Introduction to Research in Psychology

An Introduction to
Research Methods in Psychology

James Neill (2010)Centre for Applied Psychology
University of Canberra

Introduces the role and nature of research and research methods in psychological science.Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brain_mechanism.svgImage author: Alexander Krainov, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alex_KrainovLicense: Creative Commons Share-Alike 3.0, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en

Outline

Introduction

What is research?

Quick Fun Survey

Research process

Research methods

Bias in research

Ethical issues

Reading

Research methods in psychology
(Gerrig et al. 2008, Ch. 2)

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disciplined inquiry

What is research?

Image source: Unknown.

Examination of this image suggests an orderly discipline, yet space and environment for creativity and passion.

What is research?

SearchRe

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What is research?

Research is
formalised curiosity.
It is poking and prying
with a purpose.

- Zora Neale Hurston

Research is a a systematic attempt to understand the world.

Psychological research is a systematic attempt to understand human experiences of themselves and the world.

What is
psychological research?

Systematic development & testing of theory about human behaviour and mental events

Disciplined enquiry into human thinking, feeling, and behaviour.

What is
psychological research?

Research is a language

Learn key terms / concepts

UG study, especially 1st year, is about acquiring the language skills to access and make sense of recorded research knowledge

Psychological research

...holds out the promise of discovering the architecture of our psyche and understanding our behaviour in the world around us.

Just as research of our physical world and its properties and laws has lead to our creation of incredibly artful and scientific structures, so too psychological research holds out the promise of discovering the architecture of our psyche and our behaviour with the world around us.Image source: Unknown.

Psychological research is a recent phenomenon

Western, scientific, psychological research only has about a 60-100 year history.

Much still to be discovered - prospects for considerable growth & opportunity.e.g., due to technology, new research techniques and directions are becoming available.

Blue is usually the most popular7 is usually the most popular4 is usually male8 is usually female

This suggests that we may be more predictable than we like to think and indicates that there may be many patterns which can help to explain our thinking, feeling, and behaviouur.

Observations, beliefs, information, and general knowledge lead to a new idea or a different way of thinking about some phenomenon

Theory: An organised set of concepts that explains a phenomenon or set of phenomena.

Use theory to formulate research questions.

Process of research

Develop a hypothesis or hypothesesA tentative and testable explanation(s) of the relationship between two (or more) events or variables

Use the scientific method to design the study

Process of research

Initial observation or question

Form a hypothesis

Design the study

Analyse the data and draw conclusions

Report the findings

Consider open questions

Act on open questions

The research process
Gerrig et al. (2008)

The process of psychological research, generating theories and testing hypotheses.

Quick Fun Survey

What is your favourite colour?

What is your favourite number?

What sex is the number 4?

What sex is the number 8?

Blue is usually the most popular7 is usually the most popular4 is usually male8 is usually female

This suggests that we may be more predictable than we like to think and indicates that there may be many patterns which can help to explain our thinking, feeling, and behaviouur.

Design Your Own Psychological Study

Research questions

Expressing topics of interest as research questions is a key first step, e.g.,Is it bad to smack your children?

What is the effect of meditation on stress?

Do smart drugs really make people smarter?

My first study

What changes in stress, anxiety, crisis and flow occur for novice abseilers?

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James Neill (questionnaire).

Explain story of my first research study curiousity + methodology.

Design your own study

List topics you would like to research.

Create research questions & choose one.

What variables are to be measured?

What research method would you use?

What population and sampling method would you use?

Student research
opportunities

Research participation

Research seminars

Research news e.g., viaJournal alerts

Google Alerts

Research journalsHard copies

Electronic copies

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Scientific method

Research is a way of thinking

Researchers need to acknowledge & understand the limits of intuition & common sense

Philosophy of science

The scientific attitude

The scientific method

Blue is usually the most popular7 is usually the most popular4 is usually male8 is usually female

This suggests that we may be more predictable than we like to think and indicates that there may be many patterns which can help to explain our thinking, feeling, and behaviouur.

Science is based on

Knowledge of facts

Developing theories

Testing hypotheses

Public and repeatable procedures

If you are a scientist you believe that it is good to find out how the world works, that it is good to find out what the realities are, that it is good to turn over to mankind at large the greatest possible power to control the world... It is not possible to be a scientist unless you believe that the knowledge of the world, and the power which this gives, is a thing which is of intrinsic value to humanity, and that you are using it to help in the spread of knowledge, and are willing to take the consequences.
- J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967)

Image soruce: A-bomb unknown

Image soruce: A-bomb unknown

Critical thinking

Critical thinking does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions:Examines assumptions

Discerns hidden values

Evaluates evidence

It is a good morning exercise for a research scientist to discard a pet hypothesis every day before breakfast - It keeps him [sic] young.- Konrad Lorenz

Image source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/wwworks/1291468732/By woodleywonderworks' http://www.flickr.com/people/wwworks/

Set of procedures used for gathering and interpreting objective information in a way that minimises error and yields dependable generalisations.

Its goal is to draw conclusions with maximum objectivity.Conclusions are objective when they are not influenced by emotions or personal biases.

Scientific method

The doctrine that all events - physical, behavioural, and mental - are determined by specific causal factors that are potentially knowable.

Concept of determinism

Theory-testing is the
main function of research

Observations lead to theory

Theory = a specific set of assumptions and principles about a phenomenon.

Derive testable hypotheses
(or guesses / predictions)

Systematically test hypotheses in various conditions in order to determine the utility of the theory.

Facts are what need to be explainedobjective - viewable by othersbased on direct observationreasonable observers agree are true

Theories, hypotheses & research observations

TheoriesLow self-esteem feeds depressionHypothesisPeople with low self-esteem score higher on a depression scaleTest with observationsAdminister tests of self-esteem and depression. See if a low score on one predicts a high score on the other.

Operationalisation

Refers to how a fuzzy psychological construct is actually measurede.g., the concept of intelligence has been operationalised through a variety of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests

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Variables are factors which can be controlled and/or measured in research

Two types:Independent Variable (IV)
(or predictors)

Dependent Variable (DV)
(or outcomes)

Research variables

Independent vs. dependent variables

IndependentVariable(s)DependentVariable(s)

Independent vs. dependent variables

Independent Variable the factor that is controlled and manipulated by the researcher

the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent Variable the factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

in psychology it is usually a behaviour or mental process

Independent vs. dependent variables: Example

IV: Graffiti or no graffiti on or near a letterboxDV: Whether or not a passerby takes an envelope with money clearly showing from a letterboxResults:Graffiti condition:27% took the $

No graffiti condition: 13% took the $

People surrounded by grafitti are more likely to stealBroken window effectSee:http://www.rug.nl/gmw/nieuws/archief/archief2008/persberichten/153_08?lang=en

ReliabilityDegree to which a test produces similar scores each time it is used

Stability, consistency

ValidityExtent to which a test measures what it was intended to test

Reliability and validity

Distortion of evidence because
of the personal motives and
expectations of the viewer

Counter by:Standardisation: A set of uniform procedures for treating each participant

Operational definition: Define constructs in terms of the specific operation or procedure used to determine its presenceAll variables in a research study must be given operational definitions

Observer bias

Psychological research methods

Experimental
randomised sampling

Quasi-experimental
natural sampling

Non-experimental
cross-sectional sampling

Psychological research methods

qualitative approaches which utilise ethnography, grounded theory, content analysis of language, observation, etc.quantitative approaches which use tools (such as surveys) to collect empirical data

Experimental research method

Experimenter manipulates the IVs, then measures the results on the DVs

Random assignment

Control group = treat same as experimental group except for the IV manipulation

Experimental group = treat same as control group except for the IV manipulation

Resulting differences are concluded to be due to the IV

Strengths:Conclusions about cause & effect can be drawn

- Weaknesses artificial and ethical/practical constraints

Alternative explanations to research can result from Confounding variables

Expectancy effectsPlacebo effect

The more alternative explanations for a given result, the less confidence there is for an initial hypothesis

Experimental research method

A variable other than what the experimenter purposely introduced that affects a participants behavioure.g., Hawthorne effect

Confounding variables add confusion and place the interpretation of the data at risk

Confounding variable

Results that occur when a researcher or observer subtly communicates to the participants the kind of behaviour he or she expects, therefore, creating the expected reaction and/or outcomee.g., encouraging some kinds of responses in interviews

Expectancy effect

Occurs when the experimental participants change their behaviour in the absence of any kind of experimental manipulation.

Placebo effect

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Consistent procedures for giving instructions, responses, and holding all other variables constant except those being systematically variedPlacebo control

Double-blind control

Between-subjects designs

Within-subjects designs

Control procedures

The inclusion of an experimental condition in which the treatment is not administered

e.g., real pills vs. placebo pills

Placebo control

Experimental procedure in which both the experimenter and the subject are unaware as to who received the treatment

Seen as the strongest way of controlling for experimenter and expectancy biases

Double-blind control

Between-subjects DesignDifferent groups of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions or to control condition

Within-subjects DesignEach participant is his or her own control

Between-subjects vs. within-subects design

Ways of gathering psychological data

Qualitative
words, pictures

Quantitative
numbers

Mixed -
words and numbers

Qualitative vs. quantitative research data

qualitative approaches which utilise ethnography, grounded theory, content analysis of language, observation, etc.quantitative approaches which use tools (such as surveys) to collect empirical data

Qualitative research

Subjective - individuals interpretation of events is important e.g., Historical accounts

Participant observation

In-depth interviews

Quantitative research

Objective seeks precise measurement & analysis of target concepts e.g.,Psychological tests

Questionnaires

Physiological measures

Mixed methods

Involves a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Archival

Observations

Behavioural

Self-report surveysMail

Interviews

Online

Research methods

Physiological

Experiential sampling e.g., with palm pilots

Archival records

Information taken from existing recordsExamples include birth and death records, weather reports, voting patterns, and attendance figures

Archival data

Observational research

Researchers directly observe and record behaviour:Naturalistic observation - researcher records behavior as it occurs naturally

Tests - researcher presents stimuli or problems and records responses

Naturalistic observation

Naturally occurring behaviour is viewed and recorded without attempting to manipulate or interfere the situation.

Field-rich data, time consuming, difficult to generalise.

Image source: Myers.

Behavioural measures

Overt actions and reactions that are observed and recorded

Direct observationsThe behaviour is clearly visible and is easily recorded

Can be aided by technology

Self-report research

Behaviour identified through a participants own observations and reports

People rate or describe their behaviour, opinion, or mental state e.g., via:Questionnaires

Rating scales e.g.,from 1 to 7 rate your opinion of

Determines extent to which two variables are related

Correlational Coefficient (r)Indicates the degree of relationship between two variables

Values of:

- 1.0 = perfect negative correlation0.0 = no correlation+1.0 = perfect positive correlation

Correlational methods

Positive and negative correlations

Correlational methods

Causal relationships and correlations

Correlation does not equal causation

How can causality be demonstrated? e.g.Experimentally (explanatory)

Predictive, longitudinal studies

Image source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/gadl/395079578/By gadl - http://www.flickr.com/photos/gadl/License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0

Correlation vs. causation

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Laboratory research

Purpose-designed research setting

Provides uniform conditions for all participants

Permits elimination of irrelevant factors

May seem artificial

Case study

Intensive observation of a particular individual or a small group.

Aims to reveal things true of all.

Rich data, time consuming, difficult to generalise.

Is language
uniquely
human?

Image source: Myers.

Iron rod through head (frontal lobes)

Affected personality and behaviour

Suggested function localisation

Case study example: Phineas Gage

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Survey research

Commonly used

Ascertains self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people

Ideally question a representative, random sample of people

Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Note.svgImage license: Public domain

Experiential sampling

Image source: Unknown.

Replication

Reconducting a previous study to see whether its findings are repeatable (reliable).

Nothing is generally proven until at least several studies have been conducted showing similar results.

Usually replicate with different participants, in different situations, in different cultures.

Sampling

Sampling

If you want to know what the proportion of blue to red marbles is, the most efficient way is to take a sample and count the ratio.Image source: Mysers.

Sample:Subset of a population selected as participants in an experiment

Representation Sample:A subset of the population being studied

Population:Entire set of individuals to which generalisations will be made based on an experimental sample

Sampling

Ethical issues in research

Guidelines and procedures for conducting ethical psychological research

History of research ethics

Nuremberg code (1948):voluntary consent is essential

benefits of research must outweigh the risks.

Thalidomide (late 1950's-early 1960's)

Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972).

Declaration of Helinski (1964)

http://research.unlv.edu/OPRS/history-ethics.htm

Ethical issues in psychological research

Right to privacy

Informed consentuse of deception

Animal rightsIs there justification for discomfort or harm a research procedure may produce?

APA publishes ethical guidelines

Research participants are asked to sign statements indicating they have been informed as to the potential risks and benefits of the study and consent to participate.

Informed consent

Risks to the participants must be minimised, especially in studies of more personal aspects of behaviour.

And there must be likely gains which outweigh the risks/costs.

Risk/gain assessment

For some research it is not possible to tell participants the intention of the study without biasing the resultsAustralian Psychological Society (2007) Code of Ethics has explicit guidelines

National Health and Medical Research Council (NH-MRC) has further restrictions

Intentional deception

At the end of all studies each participant must be provided with as much information about the study as possible in age-appropriate style.

Debriefing

Summary

Research is formalised curiousity

Discover your research passions & follow them

Develop research questions, theory, and hypotheses then test scientifically.

Maintain objectivity

Failed research can often tells us as much as successful research.

Summary

IVs = predictors; DVs = outcomes

Biases: observer, participants; use standardisation and controls

Ways of gathering data: Quantitative, qualitative, mixed

Research methods: Archival, Lab research, Survey, Observation, Case study

Ethics: Consent, privacy, risk etc.

References

Gerrig, R. J., Zimbardo, P. G., Campbell, A. J., Cumming, S. R., & Wilkes, F. J. (2008). Psychology and life (Australian edition.). Sydney: Pearson.

Myers, D. G. (2007). Thinking critically with psychological science (Ch1). In Psychology (8th ed.). New York: Worth.

University of Gronigen. People surrounded by grafitti more likely to steal.

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