both analy-ses were carried out together with a team of expert head nurses and following a specific simulation model developed in the Simul8 environment, which allowed the calculation of patient assistance timing as well as the ef-ficiency of personnel use depending on the patient autonomy.

DISCRETE EVENT SIMULATION

We will define simulation as the process of designing a model of a real system and con-ducting experiments with this model for the purpose of understanding the behavior of the system and /or evaluating various strategies for the operation of the system. Thus it is crit-ical that the model be designed in such a way that the model behavior mimics the response

behavior of the real system to events that take place over time. The term’s model and system are key components of our definition of simu-lation. By a model we mean a representation of a group of objects or ideas in some form other than that of the entity itself. By a system we mean a group or collection of interrelated elements that cooperate to accomplish some stated objective. One of the real strengths of simulation is the fact that we can simulate systems that already exist as well as those that are capable of being brought into existence, i.e. those in the preliminary or planning stage of development (Shannon, 1998: 7).

Simulation is one of the most powerful anal-ysis tools available to those responsible for the design and operation of complex process or systems. In an increasingly competitive world, simulation has become a very power-ful tool for the planning, design, and control of systems (Pegden, 1990: 3).

We consider simulation to include both the construction of the model and the experimen-tal use of the model for studying a problem. Thus, we can think of simulation modeling as an experimental and applied methodology, which seeks to (Shannon, 1998: 7):

• Describe the behavior of a system.

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• Use the model to predict future behavior, i.e. the effects that will be produced by changes in the system or in its method of operation.

The majority of modern computer simulation tools implement a paradigm, called discrete-event simulation (DES). This paradigm is so general and powerful that it provides an im-plementation framework for most simulation languages, regardless of the user worldview supported by them (Altiok and Melamed, 2007: 11).

Discrete event systems simulation is the modeling of systems in which the state vari-able changes only at a discrete set of points in time (Banks et al, 2005: 13). In a discrete model, though, change can occur only at separated points in time, such as a manufac-turing system with parts arriving and leaving at specific times, machines going down and coming back up at specific times, and breaks for workers (Kelton and Sadowski, 2004: 9).

The simulation event list is a means of keep-ing track of the different things that occur dur-ing a simulation run (Law and Kelton, 2000: 9). Anything that occurs during the simula-tion run that can affect the state of the sys-tem is defined as an event. Typical events in a simple simulation include entity arrivals to the queue, the beginning of service times for

entities, and the ending of service times for entities. These events change the state of the system because they can increase or decrease the number of entities in the system or queue or change the state of the resources between idle and busy. The event list is controlled by advances in the simulation clock. In our ba-sic simulation model, the simulation clock advances in discrete jumps to each event on the event list. This type of model is called a discrete event simulation (Chung, 2004: 10).

A Discrete Event Simulation simulator ex-ecutes the following algorithm (Altiok and Melamed, 2007: 12):

1. Set the simulation clock to an initial time (usually 0), and then generate one or more initial events and schedule them.

2. If the event list is empty, terminate the simulation run. Otherwise, find the most im-minent event and unlink it from the event list.

3. Advance the simulation clock to the time of the most imminent event, and execute it (the event may stop the simulation).

4. Loop back to Step 2.

Although discrete event simulation could con-ceptually be done by hand calculations, the amount of data that must be stored and ma-nipulated for most real-world systems dictates

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that discrete event simulations be done on a digital computer (Law and Kelton, 2000: 6).

Discrete event simulation (DES) is one of the most commonly used operations research tools in healthcare. Its unique ability to ac-count for high levels of complexity and vari-ability which exist in the real world, along with the animation capability provider faster and easier analyses for physicians and other clinical providers compared to other black-box mathematical models offered by op-eration researches. However, DES also has some limitations. In scenarios where there are a large number of stochastic input deci-sion variables and there is little information about the structure of output function using a simulation modeling alone can be tedious and complicated. In such cases, optimization via simulation can help to maximize or minimize measures of the performance by evaluating the system using discrete event simulation (Banks et al, 2004).

STEPS in a SIMULATION STUDY

The essence or purpose of simulation mod-eling is to help the ultimate decision-maker solve a problem. Therefore, to learn to be a good simulation modeler, you must know good problem solving techniques with good software engineering practices (Shannon, 1998: 9).

The steps in a simulation study are as follows (Banks et al, 2005:14-18; Shannon, 1998:9):

• Problem formulation: Clearly defining the goals of the study so that we know the purpose, i.e. why are we studying this problem and what questions do we hope to answer? Every study should begin with a statement of the problem. If the statement is provided by the policymakers, or those that have the problem, the analyst must ensure that the problem being described is clearly understood. If a problem statement is developed by the analyst, it is impor-tant that the policymakers understand and agree with the formulation.

• Setting of the objectives and overall proj-ect plan: The objectives indicate the ques-tions to be answered by simulation. At this point, a determination should be made concerning whether simulation is the ap-propriate methodology for the problem as formulated and objectives as stated.

• Model conceptualization: The art of mod-eling is enhanced by an ability to abstract the essential features of a problem, to se-lect and modify basic assumptions that characterize the system, and then to enrich and elaborate the model until a useful ap-proximation results.

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• Data collection: There is a constant inter-play between the construction of the model and the collection of the needed input data (Shannon, 1975). As the complexity of the model changes, the required data elements can also change. Also, since data collec-tion takes such a large portion of the total time required to perform a simulation, it is necessary to begin it as possible, usually together with the early stages of model building.

• Model translation: Most real-world sys-tems result in models that require a great deal of information storage and computa-tion, so the model should be transformed into a computer-recognizable format. We use the term “program” even though it is possible to accomplish the desired result in many instances with little or no actual coding.

• Verified: Verification pertains to the com-puter program prepared for the simulation model. Is the computer program perform-ing properly? With complex models, it is difficult, if not impossible, to translate a model successfully in its entirety without a good deal of debugging; if the input pa-rameters and logical structure of the model are correctly represented in the computer, verification has been completed.

• Validated: Validation usually is achieved through the calibration of the model, an iterative process of comparing the model against actual system behavior and using the discrepancies between the two, and the insight gained, to improve the model. This process is repeated until model accuracy is judged acceptable.

• Experimental design: The alternatives that are to be simulated must be determined.

• Production runs and analysis: Production runs, and their subsequent analysis, are used to estimate measures of performance for the system designs that are being simu-lated.

• More runs: Given the analysis of runs that have been completed, the analyst deter-mines whether additional runs are needed and what design those additional experi-ments should follow.

• Documentation and reporting: There are two types of documentation: program and progress. Program documentation is nec-essary for numerous reasons. If the pro-gram is going to be used again by the same or different analyst, it could be necessary to understand how the program operates. Musselman (1998) discuss progress re-ports that provide the important, written history of a simulation project. Project re-

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ports give a chronology of the work done and decision made.

• Implementation: The success of the imple-mentation phase depends on how well the previous 11 steps are. It is also contingent upon how thoroughly the analyst has in-volved the ultimate model user during the entire simulation process.

AREAS of APPLICATION

The applications of simulation are vast. The Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) is an excellent way to learn more about the latest in simulation applications and theory. Some presentations, by area, from a recent WSC are listed next (Banks et al, 2005: 5; Pidd, 2009:4):

• Manufacturing Applications

Dynamic modeling of continuous manufac-turing systems, using analogies to electrical systems

Benchmarking of a stochastic production planning model

Paint line color change reduction in automo-bile assembly

Modeling for quality and productivity in steel cord manufacturing

Shared resource capacity analysis in biotech manufacturing

Neutral information model for simulating machine shop operations

• Semiconductor Manufacturing

Constant time interval production planning with application to work-in-process control

Accelerating products under due-date orient-ed dispatching rules

Design framework for automated material handling systems in 300 mm wafer fabrica-tion factories

Making optimal design decisions for next-generation dispensing tools

Application of cluster tool modeling in a 300-mm wafer fabrication factory

Resident-entity based simulation of batch chamber tools in 300-mm semiconductor manufacturing

• Construction Engineering and Project Management

Impact of multitasking and merge bias on procurement of complex equipment

Application of lean concepts and simulation for drainage operations maintenance crews

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Building a virtual shop model for steel fab-rication

Simulation of the residential lumber supply chain

• Military Applications

Frequency-based design for terminating sim-ulations: A peace-enforcement example

A multibased framework for supporting mil-itary-based interactive simulations in 3D en-vironments

Specifying the behavior of computer-generat-ed forces without programming

Fidelity and validity: Issues of human behav-ioral representation

Assessing technology effects on human per-formance through trade-space development and evaluation

Impact of an automatic logistics system on the sortie-generation process

Research plan development for modeling and simulation of military operations in urban ter-rain

• Logistics, Supply Chain, and Distribu-tion Applications

Inventory analysis in a server-computer man-ufacturing environment

Comparison of bottleneck detection methods for AGV systems

Semiconductor supply-network simulation

Analysis of international departure passenger flows in an airport terminal

Application of discrete simulation techniques to liquid natural gas supply chains

Online simulation of pedestrian flow in pub-lic buildings

• Transportation Modes and Traffic

Simulating aircraft-delay absorption

Runway schedule determination by simula-tion optimization

Simulation of freeway merging and diverging behavior

Modeling ambulance service of the Austrian Red Cross

Simulation modeling in support of emergen-cy firefighting in Norfolk

Modeling ship arrivals in ports

Optimization of barge transportation systems for petroleum delivery

Iterative optimization and simulation of barge traffic on an inland waterway

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Road transport sector and also private com-panies are one of the main users of computer simulation technique for planning, schedul-ing and developing new traffic systems

• Business Process Simulation

Agent-based modeling and simulation of store performance for personalized pricing

Visualization of probabilistic business mod-els

Modeling and simulation of a telephone call center

Using simulation to approximate subgradi-ents of convex performance measures in ser-vice systems

Simulation’s role in baggage screening at air-ports

Human-fatigue risk simulations in continu-ous operations

Optimization of a telecommunications billing system

Segmenting the customer base for maximum returns

• Health Care

Modeling front office and patient care in am-bulatory health care practices

Evaluation of hospital operations between the emergency department and a medical telem-etry unit

Estimating maximum capacity in an emer-gency room

Reducing the length of stay in an emergency department

Simulating six sigma improvement ideas for a hospital emergency department

A simulation integer linear programming based tool for scheduling emergency room staff

DATA ENVELOPMENT ANALYSIS (DEA)

Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is a rela-tively new “data oriented” approach for eval-uating the performance of a set of peer enti-ties called Decision Making Units which con-vert multıple outputs. Recent years have seen a great variety of applications of DEA for use in evaluating the performance of many dif-ferent kinds of entities engaged in many dif-ferent activities in many different contexts in many different countries. These DEA ap-plications have used DMU’s various forms to evaluate the performance of entities, such as hospitals, US Air Force wings, universi-ties, cities, courts, business firms and others,

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including the performance of countries, re-gions, etc.(Cooper, et al. 2004: 2).

CASE STUDY

This study investigated an emergency de-partment in a second stage public hospital in Turkey. All patients frequenting hospitals are entities and our resources are doctors, nurses, lab technicians, registrars and x ray techni-cians.

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

Prior to the simulation study, the system should be learned in conceptual terms. When a patient arrives to the emergency department, if there is a life-threatening condition, he/she is accepted to the resuscitated zone without registration. If there is not a life-threatening condition; the registration of the patient must be done. During registration, patient is clas-sified as red or green and the patient prior-ity changes according to this classification. When a patient is in red classification, first nurse accepts the patient and she realizes his/her first controls and medical examination is done by a doctor. After the medical examina-tion, the doctor asks the patient to go to the lab or X-ray area, or asks the nurse to treat the patient. If the patient is in green classi-fication, his/her priority is less then the red classification; the patient waits for a doctor

and after the doctor examination, the nurse can treat the patient, considering the doctor’s decision or the patient can go to the lab or he/she can leave the system.

If a patient goes to the lab or X-ray room, he/she waits in the queue and waits for the re-sults and then he/she goes to the examination room and the doctor decides what treatment the nurse will perform. After the treatment, the patient visits the observation room. In the observation room, the patient is treated by nurses. When the observation time is up, the patient waits for the doctor for the last exami-nation and then the patient goes to the regis-tration office and then leaves the system.

SIMULATION MODEL

Based on the gathered data the simulation model is built. The system includes many sto-chastic variables such as the arrival time and service time. Some assumptions and simplifi-cations must be provided. First, in emergence departments there are no appointment rules. Patients can arrive at emergency departments by ambulance or by car. The service time is in general triangular or normal. Based on the gathered data arrival time is fitted to expo-nential distribution with parameter 7.2 min-utes. Patients with life threating conditions constitute %3,2 of the patients. Service time for these patients is triangle with parameter

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10,20,30 .In fact after the first intervention, patients leave the system to enter the inten-sive care department. Patients without life threating conditions pass the registration stage. Registration time is fitted to normal distribution with mean 3,2 and standard devi-ation 1,3. In registration, %23 of the patients are classified as red, and the rest is green. For the patients in red class, nurse service time is fitted to normal distribution with mean 3,2 and standard deviation is 0,5; doctor service time is fitted to triangular (4.2,5.7,9.1).%40 of these patients visit labs and the rest wait for the nurse treatment. Nurse service time is fitted to triangular (3.5;7.5;9.7) and patients go to the observation room. Considering the patients in green class, their priority in queue is the second. Their examination is realized by a doctor. The doctor service time is fitted to normal distribution with mean 7.3 mn and std is 2,5 mn. %40 of patients in green class leave the system; %20 go to the lab and the rest wait for the nurse treatment. Test and di-agnosis part consists of Lab and X ray .X ray service time is fitted to normal (2.5,0.8) and lab service time is fitted to normal distribu-tion with parameter(10.1,3.2) after lab opera-

tion ; we assume that patients must wait for 15 minutes for the test results. When patients receive the results, they go to the examination room to show their test results to the doctor. The doctor’s service time is fitted to trian-gular distribution (3.1,7.2,8.6). At the end of the doctor examination, the doctor decides to let the patient leave or send the patient to the observation room. In the observation room, every 15 minutes the nurse visits the patient and before the patient leaves the observa-tion room the doctor gives his/her approval. The doctor service time is fitted to triangu-lar (1.8,3.5,5.6). To leave the system the patient must visit the registration office and the registrar service time is fitted to normal distribution with parameter mean 5,2 minute and standard deviation is 2,1. The simulation model was developed by Arena package pro-gram.

SIMULATION RESULTS

The simulation model runs for 1000 minutes and 100 minutes is assumed to warm up pe-riod. To initialize our system we begin with all resources with 1 capacity. Table 1 shows the number of resources for scenario 1.

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Table 1.Number of Resources for Scenario 1

Resource Name Number of Resources

Doctor 1

Register Clerk 1

Nurse 1

X-ray Technician 1

Lab.Technician 1

The simulation model’s results show that 118 patients came to the emergency

services and 75 patients leave the system dur-ing simulation. Table 2 shows the utilization rates of resources for scenario 1.

Table 2. Utilization rate for Scenario 1

Resource Name Utilization

Doctor % 94,96

Register Clerk % 81,95

Nurse % 89,70

X-ray technician % 2,00

Lab. Technician % 6,32

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Table 3. Number of Resources and Utilization Rates for Scenarios

Scenario 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Resource Name Number of Resources

Doctor 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 5 5 6 6 3

Register Clerk 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2

Nurse 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5

X-ray technician 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Lab. Technician 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Output 75 87 83 89 85 88 86 86 86 111 113 114

Resource Name Utilization Rate

Doctor 0,95 1,1 1,21 1,15 1,23 1,19 1,19 1,14 1,14 1,18 1,22 1,28

Register Clerk 0,82 0,89 0,86 0,88 0,9 0,89 0,88 0,88 0,88 0,88 1,01 1,03

Nurse 0,9 0,94 1,15 1,02 0,99 1,13 1,1 1,01 1,01 1,05 1,06 1,09

X-ray technician 0,02 0,01 0,01 0,03 0,01 0,02 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,02 0,01 0,03

Lab. Technician 0,06 0,07 0,04 0,05 0,05 0,03 0,04 0,04 0,04 0,03 0,07 0,07

From scenario 1 to scenario 10, the number of doctors and nurses increases but the service quality and the number of patients do not in-crease. At scenario 11, the number of register clerks is increased to 2 and service quality and the number of patients leaving the system rise. On the other hand the utilization of X-ray technicians and lab technicians is very low. If it is possible, a staff who is responsible for two job (X-ray technician and lab technician) can

be employed. This solution will increase the effectiveness of the system.

DEA

The CCR method is used for analyzing effi-ciency of the emergency service. The lineer programming model is solved in POM pack-age program. DEA results can be seen in Table 4.

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Table 4. DEA Results

RHS u v1 v2 v3 v4 v5

Scenario 1 1 0,0133 1 0 0 0 0

Scenario 2 1 0,0115 0,1379 0,7241 0 0 0

Scenario 3 0,954 0,0115 0,1379 0,7241 0 0 0

Scenario 4 0,957 0,0108 0,0645 0,8065 0 0 0

Scenario 5 0,914 0,0108 0,0645 0,8065 0 0 0

Scenario 6 0,9462 0,0108 0,0645 0,8065 0 0 0

Scenario 7 0,8687 0,0101 0,0606 0,7576 0 0 0

Scenario 8 0,819 0,095 0,0571 0,7143 0 0 0

Scenario 9 0,819 0,095 0,0571 0,7143 0 0 0

Scenario 10 1 0,009 0,0541 0,6757 0 0 0

Scenario 11 0,9912 0,0088 0 0 0,592 0,7039 0

Scenario 12 1 0,0088 0,1053 0 0,0329 0,5197 0

According to the results Scenario 1, Scenario 2, Scenario 10 and Scenario 12 are the most effective solutions for emergency services. On the other hand, Scenario 7, Scenario 8 and Scenario 9 are the least effective solutions.

CONCLUSION

The simulation model for the emergency de-partment is developed by Arena package pro-gram. The patient waiting times are reduced by the tested scenarios. This paper enables the readers to evaluate healthcare systems by means of the discrete event simulation. The developed model could be evaluated as a base

for new implementations in other hospitals and clinics.

Health care system is a very expensive sec-tor and related costs are very high. To raise the quality of services, the number of doctors and nurses has been increased but the system target is provided by the increased number of registration clerks. Testing different scenarios, effective policies can be designed by using the developed simulation model.

According to the simulation results, it can be said that increasing number of doctor and nurse is not efficient for the system. On the other hand, by increasing number of registra-

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tion clerk from 1 to 2, efficiency of emergency department will raise. And also, a staff who is responsible for two job (X-ray technician and lab technician) can be employed. And this so-lution will also increase the effectiveness of the system.

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ACİL SERVİSTE ETKİNLİĞİN VERİ ZARFLAMA ANALİZİ İLE İYİLEŞTİRİLMESİ

Öz: Acil servisler hemen müdahale edilmediği takdirde sakatlık ve ölümle sonuçlanabilen hastalığı olan insanlara bakım sağlayan sağlık birimleridir. Literatür incelendiğinde son yıllarda acil servislerin kapasitelerinin incelenmesi, gelen hastalara zamanında ve yeterli düzeyde hizmet verebilmesi için gerekli çalışan sayısının belirlenmesi konusunda çalışmaların arttığı görülmektedir. Günümüzde acil tedavi hizmeti sunan birçok sağlık tesisinin yöneticileri için, tıkanma noktasına gelen acil servis süreçlerini, kesintisiz olarak verilmeye devam eden hizmetlerinden ve insan sağlığını direkt etkileyen yapılardan dolayı değerlendirebilmek old-ukça güç bir hale gelmiştir. Hemşireler ve diğer acil personelinin sayısındaki yetersizlik, hasta bakımı geciktirmekte, Hastaların uzun süre acil serviste kalmasına ve acil serviste aşırı yığılmaya neden olmaktadır. Hastaların acil serviste muayene olmak için uzun süre beklemeleri acil servis hastaları tarafından en sık yapılan şikayettir. Acil servis yoğunluğuna bağlı ortaya çıkan prob-lemlerin hasta memnuniyetini azalttığı ve uzun bekleme süreleri sonucunda bazı ciddi hastalıklara sahip hastaların acil servis doktoru tarafından değerlendirilmeden acil servisi terk ettiği rapor edilmiştir. Bunun sonucunda pek çok hastalığın erken teşhis ve tedavisi gecikmek-tedir. Bu bağlamda günümüzde, acil servisler üzerinde değişiklikler yaparak, deneme yanılma yolu ile optimal çözümler üretmeye çalışmak yerine, benzetim yöntemi ile oluşturulan ve gerçeği yansıtan bir bilgisayar modeli üzerinde senaryolar üretmek ve bunlar sınamak kabul gören ve yaygınlaşan bir yaklaşım olmuştur. Ayrıca teknolojinin gelişmesi ile birlikte, benzetim araçları optimizasyon eklentileri ile de desteklenmiş, binlerce senaryonun bilgisayarlar tarafından dakikalar içerisinde değerlendirilebilmesi ve optimal çözümlerin kullanıcıların ve yöneticilerin onayına sunulabilmesi sağlanmıştır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Türkiye’de bulunan ikinci seviye hastanede acil servisin kaynak planlamasına göre etkinliğinin analiz edilmesidir. Hastaneye gelen tüm hastalar varlık; doktorlar, hemşireler, laboratuvar teknisyenleri ise kaynaktır. Bu çalışmanın kapsamını acil servis için etkin hastane yönetim kontrol politikaları sağlayacak metotlar geliştirmektir. Kesikli olay benzetimi sağlık sisteminde kullanılan en önemli yöneylem aracıdır. Yüksek seviyede değişkenlik ve karmaşa ihtiva eden gerçek dünya animasyon özelliğine sahip benzetim programları diğer yöneylemin sağladığı kara kutu model-

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lerinden daha hızlı ve kolay analiz imkanı sağlar. Benzetim, gerçek hayat kaynaklarının ve süreçlerinin farklı şekillerdeki operasyonlarının bilgisayar ortamında modellenmesi ve ben-zetilmesi tekniğidir. Bir benzetimde model karakteristiklerini doğru tahmin etmek için toplanan verileri sayısal olarak bilgisayar aracılığıyla değerlendirebilir. Bir benzetim modeli, temel olarak “ne-eğer (… olursa ne olur) ” (“what-if”) analizlerinin yapılmasını sağlayan bir araç olarak ele alınmalıdır. Kullanıcısına değişik tasarım ve işletim stratejilerinin genel sistem performansı üzerindeki etkisini gösterir. Benzetim, gerçek dünyanın temsilinin oluşturulması ve onunla deney yapmaktan oluşur; bu sebeple benzetimin bir alternatifi gerçek dünyada deney yapmaktır. Gerçek denemelere karşın, benzetim bazı avantajlara sahiptir. Maliyet: Benzetim zaman alabilen ve böylece nitelikli işgücü anlamında pahalı olmasına rağmen, gerçek denemel-er; özellikle bazı şeyler yanlış gittiğinde pahalı olabilir. Zaman: Herkesin kabul edeceği gibi, benzetim modelleri için çalışan bilgisayar programlarını üretmek önemli miktarda zaman alır. Ancak bir kez yazıldıktan sonra büyük fırsatlar sunarlar. Şöyle ki haftaların, ayların ve hatta yılların saniyelik bilgisayar zamanıyla benzetimini yapmak olasıdır. Böylece politikalar büt-ünüyle düzenli olarak karşılaştırılabilir. Tekrar (Replication): Ne yazık ki gerçek dünyada bir deneyin tam olarak tekrarlanması nadiren mümkündür. Fiziki bilimlerle uğraşanların nitelikler-inden biri diğer bilim adamlarınca tekrarlanabilen deneylerin tasarımıdır. Bu, yönetim bilim-inde nadiren olasıdır. Bir organizasyonun rakiplerinin, bir indirimde en iyiyi bulmak için fiyat politikalarının tüm türlerinin denenmesini boş boş oturup beklemeleri olası görünmektedir. Yine düşmanın savaşın yinelenmesine izin vermesi oldukça az olasıdır. Benzetimler kesinlikle tekrarlanabilir. Güvenlik: Bir benzetim çalışmasının amaçlarından biri uç koşulların etkilerinin tahmin edilmesi olabilir ve gerçek dünyada bunu yapmak tehlikeli ve hatta yasak olabilir. Bir havaalanı yönetimi havaalanının kapasitesini öğrenmek için, onlar da istiyor olsa, günlük uçuşların ikiye katlanmasına izin vermek konusunda belki ikna edilebilirler. Benzetilmiş uçak-lar benzetilmiş uzayda yakıtları bittiği zaman küçük hasarlara yol açarlar. Yasallık: Mafya tarafından çalıştırılmasa da analistin yasalardaki değişikliğin etkilerini belirleme isteği olduğu anlar vardır. Örneğin, bir şirket sürücülerin çalışma saatlerinde olacak yasal değişikliklerin şirketin ürün teslim performansı üzerindeki etkisini görmek isteyebilir. Kesikli olay, zaman içerisinde herhangi bir noktada oluşan bir anlık olaydır. Uçağın hava meydanına inmesi, dağıtım bölümüne varan bir parça, bankaya giren bir müşteri, deniz otobüsüne binen bir yolcu, kesikli olaya verilebilen birkaç örnektir. Bu olayların olması sistem durumunun değişmesine sebep

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olur. Kesikli olay modellerinin benzetiminde, bilgisayar, benzetim saati adı verilen, zaman içinde belirli bir noktada gerçeklesen her olayda ölçüm yapan bir zaman belirleyici mekanizma içerir. Kesikli olay benzetim modelinde en önemli konu, her adımda benzetim zamanının bilin-mesi gerekliliğidir. Benzetim zamanını gösteren değişkene “Benzetim Saati” denir. Kesikli olay benzetiminde her olayda benzetim zamanının bulunduğu değerden ileri bir değere geçmesini sağlayacak bir işlem yapılması gerekmektedir. Veri zarflama analizi (VZA); farklı ölçü birim-lerine sahip, çok sayıda girdi ile çıktı değişkeninin olduğu ve bunların ortak bir ölçüt temeline indirgenemediği durumlarda, karar verme birimlerinin (KVB) görece toplam faktör etkinliğini ölçmeye imkân veren, doğrusal programlama (DP) esaslı bir yaklaşımdır. Veri Zarflama Anal-izi, her bir KVB’yi yalnızca en iyi KVB’lerle karşılaştırmaktadır. En iyi olarak belirlenen bu KVB’ler etkinlik sınırını oluştururken herhangi bir KVB’nin etkinliği bu sınıra göre ölçülmek-tedir. Yöntem, etkinlik sınırı üzerinde yer alan en iyi KVB’leri görece etkin olarak değerlendirir ve bu birimler referans kümesi olarak ifade edilir. Etkinlik sınırı üzerinde yer almayan diğer KVB’ler ise görece etkin olmayan birimlerdir. Veri Zarflama Analizi ilk kez 1957 yıllında Far-rell tarafından Ortalama Performans ölçütüne karşılık ortaya atılan Sınır Üretim Fonksiyonu önerisi ile şekillenmiş, Charnes, Cooper, Banker ve Rhodes’ in çalışmalarıyla bu günkü haline gelmiştir. Veri Zarflama Analizinde kullanılan yöntemler, girdi ya da çıktı odaklı olarak çözül-ebilir. Burada girdi odaklılık, çıktı miktarlarının sabit tutularak girdi miktarlarında meydana gelecek değişimlerin incelenmesi, çıktı odaklılık ise girdi miktarlarının sabit tutularak çıktı miktarlarında meydana gelecek değişimlerin incelenmesi olarak tanımlanmıştır. İster girdi odaklı ister çıktı odaklı düşünülsün, bir karar verici karar noktalarının etkinliklerine CRR yön-temiyle karar vermek istiyorsa yukarıda tanımlanan modeli bütün karar noktaları için uygulamalıdır. Kurulan model her bir karar noktası için çözüldüğünde her bir karar noktası için toplam etkinlik ölçütleri elde edilecektir. Bu ölçütleri 1’ eşit olması karar noktaları için etkinliği, 1’ den küçük olmaları ise karar noktalarının etkinsizliğini gösterir. Benzetim çalışması Arena 14.0 paket programında geliştirilmiştir. Kurulan model yeni kurulacak acil servisler için bir taban kabul edilebilir. Sağlık sistemi oldukça pahalı bir sektördür ve ilgili maliyetleri oldukça yüksektir. Servis kalitesinin arttırılması doktor, hemşire sayısı ile olmayıp kayıt memurunun arttırılmasıyla sağlanmıştır. Veri zarflama analizi performans etkinliğinin ölçüp değerlendirilmesi için güçlü bir araçtır. Bu çalışmada Charnes-Cooper-Rhodes (CCR) Modelleri kullanılmıştır. Yapılan veri zarflama analizi sonuçlarına göre; Tablo 4’te gösterilen senaryo 1, senaryo 2, se-

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naryo 10, senaryo 12 en etkili karar seçenekleri iken senaryo 7, senaryo 8 ve senaryo 9 performansı en düşük çözümler olarak ifade edilebilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Kesikli Olay Benzetimi, Veri Zarflama Analizi, Etkinlik, Acil Servis

5959

COMMUNITY ISOMORPHISM AND CORPORATE SOCIAL ACTION: IS THERE ANY BOND BETWEEN COMMUNITY AND CORPORATE

ISOMORPHISM? 1

Őzgür ÖNDAYYeditepe University, Business Administration Department, Istanbul / Turkey

(1) Corresponding Author: Özgür ÖNDAY, Yeditepe University, Business Administration Department, İstanbul / Turkey [email protected] Received: 19.04.2016 Accepted: 23.09.2016 Type ofarticle (Research and Studies) Conflict of Interest: None Ethics Committee: None



Abstract: In order to respond to these pressures, managers are making decisions to adapt their behaviors and restructuring and improve their processes and structures. In doing so, managers desire to increase their resources, reach stability, adapt to their environment and achieve legitimacy. Environmental accounting sup-ports businesses in meeting responsibilities of corporate social responsibility areas. In this study, descriptive information about corporate social responsibility areas are included. In addition, the question “What are the functions of environmental accounting in terms of corporate social responsibility areas?” is another objec-tive of the study. This paper aims at finding out if governments create institutional isomorphism and it also aims at investigating whether there is a link between organizational isomorphism and today’s world people isomorphism or not. In the latter model, there will be an investigation for that ‘over socialized’ individuals are assumed to accept and follow social norms unquestioningly, without any real reflection or behavioral resistance relied on their own particular, personal interests (see Wrong 1961).

Key Words: Institutionalism, Isomorphism, Community Isomorphism, Corporate Isomorphism, Corporate Social Action

Doi: 10.17368/UHBAB.20161722360

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JEL CODE: F50-F59-H70-M10-R11-R23-R51 ID:378 K:776ISSN Print: 2147-4168 Online 2147-5385


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INTRODUCTION

Although the word “institution” has been widely examined by early sociologists from the beginning of the 1920s, systematizing the body of literature started in the late 19th and early 20th century. One of the most prominent examples of systematization was done by Weber who attempted to systematize several concepts about social life. In his earlier stud-ies, Weber spoke about the rules of behavior which are so-called maxims of social life and what makes these maxims into institutions is that they tend to be guaranteed in their legiti-macy and also by activity. Most of the writ-ers point out Weber as the originator of the analytical focus on formalization concept and bureaucracy. Today, as an administrative sys-tem bureaucracy governs many large institu-tions. Thus, one can say that Max Weber is one of the main contributors to institutional approach. Although Weber never mentioned the actual word “formalization”, in one of his discussions he spoke about the bureaucratic form of “…..loyalty attached to formal rules”. Formalization is usually considered to be a manifestation of bureaucracy. According to Weber, each bureaucratic element operates as a part of a system, consequently provide more efficient and effective administration, and second, service authority and power re-lationships. In the early stages of an orga-

nization, formalization is likely to promote organizational effectiveness by producing in administration. Formalization emerges as the entrepreneurial organization which deals with increasing growth and size. Besides the pressure from growth and numbers, the or-ganization is also formalized in response to environmental pressure to achieve legitimacy. It is important to note that early formulation of standards induces efficiency and promote effectiveness. As a result of formalization, ef-ficiency and effectiveness can be maintained during the growth stage. However, establish-ing power and influence by formalization can contribute to organizational decline when the rules become a set of tools for grabbing re-sources. Maintaining privilege organization can start to pay less attention to the competi-tive environment and people in the organiza-tion start to believe that their individual sur-vival depends on following rules to protect themselves against change even against their bosses. Downside effects of formalization can be managed by replacing top management teams and developing a structure of collabo-ration to manage the red-tape crisis.

So what is the difference between the Old and New Institutionalism? Until after the post-war period the political science was dominated by the study of political institutions. Old Institu-tionalism is an approach which basically fo-

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cuses on formal institutions of government. New institutionalism recognizes institutional environment and focuses on the environment consisting of other institutions. This approach concludes that organizations must achieve legitimacy in order to survive and they can establish legitimacy within the world of the institution since they are influenced by the broader system-environment. That’s why or-ganizations incorporate elements of legitima-cy, employ ceremonial criteria of worth and change their formal structures in accordance with their environment and want to succeed in becoming isomorphic with their environ-ment. By becoming isomorphic with their en-vironments, they demonstrate legitimacy and the resources to survive.

Over the last 15-20 years, the new institution-alism has developed to become an updated and exhaustive alternative to the ‘old’ institution-alism. The basic premise is the same: political thinking has its roots in the analysis and design of institutions. Rooted in the first half of the twentieth century, the original institutionalist school developed itself by legalism, struc-turalism, holism, historicism and normative analysis. Especially the latter two elements, which pronounced historical and normative foundation of their analysis, did not quite con-cur with the emerging behavioral and rational choice tendencies which gained ground in the

50s-60s. Unlike the traditional historical ap-proach, behaviorists concentrated on the more informal aspects of politics, like people func-tioning within institutions. They ‘tended to deny the importance of formal institutions for determining the outputs of government’, and concentrated on the behavior of the individu-als within the institutions. The rational choice approach saw the behavior of political actors and political groups as a link of economic motivations, more in particular rational util-ity maximization. They tried to make politi-cal science more scientific by exploring causal relationships and stressing a strongly empiri-cal approach: hypotheses that are developed should be verified, psychological and social factors which can determine behaviors should be tested. In their approach, they took a radi-cal anti-normative and anti-historical stance. The political science, which often strives to be both scientific and humanistic and tends to be interdisciplinary, over-emphasized the role of its methodological and scientific part, thereby almost not seeing the humanistic aspects of the discipline in other words people isomorphism.

As indicated the new institutionalism can be traced back to sociologist Max Weber’s no-tions of the bureaucratic form in organiza-tion analysis. After Weber, Meyer and Rowan published an influential paper which revised the formulation of institutionalism and cre-

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ated a significant shift to the concept in 1977. The researches followed in this paper referred as new or neo-institutionalism. Nearly three decades ago, the first neo-institutional argu-ments were formulated by John Meyer and colleagues such as Brian Rowan in 1977 and Richard Scott in 1983, and by Lynne Zucker in 1977. This new orientation proposed that formal organizational structure reflected not only technical demands and resource depen-dencies, but was also shaped by institutional forces, including rational myths, knowledge legitimated through the educational system and by the professions, public opinion, and the law. The core idea that organizations are deeply embedded in social and political en-vironments suggested that organizational practices and structures are often either re-flections of or responses to rules, beliefs, and conventions built into the wider environment.

It was James March and Johan Olsen who named the new institutionalism in 1984 with their article in the American Political Science Review titled: “The New Institutionalism: Or-ganizational Factors in Political Life”. They criticized the behaviorist approach by dis-cussing that contemporary political science tended to ‘portray (…) political phenomena as the aggregate consequences of individual behavior, action as the result of choices based on calculated self-interest, (….) and decision

making and the allocation of resources as the central foci of political life’ They saw politi-cal science since the fifties in five keywords: contextualism, reductionism, utilitarianism, instrumentalism, and functionalism. Espe-cially the functionalist approach to history as being efficient in understanding appropriate outcomes, and moving towards some kind of equilibrium, was countered. March and Olsen painted a more realistic picture of historical-political processes in history as less smooth and forgetting the functionality claimed by the behaviorists. In discussing that history is not a functional process moving to some kind of equilibrium, March & Olsen’s ideas coincide with those of the English School (International Society). With its views arising as early as the sixties, the English School of-fered similar critiques of the dominance of ra-tional choice theory and stressed the signifi-cance of a more contextual approach in which interdisciplinary played a crucial role as well.

The new institutionalism in organizational analysis has made important contributions to our understanding of the dynamics of orga-nizations. It has changed the way of research away from overly rationalistic explanations of organizational behavior toward explana-tions that recognize that organizations are embedded in larger cultural and political con-texts. It has changed the focus of research

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from explaining why organizations are so heterogeneous to why organizations are so similar. Over the past decade, as its reach has extended across different topics, institutional theory has concentrated often on nonprofit organizations, such as art museums (DiMag-gio, 1991: 280), colleges and universities, humanitarian groups, association, and drug abuse units. A number of studies have dem-onstrated the relevance of the institutional ap-proach to for-profit organizations, including large corporations, railroads, law firms, and high-tech companies. Some studies have fo-cused on public sector organizations. In many of these theoretical formulations and in the institutional case studies that have been im-plemented to date, government agencies take a critical role in triggering and inaugurating institutional change in nonprofit and for-profit organizations, sometimes by exerting pressure through its control of funding, some-times by the exercise of its power to regulate. With its emphasis on legitimacy, satisfying behavior, structural decoupling, and sym-bols, the new institutionalism demonstrates a major departure from rival theories such as transaction costs economics, population ecol-ogy, and resource dependence theory, which are based to a greater or less extent on the model of rational action.

Legislative and judicial authorities create and interpret legal mandates; administrative agen-cies -- such as state and federal government, port authorities, and school districts -- create rules of practice; and licenses and credentials become adequate in order to practice occu-pations. As legal and regulatory pressures in-crease, nonprofit and business organizations respond with increasing levels of institution-alized rules and procedures. Organizational fields rich in myths and ceremonies are es-tablished when pressure is exerted on orga-nizations by forces in the surrounding envi-ronment. Government agencies are some of the most potent and beneficial environmental actors, which come into contact at some level -- be it via laws or regulations -- with most organizations.

Looking at some of these same issues, DiMaggio & Powell (1991), proposed three forces driving institutionalization: (1) coer-cive isomorphism which stems from political influence and the need for legitimacy; (2) mi-metic isomorphism resulting from standard responses to uncertainty; and (3) normative isomorphism associated with professionaliza-tion. These three mechanisms can overlap and intermingle, but they rely on to gather from various conditions. At an analytic level, only coercive isomorphism is bounded to the envi-ronment surrounding the organizational field.

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Mimetic and normative processes are inter-nal to the field and help explain the spread of roles and structures. When organizations are subjected to outside coercive scrutiny, evalu-ation, and regulation, they tend to react defen-sively and gravitate toward isomorphic trans-formation. As the pressures from the outside become larger, organizations are led to find ways to either diffuse or ignore this pressure by changing their practices. One of the easi-est ways to shifting is to adopt those routines and structures that are defined by law or gov-ernment agencies as legitimate. To do so may ensure survival by minimizing conflict. The process of institutionalization is intimately tied with the idea of an organizational field. Rather than simply emerging as the product of the natural interaction of organizations, fields are constructed for an aim. They are the final product of coercive, mimetic, and normative isomorphism, and they reflect the slow homogenization and convergence of or-ganizational forms. DiMaggio & Powell, take a strong position on the emergence of fields, arguing that they are constructed and that they serve as information networks fueling standardization and professionalization by spelling out and emphasizing the role of the state in forcing organizations in the direction of isomorphism and convergence.

Institutional isomorphism directs organiza-tions to apply similar structures, strategies, and processes. Isomorphism has emerged from the concept of homogeneity, which indicates process that forces one unit in a population to resemble other units that face the nearly the same set of environmental con-ditions. The theory of isomorphism points out the structural determinants of the range of choices that actors perceive as rational or prudent.

Scott, in 2001, further invented three ‘pillars’ of the institutional order: regulative, norma-tive, and cultural/cognitive. Regulative ele-ments underline rule setting and sanctioning, normative elements contain an evaluative and obligatory dimension, while cultural/cogni-tive factors deal with shared conceptions and frames through which meaning is understood. Each of Scott’s pillars offered a different ra-tionale for legitimacy, either by virtue of be-ing legally sanctioned, morally authorized, or culturally supported. These two key treat-ments of institutional mechanisms under-scored that it is crucial to distinguish whether an organization complies out of expedience, from a moral obligation, or because its mem-bers cannot conceive of alternative ways of acting.

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Finally, it is significant to remark that the new institutionalism is not a unified school of thought. Numerous approaches put forward different readings of institutionalist theory, both in content and discipline. Apart from political science, also economics, history and sociology have their institutionalist assump-tions. Different applications of institutional-ism are legion: empirical institutionalism, international institutionalism, rational choice institutionalism, sociological institutional-ism, normative institutionalism, democratic institutionalism, holistic institutionalism, and so forth. This diversity-within-theory can be enriching, since it involves a variety of top-ics. Its downside is a too broad interpretation of institutionalist theory: a too fragmented approach will make nothing but confusion and disarray to the study of institutionalism.

Therefore, in this research I intend to uphold the ‘traditional’ division of institutionalism into three types; rational choice institution-alism, historical institutionalism, and socio-logical institutionalism. Although these three institutionalisms vary considerably in their approach, they all agree upon one thing: in-stitutions do matter.

The “world society” (Meyer et al., 1997: 156) focuses on cultural and ideational causes. These are posited to exert influence either

at the supra-societal or supra-state level for states and their policies, or at the societal level for organizations. Historical institutionalists typically focus on determinants at the mac-ro-political or macroeconomic level, though they base on no particular type of institution-al theory, and instead expect causation to be multiple and conjectural and often involving time-order and path dependence (Pierson and Skocpol 2002: 712). Political institutionalists typically situate their purposes at the state or macro-political level and argue that the pro-cess of formation of states, political systems, and political party systems strongly influence political processes and outcomes (Amenta, 2005: 108). The three institutionalisms have various origins and emphases in their strate-gies of research, as well as different advan-tages and disadvantages.

Social, political and economic institutions have become larger, considerably more com-plex and resourceful, and more significant in collective life. It is therefore useful to blend elements from the [contemporary] theoretical styles into an older concern with institutions.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section deals with review of the litera-ture for 3 types of institutionalism and 3 types of institutional isomorphism:

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SOCIOLOGICAL INSTITUTIONALISM

The two main sources of sociological insti-tutionalism as applied to politics are derived from organizational and world society per-spectives and developed as a response to the lacunae in state-centered and world system theories in political sociology and in neoreal-ist theories in international relations, all of which attribute policies and actions to politi-cal actors’ purposive pursuit of self-interest. The critique has three known parts. First, the instrumental, individualist assumptions of interest-driven theories, sociological institu-tionalist scholars have noted, predict a variety of policies, actions, and functional forms be-tween states, whereas for many policy exam-ples states instead display isomorphism, de-spite differences in relevant interests. Second, the ambiguity of the linkage among observed reality, political instruments, and policy goals may render impracticable a well-informed pursuit of interests. Third, interest-driven the-ories may prematurely not take into account the constitutive role of culture in politics or conceptualize culture as being an artifact of political structures or economic relations.

Responsible for policy and political struc-tural isomorphism in sociological institu-tionalist explanations, then, are cultural in-stitutions common to political actors: cogni-

tive or normative constructs that explain the conceivable and suitable forms of political organization, policy goals, and policy in-struments for attaining those goals (Hall and Taylor, 1996: 941). The institution of interest is transnational political culture, not nation-specific configurations of political organiza-tions. This perhaps makes “institutionalism” a misnomer; the institutions of concern are the codified cultural constructions, not the or-ganizations that mirror them. Sociological in-stitutional theories address policy innovation only insofar as they describe waves of con-formity to newly emerging cultural institu-tions, or address the conditions under which extant institutions constitute the production of new policy forms. They conceptualize the process of policy adoption as being a matter of emulation and diffusion, emphasizing sys-tem-level and relational-level causes that are exogenous to actors.

HISTORICAL INSTITUTIONALISM

Historical institutionalism varies from so-ciological institutionalism in its lack of en-dorsement of a specific theoretical program and as a school of thought has only a mod-erately high level of self-identity. According to its proponents, historical institutionalism is distinctive mainly in its approach to politi-cal inquiry. It concentrates on big questions

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that may be of interest to both academics and the thinking public. It seeks descriptions that are configurational and implicates a conjunc-tion of institutions, processes, and events. Its descriptions are also contextual, shaped by institutional factors and often bound to par-ticular places in times. Although historical institutionalism does not rely on any specific school of theorizing, it does rely on a style of theoretical argument sometimes known as historicist causation. Its proponents regard institutions as setting off processes of path dependence in which new institutions or poli-cies reshape political possibilities, making some far more likely and ruling out others or making them highly unlikely. The most com-mon institutions explained are those at the state or country level, notably the polity or the political economy. Although historical in-stitutionalism demands historical sophistica-tion, expects scholars to attend to the mecha-nisms of explanations, and tends to avoid deductive theorizing, it does not otherwise set boundaries on theoretical thinking or the methods to appraise causal claims.

Despite working from mainly Weberian and Marxian theoretical schemes, historical insti-tutionalists do not shape a theoretical school and that means that its practitioners do not always see themselves as historical institu-tionalists. Indeed, some work deemed to be

historical institutionalist by its proponents is based on sociological institutionalism. His-torical institutionalism is less important as an identity in sociology than in political science, where historical institutionalists seek to dif-ferentiate themselves from behaviorists and, more importantly, from rational choice schol-ars who also deploy the term institutionalism. Historical institutionalists often take place in the sub-disciplines of comparative politics and within American politics in American political development.

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONALISM

Political institutional theorizing is the most crucial mode of theorizing among histori-cal institutionalists. Scholars have gener-ally employed the Tocquevillian argument about states in an explanatory way and have added further argumentation concerning the construction of other large-scale political in-stitutions, including political party systems (Skocpol, 1985: 13). In the hands of some theorists, the arguments became more struc-tural and systemic, with longstanding politi-cal institutions attracting all groups and hav-ing major effect over outcomes of interest. In the hands of others, political institutionalism has become more historical and concentrated on historical processes, and focuses theoreti-cal attention on the interaction of actors at a

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medium-systemic, inter-organizational, or meso level. These actors are known as work-ing within institutional constraints, as well as with constraints on resources and other means of action, and attempting to influ-ence state policy. Changes in state policies in turn set processes in motion that influence the interests and strategies of actors that will determine whether programs will feed back in a way that strengthens the program or un-dermines it or leaves it open to changes at a later time. The main theoretical framework is that macro-level political institutions form politics and political actors, who act under constraints that may influence their impact on states and policies, refashioning political institutions in the process, and so on.

COERCIVE ISOMORPHISM

Coercive isomorphism implies some formal consequences for failure to conform to par-ticular operating procedures and structures (Jaffee, 2008: 110). According to DiMaggio and Powell, coercive isomorphism comes from the political influences both in the for-mal and informal pressures and the problem of legitimacy. Such pressures may be felt as force, as persuasion, or as invitations to join in collusion. The shifts that may occur within this type of isomorphism be largely on cere-monial. As a result, organizations are increas-

ingly homogeneous within given domains and increasingly shaped around rituals of conformity to wider institutions. On the other hand, organizations are decreasingly structur-ally determined by the constraints posed by technical activities, and decreasingly held together by output controls. Thus, organiza-tions employ ritualized control of credential and group solidarity. A direct imposition of standard operating procedures and legitimat-ed rules and structure also occurs outside the governmental arena.

MIMETIC ISOMORPHISM

Refers to the tendency for organizations to imitate the procedures and structures of those organizations that are exemplary mod-els, have high prestige, or have successfully adapted to the environment (Jaffee, 2008: 234). Uncertainty is a power that empowers imitation. It occurs when organizations have poor technological systems, goal ambiguity, and environment forms symbolic uncertainty. Organizational models can be diffused via employee migration or by consulting firms. Model imitating happens when organization need to respond to uncertainty. The modeled organization may be unaware of modeling or have no desire to be copied. Instead, it serves as a convenient source of practices that the borrowing organization may benefit. Some-

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times, models may be diffused unintention-ally, indirectly through employee transfer or turnover, or explicitly by organizations such as consulting firms or industry trade asso-ciations. As a result, organizations base on model themselves after similar organizations in their field. They perceive to be more legiti-mate or successful. The ubiquity of certain kinds of structural arrangements can likely be more known as to the universality of mimetic processes than to any concrete evidence that the adopted models enhance efficiency.

NORMATIVE ISOMORPHISM

Operate to channel organizational behavior and procedures in suitable, expected, and legitimate directions (Jaffee, 2008: 108). It comes primarily from professionalization. It establishes a cognitive base and legitima-tion for employees’ education. Professions are subject to the same coercive and mimetic pressures as are organizations. Moreover, while different kinds of professionals within an organization may vary from one another, they exhibit much similarity to their profes-sional counterparts in other organizations. In addition, in many cases, professional power is as much assigned by the state as it is cre-ated by the activities of the professions. For them, there are two types of professionalism for normative isomorphism. The first one

bases on formal education and legitimation which inherit from the university specialist. The second one refers to informal profession-al networks. Professional and trace associa-tions, universities and professional training institutions are some of the organizations for the definition and promulgation for normative rules about organizational and professional behavior. As a result, one of the most signifi-cant mechanisms for creating isomorphic be-havior is based on education. Institutions may imitate a model of the best practices which other institutions have via the application of one-to-one strategy.

COMMUNITY and CORPORATE ISO-MORPHISM

Why do corporations engage in social ac-tions? The reason which may be most often cited is that corporate social performance is good for financial performance, the rationale being that social spending is “akin to adver-tising” (Burt, 1983: 423; Webb & Farmer, 1996: 31). This rationale shows the belief that a corporation that cultivates a more positive and distinctive reputation will affect consum-ers (Creyer & Ross, 1997: 423; Ellen, Mohr, & Webb, 2000: 398; Sen & Bhattacharya, 2001: 238) and potential employees (Turban & Greening, 1997: 665), thereby boosting profitability. But Margolis and Walsh (2003),

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summarized from their exhaustive analysis of 127 studies conducted over the last thir-ty years that the connection between social and financial performance is mixed and of-ten contradictory. For example, Burt (1983), demonstrated a positive relationship between firms’ focus on individual consumers and charitable giving, but Galaskiewicz (1997), proposed no relationship between these two items. The widespread disagreement and con-flicting findings in this literature propose that economic explanations cannot account for ei-ther the frequency or nature of corporate so-cial action. Doubts about the financial merits of corporate social action thus lend greater urgency to our opening question: Given the uncertainty of financial benefits, why do firms take role at all in social practices?

The noneconomic motives for corporate so-cial action have been discovered from a num-ber of perspectives. From a normative per-spective, corporate social action has differ-ently been characterized as a well-intended effort to promote “justice in a world in which . . . the shareholder wealth maximization paradigm reigns” (Margolis & Walsh, 2003: 273) and an attempt to convince “disbeliev-ers” (Weiser & Zadek, 2000: 115) of the value and need for corporate social involve-ment. Corporate accounts mostly portray so-cial action as an expression of an individual

organization’s distinctive identity, image, or mission (Bartel, 2001: 399) or that of its vi-sionary founder or CEO (Martin, Knopoff, & Beckman 1998: 442). Corporate social action might also be a response to social movement actors that direct a corporation’s (or indus-try’s) attention to social needs, such as en-vironmentalism, global citizenship, or urban problems (e.g., Bornstein, 2004: 31; Loun-sbury, 2001: 33; Rao, 1998: 948). Finally, social practices motivated for cultural, insti-tutional, and political reasons might serve a corporation’s efforts to secure legitimacy or competitive differentiation (e.g., Bansal & Roth, 2000: 721; Himmelstein, 1997: 55; Hoffman, 1999: 360). Thus, I propose that the nature and level of corporate social action are driven by community isomorphism, which I define as the resemblance of a focal corpora-tion’s social practices to those of other cor-porations within its geographic community. I believe corporations to be especially vul-nerable to institutionalized pressures at the community level because the legitimacy of such practices is often asked (e.g., Friedman, 1970: 4), and corporations often turn to local “peers” to sanction activities whose legiti-macy is uncertain (Davis & Greve, 1997: 30).

I define corporate social actions as behaviors and practices that extend beyond immediate profit maximization goals and are directed

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to increase social benefits or mitigate social problems for constituencies external to the firm. Corporate social action can concentrate on any number of diverse social needs or is-sues, including, but not limited to, the arts, housing, the physical environment, educa-tion and schooling, human welfare, poverty, disease, wellness, and general improvement in the quality of life. Corporate activities that address such social concerns can take a va-riety of forms, including cash contributions, investments in social initiatives or programs, employee volunteer efforts, and in-kind do-nations of products or services, and they can represent varying levels of monetary and time commitment. I use “corporate social action” rather than “corporate social responsibility” because we do not understand the argument that corporations have a “responsibility” to engage in social behavior. I seek simply to gather a theoretical perspective on the cat-egory of corporate practices oriented toward delivering social benefits outside the firm. I nevertheless recognize that corporate social action mostly is cast as corporate social re-sponsibility.

Using an institutional lens, I conceptualize communities as constituting organizations’

immediate environment (please see Figure 1), and, thus, they can be modeled in terms of three basic aspects of institutions (Scott, 2001: 28): “(1) cultural cognitive, which is the shared framework of interpretation; (2) normative, which defines standards of ap-propriateness and evaluation; and (3) regu-lative, which imposes formal and informal constraints on action. The local geographic community, as an immediate institutional en-vironment, thus serves both as a touchstone for legitimacy and as a target for corporate so-cial change, shaping both the nature and level of corporate social action.” I found these to divide into four major focus categories: (1) arts and culture, (2) civic and public benefit, (3) education, and (4) health and human wel-fare. Types of organizations within each of these four major categories are, for example, (1) museums and performing arts groups; (2) community infrastructure– oriented programs focused, for instance, on economic develop-ment, housing, public safety, and local envi-ronmental efforts; (3) local colleges, as well as national universities and other schools; and (4) medical research, mental health, and food and nutrition programs.

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I have outlined a theoretical framework for understanding how the institutional infra-structure of communities affects the nature or level of corporate social action. I now bring together these two outcomes. I theorize that isomorphism (or community consensus) on the appropriate forms and foci of corporate involvement will direct to higher levels of overall giving as greater numbers of corpora-tions engage, mostly more generously, in the sanctioned activity.

Earlier work supports the occurrence of this relationship. Useem (1991: 80), for example, found that higher overall agreement among

local businesses to support the arts generated greater levels of corporate funding. Gener-ally, corporate social actions benefit from mobilization around a focal concept, much like collective actions in a social movement or the diffusion of a particular innovation. Because in the early stages of mobilization processes there is mostly considerable un-certainty about the value of an innovation or a particular action, the earliest participants tend to engage for idiosyncratic reasons. But as more organizations adopt a practice, the character of adopters shifts from the periph-ery to the center, to actors whose adoption

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helps legitimize the innovation. The rate of participation subsequently accelerates, and the innovation diffuses faster (Rogers, 1995: 16). Thus, institutionalization of the form or focus of corporate social action can create a bandwagon effect that increases the overall level of activity.

Studies on the processes of institutionaliza-tion have showed how greater cognitive agreement on a practice directs to greater prevalence of that practice. Glynn & Abzug (2002), documented, in a study of organiza-tional names and name changes, important differences in corporate naming patterns in different historical periods. Moreover, they proposed that the greater the presence of par-ticular naming types, the more likely compa-nies were to adopt names consistent with the pattern (Glynn & Abzug, 1998: 113). Their findings propose a snowball effect: as a form gains legitimacy, more and more companies adopt it, until it finally emerges as a dominant practice. Consistent with this argument, Flig-stein (1985), showed us that mimetic isomor-phism follows the period of early adoption of innovations in corporate form, and Davis & Greve (1997), brought together the argument to the community level by theorizing how corporate governance practices vary in de-gree of legitimacy by geographic area. In all of these cases, corporate forms and practices

start as more or less idiosyncratic activities, but with increased prevalence social con-sensus about the legitimacy of the practices occurs. Following this argument, I expect homogeneity in the focus and form of corpo-rate social engagement within communities to yield increased overall levels of corporate social action.

My general argument is that community con-vergence around a particular form or focus of corporate social action will direct to higher levels of overall giving, because corporations will be more likely to enact and support pro-grams that are consistent with the community norms. Essentially, the cognitive load is less-ened for later adopters, who can emulate the focus and form of social engagement of their predecessors. In turn, I expect to see higher levels of corporate social action. Beyond dis-cussing corporate social action, this frame-work furthers the reach of institutional theory. Although institutionalists have acknowledged that organizational practices are contextual-ized within institutional environments (Scott, 2001: 21), most researchers have seen the geographic community as an influential level of analysis. Institutional theorists’ neglect of community-level influences is particularly ironic, given the theory’s underlying premise that action and choice cannot be gathered as outside elements of the cultural and histori-

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cal frameworks in which organizations took place. Prior institutional researchers sought to show how organizations were heavily affect-ed by local sources of power (e.g., Selznick, 1949: 12; Zald, 1970: 100). The move from an underlying logic of cooptation to one of social construction has led neo-institutional theorists to focus on geography independent organi-zational sectors or fields. “Environments in this view are more subtle in their influence,” suggested DiMaggio and Powell; “rather than being co-opted they penetrate the organiza-tion, creating lenses via which actors view the world and the very structures of action, and thoughts” (1991: 13). As institutional theorists migrated from a power and political to a more normative and cognitive orientation, they also abandoned the study of local influences. I have tested, by illuminating how the cultural, normative, and regulative logics of institution-al theory can abet our understanding of how communities influence organizations, to shed light and expand on the handful of previous studies that have emphasized the importance of communities (see also Freeman & Audia, 2006: 160).

CONCLUSION

A deeper understanding of institutionalization as a process would allow us to specify the im-

pact of more social aspects of decision-mak-ing, such as the effects of social position of those providing information on choices made, and the conditions under which prediction of a particular choice is available only if the social aspects are directly included in the analysis.

Our focus on geographic communities as the institutional fields in which patterns of corpo-rate social action take shape promises to open up an important new area of research. Our model highlights the role of the institutional environment on the emergence of social ac-tion by corporations, theorizing that isomor-phic forces exist within local communities. An institutional lens suggests an interplay between corporations and their communities that focuses, forms, and directs social change efforts. This perspective has the potential to enrich theories on corporate social change and to counter economists’ arguments against such corporate activism.

Also the signature of the new institutionalism has been a focus at the field level, based on the insight that organizations operate amidst both competitive and cooperative exchanges with other organizations. This attention to the structure of relations and the formulation of logics within a field has opened the door to studying the emergence of competing mind sets and logics, as well as an understanding

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of how contention develops within a field, as Scott et al demonstrated in 2000. The lat-ter focus has led some institutionalists to join forces with political sociologists and social movement analysts, such as Davis et al in 2005. While several early statements, such as DiMaggio in 1988 and Powell in 1991, noted the limitations of institutional arguments with respect to assuming that ideas and practices diffused seamlessly and without contestation, recent work - - notably Schneiberg and Soule in 2005, has emphasized how political oppor-tunities and cultural frames shape the diffu-sion process, and that social movements are critical to the acceptance of ideas.

Another strand of research, illustrated by Drori et al in 2006, has pursued the development and diffusion of new modes of governance - - rules and regulations and the processes that sustain and reproduce them - - at the transnational lev-el. Research on the world polity stresses that organizational fields stretch across national borders, and while some note that global as-sociational activity generates common stan-dards and evaluative metrics, others such as Djelic and Sahlin-Andersson in 2006 empha-size complex coalition formation and multi-directional influences and conflicts,.

Another welcome development has been on-going conversations with other approaches to

institutional analysis, most notably historical and political institutionalism but also with work by economic historians as well. For example, work in the varieties of capitalism tradition, such as that of Streeck and Thelen from 2005, analyzes the evolution of and change in employment regimes in industrial democracies, with the aim of explaining both continuities and breakpoints. Their focus on ‘critical junctures’ as moments of institutional change has parallels with work on the contest-ed, multi-level aspects of diffusion processes. Pierson’s 2004 re-assessment of path depen-dent arguments and his analysis of sources of positive feedback in the political sphere are particularly salient to questions regarding the sources of institutional origins and change. And Greif’s 2006 study of medieval trade in the Mediterranean advances arguments about the endogenous nature of beliefs, norms, and law that are consonant with recent organiza-tional research on legitimation processes by Colyvas and Powell in 2006.

Consequently, the current attention to: 1.) forces that account for institutional heteroge-neity as well as homogeneity; 2.) direct mea-surement of institutional effects; and 3.) com-peting, multi-level, nested processes within fields and across nations, bodes well for the robustness of institutional analysis.

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Addressing this general issue of conditions of applicability necessitate consideration of a number of problems: how and when choices or alternative lines of action become socially explained; who acts to cause change and to diffuse that shift to multiple organizations, and why; and what are the potential benefits of creating similar structures, or converging to the same structures, that direct to the in-stitutional isomorphism we so often observe. For institutional theory to develop as a coher-ent paradigm and thus to make an enduring contribution to organizational analyses, such questions about institutionalization processes necessitate both conceptual and empirical an-swers. In this analysis, we have outlined some initial answers to these problems, answers whose extension and modification must await further theoretical development and empirical test.

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TOPLUMSAL İZOMORFİZM VE KURUMSAL SOSYAL AKSİYON: TOPLUMSAL VE KURUMSAL İZOMORFİZM ARASINDA BAĞ VAR MIDIR?

Öz: Yeni Kurumsal İktisat Okulu iktisat literatürü içinde giderek daha fazla yer almaya başlayan akımların başında gelmektedir. Yazılı olsun olmasın belirsizliği azaltan, istikrarı sağlayan ve bireylerin davranışlarını düzenleyen her türden kuralı kurum olarak nitelendirmemiz müm-kündür. Farklı bir tanımlama ile onları oyunun kuralları olarak görmek mümkündür. İlk bakışta kurumlar ve özel mülkiyet kavramları, sosyoloji, politika ve hukuk disiplinlerini çağrıştırmasına rağmen iktisatçıların bu kavramlara olan ilgisinin oldukça eskilere dayandığını söyleyebiliriz. Okul, kurumların incelenmesinde farklı disiplinlerin bakış açısını barındırması ve matematiksel araçları kullanması nedeni ile Neoklasik iktisadın eksik kaldığı alanları doldurmaktadır. Ku-rumlar genel yapıları itibariyle, sadece zaman içinde değil, aynı dönemde toplumlar arasında da değişim göstermektedir. Söz konusu kurumsal farklılıklar toplumlar arasındaki gelişmişlik düzeyi ile tekrar gündeme gelmiş ve ayrıntılı bir inceleme konusu haline gelmiştir. Bu noktada az gelişmiş ülkelere yardımcı olabilmek, mevcut yapılardaki farklılıkların ve değişimin nasıl gerçekleştiğinin anlaşılması halinde mümkün olacaktır. Yapılan bu çalışmanın amacı Kurumsal iktisadın temel çerçevesini çizebilmek ve incelediği konu başlıklarını kısaca tanıtabilmektir. DiMaggio ve Powell (1983) kurumsal izomorfizmin gerçekleştiği mekanizmaları üç farklı şekilde sınıflandırmaktadır: politik etki ve meşruiyet sorunundan kaynaklanan zorlayıcı izo-morfizm; belirsizliğe karşı standart tepkilerden doğan taklitçi izomorfizm; profesyonellik ile ilgili olan normatif izomorfizm. Çevrede yer alan örgütlerle olan izomorfizm örgüt için bazı önemli sonuçlar doğurmaktadır: örgüt, verimlilikten ziyade dışa yönelik meşruiyet kazandıracak unsurları bir araya getirir; örgüt, yapısal elementlerin değerini tanımlamak için dışa yönelik resmi değerlendirme kriteri kullanır; dışa yönelik düzenlenmiş örgütlere bağlılık türbülansı azaltır ve istikrar sağlar. Dolayısıyla kurumsal izomorfizm örgütlerin hayatta kalmasını ve başarısını sağlar (Meyer ve Rowan, 1977). Yeni kurumsallaşma bir önceki yaklaşımın ana fi-krinin daha geniş bir tanımını yapmakta (resmi yapı ve kurallar çerçevesinde gayri resmi eğilimler dâhil), bu yaklaşımda bireyler ve kurumların karşılıklı belirleyiciliği kabul edilmek-tedir. Yeni kurumsalcılar kurumsal tasarım üzerindeki sınırlamaların spesifik doğasını tanımlayabilmektedirler; mevcut kurumsal düzenin doğasında olan güç ilişkileri ve değer

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yargıları, ve siyasal kurumların gizli doğası. Dolayısıyla yeni kurumsallaşmanın ilgi alanına giren, kurum mimarları, kurumsallaşmış özneler ve kurumsal çevre arasındaki karmaşık ilişkiler yumağıdır (Lowndes, 2009; 191-195). Örgütsel analizde yeni kurumsallaşma, çıkış noktası olarak kurumsal faaliyet ve düzenlemelerdeki çarpıcı homojenleşme eğilimini kabul etmekte-dir. Kurumsal yaşamın istikrarı, kendini tekrarlayan, verildiği gibi kabul edilen, kendi kendini sürdüren pratikler dizisi tarafından şekillendiği vurgulanır (Powell ve Di Maggio, 1991: 9). Bir diğer üzerinde önemle durulması gereken konu ise kurumsallaşmanın aksi istikamette gidebileceği yönündeki tez olan anti-kurumsallaşmadır (deinstitutionalism). Şimdiye kadar anlatılanların temel argümanı, kurumsallaşmış sistemin ilgili yapı ve faaliyetlerinin zamanla kurumsallaşacağı ve homojenleşme eğilimine gideceği üzerinedir. Anti-kurumsallaşma ise na-dir ve tesadüfen gerçekleşen bir olgu olduğu bildirilmektedir (Powell ve DiMaggio, 1991: 105). Bireysel faaliyetlere önem atfeden bireyselci akım, toplumsal ilişkilerin, politikaların, eko-nomik faaliyetlerin daha müreffeh bir çerçevede gerçekleşmesi için bu anti-kurumsallaşma eğiliminin gerekli olduğunu düşünmektedir. Toplumdaki kurumsal örtü bireyin kararlarını, yaratıcılığını, faaliyetlerini sınırlandırmaktadır ve dolayısıyla yapı yerine eylemin önemi ortaya çıkarılmalıdır. Bir sorun için kurumsal düzenleme yerine sonuç odaklı proje geliştirmek gibi. Bu çalışma, yönetim ve örgüt düşüncesinde kurumsalcılığın ve yeni kurumsalcılığın temellerini mercek altına almayı ve üç temel kurumsal eş biçimlilik şekli olan zorlayıcı, normatif ve taklitçi eş biçimliliği irdelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu çerçevede, öncelikle kurumsalcılık ve bu kurama temel oluşturan “kurum” kavramı ve belirleyici unsurları üzerinde ana hatları ile durulmakta ve kurumsalcılığın gelişim süreci ayrıntılı bir şekilde ele alınmaktadır. Çalışmanın izleyen bölü-münde ise, yeni kurumsalcılığın ortaya çıkışı ve bu kuram ile birlikte ilgili yazında önemli bir yer tutmaya başlayan ‘kurumsal eş biçimlilik’ kavramları değerlendirilmeye çalışılmaktadır. Küreselleşmeyle birlikte her gün bir önceki güne göre daha fazla yoğunlaşan rekabet ve sürek-li değişim; işletmecilik faaliyetlerini daha karmaşık bir hale getirmekte ve işletmelerin varlıklarını tehdit etmektedir. Böyle bir ortamda varlıklarını güvence altına almak isteyen işletme, her türlü çevresel faktörlerde ortaya çıkan ve çıkabilecek değişimi kontrol altına almak, değişime uyum sağlamak ve farklılık yaratarak faaliyetlerini sürdürdüğü çevrede değişime öncülük etmek zorundadır. İşletme çevre ilişkisini açıklayan kurumsal teori ile ilgili yapılan çok araştırma olmasına rağmen işletmelerin nasıl kurumsallaşacağı somut olarak ortaya konmamıştır. Keşifsel bir araştırma olan bu makale ile bu boşluğun doldurulması hedeflenme-

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ktedir. Kurumsallaşma, işletmenin bütün kaynaklarını ve yeteneklerini kullanarak varlığını güvence altına almasını sağlayacak bir süreci ifade eder. Kurumsallaşma, işletmenin faaliy-etlerini sürdürdüğü toplumla ve toplumsal değerlerle uyumlu bir kimlik ve kültüre sahip olmasını, toplumsal baskı gruplarının beklentilerine cevap verebilen, değişime açık, değişime anında uyum sağlayabilen sistemli bir örgüt yapısını gerekli kılar. İşletmenin varlığını güvence altına alabilmesi için kurumsallaşma çalışmalarının belirli bir süreç dâhilinde yürütülmesi ve kurumsallaşmanın sağlanması gerekmektedir. Kurumsallaşma işletmelerin çevresel aktörlerle etkileşimi ile birlikte bilinçsel, düzenleyici ve normatif baskılar sonucunda kararlarını, eylem-lerini, süreçlerini ve yapılarını bu baskılara cevap vermek amacıyla yapılandırmaları ve geliştirmeleridir. Bunu yaparak işletmeler kaynaklarını artırmayı, dengeye ulaşmayı ve korumayı, çevreye uyum sağlamayı ve meşrulaşmayı amaçlamaktadırlar. İşletmeler formalleşmeyi sağlayarak, işletme eylem ve kararlarında tutarlılık oluşturarak, güçlü bir örgüt kültürü geliştirerek, hesap verebilir olarak ve profesyonelleşerek kurumsallaşmaktadır. Böylece yaşamlarını sürdürebilmekte ve rekabet avantajı elde edebilmektedirler. Bu çalışma, yönetim ve örgüt düşüncesinde kurumsalcılığın ve yeni kurumsalcılığın temellerini mercek altına almayı ve üç temel kurumsal eş biçimlilik şekli olan zorlayıcı, normatif ve taklitçi eş biçimliliği irdele-meyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu çerçevede, öncelikle kurumsalcılık ve bu kurama temel oluşturan “kurum” kavramı ve belirleyici unsurları üzerinde ana hatları ile durulmakta ve kurumsalcılığın gelişim süreci ayrıntılı bir şekilde ele alınmaktadır. Çalışmanın izleyen bölümünde ise, yeni kurumsalcılığın ortaya çıkışı ve bu kuram ile birlikte ilgili yazında önemli bir yer tutmaya başlayan ‘kurumsal eş biçimlilik’ kavramları değerlendirilmeye çalışılmaktadır. İnsan ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak için üretim yapan işletmeler, kurumsal sosyal sorumluluk faaliyetleri ile de toplumsal bazı ihtiyaçları karşılama çabası içerisindedir. Çevre muhasebesi kurumsal sosyal sorumluluk alanlarına yönelik sorumlulukları karşılama noktasında işletmelere yardımcı olmaktadır. Çalışmada kurumsal sosyal sorumluluk alanları hakkında açıklayıcı bilgilere yer verilmektedir. “Çevre muhasebesinin kurumsal sosyal sorumluluk alanları açısından yerine getirdiği işlevler nelerdir?” sorusu çalışmanın diğer bir amacını oluşturmaktadır. Son olarak diğer makalelerden farklı olarak bu makalede hükümetler tarafından kurumsal izomorfizm yaratılıp yaratılmaması konu edilmiştir. Bunun yanısıra organizasyonel izomorfizm ile insan izomorfizmi arasında bağlantı olup olmadığı da konu edilecektir. Şirketler de aslında insanların kurumsallaşmış hali haline gelmektedir; Nixon’ın da dediği gibi hepimiz artık kurumsalcılarız.

83






(2015/03947-2015-GE-17304)






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CUSTOM DUTIES







Bireylerin kabul ve herhangi bir gerçek yansıma veya kendi özel, kişisel çıkarları davranışsal direnç olmadan, sorgulamadan sosyal normları takip etmesi ve toplumsallaşmış izomorfizm ele alınacaktır. (Wrong, 1961).

Anahtar Kelimeler: Kurumsallaşma, İzomorfizm, Toplumsal İzomorfizm, Şirketsel İzomorfizm, Kurumsal Sosyal Aksiyon

ABOUT THE JOURNAL

Our Journal introduced its publishing activities in 2012. Publications are accepted from the fields accepted jointly by health sciences and sports sciences, especially including sports sciences. With the facilities brought by technology in today’s conditions, our Journal entered into publication arena to meet the need for scientific studies, at least to some extent. It mainly accepts publications from such fields as sports sciences, sports education, sports medicine, history of medicine and ethics, nutrition for the athlete, athlete psychology, medical and biological sciences for sports, and “doping”. Moreover, it accepts studies from the sub-branches of these scientific fields which are evaluated and assessed positively by referees expert in their fields. Studies which are included in the pharmacology, but are on athletes and athlete health are also accepted and evaluated in our Journal. Moreover, studies which are conducted in the field of forensic sciences for sports and athletes are accepted and evaluated in our Journal. Our Journal accepts and publishes studies which are originally scientific and will serve and contribute to the science world as well as research, collection and translation for these studies.

Our Journal publishes four issues every year, each of which is published as printed in the first quarter of the year. In line with the working principle, our Journal includes studies from all fields equally and fairly. Studies which come to our Journal are reviewed by two different field expert referees, and the time period of reviewing is two months within the scope of the workload of the referees. Studies approved by two referees are queued to be published as printed following the approval of the council of publication. Our magazine article writing rules should be prepared according to the examples in the journal website. Editorial office is responsible for all kinds of system of the Journal, no referee or author hold the responsibility of it. Authors have the right to publish in line with their independent will and knowledge, and they are regarded as accepted all the responsibility of studies which are accepted for publication and published. Our Journal serves as a bridge between publishers and readers. Our Journal and referees who review publications do not have any legal obligation for the published study. All kinds of obligations belong to authors. Our Journal does not have any impact and forcing sanction on referees in terms of publications. No study has any priority against another. Each study is subject to the same conditions and requirements. It does not have a priority or privilege. No author can have information about the referee who review and create an obligation on referees. Journal management and editor cannot decide that a study or author is priority. The system is operated with the same conditions and requirements for each study and author. Our journal writing language is English.

Our Journal is international and accepts studies with such qualities. Studies which have been sent to another journal for any reason are rejected even if they have been accepted to be published in our Journal, provided that a refutation is issued. Rights of a study which has been sent to our Journal have been given by the author to the Journal. It is regarded that the author has accepted it in advance. Such conditions and requirements begin to be operated once the publication is uploaded on our Journal’s system. No special declaration or signature is requested from authors in this regard. In cases of legal problems occurring or likely to occur, legal advisors of our Journal reserve unilaterally the right to take all actions to protect our Journal and its referees.

INFORMATION FOR AUTHORS

1. With the number of our language magazine publication 2015 range has been updated in English only. 2016. Locations will not be published other than English.

2. Our magazine publishing only language is English.

3. The whole content of the Journal is available only in printed format; only abstracts in English and Turkish languages are available on the internet.

4. Registration is required to submit any publication.

5. Authors cannot claim any rights on the journal.

6. Responsibility of material published rests solely with the author. No responsibility for such matters is assumed by the Journal.

7. Works submitted for review should be authentic or not be sent for review elsewhere. Otherwise, such works will be rejected on condition that a disclaimer is published, and legal proceedings are commenced against the author.

8. Each submitted work is reviewed by two referees who are experts in their fields, and the works which have granted positive opinions by referees are lined up to be printed

9. No work has any privilege or superiority over the others. All authors and works are equal and have the same rights.

10. No author can know which referees review their works and have the right to know. This information is exclusively held by the system manager and editor-in-chief and kept secret.

11. Major and minor corrections may be proposed to works. Maximum number of corrections to a work is two. In case the proposed corrections are not made, the work is automatically rejected.

12. If works which have previously been used for dissertation study, presentation or proceedings purposes are intended to be submitted in article format; they must include a footnote informing readers of the previous use. Otherwise, it is accepted as an infringement for which the Journal assumes no liability.

13. Works in any field other than the Journal accepts may be accepted or rejected unilaterally by executives or editor-in-chief. In such cases, authors cannot claim any rights.

14. Rights of works which have been uploaded to the Journal are considered to be transferred to the Journal by authors. No signiture or consent of authors is sought. Rights of works uploaded to the system are automatically transferred to the journal.

15. Evaluation process of the Journal takes two months depending on the feedback from the referees. If no feedback is received in two months, works are sent to a different referee. In such cases, evaluation process may take longer. In such cases, authors can neither raise any claims nor withdraw their works from the system.

16. Spelling rules which are uploaded on the Journal as a template in Word file format should be respected. The uploaded template illustrates all these features

17. In the evaluation process of the submitted works, the Journal regards the author whose name is written on top as addressee, does not have any contact with other authors, and does not have to inform any author other than the addressee.

18. Referees who review works act independently. The Journal cannot have any sanctions or ask for special treatment.

19. The Journal is published quarterly on December, March, June and September. The determined periods may be changed depending on the publication system. The Journal cannot be held responsible or is not liable for any claim.

20. Report including the referees’ opinion on the publication decision is sent to the author who is regarded as addressee. Proposed corrections should be made in 15 days. If corrections are not made within this period, work is omitted from the system and rejected. In this case, authors do not have any right to sanction on the Journal.

21. Works prepared in a language other than Turkish must include an abstract in Turkish. The number of key words is limited to 3-7. Maximum page number for each for is 15. Abstract both in Turkish and English should be between 100-250 words. Font and font size must be respectively TIMES NEW ROMAN and 12. Title must be written bold in 14 pt. The name of author(s) and the information on the institutions they work for must be written italic in 12 pt. Abstracts in Turkish and English must be written in 10 pt. and indented 1cm from left and right margins. In the references part, the surname of author must be written before the name –e.g. “YILDIRIM, Ö.,”-, and the name of the relevant source must be written in quotation mark –e.g. “xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx”-.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

1. Is your Journal a refereed and international journal?

1.1. Our Journal is international and refereed. It is scanned by many international indices.

2. Is your Journal paid?

2.1. Our magazine is a certain amount per article fee in exchange for some expenses.

3. Do we have permission to access to the issues of the journal or any requested articles without being a member?

3.1. You can download all the issues of our Journal on pdf format without being a member.

4. What is the publication period of your Journal?

4.1. Our Journal is published four times a year. The issues including the whole texts are uploaded on the system at the end of March, June, September and December.

5. Are the authors informed about the articles published in your Journal?

5.1. Our Journal is web-based in which authors can follow all kind of information about their publications over the membership panel on the system. Besides, they are informed about the process and operations as well as concerned issues.

6. How many referees review a publication?

6.1. Studies that come to our Journal are initially reviewed by field editors, and those which are found as eligible are sent to referees. Once the field editors send the work to two disciplinary referees they regard appropriate, referee reviewing process is initiated. The process last maximum two months, depending upon referee reviewing. Studies for which no feedback is received within this time period are sent to a third referee. If no result is achieved either in this process, the referee from the concerned field accompanied by the council of editors review jointly the work and make a final decision.

7. Is information about “an author/authors” of the studies kept confidential?

7.1. In our journal and other journals which make refereed scientific publications; only system editors, field editors, chief editors and chief editor assistants can learn information about the author. Such information is kept completely confidential. No referee or other members of the council can access to such information.

8. Is there a certain number or rate of publications in an issue of your Journal?

8.1. There is no certain number of articles in our Journal. Studies which fulfil the referee approval and process and are found eligible for publication by the council of publications are immediately published, and they are sent to page layout, which is the last phase.

9. Can author/authors publish more than one publication in the same issue?

9.1. This is not ethical. However, upon the special approval of the council of publication and council of editors, several articles of the same author can be published in the same issue or certain other issues. Please note that this is the case only for special situations which require an initiative.

10. Are there a sufficient number of referees in the fields or disciplines for which your Journal accepts publications?

10.1. Esteemed scholars, who respect for scientific qualifications and conceptions and work voluntarily without any material expectations, review effectively and approve the scientific qualities of the studies which come to our Journal. Therefore, we have a council of referees comprising more than one professional with academic career, experience and knowledge to work in the disciplines for which our Journal accepts publications.

11. What is the duty of the Science and Advisory Council?

11.1. Science and Advisory Council consists of members who work in the related fields of science and make wise decisions independently when referees cannot agree upon a study. Members of the Science and Advisory Council work actively to resolve such problems. Decisions taken by the Council are accepted without any further comment or evaluation, and they are implemented literally. No change can be made on the decisions.

12. Can an author request the submission of the work conducted by the Science and Advisory Council in case of any inconveniency?

12.1. No, he/she cannot. The functioning of the Science and Advisory Council can only be performed by the approval of the chief editor.

13. If an author sends his/her study to your Journal and another journal in the meantime, and it is accepted to be published in that journal as well, which procedures will be followed?

13.1. Council of publications make decisions for such cases. As the council generally finds such behaviours unethical, the publication is removed from the system by reserving all the regal rights even if it has already been published, provided that a refutation is issued and relevant bodies are notified. However, to avoid such cases, it will be more convenient that the author read and accept the publication requirements and then send his/her study.

14. Are publications accepted in more than one language in your Journal?

14.1. With the number of our language magazine publication 2015 range has been updated in English only. 2016. Locations will not be published other than English.

15. Can an author request to be informed about by which referees his/her study is reviewed?

15.1. No, he/she cannot. No information about referees can be requested for the review of study, or if requested, it cannot be provided.

16. Is ethical committee report requested in medical studies?

16.1. Ethical committee information of the studies in medicine and all other studies which require ethical committee report is obliged to be sent to our Journal with a cover letter. Moreover, information about the ethical committee report should be annexed to the concerned study. Otherwise, the journal management reserves unilaterally all the legal rights.

17. Is an author entitled to request his/her study to be reviewed by particular referees?

17.1. In such cases, if the referee in the discipline is involved in our Journal, information about the referee by whom the author does not want his/her study to be reviewed including its justification and explanation is notified to the chief editor with a cover letter by reserving all the relevant information. If it is found appropriate by the chief editor, it will be performed. Otherwise, routine procedures and standard functioning will be followed.

18. Can an author contribute to the assignment of referees to review his/her study?

18.1. No, he/she cannot. Such procedures can only be fulfilled by field editors and system editors. The author cannot interfere with such issues.

19. Is an author obliged to sign assignment or publication assignment contract for his/her publication?

19.1. This has been stated in the publication requirements on the home page of our Journal. Each publication uploaded on our Journal is accepted as assigned to our Journal with all of its rights. The author is not requested to sign a paper for its publication. However, in the

event that this is requested by field editors or relevant members of the management, the author is obliged to sign the paper and send it formally to the chief editorship. Otherwise, his/her study cannot be published or not requested to be published by the author.

20. Does an author reserve the right to withdraw his/her publication from the Journal at will?

20.1. A study whose referee process has been initiated cannot be withdrawn from our Journal. However, if the situation is plagiarism or inconveniency in terms of science, this is performed provided that it is notified to the chief editorship with a cover letter including its justification. This is also performed unilaterally by the Journal management.

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

ARTICLE DRAFTING RULES OF IRAJ-SHMS

Internationally-Refereed Academic Journal of Sports Health and Medical Sciences (IRAJ-SHMS) prefers publishing original studies which research a topic in all its aspects.

Ethical Principles

All the authors should read and understand the ethical principles before submitting their articles. Ethical principles of IRAJ-SHMS are provided at the end of this document.

Article Reviewing Principles

Articles are reviewed by two or more referees. Scientific content and submission of materials are considered in accepting a study for publication; membership to an association is not a precondition for the publication of a study. Editor identifies the referees to review the study in connection with its author. The editor makes his/her final decision on the publication or rejection of the study following the evaluations of the referees.

When definite decisions are made for the publication of articles, IRAJ-SHMS editor refers the article to the typesetting unit. The unit makes paging arrangements and sends the study for final check to the concerned scholar. All of the files for finalized studies are sent to the editorial unit so that they can be published in the upcoming issues. Definite publishing date of articles can change depending upon the number of articles queued.

Legal Notices

Ideas and statements in the articles published in IRAJ-SHMS are not under the responsibility of the Journal, but the author. Advertisements on the Journal do not indicate that the concerned product is approved by the Journal, and no warranty is provided for its safety.

Copyright

Entry form for the studies should be filled completely during the application for article. IRAJ-SHMS has the copyright to preserve the rights of it and author.

Author Rights for Articles in IRAJ-SHMS

only for education purposes, authors can copy their articles or republish tables, figures and so on in their articles without any permission provided that they state the source completely in the study they conduct. Authors can also send their articles on PDF format so that scholars can use for education purposes. Moreover, they can provide the link of their articles on IRAJ-SHMS website. However, they cannot send a published article to another journal.

Author Modifications:

If a modification on the name arrangement of authors in the study such as adding or removing a name is requested to make after its submission for publication, no-objection form signed by all the authors of the study will be delivered to the editor via fax or mail.

Use of Humans or Animals as Subject in Experimental Studies:

Ethical committee report should be received in studies where humans become voluntarily subjects or animals are used as subjects. Studies which report the results of experimental research where healthy humans become voluntarily subjects should include a statement that there is an approval form. Editors will reject studies which fail to provide satisfactory evidence on the compliance of such principles. Editors reserve the right to make judgement on the convenience of using humans and animals as subjects in experimental research studies.

Conflicts of Interest:

All the financial sources and institutional contacts contributing research studies should be clearly stated in the study. When applying for their studies, authors should state any potential conflict of interest, financial contacts and so on (consultancy, lack of check for publication, and other conflicts of interest) regarding the study. Authors with commercial contacts should declare that they hold the responsibility of the experiment, have complete access to all data, and checked the publication decision of their study.

TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS

File Formats Used for Electronic Application and Printing:

File of the study should be submitted to IRAJ-SHMS unit in Microsoft Word (.doc) or RichText format (.rtf). Figures, tables and so on should be annexed to the text at the end of the whole text. In the printing phase, IRAJ-SHMS will consider the place of figures as suggested by the author and decide the typesetting format.

Arrangement of the Study:

IRAJ-SHMS accepts studies in a single format with double-space and traditionally one column.

Arrangement should be as follows (Each of the indicated item bullets should begin on a new page):

*Title page,

*Abstract and keywords,

*Abstract and keywords,

*Main text (Introduction; material, methodology or experimental procedure, findings, discussion and conclusion),

*Text footnotes,

*References,

*Figures and explanations,

*Tables and explanations

Study should be written clearly in accordance with orthographic rules. Words apart from the jargon should be avoided.

See “Chapters of the Study” below for detailed information.

Abbreviations, Symbols and Terminology:

All abbreviations should be used explicitly in the first use. Abbreviations of standard terms should be made using their universal versions.

Special Symbols:

In writing special characters which are not included in the 104-button keyboard (e.g. Greek characters, mathematical symbols, figurative symbols), “add symbol” option in Microsoft Word can be used. Mathematical fonts or image files should not be used for special characters.

CHAPTERS OF THE STUDY

Title Page:

No matter how short are the submitted articles, they should have a title page. Title page should include the complete title of the article; name of authors; bodies in which the research was made; abbreviated title; name, e-mail, address information and correspondence address of the author to be contacted. Only one author can be stated as the correspondence person.

Title:

Title should provide information about the study. Unnecessary use of vocabulary should be avoided. Title should be no longer than 160 characters, and there should be space between words. All the letters should be capitalized.

Authors:

Name of the authors and initials of the names should be listed according to the importance of their contribution to the study. Name of the authors should not include special titles such as PhD, MD and Prof. Group name (i.e. a programme or consortium) only be permitted if the names of group members are listed in acknowledgements chapter. If a change on forms including compulsory application form or scholar approval form is requested to be made, no-objection letter signed by the entire group is required. Authors who make publication in IRAJ-SHMS can write their names typically as the main author of the published article or with non-Latin characters (in original version). For instance, ‘Ta-MingWang (Chinese version). Non-Latin languages which include originally standard Unicode characters are accepted (http://www.unicode.org). Authors using this option should only use the original versions of their transliterated (writing with the alphabet of another language) names and no title should be used in writing this original form. Such usage is only the case in writing the names and is not necessary in writing information about institutional relations or academic achievements. Authors who wish to benefit from this option are obliged to write the original version of their names beside the English transliteration on the title page of the study they have submitted.

Contacts and Relations:

Complete names of the bodies where research was made should be listed including city and country. Contact of each author is made by matching the number of titles with the relevant body. Organizations supporting the authors should be reflected clearly when writing relations and contacts section. As in the current addressed of authors, this can change according to their current relations and contacts of authors to be listed in acknowledgements chapter.

Repeated Title:

Repeated title is the abbreviated title which will appear at the top of pages following the first page. Repeated title should be no longer than 60 characters including spaces between words.

Contact Information:

Current information of the correspondence author should be written completely and clearly in correspondence address in the entry form. If the contact information used in the printing phase of the article is different from that in the final phase, this should be stated explicitly. IRAJ-SHMS website should be used to contact with IRAJ-SHMS in the printing phase following the submission, final check and acceptance of the article.

Abstract:

Abstract, which consists of an informative paragraph with no more than 150 words, should be available in all articles. Abstract should explain what is done, why it is done (types used as subjects and types of anaesthesia administrated, etc.) what kind of findings have been found (data), and what has been found as conclusion.

Keywords:

3-5 words which are not appeared in repeated title or abbreviated title should be selected as keywords.

Introduction:

A short chapter regarding the scope of the study should be written as introduction especially including the previous developments in the relevant field.

Material and Methodology:

Methods used in the study, cell/animal models, subjects, chemical and equipment list, online URLs of producers and suppliers as well as their names should be defined clearly so that other researchers should duplicate easily. Additionally, analysis techniques used to evaluate data should be explained in this chapter. Filing a protocol implementation declaration form or an equivalent form is compulsory in all research studies where humans and animals are used. All human and animal studies require a declaration form stating that protocols implemented have been approved by an institutional inspection board or committee, or that protocols are licensed by a similar committee, board or management office.

Findings:

Statistically meaningful values obtained as a result of stat analysis as well as experimental data and results should be stated explicitly in this chapter.

Discussion:

(Sometimes discussion and conclusion are included in the same chapter and called ‘discussion and conclusion’). Interpretation of data obtained as a result of the study and its comparison with data of previous publications included in the references chapter are provided in this chapter.

Supports (Charities, Grants):

Charities and grants which contributed partially or completely to the study are listed in this chapter. On the other hand, charities under the sponsorship of industrial companies should be stated in the ‘Declarations’ chapter.

Declarations:

When applying for their articles, authors are requested to declare their contacts and whether they have any conflict of interest with anybody to IRAJ-SHMS editorial. See chapters including ‘conflicts of interest’ above for detailed information.

References:

Authors are obliged to make complete reference to the sources they use. Sources used should be limited to those which are directly accepted for publication or have been published. Abstracts can only be referred when they are used as reference.

Reference should be arranged by listing alphabetically according to the name of authors, and it should be numbered serially.

- For each reference, name of the author and year should be indicated appropriately in the text in parenthesis as follows:

- For one author (Akgün, 1982: 1-2)

- For two authors (Akgün and Akgüç, 1982: 1-2)

- For three or more authors (Akgün et al.,1982: 1-2)

If more than two different authors to be referred should be written together, they should be separated by semicolons and written in the same parenthesis (Akgün, 1982: 1-2; Akgüç, 1983: 1-2). If the first author of more than two references (or if it belongs to one author), it is written as ‘et al.’ Even if subsequent author names are different (Akgüç et al., 1982, 1983, 1986, 1987,

1988, 1989). If a reference is made to more than two sources with the same year and author information, lowercase letters should be used after years (Akgüç, 1982a, 1982b).

Writing of different reference types in IRAJ-SHMS can be found in the following sections.

- Journal Articles:

BEUGRE, D., (2002). UnderstandingOrganizationalJusticeandItsImpact on Managing Employess: an African Perspective. International Journal of Human Source Management 13 (7), 1091-1097.

- Internet Sources:

http://www.ttefdergi.gazi.edu.tr/makaleler/2003/Sayi2/17-36.pdf Access: 31.08.2015

- Book Sources:

BOMPA, O.T., (1999). Periodization Training for Sports. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

FIGURES

IRAJ-SHMS use digital publication technology in developing the journal. When your article is accepted for publication, certain special requirements on digital graphic format are needed to catch the best quality.

If the presented figures are not found appropriate, authors may be requested to prepare new figures, which often delays the publication of the study.

Original graphics should always be prepared to ensure that printed publications have quality resolution. If a study is accepted for publication, IRAJ-SHMS will request image files with high resolution for printing.

Programs which can create PDF files with high resolution should be used.

Figures should be prepared in sizes which will appear in journals (It should be printed with 1:1 proportion).

Inclusion of Humans and Animals in Photos:

- Human and animal photos can be published when it is necessary to illustrate a scientific mechanism or describe research findings. For personal photos, a signed consent form is requested from the relevant persons or legal authorities.

- When it is possible to use a diagram in illustrating a mechanism, the author should define the mechanism in methodology chapter of the study if finding an image is not possible.

- As in genetic modifications or developmental biology where photos are typically used, photos can be published to describe findings in cases where data are illustrated as image.

- With regard to other fields of science, issues regarding whether a photo is to be published or it is scientifically necessary to publish a photo are dependent upon decision of the editor.

TABLES

Authors are encouraged to use figures rather than tables as much as possible. Instead of general tables including subjective data obtained as a result of research, special tables indicating statistical values should be presented as much as possible. Long tables of data which are not presented in accordance with printed publication standards of APA may not be included and be omitted from the printed publication.

- Authors should not copy data stated in the text into the table.

- Each table should have a short title, explanatory notes should not be included in the title, but in the explanations section.

- Decimal places stated unmeaningfully in tabulated form in data should be omitted.

- Column titles should be abbreviated and if necessary, they should be explained under explanations.

- Statistical measurements (ss, sh, etc.) should be defined (e.g. such statements as ‘Values average has been stated as ± ss’ should be included).

- Table footnotes should be listed as they appear. For four and less footnotes *, †, ‡, § symbols and for five and more footnotes sequential lowercase letters should be used.

Statistics applied in tables which are used in writing the findings and statistical data should be presented in proper format. Which statistics the table includes should be stated before the table, and after the table, interpretations of data included in the table should be stated. Meaningfulness value should be particularly stated in interpretation in line with the presented statistics.

Example Table: Create the table in the following format according to the statistical analysis to be made (F / t or Variable / Group). Create it in descriptive statistics in the following format.

Table 1 indicates ……………………………………….

Table 1. ……………………………………………………results.

Variable / Group

N

Xort.

Ss

F / t

p

………………

…..

…..

…..

…..

…..

……………….

…..

…..

…..

*Meaningfulness Value

When Table 1 is analyzed, it is seen that ………… (Interpretation).

ETHICAL POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

Authorship:

Editors of IRAJ-SHMS expect that each author is closely knowledgeable about original data of his/her study and he/she makes substantial contributions to the study. They also expect that each author read his/her study completely and he/she will be held responsible when a devious case is determined in the whole research or some parts. Upon the request of an author, his/her name can be omitted from the study, but when a change is made on authorship (addition, omission, or change on the order of authors’ names), all the authors should sign the authorship modification.

Author’s Conflict of Interest:

All funding resources and institutional contacts which have contributed to the study should be declared in the study. During application to IRAJ-SHMS, authors of research studies should declare whether they have any potential conflict of interest and financial or other relations (consultancies, share partnerships, capital partnerships, patent-license regulations, lack of the right to access to data, lack of control on decision for publication, etc.).

Copy Publication, Plagiarism, Fraudulence:

IRAJ-SHMS accepts only original studies which have not partially been submitted to any other journal except for its short abstract. When a study is submitted to the editor for review, the author who makes correspondence should receive the copies of the study in the printing phase. Using a material from the study of another scholar and submitting it as if it has been created by own is accepted as plagiarism. It is also accepted as unnecessary publication or self-plagiarism and not permitted for an author to take and reuse materials from previous studies (tables, figures, data and passages). Reproducing a research report and modifying or hiding data regarding the results of another research study are accepted as fraudulence, and these also include modification practices on figures of a study such as addition, transfer, omission or hindrance.

Experiments on Humans and Animals:

Authors who use embryonic cells, embryos, foetal tissues, animals and humans in their study should comply with the rules specified within the scope of Helsinki Declaration.

Ethical Procedure:

IRAJ-SHMS referees are responsible for reporting plagiarism, fraudulence and suspected copy publications in studies made on humans and animals. A referee can report that he/she has served or still serves as the referee of a similar research study of the same author published in another journal. Readers can report that the same article has been published in another platform and authors do plagiarism. In such cases, the foremost duty of the editor is to notify the field editors about the situation with the copies of the concerned material and the non-judgemental draft letter to be requested from the correspondence author. Field editor should approve the procedure of correspondence prior to any correspondence with the author. If the explanation made by the author is not accepted and unethical cases is seen in the study, the Council of Publication will deal with the situation. As a result of evaluation, it will be decided that the author is banned from future application for article or notification is made to his/her institution. Decision should be approved by the management board of IRAJ-SHMS, and the author is entitled to explain his/her situation and object to decision on sanction.

If violation (offense) is minor, the editor sends a censure letter to the author, reminding the publication rules of IRAJ-SHMS. If the study has been published, the editor can request from the author to apologize to publish in the Journal so that correction can be made. If IRAJ-SHMS violates the copyright of another journal due to the author, the editor sends an apology letter to the concerned journal.

In serious cases which necessitates the withdrawal of the article due to fraudulence, information about withdrawal will be published in the Journal, and an online link will be added to the published article. Additionally, articles which have been published online will be marked as ‘withdrawn’ with the date of withdrawal.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

1- Is the journal refereed and international ?

1.1. The journal is a refereed international journal. It is indexed with and included in many international indexes.

2- Does the journal charge any publication fee?

2.1 Our magazine is a certain amount per article fee in exchange for some expenses.

3- Are the readers allowed to access to the issues and the articles without being a member of the journal?

3-1 All the issues in the journal can be downloaded in pdf format

4- What is the frequency of publication of the journal?

4-1 The journal publishes four times per year. At the end March, June, September and December, issues with the full texts are uploaded to the system.

5- Are the authors informed of the evaluation process?

5-1 The journal is web-based, and the information concerning the evaluation process can be obtained by the members of the journal. The authors will also be provided with the necessary information about the process.

6- How many referees evaluate a manuscript?

6-1 Manuscripts, which are evaluated by the field editors, are sent to the two referees, experts in the appropriate field. This process takes two months. If evaluation reports are not received in two months, the article is sent to the third referee. If there is not any progress, field referee, and the editors decide on the publication process.

7- Is any information concerning “the author and authors” confidential or not?

7-1 In this journal, and all the international refereed journals, information, concerning the author/authors is known only by the system editors, field editors, chief editor and

assistant chief editors. This information is kept confidential. The referees or members of the journal are not allowed to access to the information about the authors.

8- Is there a certain number of article to be published in the journal?

8-1 There is not a certain number of article in the journal. Each article, approved by the referees and the editorial board, is accepted to be published in the journal without delay and sent for the layout process which is the final stage.

9- Is an author allowed to submit more than one paper in the same issue?

9-1 It is out of the question in terms of ethics. However, more than one manuscript of the same author can be published in the same journal or the following issues if the publication and editorial board approve the articles. But this situation is possible only for specific cases.

10- Are there sufficient referees in all the fields that the journal is seeking articles?

10-1 The journal consists of qualified, sufficient and successful referees, experts in their fields, who respect scientific qualities and terms and evaluate the manuscripts efficiently and voluntarily without pecuniary advantage. In the journal there is more than one referee in each field, eager to contribute to the development of science.

11- What is the duty of the science and advisory board?

11- 1 The science and advisory board is composed of the chief editor and field editors who are responsible for solving the incompatibility problems that the referees experience; the board give the final decision independently, and they act actively to solve such problems. The decisions of the science and advisory board are accepted without questioning. Their decisions cannot be changed.

12- Is an author allowed to submit his/her paper to the science and advisory board in a negative situation?

12-1 This situation is out of question. It occurs in accordance with the will of the chief editor.

13- If an author submits his/her paper simultaneously to another journal for consideration, and the paper is accepted in that journal too, what kind of precautions are taken?

13- 1 The editorial board gives the final decision in such cases. As the editorial board does not regard such attitudes as ethical, even if the paper has been published, it is removed from the system on condition that refutation is published, necessary institutions

are informed, and the rights are reserved. However, in order not to experience such problems, the guidelines for the authors should be read carefully and the appropriate papers should be submitted.

14- What is the language of the journal?

14- 1 Publication of the journal language is English by the year 2016.

15- Is an author allowed to get information about the referee that is evaluating his/her paper?

15- 1 It is out of question. The names of the referees will never be revealed to the authors even if they want to learn.

16- Is an author allowed to give a name of a referee that he/she does not want his/her paper to be evaluated by?

16- 1 If such a problem occurs, and the referee is in the journal list, on condition that the process is confidential, the author should submit the necessary explanations and reasons in an official document to the chief editor. If this is approved by the chief editor, necessary steps are taken, otherwise, common procedures are carried out.

17- Is an author allowed to suggest a referee to contribute to the evaluation process?

17-1 It is out of question. The field and system editors decide on the issue. Authors cannot interfere in this process.

18- Are the authors to sign the transfer agreement or publishing transfer contract?

18-1 This situation is stated on the main page of the journal in the section titled publication principles. All the submitted papers are accepted to be transferred to the journal with exclusive rights. The author is not asked to sign the document concerning his/her paper. However, in some cases the author should sign the contract, required by the field editors or administrative board and submit it to the chief editor officially. Otherwise the paper will not be published.

19- Is an author allowed to withdraw his/her paper when he/she wishes?

19-1 If the evaluation process has started, papers cannot be withdrawn. The paper can only be withdrawn in case of plagiarism and scientific disquality and if the author sends an official letter, explaining the situation to the chief editor. The journal acts unilaterally in this issue.

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Documents

(ISSUE: 17 YEAR: 2016)