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11/13/13
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Intro to Text Processing Lecture 8
Behrang Mohit
Some slides are borrowed or adapted from Noah Smith, Dan Jurafsky and Chris Manning lectures.
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So far …
• Talked about: – Text processing
• IE, Doc classificaMon – Basics of linguisMcs – Syntax
• POS tagging
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Words as symbols
• that empty sky was full of light
• that/DT empty/ADJ sky/Noun was/VBD full/ADJ of/IN light/NN
• 22/DT 59/ADJ 103/Noun 4/VBD 58/ADJ 9/IN 97/NN
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Word RelaMonships
• We want computers to know how lexical items (words) like giraffe are related to each other. – e.g., so we can infer:
• saw (Sara, giraffe) saw(Sara, animal)
– Disambiguate: • In my office there are two tables and one chair. • This year the chair of conference is Prof. Ali.
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Learning words
• Computers have no view of the world
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Learning words
• No understanding of dicMonaries, Wikipedia, scienMfic text
• Understand symbols, staMsMcs and graph structures – Lexical database
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Lexical semanMcs
• Syntax – Word-‐level: POS tagging
– Sentence-‐level: Parse Trees • SemanMcs (meaning)
– Lexical Seman,cs: Study of the meaning of words and the connecMons between words
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Words and their RelaMons
• Lexical item or a word form: One or more words which form the basic elements of a language’s lexicon (vocabulary) – Horse – traffic light
• Sense: a meaning of a word form – Chair: an object used for sidng – Chair: The head of a group of humans
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Lexical Matrix
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• Many:Many mappings between word forms and meanings.
• F1 and F2 are synonyms.
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Lexical Matrix
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• Chair and sofa are synonyms
• Word RelaMons • Synonymy • Antonymy • [a-‐z]+nymy
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Synonyms
• Synonym: A word that can be subsMtuted for another without changing the meaning of the sentence. – e.g. Drive (Mariem, car) vs. Drive(Mariem, automobile).
– Cases were words are not quite synonyms • Ali likes to drink strong tea. • Ali likes to drink powerful tea.
– Genre, style, etc. influence word usage.
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Synonymy and word sense
• Synonymy is really between senses of words – Zeinab likes fish and chips. – *Tariq likes fish and circuits. – The computer has many chips. – The computer has many circuits.
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Antonyms
• Formal definiMon? – Not always not-‐x
• Not rich != poor – Some where at the opposite ends of the a scale
– Or changes: • rise/fall
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sad happy
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[a-‐z]+nyms
• is-‐a relaMonship: – Hyponyms: specificaMons
• Horse is a hyponym of animal.
– Hypernyms: generalizaMon • Animal is a hypernym of horse.
• Part-‐whole relaMonship – Meronym
• Wheel is a meronym of car
– Holonym • Car is a holonym of wheel
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Hyponymy and Hypernymy
• One sense is a hyponym of another if the first sense is more specific, denoMng a subclass of the other – car is a hyponym of vehicle – mango is a hyponym of fruit
• Conversely hypernym/superordinate (“hyper is super”) – vehicle is a hypernym of car – fruit is a hypernym of mango
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Hyponymy more formally
• Extensional: – The class denoted by the superordinate extensionally includes the class denoted by the hyponym
• Entailment: – A sense A is a hyponym of sense B if being an A entails being a B
• Hyponymy is usually transiMve – (A hypo B and B hypo C entails A hypo C)
• Another name: the IS-‐A hierarchy – A IS-‐A B (or A ISA B) – B subsumes A
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WordNet
• Lexical database of English sense relaMons: – Nouns, Verb, AdjecMves, Adverbs
• Developed at Princeton University – Over 20 years effort – Global WordNet: in many languages (e.g. Arabic)
• Organized by synsets: – Set of near synonyms
• Chair, sofa • Chair, chairman, head
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Senses of “bass” in Wordnet
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Synsets for dog • S: (n) dog, domesMc dog, Canis familiaris (a member of the genus Canis
(probably descended from the common wolf) that has been domesMcated by man since prehistoric Mmes; occurs in many breeds) "the dog barked all night"
• S: (n) dog (informal term for a man) "you lucky dog" • S: (n) cad, bounder, blackguard, dog, hound, heel (someone who is morally
reprehensible) "you dirty dog" • S: (n) frank, frankfurter, hotdog, hot dog, dog, wiener, wienerwurst,
weenie (a smooth-‐textured sausage of minced beef or pork usually smoked; oven served on a bread roll)
• S: (n) pawl, detent, click, dog (a hinged catch that fits into a notch of a ratchet to move a wheel forward or prevent it from moving backward)
• S: (n) andiron, firedog, dog, dog-‐iron (metal supports for logs in a fireplace) "the andirons were too hot to touch”
• …
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WordNet Noun RelaMons
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WordNet 3.0
• Where it is: – hwp://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn
• Libraries – Python: WordNet from NLTK
• hwp://www.nltk.org/Home – Java:
• JWNL, extJWNL on sourceforge
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WordNet: hypernomy/hyponomy
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Synset
• MeSH (Medical Subject Headings)
– 177,000 entry terms that correspond to 26,142 biomedical “headings”
• Hemoglobins Entry Terms: Eryhem, Ferrous Hemoglobin, Hemoglobin Defini,on: The oxygen-‐carrying proteins of ERYTHROCYTES. They are found in all vertebrates and some invertebrates. The number of globin subunits in the hemoglobin quaternary structure differs between species. Structures range from monomeric to a variety of mulMmeric arrangements
MeSH: Medical Subject Headings thesaurus from the NaMonal Library of Medicine
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The MeSH Hierarchy
• a
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Uses of the MeSH Ontology
• Provide synonyms (“entry terms”) – E.g., glucose and dextrose
• Provide hypernyms (from the hierarchy) – E.g., glucose ISA monosaccharide
• Indexing in MEDLINE/PubMED database – NLM’s bibliographic database:
• 20 million journal arMcles • Each arMcle hand-‐assigned 10-‐20 MeSH terms
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Word Sense DisambiguaMon (WSD)
• Which synset does a given word (and its context) belong to? – In my office there are two tables and one chair.
– This year the chair of conference is Prof. Ali.
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How do we know when a word has more than one sense?
• The “zeugma” test: Two senses of serve? – Which flights serve breakfast?!– Does Lufthansa serve Dubai?!– ?Does Luvhansa serve breakfast and Dubai?
• Since this conjuncMon sounds weird, – we say that these are two different senses of “serve”
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Word Sense DisambiguaMon (WSD)
• Which synset does a given word (and its context) belong to? – In my office there are two tables and one chair. – This year the chair of conference is Prof. Ali.
• Finding all word senses is a difficult problem: – We assume we have the collecMon of senses
• WordNet
– Given a sentence, choose the right sense
• ApplicaMon: – Most areas of text processing
• NER (e.g. Washington)
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Approaches to WSD
• DicMonary-‐based: – Unsupervised (e.g. Lesk algorithm)
• Corpus-‐based approaches – Supervised algorithms (e.g. Ng & Lee 96)
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Lesk Algorithm (1986)
• Only requires a dicMonary
• The most likely sense for a word in a given context is decided by a measure of overlap between the definiMon of the target word and the definiMon of the words in the context of the target word.
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Lesk algorithm
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Lesk algorithm
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• This year the chair of the conference is Prof. Ali. • Chair: head or chief of an organizaMon, meeMng, … • Conference: meeMng, gathering, …
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LEXAS algorithm
• Uses supervised learning – A human-‐labeled dataset where all terms are disambiguated
• For each sense of word w, a set of features is extracted from the training data
• A test word t is compared with each of the training examples using a “distance” funcMon
• The sense of w which minimizes the distance with the target word t is selected.
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LEXAS: Training phase
• A window of words: [L3, L2, L1, W, R1, R2, R3]
• Feature extracMon: A feature vector of – POS of the words to the lev and right – Surrounding words – Keywords that co-‐occur frequently with w – SyntacMc relaMonship …
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LEXAS: Distance esMmaMon
• Distance between feature vector: – Sum of distance among features
• Distance between two values of feature f:
• C1,i: number of training
examples with value v1 and sense i
• C1: number of training examples with value 1
• n: total number of senses for the word
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More supervised learning for WSD
• Availability of labeled data – Supervised algorithms:
• Naïve Bayes • Decision List • ….
– Semi-‐supervised Learning
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WSD evaluaMon
• Intrinsic evaluaMon – Use gold-‐standard data to test and evaluate the actual algorithm
• Extrinsic evaluaMon – Employ the algorithm in a real-‐world applicaMon and see if it helps.
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WSD evaluaMon
• SenseEval workshop: over 10 years of compeMMon.
• Precision, Recall, Accuracy • Baseline: Most frequent sense
– Not always great performance by humans • On some polysemous words (e.g. Mtle): ~ 70%
• Extrinsic evaluaMon: on MT, QA, IR
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Word Similarity
• Synonymy: a binary relaMon – Two words are either synonymous or not
• Similarity (or distance): a looser metric – Two words are more similar if they share more features of meaning
• Similarity is properly a relaMon between senses – The word “bank” is not similar to the word “slope” – Bank1 is similar to fund3
– Bank2 is similar to slope5
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Why word similarity
• InformaMon retrieval • QuesMon answering • Machine translaMon
• Language modeling
• AutomaMc essay grading
• Plagiarism detecMon
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Word similarity and word relatedness
• We oven disMnguish word similarity from word relatedness – Similar words: near-‐synonyms – Related words: can be related any way
• car, bicycle: similar • car, gasoline: related, not similar
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Two classes of similarity algorithms
• Thesaurus-‐based algorithms – Are words “nearby” in hypernym hierarchy? – Do words have similar glosses (definiMons)?
• DistribuMonal algorithms – Do words have similar distribuMonal contexts?
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Path based similarity
• Two concepts (senses/synsets) are similar if they are near each other in the thesaurus hierarchy – =have a short path between them
– concepts have path 1 to themselves
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Refinements to path-‐based similarity
• pathlen(c1,c2) = 1 + number of edges in the shortest path in the hypernym graph between sense nodes c1 and c2
• ranges from 0 to 1 (idenMty)
• simpath(c1,c2) =
• wordsim(w1,w2) = max sim(c1,c2)
c1∈senses(w1),c2∈senses(w2)
1pathlen(c1,c2 )
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Example: path-‐based similarity simpath(c1,c2) = 1/pathlen(c1,c2)
simpath(nickel,coin) = 1/2 = .5
simpath(fund,budget) = 1/2 = .5 simpath(nickel,currency) = 1/4 = .25 simpath(nickel,money) = 1/6 = .17 simpath(coinage,Richter scale) = 1/6 = .17
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Problem with basic path-‐based similarity
• Assumes each link represents a uniform distance – But nickel to money seems to us to be closer than nickel to standard
– Nodes high in the hierarchy are very abstract • We instead want a metric that
– Represents the cost of each edge independently – Words connected only through abstract nodes
• are less similar
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InformaMon content similarity metrics • Let’s define P(c) as:
– The probability that a randomly selected word in a corpus is an instance of concept c
– Formally: there is a disMnct random variable, ranging over words, associated with each concept in the hierarchy
• for a given concept, each observed noun is either – a member of that concept with probability P(c) – not a member of that concept with probability 1-P(c)
– All words are members of the root node (EnMty) • P(root)=1
– The lower a node in hierarchy, the lower its probability
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InformaMon content similarity
• Train by counMng in a corpus – Each instance of hill counts toward frequency
of natural elevaDon, geological formaDon, enDty, etc – Let words(c) be the set of all words that are children of node c
• words(“geo-‐formaMon”) = {hill,ridge,growo,coast,cave,shore,natural elevaMon}
• words(“natural elevaMon”) = {hill, ridge} P(c) =
count(w)w!words(c)"
N
geological-‐formaMon
shore
hill
natural elevaMon
coast
cave
growo ridge
…
enMty
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InformaMon content similarity
• WordNet hierarchy augmented with probabiliMes P(c)
D. Lin. 1998. An InformaMon-‐TheoreMc DefiniMon of Similarity. ICML 1998
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The (extended) Lesk Algorithm
• A thesaurus-‐based measure that looks at glosses • Two concepts are similar if their glosses contain similar words – Drawing paper: paper that is specially prepared for use in draving
– Decal: the art of transferring designs from specially prepared paper to a wood or glass or metal surface
• For each n-‐word phrase that’s in both glosses • Add a score of n2 • Paper and specially prepared for 1 + 22 = 5 • Compute overlap also for other relaMons
• glosses of hypernyms and hyponyms
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Libraries for compuMng thesaurus-‐based similarity
• NLTK • WordNet::Similarity
– hwp://wn-‐similarity.sourceforge.net/
– Web-‐based interface: • hwp://marimba.d.umn.edu/cgi-‐bin/similarity/similarity.cgi
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Problems with thesaurus-‐based meaning
• We don’t have a thesaurus for every language
• Even if we do, they have problems with recall – Many words are missing – Most (if not all) phrases are missing
– Some connecMons between senses are missing
– Thesauri work less well for verbs, adjecMves • AdjecMves and verbs have less structured hyponymy relaMons
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DistribuMonal models of meaning
• Zellig Harris (1954): “oculist and eye-‐doctor … occur in almost the same environments…. If A and B have almost iden,cal environments we say that they are synonyms.
• Firth (1957): “You shall know a word by the company it keeps!”
• Offer much higher recall than hand-‐built thesauri – Although they tend to have lower precision
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Intui,on of distribu,onal word similarity
A bottle of Laban is on the table!She likes laban!Laban helps your digestion!We make laban out of milk.!
• From context words humans can guess laban means – A beverage like milk
• IntuiMon for algorithm: – Two words are similar if they have similar word contexts.
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Clustering related words
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Summary
• We need to process and get the meaning of the text – Lexical semanMcs: word-‐level meaning
• Usually in the context • Challenge ambiguity (polysemy)
– SemanMc resources: WordNet
– Word sense disambiguaMon – Word similarity
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