IranIran

IranIran Mostly arid plateau around 4,000 ft.Mostly arid plateau around 4,000 ft. 67,000,000 population67,000,000 population 31% under age 1531% under age 15 66.4% urban66.4% urban 22ndnd largest oil exporter within OPEC largest oil exporter within OPEC 51% Persian, 24% Azeri, 7% Kurd51% Persian, 24% Azeri, 7% Kurd 89% Shia Muslim89% Shia Muslim $7000 GDP per capita$7000 GDP per capita 16% Unemployment16% Unemployment Life expectancy 69.3Life expectancy 69.3 72% Literacy72% Literacy 4.1% women in the Majlis4.1% women in the Majlis No separation of powers among Supreme Leader, Guardian No separation of powers among Supreme Leader, Guardian

Council, Assembly of Religious Experts, and Expediency CouncilCouncil, Assembly of Religious Experts, and Expediency Council Theocracy—rule by religionTheocracy—rule by religion Has some democratic elements—popular sovereignty, separation Has some democratic elements—popular sovereignty, separation

of powers, individual rights, electionsof powers, individual rights, elections RENTIER STATE—a country that obtains lucrative income RENTIER STATE—a country that obtains lucrative income

(most of its revenue) by exporting a raw material like oil or (most of its revenue) by exporting a raw material like oil or leasing out a natural resourceleasing out a natural resource

Problems Faced by Rentier Problems Faced by Rentier StatesStates

Resource could be depletedResource could be depleted Lack of diversification in local economy—nothing else is Lack of diversification in local economy—nothing else is

developeddeveloped Dependence on world market causes price Dependence on world market causes price

fluctuations/instability. Economy can fail due to price fluctuations/instability. Economy can fail due to price fluctuations.fluctuations.

Income inequality is exacerbatedIncome inequality is exacerbated No incentive to modernize/industrializeNo incentive to modernize/industrialize Increased opportunity for corrupt usage of income from Increased opportunity for corrupt usage of income from

rentsrents Lack of accountability to citizens since no tax system Lack of accountability to citizens since no tax system

required—citizens have no voice/diminished civil societyrequired—citizens have no voice/diminished civil society No foreign direct investmentNo foreign direct investment

Iranian History 1501-1925Iranian History 1501-1925

1501-1722 Safavid Dynasty rules Iran, coverts 1501-1722 Safavid Dynasty rules Iran, coverts most from zoroastrianism to Shi’ism, makes it most from zoroastrianism to Shi’ism, makes it state religion, introduces Majles. 1722 invasion state religion, introduces Majles. 1722 invasion ends reignends reign

1794-1925 Qajar Dynasty rules 1794-1925 Qajar Dynasty rules

(1) 1st try to reconstruct theocracy(1) 1st try to reconstruct theocracy

(2) 2nd try to achieve modernization (western (2) 2nd try to achieve modernization (western style)style)

(a) economy (similar to ISI)(a) economy (similar to ISI)

(b) reorganize the military (b) reorganize the military

(c) reform the bureaucracy(c) reform the bureaucracy

1906 Constitutional Revolution 1906 Constitutional Revolution under Qajarsunder Qajars

An experiment with democracy based on An experiment with democracy based on Belgian/British model (elections, separation of Belgian/British model (elections, separation of powers, elected legislature, popular sovereignty, powers, elected legislature, popular sovereignty, Bill of Rights guaranteeing equality, freedom of Bill of Rights guaranteeing equality, freedom of expression)expression)

The revolution was an attempt to modernize Iran The revolution was an attempt to modernize Iran Prompted largely by changes sparked by Prompted largely by changes sparked by

modernizationmodernization Result was a constitutional monarchyResult was a constitutional monarchy Only Shia could hold officesOnly Shia could hold offices

Reza Shah comes to power through the Coup Reza Shah comes to power through the Coup d’etat of 1921—democracy had crumbled into d’etat of 1921—democracy had crumbled into squabbling, authoritarian statesquabbling, authoritarian state

Rule of Reza Shah/Pahlavi RuleRule of Reza Shah/Pahlavi RuleReza Shah’s objectivesReza Shah’s objectives

a. state led capitalism (German style)a. state led capitalism (German style)b. modernize and reform Iranb. modernize and reform Iranc. restrict the power of the clergy and aristocracyc. restrict the power of the clergy and aristocracyd. build strong economy through cultural engineeringd. build strong economy through cultural engineering

(1) change dress style to western(1) change dress style to western(2) promote secular values(2) promote secular values

(3) make popular culture compatible with requirements and (3) make popular culture compatible with requirements and goals of development goals of development

Reza Shah’s accomplishments Reza Shah’s accomplishments a. eliminated hereditary privilegea. eliminated hereditary privilege

b. did away with titles and asked people to select family namesb. did away with titles and asked people to select family namesc. Took telegraph away from British controlc. Took telegraph away from British controld. built roads & infrastructured. built roads & infrastructure

e. built a railway from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulfe. built a railway from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulff. establish secular, public schools and changed name to Iranf. establish secular, public schools and changed name to Irang. reduce clerical authorityg. reduce clerical authority

h. 1935 abolished veil for women and encouraged both men and h. 1935 abolished veil for women and encouraged both men and women to adopt European dresswomen to adopt European dress i. RENTIER STATE—dependent on other states for its income, heavily i. RENTIER STATE—dependent on other states for its income, heavily

supports state expendituressupports state expenditures j. Import substitution industrializationj. Import substitution industrialization

1940s-1960s History1940s-1960s History

Reza Shah Pahlavi is forced to Reza Shah Pahlavi is forced to abdicate during WW II in favor of his abdicate during WW II in favor of his son, Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavison, Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi

1956: PM Muhammad Mossadegh 1956: PM Muhammad Mossadegh comes to power, nationalizes oil comes to power, nationalizes oil industry. Leads a party called the industry. Leads a party called the “National Front”“National Front”

US and British intelligence services US and British intelligence services overthrow Mossadegh and restore the overthrow Mossadegh and restore the ShahShah

The White Revolution The White Revolution (1963)(1963)

The Shah announced a program for The Shah announced a program for reforms that were popularly endorsed:reforms that were popularly endorsed:

land redistributionland redistribution nationalization of the forestsnationalization of the forests sale of shares in government owned sale of shares in government owned

factories to underwrite land reforms factories to underwrite land reforms sharing of factory profits with workerssharing of factory profits with workers electoral reformelectoral reform enfranchisement of womenenfranchisement of women creation of a literacy corpscreation of a literacy corps Revolution countered “RED” influencesRevolution countered “RED” influences Majles became a rubber stampMajles became a rubber stamp Iran became a corporatist state with Iran became a corporatist state with

patron-client relationships embeddedpatron-client relationships embedded

The Islamic Revolution of The Islamic Revolution of 19791979

Despite successes (real or perceived) of the White Despite successes (real or perceived) of the White Revolution, rumblings of discontent could be heard in Iran as Revolution, rumblings of discontent could be heard in Iran as early as 1963early as 1963

Severe economic and social dislocations from White Severe economic and social dislocations from White Revolution Revolution

Shah had ruled using imprisonment and death for insurgentsShah had ruled using imprisonment and death for insurgents Perceived as totalitarian, Carter pushed for Perceived as totalitarian, Carter pushed for

openness=disasteropenness=disaster Khomeini was charismatic opposition leader-- a real optionKhomeini was charismatic opposition leader-- a real option Government corruption was severe Government corruption was severe Shia clergy provided an outlet for protestShia clergy provided an outlet for protest Secularized too quicklySecularized too quickly Patron-clientelism did not include interest group input, so Patron-clientelism did not include interest group input, so

corporatism never developed corporatism never developed In 1979 the Shah fell, leaving the country in January 1979.In 1979 the Shah fell, leaving the country in January 1979.

3 Oddities of 1979 3 Oddities of 1979 RevolutionRevolution

The 1The 1stst Revolution in which the dominant Revolution in which the dominant ideology, forms of organization, and ideology, forms of organization, and leadership cadres were religious in form and leadership cadres were religious in form and aspirationaspiration

This revolution was the first contemporary This revolution was the first contemporary revolution in which a theocracy was revolution in which a theocracy was established (modern revs were all AGAINST established (modern revs were all AGAINST state and church)state and church)

Only modern social revolution in which the Only modern social revolution in which the peasantry and rural guerillas played A peasantry and rural guerillas played A MARGINAL ROLEMARGINAL ROLE

It was a classic J-curve revolution: declining oil It was a classic J-curve revolution: declining oil prices and 20% inflation dented economic growth prices and 20% inflation dented economic growth led to DISCONTENT—EXPECTATIONS NOT METled to DISCONTENT—EXPECTATIONS NOT MET

How the Revolution How the Revolution HappenedHappened

The Revolutionary Coalition:The Revolutionary Coalition: Urban poor: especially former rural dwellers who Urban poor: especially former rural dwellers who

experienced the cultural chasm between tradition experienced the cultural chasm between tradition and modernityand modernity

Moderate middle classes that want political freedomsModerate middle classes that want political freedoms LeftistsLeftists Bazaar merchants (controlled broad networks—could Bazaar merchants (controlled broad networks—could

bring commerce to a standstill)bring commerce to a standstill) The clergy: had solid communication networks, The clergy: had solid communication networks,

financial independence, credibility from decades of financial independence, credibility from decades of opposition to Shahopposition to Shah

ARMED FORCES WERE “NEUTRAL”ARMED FORCES WERE “NEUTRAL” 99% of people voted to endorse new Constitution 99% of people voted to endorse new Constitution

written by “Assembly of Religious experts.” (75% written by “Assembly of Religious experts.” (75% voted)voted)

The Khomeini Government 1979-The Khomeini Government 1979-1988 Institution of the Islamic 1988 Institution of the Islamic

StateState1) Khomeini accomplishments1) Khomeini accomplishments-centralize the role of the state-centralize the role of the state-set up a Marxist economy-set up a Marxist economy-adopt absolute rule with religious authority—”Jurist’s Guardianship”-adopt absolute rule with religious authority—”Jurist’s Guardianship”-establish the Islamic Republic of Iran-establish the Islamic Republic of Iran*the term coined by Khomeini to suggest factions (republic) but final authority by the caliph*the term coined by Khomeini to suggest factions (republic) but final authority by the caliph*Luck: Oil prices rebounded, providing money for social services, medical care, etc.*Luck: Oil prices rebounded, providing money for social services, medical care, etc.*Luck: Iraq War unified Iranians*Luck: Iraq War unified Iranians

2) Institutions of Government created/revised2) Institutions of Government created/revised a) Parliamenta) Parliament b) President b) President c) Assembly of Expertsc) Assembly of Experts d) Supreme Leaderd) Supreme Leader e)e) Guardian CouncilGuardian Council f) Supreme National Security Councilf) Supreme National Security Council g) Armed Forcesg) Armed Forces h) Expediency Councilh) Expediency Council i) Judiciaryi) Judiciary  3) dissatisfaction with poor socio economic conditions and “tiredness” with making sacrifices were 3) dissatisfaction with poor socio economic conditions and “tiredness” with making sacrifices were

pervasive by 1989pervasive by 1989

1989 forward1989 forward

Khomeini was succeeded by the Ayatollah Khomeini was succeeded by the Ayatollah KhameneiKhamenei

Power began to shift back to the PresidencyPower began to shift back to the Presidency The President in 1989 was The President in 1989 was Ali Akbar Ali Akbar

Hashemi RafsanjaniHashemi Rafsanjani, who was a hard liner , who was a hard liner and closely allied with Ayatollah Khameneiand closely allied with Ayatollah Khamenei

In the 1992 elections, the two held on to In the 1992 elections, the two held on to powerpower

1997 elections: a moderate, Mohammad 1997 elections: a moderate, Mohammad Khatami won Khatami won

2002: Declared a member of the “Axis of 2002: Declared a member of the “Axis of Evil” by President George W. BushEvil” by President George W. Bush

The Iranian ExecutiveThe Iranian Executive ““Supreme Leader” or Supreme Leader” or faqih faqih chosen by 86 member chosen by 86 member

“Assembly of Religious Experts” a.k.a. “Chamber of “Assembly of Religious Experts” a.k.a. “Chamber of Experts”Experts”

Supposed to defend Islam, ensure laws acceptableSupposed to defend Islam, ensure laws acceptable Appoints/removes head of judiciaryAppoints/removes head of judiciary Appoints/removes ½ (6 members) of Guardian Council Appoints/removes ½ (6 members) of Guardian Council

(approves candidates)(approves candidates) Appoints head of military and may command armed Appoints head of military and may command armed

forcesforces Declares war and peaceDeclares war and peace Most famous: Ayatollah KhomeiniMost famous: Ayatollah Khomeini Current: Current: More powerful than Iran’s President, More powerful than Iran’s President, may overrule or may overrule or

dismiss the President and eliminate Presidential dismiss the President and eliminate Presidential candidatescandidates

Iran’s PresidentIran’s President 1989: PM abolished1989: PM abolished Needs absolute majority of votes, 4 year term—2 term Needs absolute majority of votes, 4 year term—2 term

maximummaximum Must be “well known political personality”—Guardian Must be “well known political personality”—Guardian

Council has used this to ban womenCouncil has used this to ban women June 2005: Election--Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, hardline June 2005: Election--Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, hardline

mayor of Tehran, defeats Rafsanjani mayor of Tehran, defeats Rafsanjani Devises the budget, supervises economic mattersDevises the budget, supervises economic matters Proposes legislation to MajlesProposes legislation to Majles Executes policyExecutes policy Signs treaties, laws, and agreementsSigns treaties, laws, and agreements Chairs the National Security CouncilChairs the National Security Council Selects vice-presidents and cabinet ministersSelects vice-presidents and cabinet ministers Approves provincial governors, town mayors, and Approves provincial governors, town mayors, and

ambassadorsambassadors Abol-Hasan Bani-Sadr removed in 1981 for criticizing Abol-Hasan Bani-Sadr removed in 1981 for criticizing

regime as dictatorshipregime as dictatorship

Council of GuardiansCouncil of Guardians 12 member council12 member council 6 clerics + 6 lay members (lawyers)6 clerics + 6 lay members (lawyers) All menAll men Has veto power with Supreme Leader over Has veto power with Supreme Leader over

Parliamentary legislation—did so with Press Parliamentary legislation—did so with Press Control law repealControl law repeal

Determines who can run in local, Determines who can run in local, Presidential, Parliamentary, and Religious Presidential, Parliamentary, and Religious Experts electionsExperts elections

Work with Supreme Leader to exercise Work with Supreme Leader to exercise “jurist’s guardianship”“jurist’s guardianship”

Assembly of Religious Assembly of Religious ExpertsExperts

86 members86 members Elected popularly and directly but it’s Elected popularly and directly but it’s

all clerics. 1998 revisions do allow all clerics. 1998 revisions do allow non-clerics but none elected yetnon-clerics but none elected yet

No females allowedNo females allowed Candidates must pass religion test to Candidates must pass religion test to

qualifyqualify Chose Ali Khameini in 1989Chose Ali Khameini in 1989

Council for the Expediency of the Council for the Expediency of the StateState

Created 1998Created 1998 32 leading political personalities appointed for 32 leading political personalities appointed for

3 year terms, may now originate own 3 year terms, may now originate own legislationlegislation

Members:Members: Heads of 3 branches of government (President, Heads of 3 branches of government (President,

Chief Justice, Speaker of the Majles)Chief Justice, Speaker of the Majles) 6 Clerics of Guardian council6 Clerics of Guardian council Anyone else Supreme Leader wantsAnyone else Supreme Leader wants Resolves policy disputes between Guardian Resolves policy disputes between Guardian

Council and MajlisCouncil and Majlis

Islamic Consultative Assembly Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majlis)-- Legislature(Majlis)-- Legislature

290 deputies, 4 yr terms, semi-free elections, must be 15 to 290 deputies, 4 yr terms, semi-free elections, must be 15 to vote vote

All candidates must be cleared by “Council of Guardians” All candidates must be cleared by “Council of Guardians” (council may veto any law not consistent with “the Revolution”)(council may veto any law not consistent with “the Revolution”)

Speaker has emerged as major position; Rafsanjani used it as Speaker has emerged as major position; Rafsanjani used it as springboard to Presidency. Now Akbar Nateq-Noorispringboard to Presidency. Now Akbar Nateq-Noori

Makes laws, interprets laws with Judiciary, 6 members on Makes laws, interprets laws with Judiciary, 6 members on Guardian Council, investigations, removes Cabinet ministers Guardian Council, investigations, removes Cabinet ministers but not President, approves budgets/treaties/appointees of but not President, approves budgets/treaties/appointees of PresidentPresident

Elections to the Elections to the Majlis of Iran were held on were held on February 20, , 2004. A . A runoff was held on runoff was held on May 7, , 2004, which filled 39 seats where no , which filled 39 seats where no candidate gained sufficient votes to win in the first round. candidate gained sufficient votes to win in the first round.

The elections took place amidst a serious political crisis that The elections took place amidst a serious political crisis that developed due to the developed due to the January 2004 decision of the decision of the conservative vetting body, the Council of Guardians, to ban thousands of vetting body, the Council of Guardians, to ban thousands of candidates from running -- nearly half of the total.candidates from running -- nearly half of the total.

A vast number of reformists, including some of their leaders, and A vast number of reformists, including some of their leaders, and particularly members of the Islamic Iran Participation Front (IIPF), particularly members of the Islamic Iran Participation Front (IIPF), were barred from running. In many parts of Iran, there weren't even were barred from running. In many parts of Iran, there weren't even enough independent candidates approved, so the reformists couldn't enough independent candidates approved, so the reformists couldn't form an alliance with them. form an alliance with them.

Out of a possible 285 seats (5 seats are reserved for religious Out of a possible 285 seats (5 seats are reserved for religious minorities: Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians), the participating minorities: Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians), the participating reformist parties could only introduce 191 candidates. Some reformist parties could only introduce 191 candidates. Some reformist parties, like the IIPF, announced that they would not vote. reformist parties, like the IIPF, announced that they would not vote. Moderate reformists, including President Mohammad Khatami, urged Moderate reformists, including President Mohammad Khatami, urged citizens to vote in order to deny the conservative candidates an easy citizens to vote in order to deny the conservative candidates an easy majority.majority.

While many pro-reform social and political figures, including Shirin While many pro-reform social and political figures, including Shirin Ebadi, had asked people not to vote, the official turnout was about Ebadi, had asked people not to vote, the official turnout was about 51%. 51%. Even in Tehran and its suburbs, a stronghold of reformist Even in Tehran and its suburbs, a stronghold of reformist sympathies, turnout was about 28%, and one of the conservative sympathies, turnout was about 28%, and one of the conservative alliances, alliances, Etelaf-e Abadgaran-e Iran-e EslamiEtelaf-e Abadgaran-e Iran-e Eslami, won all of the city's 30 , won all of the city's 30 seats.seats. There are rumors that some voters were transferred to There are rumors that some voters were transferred to Tehran or other big cities from other areas by some of the parties, Tehran or other big cities from other areas by some of the parties, and a claim that the Municipality of Tehran, whose mayor backed and a claim that the Municipality of Tehran, whose mayor backed the same alliance, was advertising for the alliance illegally, using the the same alliance, was advertising for the alliance illegally, using the government's budget.government's budget.

Day before the election--reformist newspapers Yas-e-no and Shargh Day before the election--reformist newspapers Yas-e-no and Shargh were banned.were banned.

The preliminary results of the elections showed a victory by the The preliminary results of the elections showed a victory by the conservatives. A basic comparison of the partial lists indicated that conservatives. A basic comparison of the partial lists indicated that even among the seats where the reformist alliance had a candidate, even among the seats where the reformist alliance had a candidate, only 28% (30 out of 107) were elected.only 28% (30 out of 107) were elected.

Iranian JudiciaryIranian Judiciary NOT an independent judiciary, enforces shari’a NOT an independent judiciary, enforces shari’a

and qanun (statutory law). Judicial review in the and qanun (statutory law). Judicial review in the sense that qanun may not violate shari’asense that qanun may not violate shari’a

Supreme Leader appoints cleric to be head judgeSupreme Leader appoints cleric to be head judge Religious zealots (hezbollahis) recruited from Religious zealots (hezbollahis) recruited from

ranks of urban poor (bazaaris)= stormtroopersranks of urban poor (bazaaris)= stormtroopers Enforces censorship laws to curtail public debatesEnforces censorship laws to curtail public debates Shut down 100 newspapers/magazines 1997-Shut down 100 newspapers/magazines 1997-

20042004 Banned interest on loans as usuryBanned interest on loans as usury Death penalty mandated for adultery, Death penalty mandated for adultery,

homosexuality, drug dealing, and alcoholismhomosexuality, drug dealing, and alcoholism

Iranian MilitaryIranian Military

540,000 active troops (8540,000 active troops (8thth largest) largest) Some long range missiles Some long range missiles Developing nuclear weaponsDeveloping nuclear weapons Revolutionary Guards developed in Revolutionary Guards developed in

case military gets reformist ideascase military gets reformist ideas

Political Parties/ElectionsPolitical Parties/Elections Finally re-legalized in 1998Finally re-legalized in 1998 Islamic Iran Participation Front: Reformist, formed after Islamic Iran Participation Front: Reformist, formed after

1997 election of Khatami. Run by Muhammad Reza 1997 election of Khatami. Run by Muhammad Reza Khatami (his brother). Did well in 2000, many candidates Khatami (his brother). Did well in 2000, many candidates blocked by Guardian Council in 2004. Helped Muhammad blocked by Guardian Council in 2004. Helped Muhammad Khatami win re-electionKhatami win re-election

Servants of Construction Party: Grouping of technocrats Servants of Construction Party: Grouping of technocrats loosely allied with former President Rafsanjaniloosely allied with former President Rafsanjani

Assembly of Combatant Clerics: Muhammad Khatami’s Assembly of Combatant Clerics: Muhammad Khatami’s party. Left wing, pro-reform.party. Left wing, pro-reform.

Conservatives: several different parties, biggest is Conservatives: several different parties, biggest is Ahmadinejad’s Islamic Society of EngineersAhmadinejad’s Islamic Society of Engineers

Almost 1 election/year: ingrainedAlmost 1 election/year: ingrained 15 is voting age15 is voting age High voter turnoutHigh voter turnout Candidate to seat ratio is 10:1 or moreCandidate to seat ratio is 10:1 or more Sharia, the canonical law of Islam, is the basis for the Sharia, the canonical law of Islam, is the basis for the

Constitution and therefore electionsConstitution and therefore elections

BureaucracyBureaucracy Revolutionaries purged bureaucracyRevolutionaries purged bureaucracy Doubled in size since 1979 thoughDoubled in size since 1979 though College and Hs graduatesCollege and Hs graduates Second strata is conservative technocratsSecond strata is conservative technocrats Military= Regular Army + Revolutionary Guards Military= Regular Army + Revolutionary Guards

(internal security)(internal security) New ministry: Culture and Islamic Guidance (censors New ministry: Culture and Islamic Guidance (censors

media)media) Reconstruction: expands social services, sees that Reconstruction: expands social services, sees that

Islam expands into the countrysideIslam expands into the countryside Intelligence, Interior, Justice, Culture headed by clerics, Intelligence, Interior, Justice, Culture headed by clerics,

often other posts go to their relativesoften other posts go to their relatives Result= clientelism, corruption, mismanagement, Result= clientelism, corruption, mismanagement,

patronage, ideological, nepotistpatronage, ideological, nepotist Some semipublic institutions from confiscated pre-1979 Some semipublic institutions from confiscated pre-1979

wealth, “Martyr’s Foundation”wealth, “Martyr’s Foundation”

Political CulturePolitical Culture Shiism: “Hidden Imam” will return. Union of religious Shiism: “Hidden Imam” will return. Union of religious

and political authority through sharia (Islamic law). and political authority through sharia (Islamic law). Sharia is an essentail base of legitimacySharia is an essentail base of legitimacy

Authoritarianism, but not totalitarianism (relieves some Authoritarianism, but not totalitarianism (relieves some pressure for reform)pressure for reform)

Escaped from European colonization—will not be same Escaped from European colonization—will not be same as Mexico, Nigeriaas Mexico, Nigeria

Geographic limitations: Not much arable land, plenty of Geographic limitations: Not much arable land, plenty of oil, most Iranians live in cities and the northwestoil, most Iranians live in cities and the northwest

Ancient Persian influences (architecture, literary works, Ancient Persian influences (architecture, literary works, decorative arts)decorative arts)

Mass media severely curtailed, 20 newspapers shut Mass media severely curtailed, 20 newspapers shut down in 1979, 7 more by 1981. down in 1979, 7 more by 1981.

1981 law: crime to use “pen or speech” against the 1981 law: crime to use “pen or speech” against the governmentgovernment

2000: Reformists elected, outgoing legislature enacted 2000: Reformists elected, outgoing legislature enacted “press control law,” which Guardian Council has “press control law,” which Guardian Council has ordered cannot be overturned by the new legislatureordered cannot be overturned by the new legislature

CleavagesCleavages Religion (10% Sunni, <1% Baha’IReligion (10% Sunni, <1% Baha’I Ethnicity (51% Persian, 24% Azeri), various ethnic Ethnicity (51% Persian, 24% Azeri), various ethnic

uprisings have all been put downuprisings have all been put down Reformers vs. ConservativesReformers vs. Conservatives Statists vs. Free marketers (Bill to allow 100% Statists vs. Free marketers (Bill to allow 100%

foreign ownership, up from 48%, vetoed by foreign ownership, up from 48%, vetoed by Guardian Council)Guardian Council)

Resistance to clerical rule by fiat is strongest Resistance to clerical rule by fiat is strongest among middle class– increasingly urbanized, among middle class– increasingly urbanized, educated, and young. Peasantry and lower class educated, and young. Peasantry and lower class support the regime.support the regime.

Most upper class left the country in 1979Most upper class left the country in 1979

Civil SocietyCivil Society Cultural Revolution in schools—revolutionaries Cultural Revolution in schools—revolutionaries

made schools teach orthodoxy. Western made schools teach orthodoxy. Western sympathizing professors fired and replaced (like sympathizing professors fired and replaced (like Cultural Revolution in China)Cultural Revolution in China)

Intellectual prosperity has flourished under a Intellectual prosperity has flourished under a repressive regimerepressive regime

No criticism of Islam or clerics permittedNo criticism of Islam or clerics permitted Mild criticism of government OKMild criticism of government OK About 200 well respected journals presentAbout 200 well respected journals present Participation highParticipation high 1999 studenbt uprising crushed1999 studenbt uprising crushed Revolutionaries tried to crush pre-1979 culture, Revolutionaries tried to crush pre-1979 culture,

eventually decided they would have to coexist/co-eventually decided they would have to coexist/co-opt itopt it

Political ParticipationPolitical Participation Huge gaps in values between different social Huge gaps in values between different social

groupsgroups Western influence over upper/middle classesWestern influence over upper/middle classes Millions took action during Revolution, elections—Millions took action during Revolution, elections—

students and youth now have enormous political students and youth now have enormous political weightweight

Women’s participation has gone upWomen’s participation has gone up Dissuaded when government assassinated over Dissuaded when government assassinated over

100 ethnic, leftist, and monarchist forces living in 100 ethnic, leftist, and monarchist forces living in the WEST.the WEST.

Protests remain (1999 shutdown of college Protests remain (1999 shutdown of college newspaper), factory workers protest nownewspaper), factory workers protest now

GenderGender Divorce and custody laws now follow Divorce and custody laws now follow

Islamic rules—bad for women “Equality Islamic rules—bad for women “Equality with difference”with difference”

Veil a symbol of oppressionVeil a symbol of oppression Scarf and long coat in public requiredScarf and long coat in public required Women must have consent of male Women must have consent of male

relatives to leave the countryrelatives to leave the country Occasional stonings for adultery, although Occasional stonings for adultery, although

they have been bannedthey have been banned Runaway girls, prostitution widespreadRunaway girls, prostitution widespread 27% of labor force is women27% of labor force is women Boys and girls do attend school at same Boys and girls do attend school at same

raterate Not well represented in MajlesNot well represented in Majles

Political EconomyPolitical Economy Khomeini: “Economics is for donkeys.”Khomeini: “Economics is for donkeys.” Pressures during 1980s:Pressures during 1980s: 1) Nationalization of many large firms1) Nationalization of many large firms 2) Massive emigration of skilled workers2) Massive emigration of skilled workers 3) Decline in Western investment3) Decline in Western investment 4) Oil price drop4) Oil price drop 5) 8 yr Iraq war5) 8 yr Iraq war Pragmatists wanted economic recovery, opposed Pragmatists wanted economic recovery, opposed

by conservatives who wanted no reforms, keep by conservatives who wanted no reforms, keep West outWest out

Guild and professional organizations are weak—Guild and professional organizations are weak—citizenry have multiple occupations and rapid citizenry have multiple occupations and rapid employment turnoveremployment turnover

EconomyEconomy Oil 85% of exports—rentier stateOil 85% of exports—rentier state Suffers from lack of diversification, dependence on world market/price Suffers from lack of diversification, dependence on world market/price

fluctuations, exacerbates income inequality, corrupt usage of rentsfluctuations, exacerbates income inequality, corrupt usage of rents Lack of raw materials and spare partsLack of raw materials and spare parts 16% Unemployment16% Unemployment 15% inflation15% inflation But education and health care have improvedBut education and health care have improved Bazaar merchants have constituted backbone of economic flowsBazaar merchants have constituted backbone of economic flows A myriad of quasi-private foundations and religious endowments A myriad of quasi-private foundations and religious endowments

manage state-owned enterprises to aid the poor (Shah’s old fortune)manage state-owned enterprises to aid the poor (Shah’s old fortune) Iran has applied for WTO membership despite reservations about Iran has applied for WTO membership despite reservations about

Western domination, nothing against cooperation, just domination.Western domination, nothing against cooperation, just domination. Iran will need outside help with infrastructure, developing additional oil Iran will need outside help with infrastructure, developing additional oil

resourcesresources Declining birth rate will help; mandatory sex ed classes for engaged Declining birth rate will help; mandatory sex ed classes for engaged

couplescouples Iran did not sign Kyoto Treaty but has gotten World Bank aid to clean up Iran did not sign Kyoto Treaty but has gotten World Bank aid to clean up

air pollutionair pollution Afghan and other refugees have been a strain on the economyAfghan and other refugees have been a strain on the economy Country suffers from air polllution (not Kyoto signatory), deforestation, Country suffers from air polllution (not Kyoto signatory), deforestation,

desertification, water contaminationdesertification, water contamination

Iranian Foreign PolicyIranian Foreign Policy

OPEC MemberOPEC Member Some advocate warmer ties with foreign Some advocate warmer ties with foreign

investors, possibly readmitting US dollarsinvestors, possibly readmitting US dollars Tourism industry almost dormant nowTourism industry almost dormant now Money a coward; Iran the classic exampleMoney a coward; Iran the classic example Large refugee population: Afghan, Iraqi, Large refugee population: Afghan, Iraqi,

KurdKurd Large diaspora abroad—government tries to Large diaspora abroad—government tries to

court them, most demand things the court them, most demand things the government cannot or will not providegovernment cannot or will not provide

Learning ObjectivesLearning ObjectivesAfter mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to:After mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to: Understand the key moments of the historical formation of Persia and Iran.Understand the key moments of the historical formation of Persia and Iran. Recognize the importance of complex religious and political challenges in Recognize the importance of complex religious and political challenges in

process of understanding of Iranian politics and society. Define the process of understanding of Iranian politics and society. Define the following: Shiites, Sunni, Muslim, Arabfollowing: Shiites, Sunni, Muslim, Arab

Discuss the complicated evolution of Iranian politics.Discuss the complicated evolution of Iranian politics. Comprehend the importance of religious intolerance and challenges in the Comprehend the importance of religious intolerance and challenges in the

Iranian state throughout the history.Iranian state throughout the history. Discuss the role of theocracy in the process of Iranian political Discuss the role of theocracy in the process of Iranian political

development.development. Understand the evolution of Iranian state in 20th century and define key Understand the evolution of Iranian state in 20th century and define key

elements of revolutions in Iran. Briefly discuss the role of the following elements of revolutions in Iran. Briefly discuss the role of the following leaders: Mahmoud Ahamdinejad, Ayatollah Ali Khameni, Ayatollah leaders: Mahmoud Ahamdinejad, Ayatollah Ali Khameni, Ayatollah Khomeini, Ayatollah Rafsanjani, Shah Mohamed Reza, Shah RezaKhomeini, Ayatollah Rafsanjani, Shah Mohamed Reza, Shah Reza

Learning ObjectivesLearning ObjectivesAfter mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to:After mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to: Define Iranian geography and current economic challenges.Define Iranian geography and current economic challenges. Understand the process of political, economic and social developments of Understand the process of political, economic and social developments of

Iran. Iran. Understand the role of Constitutional Revolution and White Revolution in Understand the role of Constitutional Revolution and White Revolution in

Iran.Iran. Discuss the key elements of Iranian state institution. Define the following: Discuss the key elements of Iranian state institution. Define the following:

Assembly of Experts, Expediency Council, Guardian Council, Majlis, Assembly of Experts, Expediency Council, Guardian Council, Majlis, Supreme LeaderSupreme Leader

Understand the specifications of Iranian political culture and participation. Understand the specifications of Iranian political culture and participation. Understand the challenges of democratization in Iran.Understand the challenges of democratization in Iran. Comprehend the challenging process of the development of Iranian Comprehend the challenging process of the development of Iranian

international positioning as an important regional and international international positioning as an important regional and international challenges of international stability and nonproliferation.challenges of international stability and nonproliferation.