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INTRODUCTION
Physiography
In Tamil Nadu, Trichirappalli District lies between 100
16’
and 11032
’
northern latitude and 7808
’and 79
030
’eastern longitude with an area of 4500
square miles. The district of Tiruchirappalli called by the British as
‘Trichinopoly’ (anglised version) an popularly known as Tiruchi, completed
two centuries of its existence by 2000 A.D. as an administrative unit since the
district was carved out in 1801 and controlled by the East India Company
administration, after it obtained the portion of the country from the hen ruling
Nawabs of Arcot. It is centrally located district of modern Tamil Nadu1
The
district is entirely within the tropics. The district is divided into two unequal
portions by the river Kaveri, flowing from west to east. The two territorial
divisions are traditionally called Nirarambakam (wet land) and
Kadarambakam (dry land). The places coming under Nirarambakam are fed
by the Rivers of Kaveri, Kollidam, Amaravathy and Nandiyar. Most of the
zamindari estates are situated in the Kadarambakam2
1 . Velmani, K.S.K., Tiruchirappalli District Gazetteers, Vol.I, Chennai, 1998, p.1
2. Sundararaj, T., History of Tiruchirappalli, Sundar Publications, Tiruchirappalli, 2003, p.3
It is bounded on
northwest by Salem, north by Perambalur, north east by South Arcot, east by
Thanjavur and South by Madurai districts. Generally this area is flat and has
many protecting masses of crystalline rocks, bosses and gneiss. The River
Kaveri and its branch Colleroon form the hydrographic features of this area.
This land of Srirangam, famous for its extensive Vaishnava temple dedicated to
2
Lord Vishnu. It is also a separate Municipal town.3
The early history of Tiruchirappalli region is closely associated with the
early history of South India. In South India the pre-historical periods
commence from 2800 BC to 1800 BC. This period is called the Old stone age
or Paleolithic age. The evidences for Paleolithic age in Tiruchirappalli District
are available from the Kalraraya hills, the Pachamalai, Tirukkambuliyur,
Sengamedu, Tiruvellarai and Uraiyur. Among the above mentioned, three
places are in the Tiruchirappalli region. Therefore it is inferred that
Tiruchirappalli region was well populated during the Paleolithic age.
This periya koil is known
for its Vaishnavite tradition. The Renganathaswami Shrine is encircled by a
wall of 240’x180’ The Vaikunda Ekadasi is a renowned festival of this place.
The Jalakandeswara Temple at Thiruvanaika is a popular Siva Temple. Just
adjacent to that there is the renowned Mariamman Temple at Samayapuram.
Early History of Tiruchirappalli
4
The Neo-lithic age or New stone age of South India commences from
BC 1800 to BC 800. In South India, the evidences of New stone age are
available of Tiruchirappalli region are sengamedu, Tirukkambuliyur,
Tiruvellarai, Pudukkottai and nearby areas of Dharmapuri. These evidences
suggested that Tiruchirappalli region had also shared the same experience and
hence in the New stone age the region was populated by the Neolithic people.5
3. Lewis More, (ed.), A Manual of the Trichinopoly District in the Presidency of Madras,
Madras, 1998,pp.1-7.
4. Gurumoorthy, S., Archaeology and Tamil Culture, Madras, 1982, pp.8, and 23.
5. Sankaniya, The New-Lithic Culture of South India, Pune, 1976, p.118.
3
The Neolithic culture is followed by the Megalithic culture and its
period is assigned between BC 800 and BC 300. It was the period of the South
Indians who used metal. From Adichchanallur to Udayanatham, from Kalraya
hills to Pudukkottai. Karur Amaravathi basin, Dharmapuri, Sengamedu in
Tiruchirappalli region give evidences for the Megalithic age. In Uraiyur and the
oldest temple is Panchavarna Swami and then two places provide evidence for
the megalithic culture, besides Uraiyur, Tirukampuliyur, Tiruvellarai and
Samayapuram.6
The end of the Megalithic culture is actually the beginning of the
Sangam age.7
Most famous of the Uraiyur Cholas, Karikala is very much praised by
the Sangam work, ‘Pattinapalai’.
The Sangam Age is assigned between BC 300 to AD 300, in
which period the present Uraiyur, the western part of Tiruchirappalli
corporation, is the capital of Cholas. Hence they were called Uraiyur Cholas.
The remains of ruined place is shown by people of Nachiyarkoil as Cholan
Parai.
8In Pattinapalai, there is also a mention
about Kochenganan who was the famous uncle of Karikala. This Kochenganan
after settling the internal dispute had constructed 27 temples on the bank of
River Kaveri which is well attested by ‘Purananuru’9
6. Gururajrao, S., The Magalithic Culture in South India, Mysore University, 1982, p.123.
7. Gurumoorthy, op.cit., p.23.
8. Selvakumar, D., Tiruchirappalli Region under the Vijayanagar Rule, Nanda
Pathipagam,Trichy, 2007, p.5
9. Narayanasamy Pillai,T.M., Tfruvanaikoil Puranam (Tamil) Madras, 1982, p.2
, on such temple is the
present Tiruvanaikka, popularly known as ‘Jambukeswaram’. The
4
Sthalapurana of Tiruvanaikka, praises that the earliest structure of Lord Siva
in the form of ‘Linga’ was constructed by Kochenganan.10
Moreover the ‘Agnitheertham’ at the same temple was also constructed
by Kochenganan, is also attested by the Sthtalapurana. Moreover recently, the
Chola coins are discovered throughout Tiruchirappalli District of Sangam age.
The gold coins with symbol of a tiger, standing behind a tree is also discovered
from Uraiyur. On the other side of these coins the local chieftain of the
Tiruchirappalli is also indicated by the Malayamans of the ‘Velli’ clan.11
After the Sangam period as the South India experienced a dark period
called the ‘Kalabhra Interregnum’. It was during this period that the South
India was in great confusion.
Thus
during the Sangam Period Tiruchirappalli was a prosperous place and it is well
indicated by the evidences.
12
The most famous of the great Pallavas were Mahendra Varma, and his
son Narashimma Varman down to Aparajita (A.D.583 to A.D.903). It is
evident from their temple inscription that these great Pallavas ruled
Trichirapalli region. These places are in and around Trichirappalli. Although
The Sinnamanur Copper plates and the
Kasakkudi copper plates claim that Simhavishnu, the earliest famous ruler of
the Pallava Dynasty defeated the Kalabhras and occupied the Tondaimandalam
and also the Chola Country. The Vellurpalayam plates also confirmed the same
information.
10. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., Colas, Madras, 1955, p.52.11. Krishnamoorthy, R., The Chola Coins of Sangam Age, Madras, 1986.
12. Arunachalam, P.,The Kalabras in Tamil Country, Madras, 1984, pp.12-14.
5
from these places the inscriptions mainly inform the donations of kings,
construction of temples, provision made for gold and sheep, remission of taxes.
These informations are mainly passed by the political authority of the Pallavas
and therefore the inscription may be taken as evidence for rule of the Pallavas
of the Tiruchirappalli region.13
After the battle of Tirupurambiyam Aditya I assassinated Aparajita
while he was traveling on the back of an elephant in the year 903 A.D.
The Pallava rule started to decline by the time A.D. 900, when the
Pandyas invaded the Pallava Country. The “Battle of Tirupurambiyam” was a
turning point, because Aparajita was protected by the famous commander of
Pallava by name Aditya I who belonged to the Chola royal family.
14
This Adiya I Vijayalaya line of the Chola, captured the power and ruled
the Tiruchirappalli region. After Aditya I the Imperial Cholas ruled South India
till 1246 A.D. The most famous kings in this Imperial Chola line are, 1.
Rajaraja- I (985 A.D. -1014 A.D.), 2. Rajendra 1(1012 A.D -1044 A.D), 3.
Kulothunga 1(1070 A.D. -1120 A.D.), 4. Vikrama Chola (1118 AD -1135
A.D.), 5. Kulothunga II (1133 A.D. -1350 A.D.), 6. Rajaraja II(1146 A.D. -
1173 A.D.), 7. Kulothunga III (1178 A.D. -1216 A.D.). After Kulothunga III
the Chola power began to decline, because of the vast nature of the empire and
many enemies, who opposed the power. The hundred of inscriptions from
With
this Pallava Dynasty came to an end. The last ruler Kambavarnna escaped for
his life else-where.
13 . Minakshi, C., Administration and Social Life under the Pallavas, Madras, 1975, pp.1-6.
14. Ibid., p.23.
6
Alambakkam, Allur, Tirupparaiturai, Anbil, Lalgudi, Uttamarkoil,
Tiruvanaikka, Srirangam, Uyyakondantirumalai, Kumara Vayalur, Tiruvellarai,
Tiruverumbur, Tirunedungalam and Rockfort 15
When the Chola Empire was ruled by Rajaraja III, the Pandyas of
Tenkasi, who were the descendants of the Pandyas of the Sangam Age, slowly
emerged as a political power and in 1244 AD, the famous Maravarma Sundra
Pandya II invaded the Chola country. Rajaraja III sought the help of the
subordinates. However, the Chola power was captured by another Pandya ruler,
Jatavarma Sundra Pandya in 1248 A.D. Thereafter the Chola ruling family was
not heard of.
to prove the Chola rule in
Tiruchirappalli region. These inscriptions mainly inform about the construction
of temples, province rule, village administration and various types of
donations. These are the acts which are committed only by the authority of the
political power and therefore the information is that the Cholas ruled till 1246
A.D.
16
From 1248 AD to 1311 A.D. the Pandyas of the Second Empire ruled
South India and the Pandya’s inscriptions are available in Tiruchirappalli
region from Tiruverumbur temple, Uyyakondan Tiruinalai, Tiruvanaikka,
Srirangam, Tiruvellarai and a ruined place very near to Samayapuram temple
called Poysaleswara Temple. The most famous king of the Pandyas of the
Second Empire was Maravarma Kulasekara Pandya (1248 A.D. to 1306
A.D.). It was during the last days of Maravarma Kulasekara, that South India,
15. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., op.cit., p.52.
16. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., The Pandyan Kingdom, Madras, 1972, pp.112- 121.
7
experienced the Muslim invasion of North India. In 1306 A.D, the famous
general of Ala-ud-in Kilji, Malikkafur invaded South India. At first he defeated
Krishna III of the Yadawa king, Pradaparutra II of Kakathiya Dynasty. From
Warangal he marched to Tiruvannamalai, from Tiruvannamalai to
Kanchipuram, from Kanchipuram to the Poysaleswara temple on the northern
bank of River Kaveri to meet the Hoysala ruler of Ballala III.17
While the Malikkafur was stationed at Kannanur Koppam, the two sons
of Maravarma Kulasekara, Maravarma Sundara Pandya and Marnvarma Vira
Pandya approached the Malikkafur to make him the Pandyan King. Malikkafur
utilized this opportunity and invaded the Pandyan Country and captured the
town. From Madura he went to the end of the South India and constructed a
mosque at ‘Dhanuskodi’ and returned to Madurai, in A.D. 1308.18
After the death of Ala-ud-din Khilji, another invasion of the Sultan of
Mohamed-bin-Tugluk, was made by his commander Khani-khan on Madurai.
He was notorious for his cruelty. The African Travelers, Ibin Batuta and
Wassef and others described the barbarous practice followed by the Sultan of
Madurai Zamansha. Zamansha was killed by his son-in-law Mohamed
After some
time the Malik returned to Delhi leaving one of his representatives at Madurai
and thus in 1308 AD the Sultanate of Madurai was inaugurated comprising the
Pandyamandalam, the Chola Mandalam up to the Vadavellaru from 1308 A.D.
to 1384 A. D, the Pandyan country including Tiruchirappalli region was ruled
by the Madurai Sultans.
17. Krishnasamy Aiyangar, S., South India and Her Mohammad Invaders, Madras
l921, pp.96-98.
18. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., op.cit., pp.178-180.
8
Absankhan who was the most tyrannical ruler of the Madurai Sultanate. He
ordered to collapse of all Hindu Temples and to slaughter the cows in front of
every Hindu temple in order to humiliate the Hindu people. The horrible nature
of the Madurai Sultan and the miseries of the Hindu people in the hands of
Sultan are described by Gangadevi in his famous ‘Maduravij ayam’.19
19. Selvakumar, D., op.cit., p.9
It was sorry plight of Hindu people of the South India which attracted
the attention of a saint by name Vidyaranya. This Vidyaranya was making a
plan of preventing the slaughter of the Muslims and waiting for proper persons.
It was at this time that the Sangama Brothers, Harihara I, Bukka I, Kumara
Kambana I, Vellaba and Muddaba, came to him and met him on the banks of
Tungabhadra. The five sons who were previously working in the Kakatiya
court, and in the court of the Hoysala. After losing their post on account of the
Muslim conquest they proceeded to Tulu country very near to Maharashtra.
The five brothers met Vidyaranyar sage on the bank of famous Tungabhadra
river, and after long discussion and planning they inaugurated in 1336 A.D
what was known as “The Vijayanagar Kingdom”, with the kind blessings of
Vidyaranayar, and their family God Narasingha. Harihara I became the first
King of Vijayanagar Kingdom of Sangama dynasty. And with a short period
from 1336 AD to 1346 AD the adjacent kingdoms were conqured and the
kingdom became some what larger. Harihara I was succeeded by his brother
Bukka I.
9
He captured the ‘Shimoga Region’ and ‘Mulbahal’ territory. It was
Bukka I who directed his son Kumara Kambana II to invade the Tamil
Country. Kumara Kambana II accompanied by three military generals, Gobana,
Saluva Mangu, Mudabba invaded the Tamil Country. First he encountered the
Sambuvaraya of Padaiveedu. After defeating him at the Padaiveedu Rajyam
including the forts ‘Rajagambhiram’, Kumara Kambana marched to
Kanchipuram. It is said, that Goddess Kamatchi appeared in his dream during
his stay at Kanchipuram and blessed with him a sword to get success against
the sultans of Madurai.20
Kumara Kambana accordingly invaded Madurai Sultan and killed the
sultan in the battle. And the entire Madurai Country and Chola Country were
included with Vijayanagar. The two divisions were named after Rajagambhira
Rajyam and Thiruvathigai Rajyam.21
From Sixth to Twelfth Centuries A.D. Vaishnavism as one of the two
sects of Hinduism spread as a part of the Bakthi movement as against
Buddhism and Jainism and in collaboration and confrontation with Saivism
another potential sect of Hinduism. The Pallava dynasty emerged as a
Tiruchirappalli region was a part of
Rajagambhira Rajyam. This is the origin of Tiruchirappalli’s connection with
Vijayanagar rule.
Vaishnavism and Medieval Tamil Society
20. Ibid., p.10 .
21 . Fr. Heras, The Aravidu Dynasty of Vijayanagar History, Vol. I, Oxford, 1942, p.104;
Krishnaswami, A., The Tamil Country under Vijayanagar, The Annamalai University,
Annamalinagar, 1964, p.19.
10
representative of sanskriticised culture and a strong pattern of Brahminism. The
entire credit of transforming it into a Tamil Country goes to the first three
Alwars namely Poygai Alwar, Poothath Alwar and Pey Alwar. Like the first
three Nayanmars, these Aiwars also assumed importance in promoting Bhakthi
Movement in Tamil Country. Like the first three Saiva Nayanmars, the first
three Alwars hailed from the Pallava Country. Two important phases in the
compositions were rendered by the Alwars; (i) Promotion of Bhagavatha cult
which contains stories and legends about Lord Krishna (ii) Promotion of two
epics namely Ramayana and Mahabharatha by copiously incorporating
references about those two epics in those compositions. And in the later part of
Bhakthi movement in which the Alwars rendered compositions as tenets and
philosophy of Lord Krishna and Bhagavat Gita found a lot of space in such
propaganda campaigns. It is surprising that of the twelve Aiwars only one
Aiwar namely Thirumazhisai Aiwar makes a reference about Bhagavat Gita.
Like in Saiva cult the Vaidehiya Brahminism (smartha) also got into Aiwars’
composition. Again implicitly the domination of caste hierarchy was projected
by the Alwars also. 22
The priest serving Vaishnava temple, who had access to sanctum
sanctorum called themselves as ‘Vaikasanas’. They considered themselves as
descendants of Saint Vaikasana and under any circumstances they could not
offer prayers and perform poojas to any other deity other than Vishnu. This
22. Chandrababu, B.S., ‘The Class Character of And Contribution made by the Bhakti
Movement to Social Change in Tamil Nadu (From The 7th
to 13th
C.A.D)’ in
Ganeshram, S., & Bhavani, C., History of People and Their Environs: Essays in
Honour of Prof. B.S. Chandrababu, Indian Universities Press, Chennai, 2011, p42
11
means they were against the other avatars of Vishnu and other deities being
worshipped simultaneously with Krishna. This was in contrast to Alwars stand
that all the avatars of Vishnu should he worshipped. The intra-conflict that
could be noticed among the proponents of Bhakti movement and in particular
between Vaikasanas and Alwars, the former’s hegemonic attitude in upholding
the interest of the upper caste as against Lord Krishna who hailed from a poor
non-Brahmin backward community
Further in support of the Alwars there emerged one more set of Brahmin
priests who called themselves “Pancharathrika”. Even today among
Vaishnava families in their marriages, these two opposing sects prevailed
advocating their own respective stance. The followers of Pancharathris were
believed to have developed strong faith in vedic religion and practices. The
followers of this sub-sect believed that Lord Vishnu himself had bestowed the
Pancharathra agamas in five nights. By and large, the monarchy also
supported their stance in this regard. This really shows that the Brahmanical
dominance in temples of Vaishnava worship in Tamil Nadu during the period.
In other respects like performing other rituals, these two sects in temple
worship also differed with each other. The Pancharathika’s worshipping Lord
Krishna were branded as Ramanuja Mathasthar in a degrading manner.
When the composition of Alwars referred to Baghavata stories, they also
referred to and incorporated some of the puranic stories from Sanskrit. Copious
references are about them in the composition of Periyalwar, Andal and
Thodairadipodialwar who happened to be Brahmins. According to one such
12
puranic story one Vindha the mother of Garuda was harrassed and tortured by
keeping her in hot sun by her sister in-law, coming to the help of his mother
spreading his wings protected his mother from the hot sun. There is a reference
in Andal’s composition about this incident. This clearly shows that Vaidhakika
religious practices were found a place in the composition of Alwars. The
composition of Poygai Alwar, Poothath Alwar and Pey Alwar were in the form
of praising Lord Krishna hence devoid of any Bhakthi philosophy. 23
Guru Parampara views Thirumangai Alwar was involved in thieving
and decoity and from the proceeds he collected he patronised the Vaishnava
devotees. According to another story, Thirumangai Alwar waylaid a marriage
party in which Lord Vishnu himself came in the form of bridegroom.
According to the legend Lord Vishnu came in the attire of Brahmin
bridegroom. After knowing that Lord Vishnu himself came as the bridegroom
he rendered a poem.
The Nalayira Divya Prabandham the Vaishnava hagiology, like
Thevaram of Nayanmars the Saiva hagiology speak of the Bhakti cult. Like
Periyapuranam which speaks about the life and contribution of sixty four
Nayanmars, the Guru Paramparapprabavam speaks about the life and
contribution of twelve Alwars of Vaishnavism.
24
This is a poem sung in praise of Lord Narayana in chaste and simple
Tamil. Like Nayanmars Thirumangai Alwar too travelled many places in and
around Thondainadu and spread the Bhakthi cult. Like Saivas, Nayanmars also
23. Nalayira Divya Pranandam, Pasuram, 947
24. Ibid., pasuram, 948.
13
spread Bhakthi cult through the means of Tamil songs sung in chanting music.
And the same Thirumangai Alwar had stolen a Buddha statue made of Gold in
Nagapattinam and from the proceeds of the golden statue, he undertook the
Vaishnava temple works. Equally was he the person who developed hatred
towards Jainas and Buddhas like Nayanmars.25
25. Raghava Dasan, V.S.V., (ed.), Nalayira Divya Prapandam, Chennai, 2000, pp. 18-20.
In the name of Godly service
the thieving and stealing activities of Thirumangai Aiwar was justified and
praised by hagiology, Guruparampara.
Vaishnavism attracted people by their enchanting musical songs. The
same advocates of Bhakthi cult obtaining support and patronage from the
ruling elite went to the extent of destroying the advocates of Jainism and
Buddhism. Such activities were approved of and praised by the advocates of
Bakthi cult in the name of Lord Narayana.
Thondaradi Podi Alwar was born in Cholamandala region before being
initiated into Vaishnava cult. He was under the influence of Devadevi, a
prostitute. The mother of the prostitute had taken away all the money from
Thondaradi Podi Alwar. When Thondaradi Podi Alwar was in need of money,
Lord Vishnu came to his rescue and showered him with Gold. Similarly we
come across a story in Periyapuranam where Sundara Nayanar was made to
join with Paraviyar, a prostitute by Lord Siva. These incidents clearly show
that the God of the Bakthi movement promoted the cause of their own devotees
howsoever bad they may be.
14
The story of Andal also helps to understand the divine attitude and the
role of males in the medieval Tamil society. Andal being a foster-daughter of
Periy Alwar was projected as a symbol of sexual vulgarity with divine
orientation and the male chauvinistic attitude was found in the story of Andal.
The longing of a lady for the supreme divinity, though projected in a most
sensual way it tried to narrow down the relationship between the creator and
the created. The manner in which the drama of the union of the creator with
created smacks of common vulgarity.
The Alwars, the advocates of true love and devotion to God had also
stooped to the level of developing hatred against other religions and human
beings professing different faith. Their hatred towards Jainas and Buddhas
were cuffed with unparliamentarily words. 26
At the outset, Vaishnavism did not show much of discriminatory attitude
towards other castes. For example, Madhurakavi Alwar a Brahmin by birth had
adopted Namm Alwar a non-Brahmin as his teacher. But Namm Alwar in all
his composition glorified the Vedic religion and tradition which symbolises
caste hierarchy. It is true that Namm Alwar in his composition tried to attract
When the Jains and Buddhists
came forward for a religious discourse, Thondaradi Podi Alwar like Alwars
were not prepared for that. On the other hand Thondaradi Podi Alwar was
seeking the help of Lord Sriranga Perumal to cut off the heads of the
opponents.
26 . Nalayira Divya Pranandam, Pasuram, 879
15
all caste and communities towards Vaishnavism without undermining the
structure of Varnashrama dharma.27
Incidents of the Alwars maintaining caste hierarchy in their activities are
found in sufficient number in the songs and stories. Thirumazhisai Aiwar being
a Brahmin by birth was born a physically challenged person. He was left
uncared for by his parents. Thiruvalan and his wife of low born were carpenters
who brought up this Alwar at their home. When Thiruvalan’s wife tried to
breast-feed the child, the child refused to drink the milk. The same child drank
the milk offered by an another devotee of Vishnu. This incident drives home
the point that Thirumazhisai Alwar being a Brahmin should not grow with the
milk offered by the low caste lady. Another incident that took place in his life
strengthen this kind of discriminatory attitude. When Brahmins were chanting
Vedas in Perumpuliyur they stopped chanting them when they saw
Thirumazhisai Alwar approaching them on the grounds that he was a non-
Brahmin brought up in a low class family. When the Brahmins came to learn
about his origin, they continued their work. Unlike other Alwars Thirumazhisai
Periy Alwar another Brahmin by birth was born in Srivihiputhur. When
Vallabadevan, the Pandya king wanted to understand the subject matter of
Vedanta, Periyalwar came to his help and explaining that Vaishnavism being
pro-vedic religion, it equated Brahmam, the infinity with Vishnu like Saivites
who equated Brahmam with Siva.
27. Ibid.
16
Alwar had gone to the extent of developing a strong hatred towards the Saivites
also in addition to his consistent diatribe stand against Jains and Buddhists.28
28. Ibid.
Thiruppan Alwar belonged to the depressed class community while he
was singing in praise of Lord Ranganatha on the banks of the River Kaveri, St.
Logasaranga was drawing water for Lord Ranganatha with Golden pot. When
he saw Thiruppan Alwar standing on the banks of the river, he ordered him to
leave the place for it would pollute the water. St. Logasaranga hit him with a
stone when Thiruppan Alwar was involved in singing in praise of the Lord. Hit
by the stone with oozing blood he came to his senses and left the place for the
saint. When the saint came see that the blood was oozing from the forehead of
Lord Ranganatha he was taken aback and as ordered by Lord Ranganatha he
took Tiruppan Alwar on his shoulder to the sanctum of Lord Ranganatha.
Afterwards nothing was heard of this Aiwar. From these incidents it is known
that the devotees belonging to depressed class community if they were
ordained by compulsions would get right to enter the temples but would not
return. The Vaishnava sect through Bhakthi movement tried to grow by
attacking Jains, Buddhists, and also Saivites. Now and then, Saivism and
Vaishnavism tried to be flexible in attracting and accommodating the devotees
of low castes and non-Brahmins. The moneyed class, traders, business men and
skilled artisans and rich land lords were also the target group of both Saivism
and Vaishnavism.
17
By a policy of compromise and rigidity employed in equal proportions
wherever necessary, the Bakthi movement would reach a large number of
people far and wide in the Tamil Country. Vaishnavism scored a point over
Saivism by projecting the great twin epics Ramayana and Mahabharatha and
could attract a large number of people. Through them Rama and Krishna were
propagated as the avatars of Vishnu.
The Bakti movement had the credit of making deep impress about the
subject matter of epics Ramayana and Mahabharata on the Tamil
people for the first time. By and large, Saivism and Vaishnavism, contained
hatred towards other religions, glorification of self-religion and nothing much
about philosophical aspects of religion.
Being one of the oldest religions of the Tamil Country Vaishnavism,
first started with venerating the head of the forest region which later on
became Thirumal or Krishna’. It was the religion which first attempted to give
a pantheist character to its worship. It was the only religion which first
advocated ‘one God concept’, Thirumal or Vishnu as Narayanan. Even the ten
incarnations are the different births of Lord Vishnu. The Alwars were the first
to express their Bakthi as total surrender to God. Poygai Alwar,
Poothathalwar, Peyalwar, Thirumangai Alwar, Kulasekara Alwar,. Andal,
Periy Alwar, Thirumazhisai Alwar, Thondaradipodiy Alwar, Thiruppan Alwar,
Namm Alwar and Madhurakavi Alwar are the twelve Alwars to spread
Vaishnavism and Bakthi cult in the Tamil County. The small land owners and
skilled artisans in villages and small towns were the followers of Vaishnavism.
18
The songs of Alwars either all of them or most of them were sung in
praise Lord Thirumal or Krishna. But Namm Alwar and Kulasekar Alwar and
Thodaradipodi Alwar have spoken about the meta- physical aspect of
Vaishnavism. They deal with the world which is unreal and reaching the feet of
Narayanan by means of Bakthi is only salvation from this unreal world. They
also speak of the uncertainty about the matter and the world wherein everything
is born, lived and get in a cycle of life. According to them, Atma is pervasive
and it can be found in all the living and non-living beings which are the
creations of Narayana.
Alwars are otherwise called as acharyas. Actually the acharyas are
seven only. They are; Nammalwar, who is the first among all the seven and
others followed by him were Nathamuni, Vyyakkondar, Manakkal Nambi,
Alvandhar, Periyanambi and Ramanuja. Ramanuja belonged to 11th
and 12th
Century A.D. The Bakthi philosophy cannot fulfill its content and goal
without accommodating Ramanujachariar’s philosophy. According to
Ramanjujachariyar a world is not unreal. He explains this with an illustration.
If one who searches for a horse will be satisfied if one finds out a buffalo. This
means one has to continuously search for the real need and purpose of God
therein lies Bakthi.
In fact, the Bhakti movement was launched with Brahminism in the
fore-front. It was considered a boon to extend grants and endowments to
19
Brahmins. It is a sin to confiscate such grants from the Brahmins” 29
As a result
of this, a large number of Brahmins became land owners competing with the
Vellala landlords. In general, the Brahmin receivers enjoyed fertile land
grants.30
But at the end of the Chola rule when the practice of transforming the
lands of the small peasants to Brahmins continued there arose dissent and
dissatisfaction, among the affected peasants against the establishment and even
to such Brahmin beneficiaries.31
Many temples of renowned nature are existing in Tiruchirappalli
District. They warrant a detailed study. But the theme taken up for discussion is
administration of the temples. As no historical attempt has been attempted
hither to in this regard, an endeavour is made in this study to highlight the
administration of the temples in the Chola Divya Desam with reference to the
Tirchirappalli District. Hence the Scholar has chosen the title ‘History of
Eventually, both Saivism and Vaishnavism did
not take efforts to abolish untouchability and instead believed in upholding
sanatana dharma. Though Ramanujar had allowed the individual depressed
class the benefit of Sudra temporarily, in the agama dispensation, Saivism
strongly believed in moksha to Sudras and Brahmins and not to those who were
born into untouchable communities
Choice of the Topic
29. Pandya Copper Plates Ten, Chennai, 1967, p.66.
30. Nammalvar, Thiruvaimoli, 6: 5:6
31. Rajukumar, Me. Thu., Cholarkala Nilayudainai, Pinpulathil Porulial, Chennai, 1999,
pp.211-212 ; Mahendra Chaturvedi Mangalam Inscriptions.
20
Temple Administration in Chola Divya Desam with Special Reference to
Trichirappalli District’. Some of these Temples are under the Hindu
Religious Charitable Endowment Board and there are some others under
private Trusts.
Scope of the Study
Like other districts of Tamil Nadu, Trichirappalli is a significant one due
to its economic prosperity and also due to its central location. Like other areas,
this area too has its own renowned temples of Saivism and Vaishnavism etc.
Further the temple administration is expected to be efficient. Otherwise the
temples will never survive in the modern period. Hence it is obvious that every
temple is thriving successfully due to the administration. As such the study
widens the scope in assessing the administration of the Vaishnava Temples of
Trichirappalli District. Due to paucity of time and space the study is restricted
only to the five prominent Vaishnava Temples and general temple
administration under the Hindu Religious Endowments Board and subsequently
the Department.
Area and Period of Study
The administration of Vaishnava Temples at Sri Rangam, Anbil,
Thiruvellarai, Uraiyur and Uthamarkoil in Tiruchirappalli is taken for the
study. The period of the study covers from 1925 to 1972. The commencement
year of the period is connected with the Hindu Religious Endowments Act of
1925 or Act I of 1925, enacted during the rule of the Justice Party n the
Madras Presidency. It was an important act in the history of the Hindu temple
21
administration. It was the first law relating purely to Hindu religious
endowments, enacted by the Madras Legislature. The study ends in 1972. In
that year an amendment was .made in the Hindu Religious and charitable
Endowments Act of 1959 which empowered the Government to appoint the
members of the Scheduled Cates and Tribes as trustees in temples.
Objectives
The main objectives of the study are the following
1. to know the historical background of the evoluiton of temples in Tamil
Country an their role and influence in Tamil society
2. to identify the notable temples in Tiruchirappalli district.
3. to trace the condition of Srirangam and its temple in the Chola period.
4. to know the significance five prominebt Chola Divya Desam or
Vaishnava temples in Trichirappalli District.
5. to understand the various Hindu Religious Endowments Acts and
Amendments
6. to know the motive of the Justice Ministy to bring the first Hindu
Religious Endowments Act of 1925.
7. to assesses the administration of Hindu Religious and Charitable
Endowments Board and subsequently Department with specual
reference to Tiruchirappalli district.
Hypotheses
The administration of the everything during any period will be a
significant aspect with regard to maintenance, upkeep and functioning. The
22
administration of the temples differed from time to time in different forms
without any negligence form the period of 1925 and 1972 in Tamil Nadu with
special reference to Tiruchirappalli District. The administration of temples is
quite convincing in understanding the maintenance and up keep of the five
prominent Chola Divya Desam. Hence on that line, the present study gains
significance.
Methodology
By adopting historical and interpretative method the thesis is written.
The facts collected through primary as well as secondary sources are arranged
cogently in different chapters which are essential to expose the main theme.
The sources utilised are given in the form of genuine footnotes in the page
itself. A Bibliography is also appended at the end for authenticity and
credibility. Facts are collected by personal observation and oral interviews.
Chapterisation
The whole study is arranged into Eight Chapters excluding an
Introduction and a Conclusion. In ‘Introduction’, physical features, nature and
scope, choice of the study, area and period of the study, objectives, sources of
information, design of the study, methodology and limitations are given. The
sources employed are also described briefly.
‘Temples: Role and Influence’ forms the First Chapter. It discusses the
origin and evolution of temples in Tamil Nadu, its significant role and
contribution, its influence in the society, significance to the development of
religion, culture, tradition, economy and polity. The multiple functions of the
23
temples are also discussed. The spread of the Bhakti Movement spearheaded by
the Tamil Alwars and Nayanmars was associated with the growth of Hindu
religious activities in Tamil Nadu. The Bhakti movement revived the glorious
past of Hinduism in Tamil Nadu. It also promoted the Brahmanical varna
hierarchy. The history of temple in Tamil Country began with the rise of the
Pallavs in the Seventh Century. The Royal temples enjoyed the patronage of
the Imperial Rulers. These temples symbolised power and authority. The
temples did secular functions such as fortresses, land holders, employers,
treasuries, learning centres, court houses, parks, fairs, exhibition halls, and
amusement centre Inscriptions found in the temple provides a a lot of
information about the activities of the temples and its influence over the
people.
‘Temples of Trichirappalli District’ is the title of the Second
Chapter. At the outset, the religious condition of the district is narrated. There
are some popular temples in the Tiruchirappalli Town itself. The
Uchchipillayar temple, the Thayumanavasamy Temple etc, are in
Tirchirappalli. The Mariamman Temple of Samayapuram, Palvamnathaswamy
Temple of Tiruppalaidurai, Siruvachur Madrna Kaliamman Temple,
Virakandiyamman Temple at Virappur, the Uyyakkondan Tirumalai Temple at
Lalgudi, Anbil Seethala Devi Temple, Sundararaja Perumal Temple etc, in the
outskirts of Tiruchirappalli are also discussed to understand the rituals and
festivals. By visiting these temples, various facts are collected through personal
24
observation. The unique and regular function of rituals and festivals are the
standing testimony to the administrative efficiency of the given temples..
‘Srirangam During the Chola Period’ constitutes the Third Chapter.
This Chapter traces the fortunes of the Srirangam covering the period form
Tenth to the Twelfth Centuries, from 924 A.D. the date of the earliest Chola
inscriptions in the temple , to 1178 A.D. the close of the reign of Rajathiraja II,
when the Chola power declined and the Pandyas rose to power. During this
period, the arly Vaishnava Acharyas like Nathamuni, Uyyakondar, Manakkal
and Alavandar were active in Srirangam. They not only propagated Vaishnava
faith but also controlled the affairs of the Srirangam Temple. Ramanuja, the
founder of Visistadvaita, made Srirangam his headquarters and reorganised the
administration of Sriranganathaswami Temple. Srirangam became the
headquarters of the Vaishnava Movement under the resourceful Acharyas.
Numerous inscriptions in the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple of the Chola period
provide the details of their gifts and benefactions. As a matter of fact, during
this period, this temple grew in organisation, wealth and resources.
‘Chola Divya Desam in Tiruchirappalli District’ forms the Fourth
Chapter. Among the 40 Divya Desam prevails in the Chola Country, Sri
Rangam, Uraiyur, Uttamar koil, Thiruvellarai and Anbil are the five prime
centres of Vaishnava Temples in Tiruchirappalli district. The distinctive rituals
and festivals of of these five renowned temples are discussed in this chapter
because they captivate the attention of the public.
25
‘Temple Administration in the Early British Rule’ is the title given to
the Fifth Chapter. Since the historical development growth of an institution of a
particular nature is a must for a proper estimate. Hence the condition of temple
administration is viewed in detail under different sub heading from 1789 to
1863 and from 1863-1925. This will give a vivid picture of administration of
the temples during the period of the Early British Rule East India company and
then under the rule of the Crown of England up to the commencement of the
administration of the Justice party in the then Madras Presidency. This helps
immensely to notice the administration of temples during the early British rule.
‘Hindu Religious Endowment Board’ is the title of the Sixth Chapter.
Under the Hindu Religious Endowment Board, the powers and duties of the
Commissioners and others, such as the Executive Officers are discussed.
Besides, various components, the registers, the funds and finance and
properties of the temples are discussed. It is worth to note that number of
changes was introduced in the Hindu Religious Endowment Board. Many Acts
were passed in 1929, 1930, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1938, 1939, 1944 and 1946 for
the sake of improving the regularity in the different aspects of the Hindu
Religious and Charitable Endowment Board. As Hindu Religious Endowment
Board was the administrative authority of the temples, the chapter elaborately
narrates the formation and function of the Board.
‘Temple Related Administrative and Legislative Measures’ is the
Seventh Chapter which deals with the administration directly, between 1925
and 1937. During the administration of the Justice Party eleven Acts were
26
passed to streamline the Madras Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment
activities. They were passed in 1925, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1934,
1935, 1937, 1938 and 1939 itself. All those acts were passed to offer a better
administration of the temples by removing the drawbacks and defects prevailed
up to the promulgation of those Acts. They reveal the growth of temple
administration continuously in a historical perspective. The administrative
authorities as stipulated by the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment,
such as Commissioners, Assistant Commissioners, Trustees, Finance, and
Committees executed their administrative duties, functions and activities. The
various administrative measures are analysed. The various staff and servants
and their scales of pay are also explained in detail. The repeated changes
introduced by different Acts during different periods and other procedures are
also provided. Various training institutes and educational institutions, and the
financial condition of the temples during every year is described in this chapter.
Numerous measures undertaken for the preservation and maintenance of the
temples by the administrators are given in this chapter. In general the condition
of Temple administration in the pre independent period is highlighted.
‘Administration of Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment
Department’ is the Eight and the Last Chapter. After Indian independence
many changes were introduced in the temple administration. In 1959 the
Department started its function from its own building at Nungambakkam of
Madras. The formation of the Andhra State and State Reorganisation of 1956
too had its own impact over the temple administration. Arrangements were
27
made to appoint Gurumars, Vedaparayanakkarar, Odhuvar, Musicians and
others. Steps were taken to distribute vibhudhi, and prasadams regularly.
Rules and regulations were also framed for the maintenance of the temples,
idols and other valuables. Categories of Executive Officers were also
introduced. Uniformity was maintained in the administration. Rules were
introduced for the functions of the Board of Trustees. The Journal Tirukkoil
was issued on 2nd
October 1958. This period witnessed the increased number of
temples and the progress in the income and expenditure of the temples. The
movement towards tighter departmental control and promoting decentralisation
in the administration of religious institutions received a fresh impetus during
1960s and the early 1970s. Further democratisation of the institution of
trusteeship was brought about by an amendment in 1972 in the Hindu religious
and Charitable Endowments Act of 1959. This amendment opened the office of
trustees to the Scheduled Castes and Tribes. These things find place in this
chapter.
In ‘Conclusion’, the summary of the chapters and findings of the study
are given in a crisp and comprehensive way. Further, the hypotheses are
substantiated.
Sources and Review of Relevant Literature
The present study is based on the use of both primary as well as
secondary sources. The original records include both published and
unpublished documents. By personal visits to the temples, the facts about the
traditional practices, rituals, festivals and other relevant features are collected.
28
Some of the facts about the temples are obtained from personal interviews with
officials, devotees and people of those areas. Tamil works such as Tiruppugal,
Cilappatikaram, Gnanasambandar’s Devaram, Tolkappiyam etc., are treated
as original sources. Facts from the Notice Boards of different temples are
collected. Archeological Reports on Epigraphy (ARE) for different years also
consulted for this study. Board of Revenue Consultations, Madras Native
Newspaper Reports, Government Orders, Reports of different Committees,
Letters, Proceedings Madras Code, etc are also consulted as primary source of
information. Madras Administration Reports are also utilised.
In addition to the above mentioned primary sources, many published
works by various historians and scholars are used as secondary sources.
M.Gopal’s Trichirappalli Aalayangal Oru Kayedu, V.A.Vasantha’s Nalayira
Divya Prabanthathil Samuha Arasiyal Nerigal, T.V.Mahalingam’s South
Indian Palaeography, Sukavanishwar’s Sri Ranaganatha Swamy Temple,
Srirangam, A.Ethirajan’s 108 Divya Desa Varalaru, S.V.Thiruchitrambalam’s
Trichy Mavatta Thiruttalangal, K.K.Murthy’s Temples of Tamil Nadu.
S.Aruniappan’s Sri Rangam, the Paradise on Earth. A.Krishnamachariyar’s
Ramanujar Ayiram, Part- II, R.K. Das’s Temples of Tamilnadu, Edayur
Sivamathy’s Arul Tarum Alayangal, M.Rajagopalan’s Punniyam Tarum
Punitha Pathigal, A.K.Seshadri’s Tamilnattu Kudavaraikoilgal,
M.Padmavathi’s Manachanalur Vattara Tiruthalangal, G.K.Balaja’s, 40
Chola Nattu Tiruppathigal, V.Kanagasabai Pillai’s The Tamils Eighteen
Hundred Years Ago , K.V.Raman’s Excavations of Uraiyur etc are treated as
29
secondary sources. Besides, Chandra Mudaliar’s State and Religious
Endowments in Madras, Nirmala Kumari’s History of the Hindu Religious
Endowments in Andhra Pradesh, P. Rajaraman’s The Justice Party, A
historical perspective, 1916-1937, P.S. Narayana’s Tamil Nadu Hindu
Religious & Charitable Endowments Manual , P.Nagoorkani’s Struggle for
Social Justice in Tamil Nadu, 1916-1939 and B.L.N. Suneetha’s Temple
Administration During Justice Government in the Madras Presidency (1922-
1937) ( M.Phil Dissertation) throws much light on the Hindu Religious and
Charitable Endowments Acts and Amendments in the given period of the
study. R.Jothibasu’s Srirangam Through the Ages ( Ph.D. Thesis ) is much
useful to understand the position of Srirangam during the Chola rule. The
issues of the journal, The Tirukkoil, are also consulted. Srirangam
Rajagopuram Maha Kumbabishekam Commenoration Souvenir, Fort.
St.George Gazetteer’s relevant issues etc are utilized as secondary sources.
Thus the study offers fresh and additional information with regard to the socio
cultural history of Tamil Nadu. The growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism
yielded much literature in this region which instead contributes much for the
religious history of the Tirchirappalli District. Though the study covers some
specific temples of the Tiruchirappalli District, the study is model to the other
scholars to pursue the remaining temples of the Tiruchirappali and the nearby
other districts.
