EDUU566

Based on Reiser & Dempsey, 2006 & Reiser, 2001

Carla Piper, Ed. D.

Course Developer

History of

Instructional DesignPart One

What is Instructional Design?• Involves the analysis of learning and

performance problems

• Includes design, development, implementation, evaluation and management of instructional and non-instructional processes and resources

• Intended to improve learning and performance in a variety of settings including educational institutions and the workplace

• Uses systematic instructional design (ISD) procedures and employ a variety of instructional media to accomplish their goals.

(Reiser, 2001 p. 57)

History of Instructional Media

• Primary physical means of instruction prior

to the 20th Century

– The teacher

– The chalkboard

– The textbook

• Influence of technology

– the use of media for instructional purposes

– the use of systematic instructional design

procedures or instructional design

Psychologists and Educators• Conducted experimental research

• Developed training materials for the military

• Influenced the types of training materials that

were developed

• Based on their work on instructional principles

• Examined research and theory on instruction,

learning, and human behavior

World War II

American Institutes for Research

• Established after WWII

• Started seeing training as a system

• Developed a number of innovative analysis, design, and evaluation procedures

• Programmed instruction movement (mid-1050s through the mid-1060s)

• Major factor in the development of the systems approach.

B.F. Skinner• Wrote article called: The Science of

Learning and the Art of Teaching (1954)

• Believed that increasing human learning could increase if instructional materials were effectively designed.

• Programmed instructional materials should:– present instruction in small steps

– require overt responses to frequent questions

– provide immediate feedback

– allow for learner self-pacing

• Learner would receive positive reinforcement with the feedback they received

• TIP Theories – Operant Conditioning More on Skinner

Programmed Instruction

• Data regarding the effectiveness of

the materials were collected

• Instructional weaknesses were

identified

• Materials were revised accordingly

• Trial and revision procedure

provided formative evaluation

• Still found in current instructional

design models.More on Programmed Instruction

B.F. Skinner’s

Teaching Machine for

Programmed Instruction

Robert Mager• Preparing Objectives for Programmed

Instruction (1962)– now in its third edition

• Describes how to write objectives that include– a description of desired learner behaviors

– the conditions under which the behaviors are to be performed

– the standards (criteria) by which the behaviors are to be judged

• Current instructional designers still require these three elements in course objectives

• TIP Theories – Criterion Referenced Instruction

• How to Write Learning Objectives -http://depts.washington.edu/eproject/objectives.htm

Robert Mager

Benjamin Bloom

• Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956)

• Various types of learning outcomes within the cognitive domain – Objectives could be

classified according to type of learner behavior described

– A hierarchical relationship exists among the various types of outcomes

Evaluation

Synthesis

Analysis

Application

Comprehension

Knowledge

The Criterion-Referenced Testing Movement

of the 1960s

• Norm-referenced tests common before the early 1960s– spread out the performance of learners

– bell curve - determine the norm or average scores in a population

– some students do well on a test and others do poorly

• Criterion-referenced tests – determine how well an individual can perform a particular

behavior or set of behaviors

– Individual performance not compared to the performance of others

• Glaser (1963) used criterion-referenced measures – assess student entry-level behavior

– determine the extent to which students had acquired the behaviors an instructional program was designed to teach

Glaser’s Instructional System1962

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/glaser.html

The Systems Approach – 1970s

• U.S. Military developed instructional design model for training

• Instructional improvement centers were created in higher education– To help faculty use media and instructional design

procedures to improve the quality of their instruction

• Marks the beginning of graduate programs in instructional design

• Professional organizations formed – Educational Technology and Research Development

• Current ASAT Website – Army Automated Systems Approach

Dick and Carey Model - 1978

Reiser and Dick Model - Current

• Dick and Carey Model

• Reiser’s Website

The IDI Model- Gerlach and Ely1980

Link to PDF

Original ADDIE Model - 1975

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/addie.html

ADDIE

Analyze

Evaluate DesignImplement

DevelopReviseRevise

ReviseRevise

Core Elements/Phases of Instructional Design

ADDIE Model

• A – identify problem, analyze setting

• D – organize management, identify objectives

• D – specify methods, consult prototypes

• I – test prototypes, implement recycle

• E – analyze resultsResources

– Learning Theories

– Wikipedia

– e-LearningIntuology

– ISU

Systematic Design

ADDIE Table

http://www.businessperform.com/html/addie_model.html

Don Clark’s ADDIE Timeline

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/addie.html

Don Clark’s ADDIE Backwards Design

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/ADDIE/ADDIE_backwards_planning_model.html

1980s – Computer-based Instruction

• Applied principles of cognitive psychology in the instructional design process

• Increasing interest in the use of microcomputers for instructional purposes

• Instructional design professionals turned their attention to producing computer-based instruction

• Began to develop new models of instructional design to accommodate the interactive capabilities

• ERIC Digest – Roblyer (1989)

Robert Gagne

• The Conditions of Learning (1965 currently in 4th

edition)

• Described five domains or types of learning outcomes– verbal information

– intellectual skills

– psychomotor skills

– attitudes

– cognitive strategies

• Each require a different set of' conditions to promote learning

• TIP Theories – Conditions of Learning

Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

1. Gain attention (reception)

2. Inform learners of objectives (expectancy)

3. Stimulate recall of prior learning (retrieval)

4. Present the content (selective perception)

5. Provide "learning guidance" (semantic encoding)

6. Elicit performance (responding)

7. Provide feedback (reinforcement)

8. Assess performance (retrieval)

9. Enhance retention and transfer (generalization). Tip Theories

Gagne’s Model

Instructional Design

The 1990s - Constructivism• Constructivist theory of learning and instruction

• The instructional principles require learners to:

– solve complex and realistic problems

– work together to solve those problems

– examine the problems from multiple perspectives

– take ownership of the learning process (rather than being passive recipients of instruction)

– become aware of their own role in the knowledge construction process

• Designers create "authentic learning tasks that reflect the complexity of the real-world environment in which learners will be using the skills they are learning”

1990s Developments

• New electronic performance support systems – information base with

essential work information

– intelligent coaching and expert advisement systems

– customized support tools that automate and simplify job tasks

• Increased interest in using the Internet for distance learning

• Rapid prototyping – developing a prototype product in

the very early stages

– going through a series of rapid tryout and revision cycles until an acceptable version of the product is produced

• CAD –Computer-aided Design

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) Theory

• Memory is basis for information processing

• Three stages of memory– Sensory

• perceive organizations in patterns in environment

• recognize and code patterns

– Short term• hold information briefly

• try to make sense of information

• make connections with information in long term memory

– Long term• enables learner to remember

• Helps learner apply information to real-life applications

• The importance of feedback– Provides learner with knowledge about the correctness of his/her

response or adequacy of performance

– Allows learner to correct response or improve performance

Reiser (2006), p. 38

CIP and Stages of Memory

http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/infoproc.html

Executive Control Responses

http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t55.html

Schema Theory

• “Knowledge presented in long term memory as packets of information called schemata” (Reiser, 2006, p. 39).

• Schemata –organize information in categories in “systematic, predictable ways”

• Automated schemata free learner’s working memory capacity

• Roles and scripts for interpreting the world and making predictions about environment (Widmayer, 2007).

• Each individual’s schema is unique and dependent on experiences and cognitive processes.

Office

Chairs

Desk

Books Papers

Laptop

Cognitive Load

• Working memory needs to be kept to a minimum of “7 chunks of information at the same time”

• Goal is to facilitate the changes in long term memory

• “Need to group or chunk information in smaller portions so working memory is not overloaded and information can be passed to long term memory more efficiently allowing learning to occur”

Situated Learning Theory• Learning occurs in a community

of practice (Wenger)

• Relies on social and cultural aspects of learning

• Students in community of practice– Enter as individual newcomer and

begin to engage in the practices of the community

– Become old timers in the community and refine practices

– Sustain the interconnected community and become effective and valuable leaders

http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/situated.htm

Information

Social

Individual

Experience

Passive Active

Need for Instructional Designers

• Distance learning programs – need for high quality Internet based instruction

– can not simply be on-line replicas of the instruction delivered in classrooms

• Trend toward knowledge management – identifying, documenting, and disseminating explicit

and tacit knowledge within an organization in order to improve the performance of that organization

– database programs, groupware, and intranets allow organizations to "manage" (i.e., collect, filter, and disseminate) knowledge and expertise

Resources

• Survey of Instructional Design Models (1997) -

http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/survey.htm

• Instructional Design Models

• TIP Theories

• Wikipedia

• Reiser, R.A. (2001). History of Instructional Design (Website)

• Reiser & Dempsey (2006). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology.