Introduction to Linguistics

Introduction to Introduction to LinguisticsLinguistics

Problems of orthography


Problems of orthography In English, as in the case of

many other languages, one sound can be represented by more than one symbol (letter); likewise, one symbol can represent more than one sound.




/k/ in kick




/k/ in kick “ough” in bought, through,

tough


Problems of orthography To overcome the problems

presented by orthography, linguists have developed phonemic and phonetic transcription systems.


Problems of orthography To overcome the problems

presented by orthography, linguists have developed phonemic and phonetic transcription systems.

However, it’s important to remember that these transcription systems are still idealized ways of describing sounds, and are still abstract.


Consonants of American English



How is a consonant defined?



How is a consonant defined?– 1) voiced or voiceless– 2) place of articulation– 3) manner of articulation



How is a consonant defined?– 1) voiced or voiceless

Ex. /z/ and /s/, voiced and voiceless; /s/ is produced when vocal chords are tenser and further apart, thus causing less vibration.

– 2) place of articulation– 3) manner of articulation



How is a consonant defined?– 1) voiced or voiceless– 2) place of articulation

Refers to where the sound is articulated: bilabial, labiodental, interdental, alveolar, alveopalatal, velar, glottal

– 3) manner of articulation



How is a consonant defined?– 1) voiced or voiceless– 2) place of articulation– 3) manner of articulation

Describes how the sound is articulated: stops; fricatives, affricates, nasals, liquids and glides.


Stops


Stops are produced when the airflow is completely obstructed during speech.


Stops are produced when the airflow is completely obstructed during speech.

/p/ voiceless bilabial stop /b/ voiced bilabial stop /t/ voiceless alveolar stop /d/ voiced alveolar stop /k/ voiceless velar stop /g/ voiced velar stop


Fricatives


Fricatives are produced when the airflow is forced through a narrow opening in the vocal tract so that noise produced by friction is created.


/f/ voiceless labiodental fricative /v/ voiced labiodental fricative /ø/ voiceless interdental fricative (as in

think) /ð/ voiced interdental fricative (as in

this) /s/ voiceless alveolar fricative /z/ voiced alveolar fricative


// voiceless alveopalatal fricative (as in ship)

// voiced alveopalatal fricative (as in measure)

/h/ “glottal” fricative


Affricates start life out as a stop, but releases into a fricative


Affricates start life out as a stop, but releases into a fricative. – /…/ voiceless alveopalatal affricate

(as in chip)– // voiced alveopalatal affricate (as in

judge)


Nasals


Nasals– In English, nasals are voiced oral

stops, similar to other stops, with the exception that airflow and energy are channeled through the nasal passage


Nasals– In English, nasals are voiced oral

stops, similar to other stops, with the exception that airflow and energy are channeled through the nasal passage.

/m/ bilabial nasal /n/ alveolar nasal // a velar nasal


Liquids


Liquids share aspects with both vowels and consonants, refers to their quality of flowing easily or smoothly.


Liquids share aspects with both vowels and consonants, refers to their quality of flowing easily or smoothly. In English, both examples are voiced.

/l/ lateral alveolar liquid /r/ nonlateral alveolar liquid


Glides


Glides– Glides are vowel-like

articulations that precede and follow true vowels, sometimes called “semi-vowels”


Glides– Glides are vowel-like

articulations that precede and follow true vowels, sometimes called “semi-vowels”

/y/ alveopalatal glide /w/ labialized velar glide /hw/ labialized velar glide

with a voiceless beginning), as in which.


Vowels of American English



How is a vowel defined?



How is a vowel defined?– As a relatively open sound– Formed by the different shapes

of the open, resonating vocal tract and the variety of shapes determined by the position of several anatomical structures.



What flavors do they come in?



What flavors do they come in?– Lax (or short)– Tense (or long)– Reduced– Described variously as:

high/mid/low and front/back relative to position of the part of the tongue closest to the roof of the mouth


Lax:

/I/ lax high front, ex bit, wish // lax mid front, ex get, mess /æ/ lax low front, ex ash /U/ lax high back, ex put, foot /ž/ lax mid back, ex putt, luck // lax low back, ex hot, pot // lax low back rounded, ex

caught


Tense– /iy/ tense high front (with /y/ offglide), ex bead, three– /ey/ tense mid front (with /y/ offglide), ex clay, weigh

– /uw/ tense high back (rounded with /w/ offglide) ex. shoe, crude

– /ow/ tense mid back (rounded with /w/ , ex boat, tow– /oy/ tense mid back (rounded with /y/ offglide), ex boy– /aw/ tense low back (with /w/ offglide), ex cow, blouse– /ay/ tense low back (with /y/ offglide), ex my, thigh– /a/ tense low - East Coast Variant, “Park the car in

Harvard yard.”


Reduced (always unstressed)

Schwa (mid back) // - sofa Barred-i (high back) / / -

chiken


The distinct sounds of a language are called phonemes (a minimal unit of sound)



English has 39 phonemes (24 con’nts, 15 vowels)



English has 39 phonemes (24 con’nts, 15 vowels)

Hawaiian has 13 (8/5); Georgian Hawaiian has 13 (8/5); Georgian has 90 (70/20)has 90 (70/20)


Vowels tend to have little variation, consonants a great deal.– Xhosa and the click phoneme

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Introduction to Linguistics