Introduction to the Various Branches of Anth

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Discuss the various subdivision of the Anthropology and indicate the significance of each

sub-discipline for the study of man.

Introduction:

The term anthropology is originated from the combination of two Greek words

Anthropos(human) and Logos1(reason, study, science or discourse).So simply it is the study

of human. Historically, the meaning of this term had been evolved and passed through a

long period of what we can call formation of meaning. The earliest usage of this term can

be traced back to the sixteen century when people used the Latin anthropologium to

indicate the physical anatomy. The term in the European countries was used for the

designation of the physical anthropology only(A.Barnard,2000:2). The cultural differenceswas studied under the name of ethnologie. As now days, ethnologie is being replaced by

the social Anthropology , it can be defined under the category of anthropology.

Branches of the Anthropology:

Anthropology is the study of humans in comparative perspective comparing societies

and cultures, looking at change over time, exploring human diversity. Anthropology as a

study of human can be divided from different point of views. It very often divided intotwo i.e., physical and cultural anthropology. In this method, cultural anthropology is

subdivided into three namely, Prehistoric archaeology, anthropological linguistics and

ethnology. But another method which is followed after Franz Boas is of four fields. First

two of aforesaid subdivisions of cultural anthropology appear as independent braches

with physical anthropology. Another one, ethnology covers mainly all other remaining. In

the following discussion we will follow the fourfold method.

I. Biological Anthropology:11logia are also referred. V.Barnouw,1978:3


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Physical or Biological2 Anthropology concerns with the physical man of the past and

present world rather than his society and its technology, laws, and sociology. It discusses

about the human (Homo sapiens) as an animal which belongs to the order of mammals,

or vertebrate. Its work is to trace the human history, i.e. its relationship with relatedspecies, evolutionary branching of the primitive order etc. S.S.Strickland defines

biological anthropology as the study of the biology of human and other primate species

from an evolutionary and comparative perspective(A.Barnard and J.Spencer,2002:102). So

its scope is related with human and their previous generations. Thus it can be called

Zoology of humanity, the human section of zoology.

Biological anthropology can be divided into mainly two parts i.e. human paleontology

and human variation (C.R.Ember, 2002:4).But it is not the only way of dividing this field.It is by S.S.Strickland divided into five i.e., human evolution, primatology , human

genetics, the study of human physical growth, and human ecology. To him first two are

mainly grouped into physical Anthropology while other three are into human biology.

But here we will try to discuss those under the first mentioned groups.

1.1. Human Paleontology:Paleontology is the study of the past world through the fossils remains. Human

Paleontology focuses on the evolutionary history of human. It tries to establish a geologic

time period through comparative study of the human fossils. By the time of the Darwin,

the paleontological study was there but its concern shifted into evolutionary paleontology

after Darwin. Even in the time of Lamarck he had no vision on the extinction. Human

paleontology established that truth. Depending on the comparative study on the

paleontology a gradual history of human and its struggle in the different environment,

finding a environment, food habit and its evolutionary improvement, determining the

ages of human development and their anatomical studies can be known.

1.2 Human variation:

Both Darwin and Lamarck believe that the species homo sapiens is not merely divided

into races but individuals. But obviously the race or group differences are much seen. A

2 In common, these two terms is used in the same sense. But sometime it has much more deep meaning which has been shown in thelater part.


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good deal of variation with the respect to skins, color, hair form is obvious among them.

This branch of physical anthropology aims to discuss about those factors.

II. Archaeology:Archaeology is the study of the prehistory3 through the historical remaining. Thus

Archaeology as a part of anthropology mainly concerns with the primitive culture rather

than the present one, ethnology. Archaeology mainly tries to find out what had not been

recorded historically and thus it makes a chronologically cultural development in the

field of materiality. The archaeologists excavate ancient sites (mainly of non-western

countries) and by that, they try to visualize the life ways, cultural process, cultural

changes of the millions of years at least partly if not fully by a possible explanation. Theremains of the human past include the broken pottery, hunting tools and garbage heaps.

Archaeological research mainly focuses on three things-1.The process and background of

development, 2.the place and its surroundings, 3.time-period of its developed.

Archaeological research, though studying the past ,is also dependent on the present

readings, historical documents and even folklore.

III. Cultural Anthropology:Among the sub-divisions, cultural anthropology is the most distinguish and well enlarged

field of thought. As a bearer of culture all human-groups have their own culture 4 which

are quite different and even contradictory comparing with the alien culture-s. Cultural

behavior being learned and acquired influences both material and immaterial creations of

man and cultural anthropology aims to cover up this field discussing from different angle.

Cultural Anthropology is vast area which includes all learned behavior and result of

learned behavior.

Conventionally, mainly in the European countries, it is also used in different

phraseology named social anthropology(E.E.Evans- Pritchard,1972:3). But now days

3 C.R. Ember (2002:5)and V.Barnouw(1978:6) archaeology mainly focuses on the 5000 B.P (Before present)-millions of year.4 Derived from the Latin root colere(to cultivate), (thus), that is, knowledge about those aspects of humanity which are notnatural, but which are related to that which is acquired.(in that sense)Cultural anthropology thus means knowledge about cul tivatedhumans(THOMAS HYLLAND ERIKSEN,2001:).


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social anthropology is discussed under the cultural anthropology (V.Barnouw, 1978:8). In

fact, all the branches except physical anthropology are discussed under this category5.

Actually the learned culture only belongs to social anthropology while cultural

anthropology includes both learned and result of learning or creation. Again in widersense, cultural anthropology is divided into Anthropological linguistic, prehistoric

archaeology and culture anthropology.

Another term, which is used as a replacement of it, is ethnology which mainly focuses on

the contemporary culture. Cultural Anthropology, however tries to study a certain society

(1) as single unit, (2) as a part of historical development, (3) and in comparative mindset.

In the first part a total picture of the society that someone studying is depicted as it is or

objectively. This kind of studying is, though for different interests, very old. Its historical

beginning starts with Herodetuss account of Egypt found in his Historywhich is dated

in the fifth cen. B.C. Researches on this sub-continent , in the ancient and early modern

period, was mainly clergy-based and can be traced back to the 5th cen. A.D when Chinese

Buddhist scholar monks documented the lifestyle of the people. It was carried out by the

Islamic scholars in the 10th cen. A.D. (V.Barnouw, 1978:14ff) and later on in the 18th

century by some Christian missionaries.

Cultural anthropology is discussed under ethnography, ethno-history and cross-cultural

research. But these three are not isolated but inter-related. An ethnographer mainly

focuses on present social structure and different institutions of society. Broadly speaking,

it includes kinship, food gathering and preservation methods, the belief and personality

development etc. A comparative mindset on the data gather is encouraged in cultural

anthropology. Roger Sanjek comments At each step in the ethnographic process they

constantly refer to the global range of societies with which they are familiar (,A.Barnartand J.Spencer 2002:298).the reference to the similarities and differences with other

society in this case, independently, can be called cross-cultural research also.

5C.R.Embers discussion can be considered as an example,2002:3


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Secondly, ethnographical note also demands attention on the trends and transitions.

Again in Rogers(A.Barnart and J.Spencer 2002:299) word-ethnographers place the social

phenomena they observe within comparative frames (hunting and gathering,

horticultural, agricultural, pastoral, industrial, colonial, neo-colonial regimes; co-operative, competitive, individualistic societies; gender subordination, complementarily

or equality; etc.).

While we are talking about the ethnography, the methodology of collecting data and its

ethical base are very important. Ethnographic work mainly focuses on a certain section of

the society. It can be on the kinship, religion etc. or both. An ethnographer makes a plan

of work. He decides, for instance, what are the things to be included or ignored in this

research. Work ethics mainly focuses on objectivity of the research worker while goingnative. Learning the language of the research field is the basic component of the

research(V.Barnouw,1978:7). Gradually, interviews, observation, discussion, listening etc.

come into play.

iv. Anthropological linguistics:

Anthropological linguistic is subdivided into three fields namely, (1) descriptive or

structural linguistic, (2) Historical linguistic, (3) socio- linguistic. The first one deals with

characteristics of sound unit of a language with its grammatical patterns in a particular

society. It tries to characterize the language of one period of time. Phonology and

grammar belong to its area.

The second one mainly deals with the changes over time. Linguists research on the

shifting of sound and influence of other languages on a particular language. Sanskrit, for

example, as one of the indo-European language has much similarity with Greek and Latin.

But in its evolution it has been changed greatly. The term aviswhich stands for sheep in

Sanskrit is ouis and ovis in Greek and Latin respectively(V.Barnouw,1978:36).In the prakrit

we find jihandiyo instead of Sanskrit Jitendriyo or pali jitendiyo.Actually H.linguitic

focuses on evolution of language.


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Language is a social component and thus has its own philosophy of speaking or of

communicating. Socio-linguistic in the same of fashion of ethnology tries to study

uniqueness of a particular language, its relationship with contemporary system of

languages. It focuses on the way people use language to express social class, group status,gender, or ethnicity, and it looks at how they make choices about the form of language

they use. It also examines the way people use language to negotiate their role in society

and to achieve positions of power.

Broadly speaking, communication method of ancient people and animals are also

discussed in this sub-section.

Significances of the Sub-divisions:

Anthropology as study of human brings about a significant output in the daily life. We

can discuss those facts in the following manners-

1. Physical anthropology as also related branch of human biology includesdiscussion of heredity, nutrition, sexual differences, the comparative anatomy and

physiology of races and their reasons(E.E. Evans-Prtchard,1972:4 ).

2. Anthropologist has many things to provide in the public health section. BetweenWorld War I to 1950 for instance, anthropological interest was surrounded in the

mental health of the people of different countries mainly the America and

European countries. Many European anthropologists trained in clinical psychiatry

or psychology (Rivers, C.G.Seligman, Fortes, Carstairs, Field) studied neurotic

illness(304ff). Many illnesses i.e., ethnopsychiatry are widely discussed in the

Psychiatric anthropology. Not only have that anthropologists recommended

therapy also.

3. Anthropologists try to identify one root origin of the human and thus themisconceptions regarding the race, cultural diversity are constructively explained.

It also helps to find a nature-friendly life while it explains causal dependency of

human and nature.

4. In the 19th century, the concept of ethnology is has been used by the Bureau ofAmerican Ethnology to understand the Native American society. As the


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demographic and material conditions were deteriorating, the bureau used

evolution theory of Lewis Henry Morgan and Herbert Spencer to get a total picture

of Native Americans. This project is sometime called salvage anthropology

(A.Barnard and J.spencer: 2002:39) . Mainly the Andeans were suffered very muchdue to race concept, polygamy, non-Christian religion etc(ibid,2002:58). while

modern anthropologist was emerging ethnographers started to learn their

languages and provided a substantial explanation of their culture. This concept can

be used in different societies or in the ethnic group to study their needs.

5. Nutritional anthropology mainly studies relationship between the diet and socio-biological facts. It developed mainly in the early 2oth century after Audrey

Richards (1939).He tried to show the inter-relationship between the diet andculture and their mutual influence upon one another. The cultural barrier to the

nitrous society is discussed and the anthropologist tries to use the data to solve

the cultural aspects of human nutritional problems. Freedmen(1976) emphasized

four areas: (1) dietary patterns;(2) non-nutritional aspects of food related to ethnic

identity, culinary tradition, social structure, social status and cultural change;

(3)cognitive aspects of food understood as part of ideological systems; and (4)food

as a vehicle of energy in studies of the human ecosystem(ibid,p.604). Biological

anthropologist also discussed diet as a vehicle of energy and nutrition. The

evolutionists try to shape up the significance of the diet-habit in the human

evolution both physically and intellectually.

6. The learning (socialization) formal or informal controls the cultural transmission.In that socialization as method of education is discussed in the anthropology. The

ritual, chisungu which is a ritual that initiates the Bemba girls to learn the Bemba

values (, this research was mainly done by Audrey Richards in 1988, ibid, p.271).

Impact of de-socialization that we can see in the case of tribal group is also

discussed in the Anthropology. Actually, this concept of de-socialization is quite

applicable to all of the world ethnic groups. In the case of Bangladesh-Santu

Larma, leader of CHT ethnic group while giving his speech in Chittagong


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University was very anxious to note that we should in our education period should

visit the native place very often rather than staying in urban places. This is very

true while we take into consideration the Vedda-s of Sri Lanka, native American of

America. Anthropology tries to give an account of those problems. Actually theethnic medicine, learning the values and custom etc. which are informal education

are discussed also.

7. Economical anthropology also significantly discussed economy as socialcomponent. It verifies, how social arrangements of a culture may frequently limit

the working of the market, how labor is expanded (is it caste base, or gender base

etc.?), how mode of production is shaped (identified kinship, lineage, domestic,

tributary, slave and yet other modes,ibid,p.263), how, in the past, socialrelationship controlled the land and labor(also in present in many cases), how the

economic transformation affects the society(ethnographically) etc. There are so

many things in the field of economy which are widely enriched by the studies of

the anthropology.

8. Historically anthropology has been discussing the environmental problem of theworld. Ecological anthropology shows how people are related with the

environment. An environment decide broadly how the shape of culture, economic,

political life etc. will be. It was mainly established in 1960-s, Many anthropologist

mainly at that time tried to find out the role of environmental adaptation led to

different custom and institutions. Accordingly the adaptation lead social and

cultural variety.

We can see the following conditionality-s in brief(details- ibid,pp.258-259ff)

i.Nomadic needed the adaptation of environment for their hunting; ii. Technology of the

production still needs the adaptation; iii. Demographic behavior needs this adaptation;

IV. Adaption of the pastoralists (e.g. the adaptation of the Pathan-s in the Swat valley of

Pakistan ); V. Religious belief and custom dependent on ecology(holy status of the cattle

among the Hindus, water-god among the fisher man, specially living near to the big river

or ocean,/Custom-the forest going people never put the knife(iron) in the fire while going


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to the forest6 ). This branch actually, for example, helps through demographic reports to

make an estimation on how ecological change will bring about a disastrous change in life

style of the people living in the coastal area, or is being dislocated by the river erosion

(e.g. Bangladesh and India, Presently happening), or its impact on agriculture(byincreasing the salt-rate of the soil ) etc.

Conclusion:

In the above discussion, we can see the branches of the anthropology is wide and is still

its sub-divisions are widening. But those divisions are mainly discussed under the

aforesaid divisions. The past of human culture or history is still very much ambiguous and

anthropology tries to make clear the primitive history though archaeological remaining.

It also covers the vanished cultures and civilizations. Present phase of the enthropology ismuch wider considering its diversity and gradual enlargement.

The brief discussion of the significance, of course shows how widely anthropology is

helping to modern human civilizations.

References:

1.A.Barnard & J.Spencer, Encyclopedia of Cultural and Social Anthropology,3rd edition,

London-2002

2.E.E.Evans and Pritchard, Social Anthropology,London-1972

3.Roger M.Keesing, Cultural Anthropology A contemporary perspective, New York-1976

4.Alexander Moore, Cultural Anthropology, Harper and Row,Publishers, New York-1978

5. Lucy Mair, An Introduction to Social Anthropology, Oxford-1965

6. Victor Batnouw, An Introduction toAnthropology ETHNOLOGY, Third edition,

Illinois-1978

6This custom actually believed by some of my country men. They actually believe that if the iron-weapon is

put into the fire it loses it life (died for a certain period- as they say) and they deities can attack them easily.If not died and if the ironic weapon is with someone they cannot come close to him.

Documents

Introduction to the Various Branches of Anth