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Is conservation leading to the loss of Tibetan Spiritscapes and their indigenous guardians andnuminous owners?

Figure 1. An altar on the roof of a house in Upper Yubeng for honouring and appeasing the gzhi bdag that inhabit snow peakmin tso mu and forested peak ben de ru

The sacred natural sites (SNSs) of indigenous societies are mostly supported by a worldview

predicated on animism and numinous spiritscapes. Spiritscapes are characterized by psycho-

spiritual connections, eco-spiritual auditing, topocosmic reciprocity and behaviour that mimics

explicit nature conservation. In spite of this spiritscapes appear to be less recognised than SNSs

associated with mainstream faiths and their discursive treatment robs them of their cultural and

spiritual significance.

Tibetan Spiritscapes (or numinised SNSs)

Spiritscapes are a defining characteristic of Tibetan lay society and are exemplified in mountain

cults and ritually protected refugia (skyabs). Historically the cultural identity of Tibetan nomads

and farmers was predicated on the honouring of their territorial divinity (a yul lha) and several

numina (gzhi bdag) that inhabit most of their Sacred Natural Sites (or gzhi bdag gnas yul). Most

mountains in the Tibetan world are inhabited by a gzhi bdag associated with specific lay

communities and territories. They are part of an animistic and shamanistic tradition concerned with

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the immediate world, involving various ceremonies and rituals that take place in the home and

mountain locales.

The gzhi bdag theoretically 'tamed' by Buddhism are closer to Tibetan nomads and farmers in both

geography, identity and in sensed presence. In the world of the lay Tibetan, many landscape

features point back to the worship of ancient gods. They are not only conscious of the constant

scrutiny of gzhi bdag but engage in rituals and place demands on them for protection and health,

and success, in hunting, trading, travel, farming etc. Participation in mountain cults is still an

essential element of rural Tibetan life and identity and is expressed in cultural, economic, eco-

spiritual and political behaviour. Additionally as a spontaneously recovered folk practice the gzhi

bdag cult lies outside of state control and is a contemporary means of expressing unique

Tibetanness.

Traditional interactions with Sacred Natural Sites

The psycho-spiritual behaviour exhibited within the sacred domain or gnas yul of a gzhi bdag,

might be described by conservationists as explicit nature conservation. In reality, however, the

behaviour is much more complex and sophisticated with humankind comprising only one element

of the topocosm. Nature conservation, stewardship and governance are alien concepts that

cannot be abstracted from the indigenous reality of being part of the natural world or belonging

to nature.

The Tibetan word co-opted for nature conservation is khor yug srung skyob which is a neologism

without a dynamic equivalent. On the basis of cognitive mapping conducted in Ganzi Prefecture

(2000-2005) it would appear that a nexus of five values coalesce closely around the Tibetan concept

of rang byung (endogenous) srung skyob. These seemingly include

1) gzhi bdag gnas yul srung skyob i.e. the protection of Spritcapes (gzhi bdag) and the

benefits gained (Blessing)

2) khams srung skyob i.e. natural recycling of:- nutrients/O2/C/N/P/S/H2O (environmental

and hydrological)

3) srung skyob byas pa i.e. conservation efforts (e.g. tree planting) by Green monks

(Tibetan Buddhism),

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but this does not include phyi rgyal (exogenous) srung skyob (socialism and state

forestry). This latter finding is supported by research at Lugu Lake (in 2005) where

exogenous conservation was ranked 8 out of 13 environmental values. Exogenous

conservation is often regarded as a bio-centric intervention which at best has a very

limited interpretation of culture and at worse cultural chauvinism. In contrast for most lay

Tibetans the animistic spiritual importance of protection is more significant than the

ecological importance of conservation.

The status of Tibetan gzhi bdag sites

On the basis of a literature study and a bio-cultural audit (2013) it would appear that spiritscapes

are a common phenomenon throughout the Tibetan world and may comprise up to 25% of the

Tibetan Plateau (or ca 570,000km2) and that most Tibetan lay people interviewed :-

1) Are familiar with the gzhi bdag cult and estimate that there are typically three gzhi bdag sites

per village with known geospatial extents and comprising 700ha per village.

2) Maintain topocosmic equilibrium:-

By securing the patronage of gzhi bdag and renuminising them on an annual basis By responding to the enjoinment of gzhi bdag as guardians of the domain for the gzhi

bdag who is the owner (gzhi) of the ground (bdag) and the fauna/flora By observing culturally defined expectations when visiting gzhi bdag sites. By auditing topocosmic equilibrium to ensure the gzhi bdag are happy and they are

blessed. By inscribing gzhi bdag sites in the landscape and in local consciousness through folklore

and a cycle of daily, monthly, seasonal and annual rituals. By pre-emptively propitiating the gzhi bdag, who are capricious and easily offended. By discerning through dreams, visions, omens, theophanies or retribution when a gzhi bdag

is offended and by determining what form of restitution is required with the help of laydiviners

3) Consider that parents and elders shoulder most of the responsibility for intergenerational

enculturation, given the persecution of most cultural specialists during the Cultural Revolution

4) Protect gzhi bdag gnas yul as guardians (srung po) which consequently serve as refugia. This

finding is supported by biodiversity studies in the region which suggest significant differences based

on sanctity.

P5) Believe that the preservation of gzhi bdag sites and their biodiversity is contingent upon the

protection of indigenous culture and its intergenerational transmission.

6) Believe that the gzhi bdag cult (and associated SNSs) is being undermined by: - formal

education, exogenous conservation, forced re-settlement (Box 1), mass tourism, the market

economy, and the destruction of their cultural universe".

Ensuring international recognition and protection

Further field work is required to confirm the total area of spiritscapes on the Tibetan Plateau but

more importantly there is an urgent need to identify international organisations who can secure

protection for Tibetan spiritscapes on the basis of holistic biocultural conservation (see below)

rather than the dominant bio-centric approaches.

Bio-centric conservation Biocultural/Holistic conservation

Conservation solutions

Exclusionary/protected areasPlacement of SpeciesEcological MigrationForced re-settlement

Mostly Biological DiversityLeveraged on governance

Regulatory legislation to preserveenvironment

InclusionarySustainable UseSocial Fencing

Topocosmic EquilibriumBio, cultural, spiritual and

perceptual diversity

Hunting Not sanctionedSubsistence hunting sanctioned

and negotiated with thecommunity and spirit world.

Perception of Nature Natural heritage alonePeople are part of nature

Bridging natural and culturalheritage

Modus operandi Top-down Bottom-up

Cultural InterpretationLimited

Culturally chauvinisticRacist

Expansive

Conservation Paradigm Biological and Ecological Integration of Biological andCultural Conservation

Nature of Conservation Minimal Change Dynamic and Evolving

Box 1: Forced re-settlement results in the loss of: - the pastoral culture and SNSs and their

guardians (srung po) and owners (gzhi bdag)Community Role Peripheral Participatory

Spiritual Dimension Peripheral Spiritual and physical worldsare continuousage 4

Conservation Custodianship The State or international conservationNGO'sNuminous divinities assisted by

local "guardians"

Topocosmic Communication Peripheral Trances, dreams, visions,omens, theophanies, divination

Intrinsic Worth Independent of people or divinities Created by or presided over bya divinity

Worldview

ReductionistCompartmentalised

Mostly monophasic (5-sense)Ecosystems elevated over human

beings

HolisticIntegrated

Mostly polyphasic (up to8-senses)

View of local people People are a "pathogenic" threatSubjects of studyEnhancing biodiversity

Guardians

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