Introduction Inventory of wetlands Inventory.pdf · Wetlands in Lali Sanctuary Assam 192 Deepor Beel Beels of Assam Sareswar Beel Dibru Floodplain Sone Lake Wetlands in Kaziranga

CONTENTS

Foreword

Preface

Introduction 1

Inventory of wetlands

Andhra Pradesh 10 Arunachal Pradesh 14

Assam 15

Bihar 18 Goa 21 Gujarat 22

Haryana 30 Himachal Pradesh 31 Jammu & Kashmir 32 Jharkand 35 Karnataka 36 Kerala 46 Madhya Pradesh 49

Maharashtra 54 Manipur 63 Meghalaya 64

Nagaland 65 Orissa 66 Punjab 69 Rajasthan 72

Sikkim 77 Tamil Nadu 78 Tripura 154

Uttar Pradesh 155 Uttarakhand 163 West Bengal 164 Andaman & Nicobar 168

Chandigarh 169 Lakshadweep 170 New Delhi 171

Pondicherry 172

Detailed Description of Site Andhra Pradesh 173

Kolleru Lake Pakhal Lake Neelapattu Tank

Perali Poguru Bapatla Wetland Krishna Mangroves Jeedimetla Lake (Fox Sagar)

Manjira Barrage Contd…..

Hussain Sagar Lake Lower Manair Reservoir Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary

Kadam Reservoir Mid-Pennar Reservoir Musi Reservoir

Singur Reservoir Wyra Reservoir Somasila Reservoir Srisailam Reservoir

Arunachal Pradesh 189

Wetlands in Namdapha National Park

Wetlands in Mahao (Mehao) Sanctuary Wetlands in Lali Sanctuary

Assam 192

Deepor Beel Beels of Assam Sareswar Beel

Dibru Floodplain Sone Lake Wetlands in Kaziranga National Park

Bihar 206

Kawar Lake Khabartal Lake

Masanjore Reservoir Reservoirs of Chota Nagpur Plateau Chaurs of North Bihar And West Bengal

Goa 213

Chorao Island Carambolim Lake

Mandovi – Zuari Estuarine Complex Gujarat 216

Great Rann of Kachchh Nalsarovar Lake and Surendranagar Reservoirs Little Rann of Kachchh

Southern Gulf of Kachchh Wetlands of Kachchh Peninusla Nanda Island Gulf of Khambhat

Khijadia Lakes Kankavati and Sapda Dams Pariej and Kaneval Reservoirs

Ajwa, Vadhwanda and Pavagadh Lakes Wetlands of Sabarkanta and Banaskanta District Wetlands of Central and Eastern Saurashtra

Contd…..

Haryana 238

Sultanpur Jheels

Himachal Pradesh 240

Renuka Wetland

Pandoh Reservoir Chamera Reservoir Chandertal Lake Pong Dam Lake

Jammu & Kashmir 256

Wular Lake

Dal Lake Anchar Lake Surinsar-Mansar Lakes

Mirgund Lake Pangong Tso Hokera Wetland Tsomoriri

Chushul Marshes Shallabugh Lake and Marshes Some Typical Wetlands of Kashmir

Haigam Rakh Tso Kar Basin Ahansar and Waskursar Lakes

Karnataka 285

Byramangala Reservoir Markonahalli Reservoir

Linganamakki Reservoir Ranganthittoo Wildlife Sanctuary Maddur Lake

Kerala 290

Ashtamudi Wetland Parambikulam Dam

Sasthamkotta Lake Vembanad-Kol Wetland Azhinhillam Wetland

Kuttanad Wetland Periyar Lake Kumarakom Mangrove Veli-Aukulam Lake

Kuttiadi Lake Mangalavanam Mangrove Pudu Vyppu Mangrove Forest

Peechi Dam Reservoir Contd…..

Madhya Pradesh 312

Bhoj Wetland Dihaila Jheel

Gopalpura Tank Chiklod Lake Chandpata Lake

Bargi Reservoir Barna Reservoir Dahod Reservoir Gandhisagar Reservoir

Halali Reservoir Kolar Reservoir Kerwa Reservoir

Ravishankar Sagar Reservoir Sampna Reservoir Sagar Lake

Tawa Reservoir Sarni Reservoir Shahpura Lake

Maharashtra 338

Bhategaon Dam Jagatunga Samudra Reservoir

Panzara Dam Jayakawadi Reservoir Siddhewadi Reservoir Ped Reservoir

Dhom Reservoir Ambedkar Tank Ekruk Reservoir

Rankala Lake Hingni Reservoir Hadi Mangrove Wetland Jawalgaon Reservoir

Shambhu Lake Yamai Lake Ujjini Reservoir

Nathsagar Reservoir Wadali Lake Yeldari Reservoir

Nandur Madhameshwar Pune-Sholapur Reservoirs Ratnagiri Mangroves

Manipur 355

Loktak Lake Sanapat Lake

Keibul Lamjao National Park Phumlen, Kharung, and Ikop Lakes

Contd…..

Meghalaya 362

Ward’s Lake Umiam Reservoir

Orissa 365

Bhitarkanika Mangrove

Chilka Lake Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary Hirakud Reservoir Chitrakonda Dam

Rengali Dam Upper Kolab Dam

Punjab 380

Ropar Reservoir Januari Reservoir

Dholbaha Reservoir Harike Lake Kanjli

Rajasthan 403

Sambhar Lake Phulera, and Didwana Salt Lakes

Jaisamand Lake Keoladeo National Park Gambhiri Reservoir Jawai Reservoir

Sardar Samand Reservoir Kothari Reservoir Khari Reservoir

Nandsamand Reservoir Som Kamla Amba Reservoir Orai Reservoir Udaisagar Reservoir

West Banas Reservoir Sikkim 424

Sacred Khechopalri Lake Tamil Nadu 425

Muthupet Mangrove Pulicat Lake Pichavaram Mangrove Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary

Chembarambakam Tank Kaliveli Tank Sathanur Reservoir

Adyar Estuary Bhavanisagar Reservoir

Contd…..

Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park Wetlands of Nilgiri District Siruthavur Tank

Vedanthangal and Karikili Tanks Vettakudi-Karavetti Reservoir Wetland in Madurai Agricultural College and Research Institute Campus

Vettangudi Tanks Karungulam and Sengulam Tanks Puthupalli Alam Swamp

Tripura 468

Rudrasagar Lake

Uttar Pradesh 471

Manjhira Impoundment at Girija Barrage Pyagpur and Sitadwar Jheels

Nawabgani Priyadarshani Bird Sanctuary Dahar and Sauj (Soj) Jheels Chhata Lakes Jheels in the Vicinity of Haidergarh

Nainital Lake Baghla Reservoir Surha Wetland

Matatilla Reservoir Wetlands of Eastern Uttar Pradesh Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Stretch)

West Bengal 488

Sundarbans Mangrove East Calcutta Wetlands

Brace Bridge Wetlands Wetlands of Hugli District Wetlands of Haora District Purbasthali Lake

Wetlands in Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary Andaman & Nicobar 516

Mangrove Wetlands of Middle Andaman New Delhi 517

Jamuna River near Delhi

Pondicherry 519

Ousteri Lake

References 524

INTRODUCTION

etlands are among the most productive ecosystems in the world, comparable to rain forests and coral reefs. They are repositories of

diverse species of microbes, plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, fishes and mammals. The ideal climate, landscape (topology), geology, movement and abundance of water help the flora and fauna inhabiting the wetland ecosystems.

Wetlands are “biological supermarkets”, which provide immense food that attracts many animal species for completion of their life-cycle. The decaying dead plants and animals in the wetlands are converted by bacteria into organic matter (detritus) that are fed by many small aquatic insects, shellfishes and small fishes that are food for

larger predatory fishes, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals.

What are Wetlands?

Wetlands are transitional zones between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. ‘Wetland’ is a generic term for water bodies of various types, and include diverse hydrological entities, namely, lakes, marshes, swamps, estuaries, tidal flats, river

flood plains, peatlands, shallow ponds, etc. Wetlands must have one or more of the three attributes viz. atleast periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes; the substrate has predominantly undrained hydric soil; and the substrate is non soil,

saturated with water or covered by shallow water at sometime during the growing season of each year.

Definitions of Wetlands

The definitions, by Cowardin et al. (1979), are widely accepted by wetland scientists of United States and are also used in India (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). According to Cowardin et al. (1979), wetlands are zones (lands) where saturation with water is the key factor determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and

animal communities living in the soil and on its surface. Wetlands differ widely, regionally with different soils types, topography, climate, hydrology, water chemistry, vegetation and other factors including human disturbance.

About wetlands, it is very relevant to quote R. Brown in “Encyclopedia of Life Science”, 1996 which reads, “The word wetlands seems to contradict itself. How can something that is wet really be considered land? Why is wetlands, simply not a lake or

a stream? Wetlands are the places where the two great natural components that cover our Earth-land and water- wet and mingle to support life forms that are often different from those that dwell only on land or only in water”.

The World Book Encyclopedia (1996), USA, defines “Wetlands is an area of land where the water level remains near or above the surface of the ground for most of the year”. The term “Aquatic”, according to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (Encyclopedia Edition, 1992) refers to plants and animals, etc. growing or living in or

near water: The Chambers Dictionary (New Edition, 1993) adopts the same definition. Both these dictionaries refer to marshy areas as wetland (a marsh being defined as low lying wetland, swamp or fen). Ralph A. Luken (1976) in “Preservation

versus Development”, defines “The term wetland is synonymous with bay lands and includes submerged land, tide land, swamp and over-flow land”.

W

As such, it seems, the experts do not specifically define wetlands as a very distinct ecosystem and consider such land synonymous with aquatic substratum or in other words ‘The Wetland Ecology’ is therefore synonymous with ‘Aquatic Ecology.’

Mitsch and Gosselink (1986) the frontline wetland scientists observe, “A precise wetland definition that is satisfactory to all users has not yet been developed, because the definition of wetland depends on the objectives and field of interest of the users.

Different definitions can result from the geologist, soil scientist, hydrologist, biologist, ecologist, sociologist, economist, political scientist and public health scientist.”

Wetland as special niche of the landscape caught the eyes of the ecologists and biologists only in late 1960s. The Ramsar Convention (1971), the first global Conservation Convention brought this subject to the international arena and framed universally accepted wetlands, which reads: “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water,

whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary with water i.e., static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters”. As such it becomes different to clacify other aquatic

bodies in to wetland group. In order to prepare a status of wetlands in United States, the United State Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service Authority, however, adopted the definitions of Cowardin (1979) which is given under:

“The wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water.” Moreover, this definition includes several attributes which are:

• At least periodically the land must support predominantly hydrophytes.

• The substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil.

• The substrate is non-soil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water sometime during the growing season of each year.

This definition emphasises three key attributes of wetlands: (i) hydrology –the degree of flooding or soil saturation: (ii) wetland vegetation (hydrophytes); and (iii) hydric soils. This definition has been broadly followed as it specifies various attributes of

wetlands. This definition does not contradict IUCN’s definition but only specifies the parameters to be used for identification.

The Ministry of Environment & Forests (Govt. of India) has adopted the definition of

Wetlands which is given by the Convention on wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar).

Classification of Wetlands by IUCN

IUCN identified a total of 39 categories of wetlands of which 30 are natural wetlands and nine man-made. In it there are seven landscape units viz., estuaries, open coasts, flood plains, freshwater marshes, lakes, peatlands and swamp forests. Freshwater wetlands are haors, beels, jheels, oxbow lakes and flood plains. The table below

shows the classification of wetlands.

Wetlands Classification (Dugon 1990)

Salt Water

Marine 1. Subtidal (i) Permanent unvegetated shallow waters less than 6m deph at low tide, including sea bays, straits.

(ii) Subtidal aquatic vegetation including kelp beds, sea grasses, tropical marine meadows.

(iii) Coral reefs.

2. Intertidal (i) Rocky marine shores, including cliffs and rocky shores.

(ii) Shores of mobile stones and shingle.

(iii) Intertidal mobile unvegetated mud, sand or salt flats.

(iv) Intertidal vegetated sediments, including salt marshes and mangroves, or sheltered coasts.

Estuarine 1. Subtidal (i) Estuarine waters; permanent waters of estuaries

and estuarine systems of deltas.

2. Intertidal (i) Intertidal mud, sand or salt flats, with limited vegetation.

(ii) Intertidal marshes, including salt marshes, salt meadows, saltings, raised salt marshes, tidal brackish and freshwater marshes.

(iii) Intertidal forested wetlands, including mangrove swamp, Nypa swamp, tidal freshwater swamp forest.

Lagoon (i) Brackish to saline lagoons with one or more relatively narrow connections with the sea.

Salt Lake (i) Permanent and seasonal, brackish, saline or alkaline lakes, flats and marshes.

Freshwater

Riverine Perennial (i) Permanent rivers and streams, including

waterfalls.

(ii) Inland deltas.

Temporary (i) Seasonal and irregular rivers and streams.

(ii) Riverine floodplains, including river flats, flooded river basins, seasonally flooded grassland.

Lacustrine Permanent (i) Permanent freshwater lakes (>8 ha), including shores subject to seasonal or irregular inundation.

(ii) Permanent freshwater ponds (<8ha).

Seasonal (i) Seasonal freshwater lakes (>8 ha), including floodplain lakes.

Palustrine Emergent (i) Permanent freshwater marshes andswamps on inorganic soils, with emergent vegetation whose

bases lie below the water table for at least most of the growing season.

(ii) Permanent peat-forming freshwater swamps, including tropical upland valley swamps dominated by Papyrus or Typha.

(iii) Seasonal freshwater marshes on inorganic soil,

including sloughs, potholes, seasonally flooded meadows, sedge marshes, and dambos.

(iv) Peatlands, including acidophilous,

ombrogenous, or soligenous mires covered by moss, herbs of dwarf shrub vegetation, and fens of all types.

(v) Alpine and polar wetlands, including seasonally flooded meadows moistened by temporary waters from snowmelt.

(vi) Freshwater springs and oases with surrounding vegetation.

(vii) Volcanic fumaroles continually moistened by

emerging and condensing water vapour.

Forested (i) Shrub swamps, including shrub-dominated freshwater marsh, shrub carr and thickets, on

inorganic soils.

(ii) Freshwater swamp forest, including seasonally flooded forest, wooded swamps on inorganic

soils.

(iii) Forested peatlands, including peat swamp forest.

Man-Made Wetlands

Aquaculture/Mariculture (i) Aquaculture ponds, including fish ponds and shrimp ponds.

Agriculture (i) Ponds, including farm ponds, stock ponds, small tanks.

(ii) Irrigated land and irrigation channels, including

fields, canals and ditches.

(iii) Seasonally flooded arable land.

Salt Exploitation (i) Salt pans and salines

Urban/Industrial (i) Excavations, including gravel pits, borrow pits and mining pools.

(ii) Wastewater treatment areas, including sewage

farms, settling ponds and oxidation basins.

Water-Storage Areas (i) Reservoirs holding water for irrigation and/or human consumption with a pattern of gradual, seasonal, draw down of water level.

(ii) Hydro-dams with regular fluctuations in water level on a weekly or monthly basis.

Role of Wetlands

Wetlands directly or indirectly have an enormous ecological, economic, commercial and socio-economic importance and values. Such lands constitute very rich biodiversity of flora and fauna of important local, natural and regional significance.

Two significant parameters identified by various wetlands scientists are - (i) Functions and (ii) Values.

The principal functions are – ground water recharge and discharge, storage of water,

storage of flood water, shoreline stabilization, erosion control, sediment trapping, nutrient retention and removal, support for food chains, fisheries production, habitat for wildlife, recreation, natural heritage values, biomass production, water transport,

bio-diversity preservation and microclimate stabilization.

Coastal wetlands play a positive role in recovering phosphates and nitrates from estuarine water and release oxygen; consequently it reduces nutrient load and

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of coastal water. These wetlands act as natural protection zone for densely habitated inland region; specially the wetland vegetation can be a positive buffer against cyclonic storm.

Wetlands in India

The wetlands are increasingly facing several anthropogenic pressures, due to rapidly expanding human population, large scale changes in land use/land cover and burgeoning development projects and improper use of watersheds have all caused a

substantial decline of wetland resources of the country. Absence of reliable and updated information and data on extent of wetlands, their conservation values and socioeconomic importance has greatly hampered for development of policy,

legislation and administrative interventions by the state.

For long-term conservation planning of wetlands, spatial data and information are required for any intervention. Wetland ecosystem in India constitutes an integral part

of cultural and biodiversity landscape. It is estimated that 3.5 million hectares of wetlands exist in the country according to 1992-1993 study by the Space Application Centre. However, this information pertains to wetlands above 56 ha in size. Previous research works on wetland conservation in the country has shown conclusively that

micro wetlands or satellite wetlands around a bigger wetland act as a constellation of habitat mosaic for resident and migratory waterfowl. This is of special importance for inland wetland habitats in the flyways of migratory birds in the Indo-Gangetic plains

and in Deccan Peninsula. Often, the size of these micro wetlands is much smaller than 50ha. Therefore, there is a great need to map wetlands of smaller size less than 50ha. Spatial information on wetland resources is a critical and an urgently needed for an effective conservation of the important ecosystem.

For a country like India, with its vast biological and cultural diversity, a comprehensive use of remote sensing, GIS and other related technologies will be of great use in conservation. Classifying and mapping wetlands based on

geomorphology, water quality and other biological attributes can lead to qualitative

assessment. Results obtained could be used in planning, inventorying and monitoring wetlands in the country.

Wetland resources exhibit significant ecological diversity, primarily because of variability in climatic conditions and changing topography. Unfortunately, many such areas have been converted for agriculture, industry or settlements. A great number of wetlands have been affected by industrial effluents, discharge of sewage, household

wastes and sedimentation due to ecological degradation in catchment areas.

Realising the crucial role of the wetland ecosystems in flood control, recharging of aquifers, regulating water quality, reducing sediment load and pollution abatement, its

potential for aquaculture and as breeding ground for waterfowls, the Ministry of Environment and Forest (Govt. of India) constituted an Expert Group in 1983 for compiling information on the ecological status of wetlands in the country. Earlier to

this in 1972, a survey had been initiated to collect some basic information which was subsequently updated. Based on the analysis of the responses, the Directory of wetlands in India was published in 1990 by the Ministry of Environment & Forests. The present directory is updated mainly based on the information collected from

various sources on the distribution and their status of wetlands in India.

This directory covers Inland and Coastal water bodies like lakes, tanks, reservoirs, marshes, swamps, etc. The detailed information of wetland site (geographical

coordinates, general location of the site, nearest village, district and state); total area (ha); ecological category; abiotic and biotic factors; land tenure; land use; conservation measures taken; socio-economic values; disturbance and threats;

pollution status are given in the State/ Union Territory-wise. In addition, detailed information available on few wetland ecosystems and measures taken by the Government of India for conservation of wetlands are also included.

Based on the available information, the details of about 2,211 major and minor

wetlands have been given in the present directory. Efforts are also taken to collect more information and update the data which will be presented in the subsequent editions of the directory.

S.No. Name of the Wetland Name of the

Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Araniar Reservoir - Chitoor

2 Interu Swamps Bintumalli Krishna and West Godavari

3 Kajam Reservoir Nimal Adilabad

4 Kolleru Eluru Krishna & West Godavari

5 *Kondakarla Lake Anakapalli Visakhapatnam 6 Neelapattu Lake Neelapattu Nellore

7 Nizamapatnam Nizamapatnam Guntur 8 Pakhal Lake Ashok Nagar Warangal 9 *Perali Poguru Bapatla Vijayawada, Guntur

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

10 *Athvelly Cheruvu Secundarabad - 11 Badvel Tank Badvel -

12 *Bibinagar Tank Bibinagar Hyderabad 13 *Coringa Wildlife

Sanctuary Rajahmundry -

14 *Dabilpur Cheruvu Secundarabad - 15 *Dhulapally Cheruvu Secundarabad - 16 *Edulabad Reservoir - - 17 *Gambhiramgedda Visakhapatnam -

18 *Gundla Cheruvu Secundarabad - 19 *Hussain Sagar Lake - Ranga Reddy 20 *Indravati National Park

(Wetlands in)

Pusnar -

21 *Jeedimetla Lake (Fox Sagar)

Hyderabad Hyderabad

22 Jusi Reservoir Suryapet Kurnool 23 *Kadam Reservoir Adilabad - 24 *Kaziranga National park - Gauhati

ANDHRA PRADESH

1. Total Geographical Area :

2,75,06,800 ha.

2. Forest Area

: 63,82,100

ha. (23.20%)

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

13° 16’ 79° 40’ 200.00 Freshwater

16° 20’ 81° 15’ 2,651.00 Brackishwater

19° 10’ 78° 43’ 25,000.00 Freshwater 16° 32’ 81° 05’ 90,000.00 Freshwater

17° 35’ 82° 59’ 650.00 Freshwater 13° 45’ 80° 00’ 453.00 Brackishwater 16° 10’ 80° 16’ 1,000.00 Brackishwater

17° 40’ 79° 55’ 2,400.00 Freshwater 15° 49’ 80° 27’ 1,500.00 Brackishwater

17° 39’ 78° 29’ 28.00 Freshwater 14° 40’ 79° 00’ 610.00 Freshwater 17° 38’ 78° 46’ - Freshwater

16° 27’ 82° 01 23,570.00 Brackishwater

17° 40’ 78° 30’ 75.00 Freshwater 17° 32’ 78° 27’ 26.00 Freshwater

- - 244.31 Freshwater - - - Freshwater

17° 31’ 78° 29’ 30.00 Freshwater

17° 20’ 78° 30’ 710.00 Freshwater 19° 00’ 81° 00’ - Freshwater

18° 30’ 77° 30’ 4,700.00 Freshwater

17° 10’ 79° 26’ 533.00 Freshwater 19° 18’ - 2,474.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater

1 2 3 4

25 *Krishna Mangrove Krishna Guntur 26 Lower maniar Dam Karimnagar - 27 *Madhapur Botanical

Garden Lake

Hyderabad Hyderabad

28 *Manas National Park - Gauhati 29 *Manjira Barrage Hyderabad Hyderabad

30 *Manjiri Sanctuary - - 31 *Medchal Pedda Cheruvu Secundarabad Nalgonda 32 *Mehadrigedda Visakhapatnam

33 *Medchal Voora Cheruvu Secundarabad Nalgonda 34 Mid-Pennar Reservoir Anantapur - 35 *Minor Reservoir Shaikpet Hyderabad

36 Mudasarlova Visakhapatnam - 37 Musi Reservoir Nalgonda - 38 *Nagarjuna Sagar Mandi Gonda Nalgonda

39 Nuthankal Cheruvu Secundarabad Nalgonda 40 Pocharam Reservoir - Medak 41 Poli Tank Rajampet - 42 Porumamilla Porumamilla -

43 Railapur Cheruvu Secundarabad Nalgonda 44 Rendli Pakale Rendli Cuddapah 45 *Saroornagar Lake - Hyderabad

46 Singur Reservoir Medak - 47 *Shathamraj Shaikpet - 48 *Srisailam Reservoir Srisailam Cuddapah

49 Somasila Reservoir Nellore Nellore 50 Surla Devi Chaur Hazugudam Cuddapah 51 *Tungabhadra Reservoir - - 52 Ura Chaur Burugadda Karimnagar

53 Wyra Reservoir Khamman - 54 *Yerrakalva Reservoir - West Godavari

5 6 7 8

15° 45’ 80° 45’ 27,661.00 Brackishwater 18° 15’ 78° 32’ 8,105.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater

- - 27,000.00 Freshwater

17° 38’ 78° 05’ 2,000.00 Freshwater

17°40’ 77°00’ 20,000.00 Freshwater 17° 35’ 78° 29’ 24.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater

17° 35’ 78° 29’ 14.00 Freshwater 14° 52’ - 1,703.00 Freshwater


17° 14’ - 2,507.00 Freshwater 16° 34’ 79° 10’ 28,474.00 Freshwater

- - 18.00 Freshwater 18° 8’ 78° 10’ 20,000.00 Freshwater

14° 10’ 79° 10’ 120.00 Freshwater


- - 280.00 Freshwater

17°22’ 78°22’ 41.00 Freshwater 17° 45’ - 16,534.00 Freshwater


14° 29’ - 21,349.00 Freshwater - - 250.00 Freshwater - - 37,814.00 Freshwater

- - 150.00 Freshwater 17° 11’ - 1,626.00 Freshwater

17°5’22’’ 81°15’22’’ 1,138.76 Freshwater

Name of the Wetland Name

of the

Nearest

Village/

Town

Name

of the

Distri

ct

2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

Pakhui (Kameng & Pakke River System

Rangapara

North/Tejpur

Kameng

Talley Valley Hapoli Subansiri

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

*Lali Sanctuary

(Wetlands in)

Pasigha

t

East

Siang *Mahao (Mehao) Sanctuary (Wetlands in)

Balipara

Dibang Valley

*Namdapha National Park (Wetlands in)

Dibrugarh

Tirap

Name of the

Wetland

Name of

the Nearest

Village/To

wn

Name

of the

District

2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

ARUNACHAL PRADESH

ASSAM

Amreng Beel Diphu Karbi

Anglong

Andheri Beel Chatgano Kamru

p Arimora Kohara Sibsaga

r

Latitude

(N)

Longit

ude

(E)

Ar

ea

(ha

.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

26° 50’ 92°

00’

20,

000.00

Freshwater

28° 30’ 94°

00’

200

.00

Freshwater

27° 53’ 95°

23’ - Freshwater

28° 05’ 95° 40’

- Freshwater

27° 23’ 96°

15’

- Freshwater

Latitude

(N)

Longit

ude

(E)

Ar

ea

(ha

Ecological

Category


83,74,300 ha.

5. Forest Area

: 51,54,000

ha. (61.55%)


78,43,800 ha.

2. Forest Area

: 26,83,200

ha. (34.21%)

.)

5 6 7 8

25° 50’ 93° 25’

150.00

Brackishwater

26° 00’ 91° 40’

200.00

Freshwater

26° 40’ 93°

25’

168

.00

Freshwater

Assam

1 2 3 4

4 Baguri Bor Baguri Sibsagar 5 Chand Dubi Beel Pabsabari Kamrup 6 Chandakhal Beel Dhubri Goalpara

7 Dalani Beel Calanta Para Goalpara 8 Daldali Swamps Diphu Karbi Anglong 9 *Deepar Beel Mukalana Kamrup

10 Dewan Beel Guwahti Kamrup

11 Dhir Beel Chappar Goalpara 12 Disama Beel Diphu Karbi Anglong 13 Hahilia Beel Goal Para Goalpara

14 Joysagar Silghat Naogaon 15 Kanara Beel Haripani Goalpara 16 Kumri Beel Kumri Goalpara 17 Kaziranga Swamps - Naogaon

18 Ladkhowa Ghats (Swamps)

Saikhowa Dibrugarh

19 Laothari Swamps Diphu Kamrup

20 Medo Beel Majadar Hat Goalpara 21 Sareswar Beel Gauri Pur Goalpara 22 Tamaranga Beel Hari Pani Goalpara 23 Urpad Beel Solmari

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

24 *Bordoibam Dhemaji Dhemaji

25 *Dibru Floodplain Dibrugarh - 26 Kaziranga National Park

(Wetlands in) Bokaghat Nowgong &

Sibsagar 27 *Khandong Reservoir Jayantia Hills -

28 Laokhawa, Orang,& Sonai Rupai Sanctuaries (Wetlands in)

Brahmaputra valley

-

29 Manas National Park (Wetlands in)

Barpeta Guwahati, Barpeta, Kokrajhar

30 *Sone Lake - Karimganj 31 *Tropical Floodplain

Lake - Dhemaji

32 *Umrang North Cachar

Hills

-

5 6 7 8

26° 30’ 93° 15’ 110.00 Freshwater 26° 25’ 91° 25’ 1,500.00 Freshwater 26° 00’ 89° 55’ 250.00 Freshwater

26° 15’ 90° 35’ 200.00 Freshwater 25° 50’ 93° 25’ 150.00 Brackishwater

26° 05’ 91° 36’ 4,000.00 Freshwater 26° 05’ 91° 30’ 100.00 Freshwater 26° 15’ 90° 25’ 450.00 Freshwater

26° 50’ 93° 25’ 150.00 Brackishwater 26° 10’ 20° 35’ 400.00 Freshwater 26° 35’ 92° 55’ 173.00 Freshwater 26° 17’ 90° 40’ 450.00 Freshwater

26° 16’ 90° 35’ 100.00 Freshwater 26° 30’ 93° 05’ 28,500.00 Freshwater 26° 27’ 92° 35’ 2,800.00 Freshwater


26° 55’ 90° 05’ 1,700.00 Freshwater 26° 17’ 90° 40’ 500.00 Freshwater 26° 15’ 90° 40’ 1,000.00 Freshwater

27° 32’ 94° 45’ 1,100.00 Freshwater 27°30’ 94°55’ - Freshwater

26° 35’ 93° 05’ 31,000.00 Freshwater


26° 37’ 90°15’ - Freshwater

- - 46,104.00 Freshwater 26°75’ 94°56’ 54.00 Freshwater



Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Ahiya Rona Vaishali

2 Bhagwa Chaur Balur Bazar Saharsa 3 Bharthua Chaur Bharthua Muzaffarpur 4 Bhusara Mann Bhausara Muzaffarpur

5 Bora Charu Kharka-Talwa Saharsa 6 Brahmaputra River

Valley - -

7 Brahmpura Mann Muzaffarpur Muzaffarpur

8 Chatia Chaur Piparapakari Champaran (West) 9 Ekpira Dhar Kishan Pur Saharsa

10 Fatehpur,Naimallia &

Paintia Chaurs

Hajipur Vaishali

11 Hardia Chaur Akilpur Saran 12 Khabartal (Kanwar)

lake Manjhaul Begusarai

13 Kahara Dhuseshwar Darbhanga Darbhanga 14 Kanhar Bandh Baradih Palamau 15 Kauda Lauhar Kauda Lauhar Sahrasa

16 Kesaria Chaur Motihari Champaran 17 Khetar Sarotar Champaran 18 Manshi Dubey Cahur Phulia

Khar

Champaran (West)

19 Murdapur Chaur Murdapur Saharsa 20 Parbamurli Chaur Kumarganj Saharsa 21 Raghupur Diara Hajipur Vaishali

22 Ratanpura Phulkaha Kumarganj Saharsa 23 Rora Lake - Chaibasa 24 Tal Bahaila Mehnar Muzaffarpur

25 Topchanchi Lake Dhanbad Dhanbad 26 Udaipur Lake - Champaran (West)

BIHAR


94,16,400 ha.

8. Forest Area

: 6,47,300

ha. (6.87%)

Latitud

e

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

25° 55’ 85° 10’ 150.00 Freshwater

26° 20’’ 86° 25’ 200.00 Freshwater 26° 15’ 83° 30’ 125.00 Freshwater 26° 08’ 85° 40’ 125.00 Freshwater

25° 50’ 86° 30 500.00 Freshwater 25°45’ 89°50’ - Freshwater

26° 05’ 85° 22’ 130.00 Freshwater - - 100.00 Freshwater

25° 25’ 85° 50’ 200.00 Freshwater

25° 40’ 85° 10’ 11,400.00 Freshwater



25° 50’ 86° 25’ 200.00 Freshwater 26° 45’ 85° 00’ 500.00 Freshwater 26° 45’ 84° 45’ 350.00 Freshwater



25° 30’ 85° 20’ 2,000.00 Freshwater 25° 45 87° 00’ 100.00 Freshwater 22° 34’ 85° 45’ 240.00 Freshwater


1 2 3 4

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

27 Canal Dam Reservoir Akilpur Santhal Pargana

28 Chadan Reservoir - Dumka

29 *Chaurs of North Bihar and West Bengal

Bagaha -

30 Gadua Reservori Riji Khorbha Bhagalpur

31 *Goabeel Minihari Katihar 32 Konar Reservoir Chota Nagpur

plateau Hazaribagh

33 *Laluchack Bhagalpur -

34 *Maithon Chota Nagpur plateau

Dhanbad & Hazaribagh

35 *Masanjore Reservoir Dumka Santhal Pargana

36 Nalkari Reservoir Patratu Chhotanagpur 37 Panchet Hill Reservoir Chota Nagpur

plateau Dhanbad

38 *Tilaiya Reservoir Chota Nagpur plateau

Dhanbad & Hazaribagh

S.No

.

Name of the Wetland Name of the

Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

1 *Dudhawa - - 2 *Khudia - - 3 *Ravishankar Sagar

Reservoir

- Raipur

4 *Sondur - -

5 6 7 8

24° 15’ 85° 00’ 10,000.00 Freshwater

24° 40’ 86° 50’ 1,080.00 Freshwater

25°15’-27°00’ 84°10’-88°10’ - Freshwater

- - 1,554.00 Freshwater - - 0.80 Freshwater

23° 55’ 85° 45’ 2,590.00 Freshwater

25° 14’ 86° 58’ 50.00 Freshwater

22° 00’-25° 3’ 85° 47’- 87° 50’ 10,619.00 Freshwater

23°40’ 86°28’ 6,993.00 Freshwater - - 992.00 Freshwater

23° 40’ 86° 24’ 15,300.00 Freshwater

CHHATTISGARH

22° 00’-25° 3’ 85° 47’- 87° 50’ 5,957.00 Freshwater

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

- - 2,510.00 Freshwater - - 1,668.00 Freshwater

20°34’ 81°34’ 9,540.00 Freshwater


S.No. Name of the

Wetland

Name of the

Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Chorao Panaji Goa 2 Karamboli Karamboli Goa

3 *Mandovi - Zuari Estuarine Complex

Dona Paula Goa

4 *Goa Mangroves Panji -

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

5 *Carambolim Lake Panaji Goa

6 *Madkai Ponda Goa

7 *Mangeshi Ponda Goa


1,35,19,000 ha.

2. Forest Area

:

59,77,200 ha. (33.06%)

GOA

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

15° 30’ 73° 50’ 250.00 Brackishwater 15° 23’ 73° 50’ 100.00 Freshwater 15°30’ 73°50’ 1,800.00 Brackishwater

15° 22’ 73° 45’ 2,000.00 Freshwater

15°23’ 73°50’ 72.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - - Freshwater


3,70,200 ha.

2. Forest Area

:

1,22,400 ha. (33.06%)


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Aliabet Matiad Borach

2 Chaman Bai Lake Khralu Mehsana 3 *Great Rann of Kutch Nekhetrana Kutch 4 *Gulf of Khambhat Talaja Gulf at Khambhat

5 Harni Pond (I&II) Vadodara Vadodara 6 *Little Rann of Kutch Thorial Kajarda Kutch 7 Mokariran Porbandar Junagarh 8 *Nalsarovar Nalsarovar and

Kayala

Ahmedabad and

Surinder Nagar 9 *Nanda Island Adesar Kachchh district

10 Salt Marshes of

Saurashtra

Bhavanagar &

Jafarabad

Amreli and

Ahmedabad 11 *Southern Gulf of

Kachchh Saurashtra -

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

12 *Aaji - Saurashtra 13 *Aji II Reservoir - Rajkot

14 *Ajwa Vadodara - 15 *Alansagar - Saurashtra 16 *Amipur Reservoir - Junagadh 17 *Babiya Dam - Saurashtra

18 Balamdi Dalawas Jamnagar 19 *Bhandar Reservoir - Rajkot 20 *Bordi Tank - Kheda

21 *Brahmi Reservoir - Surendranagar 22 Chandrasan Tank Kadi Mehsana 23 *Changada - Kheda

24 *Chhari Dhandh - Saurashtra 25 *Daman Ganga Reservoir - Valsad 26 *Dantiwada Reservoir Dantiwada Banaskantha

GUJARAT

10. Total Geographical Area

: 1,96,02,400 ha.

11. Forest Area

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

21° 35’ 69° 35’ 4,000.00 Brackishwater

23° 56’ 72° 37’ 800.00 Freshwater 22° 55’ 70° 28’ 700,000.00 Brackishwater

20°35’ 72°05’ 30,000.00 Brackishwater 22° 18 73° 15 225.00 Freshwater 23° 10’ 70°45’ 495,300.00 Brackishwater

23° 25’ 68° 07 200,000.00 Brackishwater 22° 42’ 71° 59 11,500.00 Brackishwater

23°33’ 71°05’ 5,000.00 Brackishwater 20° 52’ 71° 25’ 52,616.00 Brackishwater

22° 15’ 69°00’ 735,000.00 Brackishwater

- - - Freshwater - - 1,439.00 Freshwater

22° 24’ 73° 24’ 300.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater

- - 1,581.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater

22° 10’ 70° 23’ 160.00 Freshwater

- - 4,400.00 Freshwater - - 225.00 Freshwater - - 1,914.00 Freshwater

23° 15’ 72° 20’ 700.00 Freshwater

- - 200.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - 5,144.00 Freshwater

24° 20’ 72° 20’ 4,047.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

27 *Dedarda -

Kheda 28 *Demi II Reservoir - Rajkot 29 *Deo Reservoir - Panchmahals

30 *Devakivansol - Kheda 31 *Dharoi Reservoir Palandur Mehsana 32 *Fadvel Tank Bilimoria Valsad

33 *Falzar Dam - Rajkot 34 Fatehgarh Fatehgarh Kutch 35 Fulzar Khambaliya Jamnagar

36 Gadhatad Gadhatad Kutch 37 Gajan Sar Gajan Sar Kutch 38 Gajod Gajod Kutch

39 *Garmala - Kheda 40 *Gavier Lake Gavier/ Surat - 41 Ghee Khambaliya Jamnagar

42 *Ghogha/Kharghoda - Saurashtra 43 *Guhai Reservoir - Sabarkantha 44 *Hamirsar Tank Bhuj Kachchh 45 *Hargovind - Saurashtra

46 Hatadi Bhadreshwar Kutch 47 Hatmati Reservoir Himatnagar Sabarkantha 48 *Herenj - Kheda

49 Hiran Reservoir Sasan (Gir) Jamnagar 50 Kadana (Mahi Stage-II

Reservoir (Major part in MP) Kadana Panchamahal

51 Kaila Reservoir Zura Kutch 52 *Kakrapar Reservoir - Surat 53 Kalaghogha Kalaghoga Kutch 54 *Kalindri Reservoir Ishvriya Porbandar

55 *Kaneval Reservoir Kheda - 56 Kankavati Mothala Kutch 57 *Kankavati Dam - Jamnagar

58 *Karjan Reservoir - Banaskantha 59 Kaswati Lodali Kutch 60 *Khijadia lakes Jamnagar Jamnagar 61 Khokhalia Tank Chansha Mehsana

62 *Lalpari - Saurashtra 63 *Lingada - Kheda 64 *Machhu I Reservoir - Rajkot

65 *Machhu II Reservoir - Rajkot 66 *Mal-Sarovar - Saurashtra 67 *Mandvi - Saurashtra 68 *Mazam Reservoir - Sabarkantha

5 6 7 8 -

- 4.00 Freshwater - - 1,023.00 Freshwater - - 1,668.00 Freshwater - - 175.00 Freshwater

24° 00’ 72° 50’ 10,700.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater

21° 91’ 70° 16’ 290.00 Freshwater




22° 10’ 69° 37’ 425.00 Freshwater


23° 15’ 69° 40’ - Freshwater

- - - Freshwater 22° 50’ 69° 50’ 120.00 Freshwater 23° 42’ 73° 13’ 3,340.00 Freshwater



23° 20’ 69° 35’ 232.00 Freshwater - - 44,200.00 Freshwater

22° 55’ 69° 41’ 117.00 Freshwater

- - 51.84 Freshwater 22° 33’ 72° 38’ 1,500.00 Freshwater 23° 00’ 69° 08’ 354.00 Freshwater

21°21’-21°23’ 70°10’-70° 13’ 435.00 Freshwater - - 3,677.00 Freshwater


23° 30’ 72° 00’ 200.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - 6.00 Freshwater

- - 1,200.00 Freshwater - - 1,396.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - - Freshwater


1 2 3 4

69 Meshwar Reservoir Shamlaji Sabar Kantha 70 *Meshwo Reservoir - Sabarkantha 71 *Moj Reservoir - Rajkot

72 *Muli - Saurashtra 73 *Nadiad - Kheda 74 *Nagarma - Kheda

75 Nara Reservoir Nara Kutch 76 *Ningal Tank - Saurashtra 77 Nirvana Nirvana Kutch 78 *Nyari - Saurashtra

79 *Panam Reservoir - Panchmahals 80 Pariaj Tank Pariaj Kheda 81 *Pariej Reservoir Kheda -

82 *Parmaria Bhagol - Kheda 83 *Patak - - 84 *Pavagadh Vadodara -

85 *Phophal Reservoir - Rajkot 86 Puna Jamnagar Jamnagar 87 *Ramdarda - Saurashtra 88 *Ramdhari - Saurashtra

89 *Ranghola Reservoir - Bhavanagar

90 *Rani Tank Khanpur - 91 *Ratheshwar - Kheda 92 Rudramata Reservoir Bhuj Kutch

93 Sanandhro Pannandhro Kutch 94 *Sani Reservoir - Jamnagar 95 *Sankroli Reservoir - Amreli

96 Sapada Jamnagar Jamnagar 97 *Sapda Dam - Jamnagar 98 Sasoi Jamnagar Jamnagar 99 *Sayala - Saurashtra

100 *Shankar Talao - Saurashtra 101 *Shetrunji Reservoir - Bhavnagar 102 Sher Talaw Kalol Mehsana

103 *Singach - Saurashtra 104 *Sipu Reservoir - Banaskantha 105 *Sojitra Pond - Kheda

106 *Sukhbhandar Reservoir - Bhavanagar 107 *Sukhi Reservoir - Vadodara 108 Suvi Suvi Kutch 109 *Tapar Reservoir - Kachchh

110 *Tarapur - Kheda 111 Thor Reservoir Kadi Mehsana

5 6 7 8

23° 41’ 73° 26’ 1,784.00 Freshwater - - 1,116.00 Freshwater

- - 1,203.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - 3.00 Freshwater -

- 120.00 Freshwater 30° 34’ 60° 03’ 1,214.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater 23° 24’ 69° 29’ 380.00 Freshwater


22° 05’ 72° 25’ 616.00 Freshwater


- - 10.00 Freshwater 22° 29’ 73° 22’ 100.00 Freshwater

- - 1,207.00 Freshwater 22° 88’ 69° 39’ 400.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater


- - 2.00 Freshwater

- - 100.00 Freshwater 23° 18’ 69° 40’ 850.00 Freshwater 23° 35’ 68° 47’ 318.00 Freshwater



22° 23’ 70° 10’ 225.00 Freshwater 21°21’-21°23’ 70°10’-70°13’ 193.00 Freshwater

22° 20 69° 25’ 1,300.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - 6,732.00 Freshwater

23° 10’ 72° 25’ 400.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - 2,568.00 Freshwater - - 4.00 Freshwater


23° 37’ 70° 29’ 310.00 Freshwater


23° 15’ 72° 20’ 700.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

112 *Tranga - Kheda

113 Ukai Reservoir Fort Sonegarh Surat 114 *Uni Reservoir - Jamnagar 115 *Vadhwana Vadodara -

116 *Valavad - Saurashtra 117 *Vallabhsagar Reservoir - Surat 118 *Vanakbori Reservoir - Kheda 119 Vartu Bhanvad Jamnagar

120 *Vatrak Reservoir - Sabarkantha 121 *Veri - Saurashtra 122 Vetrak Reservoir Ubhan Sabar Kantha

123 Vijarakhi Jamnagar Jamnagar 124 Vijasagar NA Kutch 125 Vijaysagar Dam - Saurashtra 126 *Village Tank Vaghasi -

127 *Village Tank Lamhavel - 128 *Village Tank Dharmaj - 129 *Village Tank Morgi -

130 *Village Tank Ras - 131 *Village Tank Dantali - 132 *Village Tank Morak - 133 *Watrak Reservoir - Sabarkantha

HARIYANA


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Bibipur Jheel Bibipur Kurukshetra

2 Dobeta Jheel Dobeta Kurukshetra

3 Kotla Lake Nuh and Sohna Gurgaon 4 Sultanpur Jheel Gurgaon Gurgaon

5 6 7 8

- - 100.00 Freshwater 21° 10’ 73° 55 60,100.00 Freshwater


- - - Freshwater - - 52,000.00 Freshwater -

- 2,086.00 Freshwater 20° 00’ 69° 50’ 325.00 Freshwater


- - 2,800.00 Freshwater 23° 20’ 73° 22’ 1,763.00 Freshwater 22° 23’ 70° 13’ 300.00 Freshwater


- - 3.85 Freshwater - - 4.00 Freshwater

- - 2.00 Freshwater - - 7.00 Freshwater - - 10.00 Freshwater



Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8


:

44,21,200 ha.

2. Forest Area

29° 45’ 77° 00’ 200.00 Freshwater

29° 07’ 76° 51’ 150.00 Freshwater


1 2 3 4

5 Ujina Lake Ujina Gurgaon

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

6 *Badkhal Reservoir Fridabad Fridabad 7 *Bhim Tal - Chandigarh 8 Damdama Sohna Gurgaon

9 *Draupti Tal - Chandigarh 10 Lav Kush Tirath Karna - 11 Ottu Jheel - Hissar

12 *Peacock Reservoir Fridabad Fridabad 13 *Ranganthittoo Bird

Sanctuary - -

14 Raoli Jheel Firozepur Gurgaon


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Renuka Lake Dadahu Simaur

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

2 *Chamera Reservoir Chowrah Chamba

3 *Chandertal Lake Kunzam Lahaul and Spiti 4 Gobind Sagar Reservoir Bilaspur Bilaspur 5 *Pandoh Reservoir Mandi Mandi

6 *Pong Dam Lake Dehra-Talwara & Dadasiba

Kangra

7 *Rewalsar Lak - Mandi 8 *Suraj Tal Lake Lahaul-spiti

valley

-

5 6 7 8

HIMACHAL PRADESH

28° 00’ 77° 05 800.00 Brackish water

28°45’ 77°25’ 22.80 Freshwater 28°25’ 76°30’ 16.80 Freshwater

28° 10’ 77° 00’ 200.00 Freshwater 28°25’ 76°30’ 7.08 Freshwater 29° 55’ 76° 00’ 8.00 freshwater 29° 30’ 74° 55’ 340.00 Brackish water

28°45’ 77°30’ 10.86 Freshwater 12°30’ 75°45’ 67.00 Freshwater

27° 43’ 76° 58’ 400.00 Freshwater

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

31°

36’35’’ 77° 27’10’’ 20.00 Fresh water

- - 900.00 Fresh water

32°

29’ 77°

36’ 49.00 Fresh water 31° 15’ 76° 25’ 16,867.00 Fresh water

- - 200.00 Fresh water

32°01' 76°05' 24,629.00 Fresh water

30°37’30’’ 76°49’ - Fresh water 32°45’ 77°25’ 2.76 Fresh water


:

55,78,000 ha.

2. Forest Area


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Anchar Lake Sauora Srinagar

2 *Dal Lake Hazratbal-Srinagar

Srinagar

3 Hanle River Marshes Hanle Ladakh

4 Hokarsar Srinagar Badgam 5 *Hokera Zainakote

Industrial Estate

Srinagar and Badgam

6 Hygam Lake Sopore Baramulla 7 Indus River Thicksey Ladakh 8 Mirgund Lake Mirgund Srinagar and

Badgam 9 *Surinsar-Mansar lakes - Udhampur

10 Wular Lake Sopore-Bandipora

Baramulla

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

11 Ahansar Lake Srinagar Baramulla

12 Chushul Marshes Chushul - 13 *Gilsaar and Khushalsar

Lakes Srinagar Srinagar

14 Haigam Rakh Kashmir Valley Baramullah

15 *Kranchu Srinagar - 16 *Malangpora Srinagar - 17 *Malgam Srinagar -

18 *Manasbal Lake - Srinagar 19 *Narkora Srinagar - 20 Naranbagh Lake Srinagar Baramulla

21 *Nowgam Srinagar - 22 Pangong Tso Leh - 23 *Salal Reservoir - Udhampur

JAMMU & KASHMIR


2,22,23,600 ha.

14. Forest Area

:

20,23,000 ha. (9.10%)

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

34° 20’ 74° 82’ 680.00 Freshwater

34° 06’ 74° 52’ 1,670.00

Freshwater

32°55’ 78°55’ - Freshwater 34°08’ 74°43’ 1,300.00 Freshwater 34° 05’ 74° 05’ 1,375.00 Freshwater

34° 10’ 74° 10 900.00 Freshwater

34°10’ 77°80’ - Freshwater

34° 08’ 74° 38’ 300.00

Freshwater

32° 45’ 75° 05’ 350.00 Freshwater

34° 16’ 74° 33’ 18,900.00 Freshwater


- - - Freshwater

34° 15’ 74° 31’ 1,400.00 Freshwater



34°15’ 74°40’ 0.16 Freshwater - - 533.00 Freshwater


33° 50’ 78° 35’ 65,000.00 Brackishwater

30°08’ 74°50’ 1,000.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

24 Shallabugh Lake and Marshes

Kashmir Valley -

25 Shey Marshes Leh -

26 *Tso morari Leh - 27 *Tullamulla Srinagar - 28 Surinsar Lake Jammu -

29 Tso Kar Basin - - 30 Waskursar Lakes Srinagar Baramulla


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

1 *An raj - Garhwa

2 *Aratad - Palamu & Latehar

3 *Bachra - Palamu & Latehar 4 *Baghi - Palamu & Latehar 5 *Balha - Garhwa 6 *Bankheta - Palamu & Latehar

7 *Banutikar - Palamu & Latehar 8 *Baradavi - Palamu & Latehar 9 *Bareni - Palamu & Latehar

10 *Barhi - Hazaribagh 11 *Bariatu - Ranchi 12 *Barkol - Palamu & Latehar 13 *Batane - Palamu & Latehar

14 *Buchauopa Dam - Ranchi 15 *Canal Dam - Dumka & Jamtara 16 *Caura Nala - Palamu & Latehar

17 *Chandwa - Palamu & Latehar 18 *Chatran - Palamu & Latehar

5 6 7 8

34° 10’ 74° 42’ 750.00 Freshwater

34° 10’ 77° 90’ - Freshwater 32° 07’ 78° 03’ 12,000.00 Brackishwater

- - 237.00 Freshwater 75° 02’ 32° 46’ 20.40 Freshwater 33° 05’ 78° 05’ 20,000.00 Freshwater 34° 18’ 74° 39’ 38.00 Freshwater

JHARKHAND


79,70,000 ha.

2. Forest Area

:

23,60,500 ha. (29.61%)

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8




- - 20.00 Freshwater - - 15.00 Freshwater - - 20.00 Freshwater - - 30.00 Freshwater


- - 10,000.00 Freshwater - - 35.00 Freshwater - - 30.00 Freshwater - - 25.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

19 *Chandil Dam - West Singhbhum 20 *Chauna - Palamu & Latehar 21 *Chaurasi - Palamu & Latehar 22 *Chauria - Palamu & Latehar

23 *Chhat pond - Dhanbad 24 *Chuhianala - Palamu & Latehar 25 *Dhanraita - Palamu & Latehar

26 *Farakka Bandh - Garhwa 27 *Garga Dam - Dhanbad 28 *Getalsud Dam - Ranchi

29 *Gonda Dam - Hazaribagh 30 *Hatia Dam - Ranchi 31 *Jamunia - Hazaribagh 32 *Jdaipura - Palamu & Latehar

33 *Jhabarkund - Palamu & Latehar 34 *Jharia - Palamu & Latehar 35 *Kahualahana Ratu - Ranchi

36 *Kalkari - Ranchi 37 *Kanaldah - Palamu & Latehar

38 *Kanke Dam - Ranchi 39 *Kans - Ranchi 40 *Karma, Chotopur - Palamu & Latehar

41 *Kasna - Palamu & Latehar 42 *Khajuri - Palamu & Latehar 43 *Kharkhota - Palamu & Latehar

44 *Khikharia Par - Palamu & Latehar 45 *Komar - Palamu & Latehar 46 *Konar Dam - Hazaribagh 47 *Ladhuksenha, Chandwa - Palamu & Latehar

48 *Lali - Palamu & Latehar 49 *Lalmatia - Godda 50 *Lapung - Ranchi

51 *Latratu - Giridih 52 *Latratu Dam - Ranchi 53 *Lohrahinda - Palamu & Latehar

54 *Lokha - Palamu & Latehar 55 *Madhigawan - Palamu & Latehar 56 *Mainamar - Palamu & Latehar 57 *Maithon Dam - Dhanbad

58 *Maityon Dam - Dhanbad 59 *Majuraha - Palamu & Latehar 60 *Maloya - Palamu & Latehar

61 *Mandal Dam - Palamu & Latehar

5 6 7 8

- - - Freshwater - - 20.00 Freshwater



- - 3,500.00 Freshwater - - 175.00 Freshwater - - 176.00 Freshwater





- - 20.00 Freshwater - - 30.00 Freshwater - - 2,792.00 Freshwater


- - 80.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - 80.00 Freshwater - - 30.00 Freshwater




1 2 3 4

62 *Manpur - Palamu & Latehar 63 *Masanjore - Dumka and Jamtara

64 *Mayurakshi Dam - Hazaribagh 65 *Motia - Palamu & Latehar 66 *Nahwa Sarai - Palamu & Latehar 67 *Nakti Jalasay - West Singhbhum and

Saraikela Kharsawan 68 *Nandini Irrigation - Lohardagga 69 *Nisunia - Palamu & Latehar

70 *Palna - West Singhbhum & Saraikela Kharsawan

71 *Panchet Dam - Dhanbad 72 *Patratu (Latehar) - Palamu & Latehar

73 *Patria - Palamu & Latehar 74 *Phangerha - Palamu & Latehar 75 *Piartad - Palamu & Latehar

76 *Piklawal Dam - Ranchi 77 *Pindrahi - Palamu & Latehar 78 *Piprahi - Palamu & Latehar 79 *Raghunathpur Dam - Ranchi

80 *Rajbandh - East Singhbhum 81 *Rakshinala - Palamu & Latehar 82 *Rani pond - Dhanbad

83 *Reghana, Bhandaria - Palamu & Latehar 84 *Saraidih - Palamu & Latehar 85 *Sempat Bandh - Palamu & Latehar

86 *Seobandh - Palamu & Latehar 87 *Sirnia - Palamu & Latehar 88 *Sitarampur - East Singhbhum 89 *Sohbaria - Palamu & Latehar

90 *Sonua - West Singhbhum &

Saraikela Kharsawan 91 *Sufri - Palamu & Latehar 92 *Sundar Jalasay - Godda

93 *Tarfe - Palamu & Latehar 94 *Tatisilli - Ranchi 95 *Tenughat - Giridih

96 *Tilaiya Dam - Hazaribagh 97 *Tudev - Palamu & Latehar 98 *Tulbul - Palamu & Latehar 99 *Turidih - Palamu & Latehar

100 *Udaipura - Palamu & Latehar 101 *Zatratu, Karrah - Ranchi

5 6 7 8


- - 3,846.00 Freshwater - - 6,734.00 Freshwater - - 15.00 Freshwater


- - 305.00 Freshwater - - 20.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater








- - 16.00 Freshwater - - 6,000.00 Freshwater




Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Kallambella Sira Tumkur

2 Sharavathi-Valley (Talakalale-Jog Falls)

Kargalli Shimoga

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

3 *Agaram Tank Agaram Bengaluru 4 *Alahalli Tank Alahalli Bengaluru 5 Almati Reservoir Almati Bijapur

6 *Amani Tank Bengaluru Bengaluru 7 *Amruthahalli Tank Bengaluru - 8 *Anjanapur Reservoir - -

9 *Annappana-kere Yelchenahalli Bengaluru 10 *Attiveri Reservoir Mundgod Uttar Kannada 11 *Ayyanakere Tank Harapanahalli Davangere 12 *Bachanki Reservoir Mundgod Uttar Kannada

13 *Bannergatta Tank Bannergata National park

Bengaluru

14 *Basavanapura Tank - Bengaluru

15 *Belikere Lake Mysore - 16 Bhadra Reservoir Lakkavalli Chikmangalur 17 *Boranakanive Reservoir - - 18 *Bovi Basappanakere

Malathhalli

University

Campus

Bengaluru

19 *Byramangala Reservoir Bengaluru Bengaluru 20 *Challakere Tank Chalakere Bengaluru

21 *Chakra Reservoir - - 22 Chamaraja Sagar Bengaluru Bengaluru 23 *Channapana-halli Tank Varthur Bengaluru

24 *Chandravalli Tank Chitradurga - 25 *Chickbanavara Tank Chickbanavara Bengaluru 26 *Chickbetta-halli Tank Chickbetta-halli Bengaluru

KARNATAKA


1,91,79,100 ha.

17. Forest Area

:

38,28,400 ha. (19.96%)

18. Total Wetland Area

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

13° 35’ 76° 55’ 113.00 Freshwater

14° 05’ 74° 25’ 800.00 Freshwater



13°20’58” 77°06’22” 184.49 Freshwater


13°52’ 74°05’ - Freshwater

14°78’ 76°6’ 27.79 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - 2.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater



- - 412.00 Freshwater - - 10.32 Freshwater - - 1,228.00 Freshwater - - 647.00 Freshwater

- - 11.13 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - 30.38 Freshwater

- - 4.60 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

27 *Chickkalasandra Tank Banashankari III stage layout

Bengaluru

28 *Chilur Pond Honnali Davangere

29 *Chokkasandra Tank Dasarahalli Bengaluru 30 Chuklinava Reservoir Basava Kalyan Bidar 31 *Chunchu-ghatta Tank Kanakapura and

Bannergatta road

Bengaluru

32 *Doddabommasandra Tank

Bengaluru Bengaluru

33 *Doddakere Bagalkunte Bagalkunte Bengaluru 34 *Doddakere Hosakerehalli Hosakerehalli Bengaluru 35 *Dorekere Uttarahalli Uttarahalli Bengaluru

36 Dhuptal Lake Kotbdgi Shirodar Belgaum 37 *Dyavasandra Adjoining Madras

Railway line Bengaluru

38 *Garebhavi-palya Hosur road Bengaluru 39 *Gayatri Reservoir - - 40 Ghataprabha Ghataprabha Belgaum 41 *Govindanai-kana Kere

Jaraganahalli

Jaraganahalli Bengaluru

42 *Gramadakere Allalasandra

Yelahanks Satellite Bengaluru

43 *Gudavi wetland Gudavi Shimoga 44 Hagribommanahali Hagribomanahalli Bellary 45 *Halakere Nayandahalli Nayandahalli

Railway station

Bengaluru

46 *Harangi Reservoir - - 47 *Harpahalli Harpahalli Bellary 48 *Hebbal Tank Bengaluru

49 *Hemavathy Reservoir Gorur Hassan 50 *Hennur Tank Hennur Bengaluru 51 *Hosakere

Nallakadrenahalli

Nallakadrenhalli Bengaluru

52 *Hesarghatta Lake - Bengaluru 53 *Ittamadu Tank Banashankari III

stage layout Bengaluru

54 *Jambadahalla Reservoir - - 55 *Janardhana-kere

Vasanthapura Vasanthapura Bengaluru

56 *K.R. Puram Tank K.R. Puram Bengaluru 57 Kabini Reservoir - Mysore 58 *Kacharakana-Halli Tank Kacharakana-halli Bengaluru 59 *Kaggadasa-pura Tank Kaggadasapura Bengaluru

5 6 7 8

- - 5.16 Freshwater




- - 9.36 Freshwater




16° 74° 30’ 6,837.00 Freshwater



14°24’59” 75°6’43” 33.00 Freshwater


12°40’ - 1,909.00 Freshwater 14° 77’ 75° 49’ 102.00 Freshwater

75.00 Freshwater 12°40’ 76°30’ 8,502.00 Freshwater


- - 3.07 Freshwater




11° 57’ 76° 10’ 6,100.00 Freshwater - - 22.57 Freshwater


1 2 3 4

60 *Kaikondana Tank Sarjapura Road Bengaluru 61 *Kamagondanahalli Tank HMT ancillary

industries Bengaluru

62 *Kamakshipalya Tank Bengaluru - 63 *Kanva Reservoir - - 64 Karanjia Bidar Bidar

65 *Kasavanahalli Tank Sarjapura road Bengaluru 66 *Konenakunte Tank Kanakapura Bengaluru 67 *Kasimkhananakere Gublal Gublal Bengaluru 68 *Kelaginakere Amblipura Sarjapura road Bengaluru

69 *Kelaginakere Byrasandra HAL industrial area Bengaluru 70 *Kelaginkere Valgerahalli Kengeri Satellite Bengaluru 71 *Kodagikere Shingasandra Shingasandra Bengaluru

72 *Kothnur Tank Kanakapura and Bannergatta road

Bengaluru

73 *Kowdenahalli Tank I.T.I colony Bengaluru

74 *Krishnaraja sagar Mysore Mandya 75 *Kundalahalli Tank Varthur road Bengaluru 76 *Kunthur and Kallur Lakes Kollegal Chamaraja

nagar

77 *Linganamakki Reservoir - -

78 *Lingambudhi Lake Mysore Mysore 79 *Maddur Lake Maddur Mandya 80 *Madivala Lake Bengaluru -

81 *Machikere Doddakalasandra Kanakapura Bengaluru 82 Manchanbele Manchanbele Bengaluru 83 Manjra Reservoir Kushnoor Bidar

84 Malaprabha Reservoir - - 85 *Markonahalli Reservoir - Tumkur 86 *Melinakere Amblipura Agaram Bengaluru 87 *Melinakere Byrasandra Bengaluru

88 *Mogakere Uttarahalli Uttarahalli Bengaluru 89 *Mylasandra Tank Kengeri Bengaluru 90 *Nagavara Tank Nagavara Bengaluru

91 Nagora Reservoir Kadwad Bidar 92 *Nugu Reservoir - - 93 *Narasappana-kere Kari-

Obanahalli

Nallakadrenahalli Bengaluru

94 *Narasipura Tank Jalahalli Bengaluru 95 *Narayanapura Tank B. Narayanapura Bengaluru 96 Narayanpur Reservoir Sidjapur Bijapur

97 *Narihala Sarovar Ettnahatti Bellary 98 *Narasambudhi Lake Nanjangud Mysore

5 6 7 8



17° 53’ 77° 19’ 5,261.00 Freshwater - - 17.42 Freshwater - - 3.71 Freshwater - - 6.08 Freshwater








12°40’ 77°10’ 4,220.00 Freshwater 12°52’ 77°38’ 115.00 Freshwater


18° 87’ 77° 19’ 2,833.00 Freshwater

15°45’ - 13,578.00 Freshwater 12°55’0” 76°55” 1,337.00 Freshwater



- - 43.86 Freshwater 17° 48’ 77° 28’ 660.00 Freshwater 11°58’ - 1,398.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater



1 2 3 4

99 *Nelligudda Reservoir Bengaluru -

100 *Puttanahalli Tank Bengaluru Bengaluru 101 *Ramasamudra Tank Karkal Dakshina

Kannada

102 *Ranganthittoo Wildlife Sanctuary

Mysore Mandya

103 *Sankey Tank Malleswaram and Sadashivanagar

Bengaluru

104 *Shanthinagar Pond Shanthinagar Shimoga 105 *Shingasandra Tank Shingasandra Bengaluru 106 *Srigandha-kaval Tank Magadi road Bengaluru

107 *Subbaraya-nakere Doddakalasandra

- Bengaluru

108 *Tank between Hulimavu & Arakere

Hulimavu & Arakere

Bengaluru

109 *Tank north of Doresanipalya West of Bannergatta Road

Bengaluru

110 *Tank of east Benniganahalli Salem Railway line Bengaluru

111 *Tank north west of Nayandahalli

Pantharapalya Bengaluru

112 *Tank of east Haralur Sarjapur road Bengaluru 113 *Tank of east Ibblur Sarjapura road Bengaluru

114 *Tank of east Parappana Agrahara

New Central Jail Bengaluru

115 *Tank of south Bilaakanahalli Bannergatta road Bengaluru

116 *Tank of south Mangammanapalya

Hosur road Bengaluru

117 *Tank of West

Doddanakkundi

Doddanakkundi Bengaluru

118 *Tank west of Nagarbhavi Bengaluru University Campus

Bengaluru

119 Thungabhadra Dam Hospet Bellary and

Raichur

120 *Talapady Lagoon Mangalore - 121 *Tinnalu Tank Bengaluru Bengaluru 122 Tungabhadra River Ele

Bichalli Point

- Raichur

123 *Tunga Reservoir - - 124 Upper Mullamar Reservoir Kherda Bidar

125 *Ulsoor Tank Bengaluru Bengaluru 126 *Urumundina-kere

Vibhuthipura HAL industrial area Bengaluru

127 *Varthur Bengaluru Bengaluru

5 6 7 8


13° 13’ 74°55’ - Freshwater

12°25’ 76°45’ 67.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater

13°27’ 74°38’ 2.02 Freshwater

- - 0.60 Freshwater





- - 5.16 Freshwater




- - 3.55 Freshwater

15° 15’ 79° 20’ 37,800.00 Freshwater

12° 47’ 74° 51’ 20.00 Brackish water

- - 3.87 Freshwater 16°21’ 77°21’ - Freshwater


17° 42’ 77° 81’ 2,800.00 Freshwater



1 2 3 4

128 *Varahi Reservoir - - 129 *Venkappana-kere

Uttarahalli Uttarahalli Bengaluru

130 *Vijinapura Tank East of Bellary road Bengaluru 131 *Votehole Reservoir - - 132 *VV Sagar Reservoir - -

133 *Yediyur Tank Jayanagar Bengaluru 134 *Yennehole lake Mysore -


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Ashtamudi Kollam Kollam 2 Cochin backwaters Cochin - 3 Kadinakulam Trivandrum Trivandrum

4 Karinilam Lake Aroor, Thuravoor Alleppey 5 Kottampalli Swamps Kottampalli Cannanore 6 *Kadalundy Estuary Kozhikod Kozhikod

7 Madyi Swamps Palayangadi Cannanore 8 Padasekharms Alleppey Alleppery 9 Parambikulam Dam Palghat Wayanad

10 Parravoor Mayyanad Kollam

11 Peruvatipallom Pollachi Palghat 12 *Sasthamkotta Lake Sasthamkotta Kollam 13 *Vembanad-Kol Alappuzha, Kochi

and Thrissur

Alappuzha,

Ernakulam and Thrissur

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

14 Ambalamugam tank Ernakulam Ernakulam

5 6 7 8


KERALA

- - 7.10 Freshwater

- - 6.45 Freshwater

- - 690.00 Freshwater 13°51’ - 8,759.00 Freshwater

- - 6.45 Freshwater


Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

08°57' 76°35' 61,400.00 Brackishwater 09°30’ 76°13’ 25,600.00 Brackishwater 09° 05’ 76° 30’ 119.00 Brackishwater 09° 20’ 76° 15’ 1,126.00 Brackishwater

11° 56’ 75° 29’ 2,500.00 Brackishwater 11°05’ 75°51’ 28.48 Brackishwater 12° 00’ 75° 15’ 2,500.00 Brackishwater

09° 25’ 76° 15’ 7,032.00 Brackishwater 10° 20’ 76° 37’ 2,122.00 Freshwater 09° 00’ 76° 30’ 1,487.00 Brackishwater 10° 30’ 76° 45’ 289.00 Brackishwater

09° 03’ 76° 36’ 373.00 Freshwater 09°50' 76°45' 151,250.00 Brackishwater

09° 09’ 76° 04’ 124.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

15 *Azhinhillam Malappuram Malappuram 16 Anayirangal

Reservoir Munnar Idukki

17 Chuliar Reservoir Kollamgode Palghat 18 Idukki Vazhathope Idukki 19 Kakki Reservoir Pathanamthitta Pathanamthitta 20 Kanhirapuzha Manjeri Malapuram


38,86,300 ha.

2. Forest Area

: 11,26,500

ha. (28.99%)


21 *Kumarakom Mangrove

Kottayam -

22 Kundala Mattupetty

Reservoir

Munnar Idukki

23 *Kuttanad - - 24 *Kuttiadi Lake Peruvannamuzhi Kozhikode

25 Mangalam Alattu Palghat 26 *Mangalavanam

Mangrove Cochin -

27 *Meenkara Reservoir - -

28 Neyyar Reservoir Kattakkada Trivandrum 29 Pampa Reservoir Vandipariyar Thitta 30 Peechi Dam

Reservoir

- Trichur

31 *Peppara Dam Reservoir

Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram

32 Peringal Kuthu Reservoir

Chalakudi Trichur

33 *Periyar Lake Kumuli Idukki 34 Ponmudi Reservoir Nedukandam Idukki

35 *Pookot Lake Vythiri Wynad 36 Pothundi Reservoir Nemmara Palghat 37 *Puduvyppu

Mangrove

- Eranakulam

38 Sholai Reservori Sholayar Trichur 39 Vazhani Reservori Vadkanlherri Trichur 40 *Veli-Aukulam lake Thiruvandrum Thiruvandrum

41 *Vellayani Lake Thiruvandrum - 42 Walayar Reservoir Chullimada Palghat

5 6 7 8


10° 35’ 76° 45’ 316.00 Freshwater


9°37’ 76°26’ 44.00 Brackishwater

10° 09’ 77° 13’ 323.00 Freshwater

09° 8’ 76°19’ - Brackishwater - - 1,052.00 Freshwater

10° 35’ 76° 32’ 399.00 Freshwater 9°59’ 76°16’ 2.80 Brackishwater


10°30’ 76°15’ 1,578.30 Freshwater

08°7’ 76°40’ - Freshwater

10° 15’ 76° 15’ 263.00 Freshwater

09° 34’ 76° 40’ 2,600.00 Freshwater

10° 00’ 77° 00’ 280.00 Freshwater 11°34’24” 76°1’24” 750.00 Freshwater

10° 35’ 76° 35’ 363.00 Freshwater

9°58’ 76°10’ 100.00 Freshwater

10° 10 76° 09’ 870.00 Freshwater 10° 33’ 76° 18’ 255.00 Freshwater

8°31’30” 76°54’39” - Brackishwater 8°24’90” 76°59’08” 550.00 Freshwater 10° 45’ 76° 52’ 259.00 Freshwater


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Devanand Lake Chirmiri Surguja

2 Mandleshwar Lake Mandleshwar East Nimar 3 Upper Lake - Bhopal

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

4 Alwasa Tank Khachrod Ujjain 5 *Ataria - - 6 *Bargi Reservoir Mankhedi Jabalpur

7 Barna Bari Raisen 8 *Barnoo Reservoir - - 9 *Basania - -

10 *Beda Upper - - 11 *Bhoj Tal (Upper & Lower) Bhopal Bhopal 12 Budhwadah Budha Shahdole 13 *Chandpata Lake Shivpuri Shivpuri

14 Charoda Tank Charoda Raipur 15 *Chhota Tawa - - 16 *Chiklod Lake - Bhopal

17 *Chunabhatti Lake - Bhopal 18 *Dahod Reservoir - Raisen 19 Dhali Tank Dhali Dewas 20 *Dhobatoria - -

21 *Dobdia Pond West Nimar - 22 *Dihaila Jheel Karera Shivpuri 23 *Dudhi - -

24 *Dulhara Tank Bilaspur Bilaspur 25 *Gandhisagar Reservoir - Mandsaur 26 Ganga Talao Kari Kasba East Nimar

27 *Gantal - - 28 *Gopalpura Tank Guna Guna 29 *Govindgarh Lake - Rewa

MADHYA PRADESH


: 3,08,14,400 ha.

20. Forest Area

:

94,68,900 ha. (30.72%)


Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

23° 10’ 82° 20’ 150.00 Freshwater

22° 10’ 75° 05 100.00 Freshwater 23°16’ 77°25’ 3,800.00 Freshwater

23° 25’ 75° 15’ 190.00 Freshwater

- - 2,161.00 Freshwater 22°56’30” 79°56’30” 27,296.00 Freshwater

23° 00’ 77° 55’ 7,705.00 Freshwater

- - 75.60 Freshwater - - 14,201.00 Freshwater - - 1,300.00 Freshwater

23° 16’ 77° 25’ 3,201.00 Freshwater

24° 05’ 81° 25’ 900.00 Freshwater 25° 26’ 77°42’ 300.00 Freshwater 21° 35’ 82° 25’ 100.00 Freshwater

- - 2,914.00 Freshwater 77°42’ 23°7’ 250.00 Freshwater 23°18’ 77°27’ - Freshwater 23°02’ 77°29’30” 820.00 Freshwater


22° 10’ 74° 54’ 9.60 Freshwater

25°35’ 78°05’ 370.00 Freshwater - - 3,849.00 Freshwater

22°1’2” 82°5’32” 77.00 Freshwater 24°44’ 75°33’ 66,000.00 Freshwater


23°90’ 76°85’ 600.00 Freshwater


1 2 3 4

30 Gwal Sagar - Tikamargh 31 *Halali Reservoir - Raisen/Vidisha 32 *Halon - -

33 Harsi - Gwalior 34 *Indira Sagar - - 35 *Jagat Sagar Pond Cggatarpur-

Jhasituated

Rewa

36 Jastakhedi Tank Karohan Ujjain 37 *Jobat - -

38 *Kaliasaut Reservoir Bhopal Bhopal 39 *Kerwa Reservoir Bhopal Bhopal 40 Kharkhara Tank Lohara Durg

41 *Khnop Reservoir Chhatarpur Chhatarpur 42 Khudia Tanks (Maniar) Khudia Bilaspur 43 Khunta Ghat - Bilaspur

44 *Kolar reservoir Lawakheri Sehore 45 *Loni Reservoir - Rewa 46 *Lower Gol - - 47 *Machna Annicut Dam Vivekanand

Nagar

Betul

48 *Machrawa - - 49 Madan Sagar - Tikamargh

50 *Maheshwar - - 51 *Makroda Reservoir Guna Guna 52 *Man - -

53 Maramsili Reservoir Rudri Raipur 54 *Morand - - 55 Nagda Reservoir Pichhore Shivpuri 56 *Nani Barwani Pond Barwani -

57 *Omkareshwar - - 58 Padlia Tank Basin Padlia Ujjain 59 *Panchana Reservoir - -

60 *Raghavpur - - 61 Rampur Tank Rampur Guna 62 *Ranital Chhatarpur - 63 *Rosra - -

64 *Sagar Lake Sagar - 65 *Sampna Reservoir - Betul 66 *Sardar Sarovar - -

67 *Sarni Reservoir - Betul 68 *Shahpura Lake Bhopal Bhopal 69 *Shakkar - - 70 *Sher - -

5 6 7 8

23° 02’ 75° 00’ 280.00 Freshwater 23°30’ 77°30’ 7,712.00 Freshwater



23° 04’ 75° 47’ 120.00 Freshwater - - 970.37 Freshwater - - - Freshwater

22°58’ 77°21’ 482.00 Freshwater 22° 45’ 81°00’ 2,816.00 Freshwater

24°58’15” 79°38’15” 250.00 Freshwater 22° 45’ 84° 2,525.00 Freshwater

22° 11’ 82° 12’ 3,807.00 Freshwater

22°58’ 77°21’ 2,380.00 Freshwater 25°7’ 81°30’ 202.00 Freshwater


21°55’ 77°54’ - Freshwater



24°43’30” 77°16’0” 6,516.00 Freshwater - - 1,077.00 Freshwater

28° 29’ 81° 39’ 2,529.00 Freshwater - - 1,940.00 Freshwater

25° 01’ 78° 01’ 358.00 Freshwater


23° 35’ 75° 05’ 151.00 Freshwater





- - 37,030.00 Freshwater 22°8’30” 77°11’ 1,012.00 Freshwater 23°18’ 77°27’ 260.00 Freshwater



1 2 3 4

71 *Shivpuri National Park (Madhav)

- -

72 Silar Khedi Tank Silarkhedi Ujjain

73 *Sitarewa - - 74 *Sukta - - 75 Tandhula Tank Tanhula Balod Durg

76 *Tawa Reservoir - Hoshanghabad 77 *Tekanpur Reservoir Gwalior Gwalior 78 *Undasa Tank Undasa Ujjain 79 *Upper Narmada - -

80 Upper Burhner - - 81 *Waghyanala Reservoir - Chhindwara 82 Yeshwant Sagar - Indore

MAHARASHTRA


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Bhategaon Dam - Parbhani

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

2 *Adgaon Reservoir - Parbhani 3 *Ambedkar Tank Kolhapur - 4 Aner Reservoir Chopra Kolhapur

5 Ashti Tank Ashti Sholapur 6 Atapadi Talao Atapadi Sangli 7 Balwadi Tank Balwadi Sangli

8 *Belkheda Reservoir - Parbhani 9 Bendsura Tank Pali Beed

10 Bhohehal Tank Bhohehal Sholapur 11 *Bhosi Reservoir - Parbhani

5 6 7 8

25°45’ 77°40’ 156,150.00 Freshwater

23° 05’ 75° 50’ 240.00 Freshwater



22°30’40” 77°58’30” 20,055.00 Freshwater

- 78.18° - Freshwater 23° 00’ 75° 00’ 192.00 Freshwater


21°42’ 78.47’ 293.50 Freshwater 22° 43’ 75° 42’ 1,025.00 Freshwater

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category


3,07,71,300 ha.

2. Forest Area

: 61,93,900

ha. (20.13%)

5 6 7 8

19°25’ 77°25’ 46.94 Freshwater

- - 27.00 Freshwater 16°42’ 74°14’ 1.20 Freshwater

- - 800.00 Freshwater 17° 50’ 75° 20’ 1,168.00 Freshwater 17° 25’ 74° 55’ 177.00 Freshwater 17° 10’ 74° 27’ 1,278.00 Freshwater



1 2 3 4

12 Bordharan Tank Hingni Thane 13 *Bori Reservoir Naldurg Osmanabad 14 *Bothi Reservoir - Parbhani

15 Chandni Jheel (Tank) Pimpalwadi Osmanabad 16 *Charthana Reservoir - Parbhani 17 Chhatri Tank Amravati Amravati

18 *Chincholi Reservoir - Parbhani 19 *Devgaon Reservoir - Parbhani 20 Dhane-Gaon Sarovar Manjar Beed 21 *Dhegaon Reservoir - Parbhani

22 *Dhom Reservoir Dhom Satara 23 *Ekruk Reservoir - Solapur 24 Gadchiroli Lake Gadchiroli Gadchiroli

25 *Gangapur Dam - Nashik 26 Ghirni Reservoir - Osmanabad 27 *Girna Reservoir Malegaon Nashik 28 *Hadi Mangrove Hadi -

29 *Hangarga Reservoir - Osmanabad 30 *Haranbaree Dam - - 31 Harmi (Tank) Katgaon Osmanabad

32 *Hartala Lake Jalgaon Jalgaon 33 *Hingni Reservoir - Solapur 34 Holgi Tank Holgi Sholapur 35 Isapur Reservoir Isapur Yavatmal

36 Itiadoh Reservoir Gothan Gaon Bhandara 37 *Jagatunga Samudra

Reservoir - Nanded

38 *Jawalgaon Reservoir Tuljapur Solapur 39 *Jayakawadi Reservori - Aurangabad 40 *Jogwada Reservoir - Parbhani

41 Junoni Tank Junoni Sholapur 42 Kada Tank Nimboli Beed 43 Kamthikhairy Dam Kamthikhairy Nagpur

44 Kanholi Dam Wuna Nagpur 45 *Karpara Reservoir - Parbhani 46 Karwand Reservoir Sangui Dhule

47 Karwati Reservoir Shirpur Dhule 48 *Kas lake Satara Satara 49 Kharbav Lake Kharbav Thane

50 *Khatijapur Tank Achalpur Amravati 51 Kaurli Tank Dhanora Beed 52 Kewda Reservoir - Parbhani 53 Khadakvasla Khadakvasla Pune

5 6 7 8

20° 50’ 78° 40’ 300.00 Freshwater - - 746.00 Freshwater - - 47.00 Freshwater

18° 10’ 75° 40’ 900.00 Freshwater



- - 27.00 Freshwater - - 4,390.00 Freshwater - - 17.00 Freshwater

17°50’ 73°33’ 2,021.00 Freshwater - - 1,842.51 Freshwater - - 284.90 Freshwater - - - Freshwater


16°08’38” 73°28’36” - Brackishwater

- - - Freshwater - 74°11’23” - Freshwater




20° 50’ 79° 30’ 6,350.00 Freshwater

18°15’ 77°40’ - Freshwater



18° 10’ 75° 111.00 Freshwater


21° 00’ 78° 05’ 333.00 Freshwater



- - - Freshwater

21°50’ 78°44’ 3.50 Freshwater 18° 56’ 75° 40’ 126.00 Freshwater


18° 28’ 73° 51’ 1,554.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

54 Khandala Talao Khandala Pune 55 *Khan Lake Sangli - 56 Khasapur Tank Khasapur Osmanabad

57 Khehal Reservoir - Parbhani 58 Khodasi Weir - Satara 59 *Kodri Reservoir - Parbhani

60 *Kotiteerth Reservoir - - 61 Koyna Reservoir Deshmukhwadi Satara 62 Kurnoor Tank Naldurg Osmanabad 63 Larna Dam

(Lake Beale)

Nandgaon Nasik

64 *Lonar Lake - Buldhana 65 Laxmi Reservoir Radhangari Kolhapur

66 Mahasagri Mahasagri Beed 67 Majalgaon Reservoir Majalgaon Beed 68 Malangaon Kondai Bari Dhule

69 Malkhed Tank Malkhed Bascapur Amravati 70 *Mandvi Reservoir - Parbhani 71 Mangi Tank Mangi Sholapur 72 *Manjara Dam Kaij Beed

73 Mangrool Tank Polyachtwadi Nanded 74 *Mannath Reservoir - Parbhani 75 *Marsul Reservoir - Parbhani

76 *Masoli Reservoir - Parbhani 77 *Masunda Lake Thane Thane 78 *Medha Reservoir Satara Satara 79 Mehekri Tank Pimpelgaon Beed

80 Mukti Tank Dhulia City Dhule 81 Mula Dam Rahuri Ahmednagar 82 Mulshi Lake Mulshi Pune

83 *Nakhatwadi Reservoir

- Parbhani

84 Nandur Madhameshwar

Nasik Nasik

85 *Nathsagar Reservoir - Paithan, Aurangabad

86 Nirguna Chordhi Akola

87 *Palas-Nilegaon Reservoir

Bhabulgaon Osmanabad

88 *Panshet Dam Pune -

89 *Panzara Dam Pimpalner Dhule 90 Pathari Tank Pathari Sholapur 91 *Pathri Reservoir - Solapur

5 6 7 8

18° 00’ 73° 23’ 106.00 Freshwater




- - - Freshwater 17° 25’ 73° 55’ 11,535.00 Freshwater 17° 45’ 76° 15’ 666.00 Freshwater 19° 45’ 73° 40’ 3,467.00 Freshwater

19°58’45” 76°34’00” - Freshwater

16° 20’ 74° 00’ 1,936.00 Freshwater

18° 48’ 75° 28 220.00 Freshwater 19° 10 75° 55’ 8,080.00 Freshwater 21° 05’ 74° 05’ 223.00 Freshwater




- - 373.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - - Freshwater

18° 52’ 75° 00’ 357.00 Freshwater



20°01’ 74°07’ 10,012.73 Freshwater


20° 30’ 76° 10’ 430.00 Freshwater


- - - Freshwater

20°55’1’’ 74° 05’30’’ 6,478.00 Freshwater 18° 10’ 75° 40’ 274.00 Freshwater


1 2 3 4

90 *Pawashi Tank Pawashi Sindhudurga 91 Pawna Dam Maval Nagpur 92 *Ped Reservoir Ped Sangli 93 *Pedgaon Reservoir - Parbhani 94 *Pethwadaj Dam* Kallali Nanded

95 *Powai Lake East Mumbai - 96 Puramapala & Kutha Arvi Dhule

Tanks 97 Pus Reservoir Wanwana Yavatmal

98 Radhangiri Dam Radhangiri Kolhapur 99 *Ramdara Reservoir - Osmanabad

100 *Rankala Lake Kolhapar-Goa road -

101 *Ranisavargaon Reservoir - Parbhani 102 *Ratnagiri Mangrove - Ratnagiri 103 *Rishi Lake - Washim 104 Rukadi Tank Kolhapura Kolhapur

105 Ruti-Tank Ruti Beed 106 *Salim Ali Lake Aurangabad - 107 *Shambhu Lake Dahivadi Satara

108 Shelpada Tank Nawhar Thane 109 Siddeshwar Reservoir Siddeshwar Parbhani 110 *Siddhewadi Reservoir Ped Sangli

111 Sindphana Tank Higewadi Beed 112 Sirpiraji Rao Tank Mursud Kolhapur 113 *Sirur Dam Sirur Nanded 114 Spatne Tank Spatne Sholapur

115 *Suki Dam - Jalgaon 116 Talwar Tank Devigaon Beed 117 *Talalwadi Reservoir - Parbhani

118 Tanaji Sagar Panshet Pune 119 Thirna Tank Thirna Osmanabad 120 Totleadoh Dam (Pench

Project) Ramtek Nagpur

121 *Ujani Reservoir - Solapur 122 Velhala Lake Velhala Jalgaon 123 *Wadali Lake Amravati -

124 Waghadi Reservoir Waghadi Yavatmal 125 Warna Reservoir Warna Sangli 126 Wau Tank Pimpelgaon Beed 127 *Yamai Lake Khatav Satara

128 *Yedshi Lake Yedshi Washim 129 *Yeldari Reservoir Sangavi Parbhani 130 *Yesaji Sagar Bhor (Taluka) Pune

5 6 7 8

16°02’ 70°42’ 1,049.00 Freshwater - - 2,300.00 Freshwater


- - - Freshwater 19° 8’ 72° 54’ 210.00 Freshwater

20° 40’ 74° 40’ 353.00 Freshwater

19° 54’ 77° 40’ 800.00 Freshwater 16° 24’ 73° 58’ 1,800.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater


16°58’ 73°17’ 214.02 Brackishwater 20° 29’ 77° 29’ - Freshwater


- - - Freshwater

17°59’ 74°53’ 16.18 Freshwater 19° 50’ 73° 10’ 125.00 Freshwater 19° 00’ 76° 40’ 3,400.00 Freshwater 16°46’ 73°42’ 200.48 Freshwater


- - - Freshwater

18° 00’ 75° 25’ 129.00 Freshwater 21°18’ 75°54’30” Freshwater 18° 45’ 75° 10’ 145.00 Freshwater



18° 03’ 74° 38’ 35,000.00 Freshwater 20° 55’ 75° 50’ 0.50 Freshwater

20°55’ 77°48’ - Freshwater 21° 10’ 73° 40’ 658.00 Freshwater 16° 38’ 74° 35’ 2,900.00 Freshwater 18° 52’ 76° 25’ 346.00 Freshwater

17°33’ 74°23’ - Freshwater 20°22’ 77°14’ - Freshwater 18° 43’ 76° 43’ 10,200.00 Freshwater

18° 10’ 73° 50’ 3,800.00 Freshwater


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Kharung Pat Sekmaijin Bishnupur

2 Loktak Lake Moirange Bishnupur 3 *Naorem 00pat Nambol Bishnupur 4 Pumplen Pat Ithai Bishnupur

5 Takmu Lake Thanga Bishnupur

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

6 *Alongbikhok Pat - Thoubal

7 *Heingang Pat - Imphal East 8 *Ikop lake Imphal Thoubal 9 Keibul Lamjao National

Park

Imphal -

10 Kharung Lake Imphal Thoubal 11 *Karam Pat - Thoubal 12 *Loushi Pat - Thoubal

13 Phumlen Lake Imphal Thoubal 14 *Poirom Pat Imphal East 15 *Sana Pat Lake - Bishnupur

16 *Utra Pat - Bishnupur 17 *Ushooipokpi Pat - Thoubal 18 *Waithuou Pat, Punem Pat - Thoubal 19 *Yankha Pat - Imphal East

MANIPUR


: 22,32,700 ha.

23. Forest Area

: 17,41,800 ha. (78.01%)


Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8






24° 15’- 25° 30’ 94° 00’-94° 15’ 2,557.50 Freshwater


24° 15’- 25° 30’ 94° 00’-94° 15’ 3,188.00 Freshwater

- - 810.00 Freshwater 24°40’ 93°51’ 282.00 Freshwater




Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Umiam Lake - East Khasi Hill

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

2 *Khandong Jayantia Hills -

3 *Umiam Reservoir - Ri-Bhoi 4 *Ward’s Lake Shillong Khasi Hills


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Baghty Makolkla and Akok Dokha 2 Pimla & Dhansari Dimapur Kohima

MEGHALAYA


: 22,42,900 ha.

26. Forest Area

:

9,49,600 ha. (42.34%)


NAGALAND

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

25° 05’ 91° 09’ 400.00 Freshwater


25°39’30” 91°43’51” 500.00 Freshwater 25º 34’ 91º 32’ 2.88 Freshwater

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

- - 100.00 Fresh water - - 110.00 Fresh water


16,57,900 ha.

2. Forest Area

:

9,22,200 ha. (55.62%)


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Bhitarkanika mangrove - Kendrapara

2 *Chilka Lake Balugaon Ganjam and Puri 3 Dagara Chanda Dagara Balasore 4 Kharasaha Kharashapur Balasore

5 Musabila Bhamargaon Balasore

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

6 Badjore Tank Bethati Mayurbhanj

7 Balimela (Chitrakonda) Chitrakonda Koraput 8 Bhanja Nagar Reservoir Bhanja Nagar Ganjam 9 Bhaskal Reservoir Umer Kote Koraput

10 *Chitrakonda Dam - - 11 Dadraghati Rangathali Dhenkanal 12 Daha Indagada Ganjam 13 Daya-Ghargavi - Puri

14 Derjanga Reservoir Angul Dhenkanal 15 Dhanei Talao Chirkipada Ganjam 16 Dumerbahl - Kalahandi

17 Godahado - Ganjam 18 *Hirakud Reservoir Sambalpur - 19 Kalo Chuinpost Mayurbhanj 20 Kanjhari - Keonjhar

21 Kathjudi-Kushabhadra-Doab

- Cuttack

22 Khadkei Suleipur Mayurbhanj

23 Kushabhadra-Bhargavi-Doab

Renapur Puri

24 Luna-Birupa-Brahmani-

Doab

- Cuttack

25 Luna-Chitrotpale-Doab Nagaspur Cuttack 26 Machakund Jalaput Koraput

ORISSA


: 1,55,70,700 ha.

29. Forest Area

:

58,13,600 ha. (58.14%)


Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

20°39' 86°54' 65,000.00 Brackishwater

19° 28’ 85° 06’ 116,500.00 Brackishwater 21° 34’ 87° 17’ 1,000.00 Brackishwater

21° 10’ 86° 45’ 500.00 Brackishwater 21° 45’ 87° 10’ 400.00 Freshwater




19° 50’ 84° 28’ 552.00 Freshwater 20° 00 80° 20’ 5,800.00 Freshwater 20° 51’ 85° 21’ 943.00 Freshwater

19° 47’ 84° 35’ 687.00 Freshwater 20° 51’ 82° 41’ 756.00 Freshwater 19° 17’ 84° 37’ 243.00 Freshwater 21°32’ 83°52’ 74,300.00 Freshwater

21° 31’ 86° 27’ 534.00 Freshwater 21° 35’ 85° 43’ 534.00 Freshwater 20° 00’ 86° 20’ 32,175.00 Freshwater

22° 08’ 86° 14’ 980.00 Freshwater


20° 00’ 86° 20’ 1,450.00 Freshwater

20° 00’ 86° 20’ 1,000.00 Freshwater

18° 27’ 02° 32’ 9,118.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

27 Mahanadi Delta - Cuttack 28 Nesa Heragan Mayurbhanj 29 Potteru Surulila-lampeta Koraput

30 Ramiala Budhibil Dhenkanal 31 Ramsagar/ Sitasagar Parlakhamandi Ganjam 32 Remal - Keonjhar

33 Rengali Dam - Dhenkanal 34 Rengali Reservoir Rengali Dhenkanal 35 Saipala Nawapara Kalahandi

36 Salandi Hagarh Balasore 37 *Satkoshia Gorge

Sanctuary Cuttack -

38 Sundar Lampta Kalahandi 39 Sunei Salchua Mayurbhanj 40 *Upper Kolab Dam Koranga -

41 West of Daya - Puri


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Aliwal Kotli - Amritsar 2 Chamb Guroittnwali Ferozepur Ferozepur 3 Chhangali Talao Changli Ferozepur 4 Chhangli Chhamb Ferozepur Ferozepur

5 *Dahdn-De-Chhamb Nawanshehar Jullunder 6 Gaunspur Chamb Dasuya Hoshiarpur 7 Jand wal Chhamb Jandwal Hoshiarpur

8 *Jastibwal Jheel Ajnala Amritsar 9 *Kahnuwan Chhamb Gurdaspur Gurudaspur

10 *Keshpurmiani Jheel Gurdaspur Gurudaspur

5 6 7 8

20° 00’ 86° 20’ 5,000.00 Brackishwater

22° 24’ 86° 08’ 169.00 Freshwater 18° 12’ 82° 01’ 150.00 Freshwater 21° 06’ 85° 35’ 1,669.00 Freshwater 18° 45’ 84° 00’ 870.00 Freshwater

21° 10’ 85° 56’ 198.00 Freshwater 21°17’ 85°02’ 41,400.00 Freshwater 22° 16’ 85° 02’ 35,300.00 Freshwater

20° 48’ 82° 40’ 544.00 Freshwater 21° 17’ 86° 17’ 3,182.00 Freshwater 20° 33’ 84° 50’ - Freshwater


PUNJAB

18°47’ 82°27’ 15,380.00 Freshwater - - 850.00 Freshwater

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8





32° 00’ 75° 20’ 408.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

11 Mand-Area-Beas River Budho-Barket Hoshiarpur

12 *Mandbharthala Bharthala Nawanshehar

13 Narayangarh Terkiana - Hoshiarpur

14 Sita-Sagar Mansar Hoshiarpur

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

15 *Bareta - Mansa 16 Bhupinder Sagar Samana Patiala 17 *Chohal Reservoir - - 18 *Dholbaha Dam - Hoshiarpur

19 *Dholbaha Reservoir Hoshiarpur - 20 *Gobindgarh Khokhar - Sangrur 21 Harike Lake Amritsar Amritsar

22 *Hussainiwala Reservoir - Ferozepur 23 *Januari Reservoir Hoshiarpur - 24 *Kanjli Kanjli Kapurthala

25 *Lahail Kalan - Sangrur 26 *Lobana - Patiala 27 *Malli Dam - Hoshiarpur 28 *Mangrowal Dam - Hoshiarpur


50,36,200 ha.

2. Forest Area

: 3,08,400

ha. (6.12%)

29 Nangal Lake - Ropar 30 *Rababsar - Kapurthala 31 *Ranjit Sagar - Gurdaspur

32 *Ropar Lake - Ropar

5 6 7 8




30° 05’ 76° 10’ 1,280.00 Brackish water - - 61.00 Freshwater

- - 132.00 Freshwater 31° 5’ 77°0’ 57.00 Freshwater


- - 688.00 Freshwater 31° 5’ 77°0’ 18.00 Freshwater 31°25’ 75°22’ 183.00 Freshwater



30° 55’ 76° 26’ 1,365.00 Freshwater


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Didwana Salt Lake Didwana Nagaur

2 *Phulera Salt Lake Jaipur - 3 Rann Khar Bhawatra Jalore 4 *Sambhar Lake Jaipur Jaipur

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

5 Amarchand - - 6 Ajgara Talao Ajgara Ajmer

7 Anasagar Ajgara Ajmer 8 Baghela Tank Udaipur Udaipur 9 *Baghdara Lake - Udaipur

10 Bankia Talao Bankia Chittorgarh 11 Barda Kota Kota 12 *Baretha Reservoir - - 13 *Bharda - -

14 Bhatemar Tank Bhatemar Udaipur 15 Bheronpuri Lake Bheronpura Bundi 16 Bhupal Sagar - Chittorgarh

17 Borda Talao Borda Chittorgarh 18 Buchara Kotputli Jaipur 19 Chhaparwara Chhaparwara Jaipur 20 Dingoli Talao Dingoli Chittorgarh

21 Girdharpura Talao Girdharpura Kota 22 Dugari Tank Dugari Bundi 23 Foyssagar Ajgara Ajmer

24 Gadola Talao Gadola Chittorgarh 25 Gadri Reservoir Gangapur Bhilwara 26 *Gambhiri Reservoir Chittorgarh Chittorgarh

27 Gambvheri Talao Amia Joshi Chittorgarh 28 *Gandhi Sagar lake Bhilwara - 29 Govta Talao Ghangapur Bhilwara

RAJASTHAN


3,42,23,600 ha.

5. Forest Area

:

32,48,800 ha. (9.3%)


Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

26° 52’ 75° 11’ 200.00 Brackishwater

27° 12’ 74°34’ 600.00 Brackishwater 24° 40’ 71° 05’ 3,000.00 Brackishwater

27° 00’ 75° 00’ 24,000.00 Brackishwater


24° 45’ 74° 43’ 100.00 Freshwater 24°40’ 73°86’ 180.00 Freshwater 24° 54’ 74° 30’ 202.00 Freshwater 25° 10’ 75° 58’ 480.00 Freshwater

- - 1,006.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater

24° 35’ 74° 00’ 387.00 Freshwater

25° 28’ 75° 36’ 100.00 Freshwater 24° 25’ 74° 11’ 552.00 Freshwater 24° 59’ 74° 34’ 202.00 Freshwater 27° 32’ 75° 58’ 233.00 Freshwater


25° 40’ 75° 45’ 200.00 Freshwater 26° 25’ 74° 35’ 128.00 Freshwater 24° 35’ 74° 37’ 138.00 Freshwater 25° 12’ 74° 06’ 1,001.00 Freshwater

24°-42’ 74°-43’ 2,336.00 Freshwater 24° 42’ 73° 43’ 1,308.00 Freshwater

5°26’55’’ 74°38’00’’ - Freshwater

25° 15’ 74° 03’ 1,213.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

30 Gund Talao Kishangarh Ajmer 31 Hamir Kishanagarh - 32 *Harike Lake - Chandigarh

33 Hindoli Tank Hindoli Bundi 34 *Jaisamand Lake - Udaipur 35 Jakham Reservoir Haldu Khera Chittorgarh

36 *Jawai Reservoir - Pali 37 Kailana Jheel (Pratap &

Takhat Sagar) Jodhpur Jodhpur

38 Kalakh Kalakh Jaipur 39 *Kalian Lake - Jodhpur 40 Kalkhoi Dansa Jaipur

41 Kapasan Tank Kapasan 42 *Khanpura Lake - 43 *Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur

44 *Kothari Reservoir Trivani Bhilwara 45 *Khari Reservoir Asind Bhilwara 46 *Lakhotia Lake Pali - 47 Madhosagar Sikhari Jaipur

48 Meja Reservoir Asind Bhilwara 49 Mandal Talao Mandal Bhilwara 50 Mansagar Jaipur Jaipur

51 Murlia Talao Murlia Chittorgarh 52 *Nandsamand Reservoir Nathwara Rajsamand 53 Nahar Sagar Shahpura Bhilwara

54 Net Sagar Bundi Bundi 55 *Orai Reservoir Gopal Pur Chittorgarh 56 *Perennial Pond Kolayatji Bikaner 57 Phool Sagar Bundi Bundi

58 Pichola Fatehsagar complex

Udaipur Udaipur

59 Pushkar-raj Sarovar Pushkar Ajmer

60 Ramgarh Lake Ramgarh Jaipur 61 Ranapratap Sagar Kota Kota 62 *Sareli - - 63 *Sardar Samand

Reservoir

Jodhpur Pali

64 Sareri Reservoir Sareri Bhilwara 65 Saropa Tank Saropa Chittorgarh

66 *Som Kamla Amba Reservoir

Amba Dungarpur

67 Soniana Talao - Chittorgarh 68 Tabiji Tank Tabiji Ajmer

5 6 7 8



27° 42’ 75° 33’ 7,400.00 Freshwater 24° 42’ 74° 43’ 10,000.00 Freshwater 25°-6’ 73°-9’ 2,590.00 Freshwater

16° 05’ 57° 03’ 1,600.00 Freshwater

26° 28’ 75° 25’ 562.00 Freshwater

20°56’5” 72°56’5” 194.25 Freshwater 26° 28’ 76° 24’ 719.00 Freshwater 24° 53’ 74° 18’ 331.00 Freshwater 26°24’ 74°34’ - Freshwater

27° 07’ 77° 29’ 2,873.00 Freshwater

25°-18’ 75°-0’ 785.00 Freshwater 20° 42’ 74° 25’ 773.00 Freshwater 25.08° 73.3° 173.38 Freshwater



25° 25’ 75° 35’ 100.00 Freshwater 25°02’ 74°49’ 640.00 Freshwater

28°01’N, 73°22’ - Freshwater



- - - Freshwater

25° 09’ 73°05’ 3,641.00 Freshwater

25° 40’ 74° 45’ 14,161.00 Freshwater

24° 58’ 74° 29’ 118.00 Freshwater 23°-56’ 74°-02’ 3,618.00 Freshwater

25° 38’ 74° 39’ 184.00 Freshwater

26° 20’ 74° 35’ 128.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

69 Talwas Tank Talwas Bundi 70 *Udaisagar Reservoir Udaipur Udaipur 71 Umed Sagar - Bhilwara

72 Verdha Bandha Vardha Bundi 73 *West Banas Reservoir - Sirohi


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

SIKKIM

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Gurudengman Tso Yumchho North

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

2 *Sacred Khechopalri Lake Sikkim

Himalaya

-

5 6 7 8

25° 35’ 76° 00’ 100.00 Freshwater 24°-33’ 73°-47’ 440.00 Freshwater 25° 34’ 75° 54’ 2,296.00 Freshwater

25° 31’ 75° 50’ 150.00 Freshwater 24°-41’ 72°-57’ 940.00 Freshwater

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8


27°22’24” 88°12’30” 1,200.00 Freshwater


: 7,09,600 ha.

32. Forest Area

: 5,84,100 ha. (82.31%)



Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Adyar Estuary Chennai -

2 Chembarabakam Lake Poonthamali - 3 Dushmandurai Kanchipuram Vellore 4 Eloroon Mahendrapalli Nagapattinam 5 Kole (Palakkal Kole and

Aranattukara Kole)

- Trichur

6 Kovalam Lake - Kanchipuram 7 Mahendravadi Sarovar Mahendravadi Vellore

8 *Muthupet mangrove Muthupet Thanjavur & Nagapattinam

9 *Pichavaram mangrove Chidambaram Cuddalore

10 *Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary

Nagappattinam Nagappattinam

11 *Pulicut Lake Ponneri Kanchipuram 12 Purasi Talao Cheyyar Vellore

13 Vaigai Andipatti Madurai 14 Vakkadai Mukkur Hissa

Tank Valapandal Vellore

15 Velayathur Tank - Vellore 16 Vellayaru Nagapatinam Nagapattinam/

Tanjavur 17 *Velachery Lake Velachery -

18 Yedayanthittu Estuary Marakkanam Villupuram

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

19 *Achankulam - Kanyakumari

TAMIL NADU

20 *Acharavakkam Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 21 *Achenkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

22 Adanur Tank Adanur Kanchipuram 23 *Adaviyarkulam - Kanyakumari 24 *Adayamadakulam - Kanyakumari

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

13°00’ 80° 04’ 200.00 Brackishwater

13° 00’ 80° 05’ 1,770.00 Freshwater 12° 45’ 79° 30’ 767.00 Freshwater 11° 23’ 79° 49’ 1,000.00 Brackishwater

10° 20’-10° 35’

76° 6’-76° 11’ 11,000.00 Freshwater

12° 46’ 80° 08’ 244.00 Brackishwater 13° 00’ 79° 31’ 293.00 Freshwater

10° 46’ 79° 51’ 6,803.00 Brackishwater

11° 27’ 79° 47’ 1,100.00 Brackishwater

10° 19' 79° 38' 38,500.00 Brackishwater

13° 25’ 80° 03’ 35,000.00 Brackishwater 12° 40’ 79° 35’ 182.00 Freshwater


12° 40’ 79° 15’ 263.00 Freshwater 10° 41’ 79° 50’ 448.00 Brackishwater

- - 30.36 Freshwater 12° 05’ 79° 47’ 5,660.00 Brackishwater


13° 00’ 80° 06’ 107.00 Brackishwater - - 0.94 Freshwater - - 9.37 Freshwater

1. Total Geographical Area : 1,30,058 sq.km.

2. Forest Area : 22,871 sq.km.

3. Total Wetland Area : ha.

a. Natural Wetlands Area : 1,05,943.36 ha.

b. Man-made Wetlands Area : ha.

1 2 3 4

25 Adiyoor Tank Adiyoor Ramanathapuram 26 *Agastheeswara

Mangalam Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram

27 *Agasthiankulam - Kanyakumari 28 *Agastriarputhukulam - Kanyakumari 29 *Akarankulam - Kanyakumari 30 *Akathakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

31 Akkalur Tank Akkalur Ramanathapuram 32 *Akkappankulam - Kanyakumari 33 *Akkarapakham Uthukkottai Tiruvallur

34 *Akkattukulam - Kanyakumari 35 *Alamillai

Thirumangalkulam - Kanyakumari

36 Alagapuri Alagpuri Virudhunagar

37 *Alamkottukulam (2 nos.)

- Kanyakumari

38 *Alamparakulam - Kanyakumari

39 Alampatty Alampatty Virudhunagar 40 *Alanganarkulam - Kanyakumari 41 *Alangulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

42 *Alanjikulam - Kanyakumari 43 *Alankottukattuvai-

kulam - Kanyakumari

44 *Alankulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari

45 *Alankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 46 *Alanvilai

Ammikkuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

47 *Alanvilai Karungaliodamarichan-kulam

- Kanyakumari

48 *Alanvilai

Odaimarichankulam

- Kanyakumari

49 *Alathoorkulam - Kanyakumari 50 *Alathur Chengalpattu Kanchipuram

51 Alathur Citteri Alathur Vellore 52 Alathur Hissa Tank Alathur Cuddalore 53 *Alavankulam - Kanyakumari 54 Alisoor Peria Eri Alisoor Kanchipuram

55 Alividaithangi Alividaithangi Vellore 56 Aliyar Reservoir Perumkundrum

Malai Coimbatore

57 *Alkyanakulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 58 Allalaperi Allalaperi Virudhunagar

5 6 7 8





- - 0.72 Freshwater




- - 3.49 Freshwater


- - 0.91 Freshwater

- - 0.39 Freshwater

- - 0.30 Freshwater



13° 00’ 80° 06’ 132.00 Brackishwater - - 108.00 Freshwater




1 2 3 4

59 *Alli Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 60 Alumoor Tank Lumoor Tiruchirapally 61 Alundhikottai Tank Alundhikottai Ramanathapuram

62 *Aluvilaikaniyakulam - Kanyakumari 63 *Alwalkulam - Kanyakumari 64 *Amanjankulam - Kanyakumari

65 Amarambedu Tank Amarambedu Kanchipuram 66 *Amaravathikulam

(2 nos.) - Kanyakumari

67 *Ambalathadykulam - Kanyakumari

68 *Ambattur Eri Saidapet Chengalpattu

69 *Ambilikulam - Kanyakumari 70 *Ammakulam - Kanyakumari 71 *Amma Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram

72 Ammikudi Tank Therukutheru Madurai 73 *Amoor Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 74 *Amukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

75 *Amuvathikulam - Kanyakumari 76 Anaikulam Anaikulam Virudhunagar 77 *Anajhuvattikulam - Kanyakumari 78 *Anakulam - Kanyakumari

79 Anakkavoor Tank Anakkavoor Vellore 80 *Anamkulam - Kanyakumari 81 *Anandavilaikulam - Kanyakumari

82 Anandur Tank Anandur Ramanathapuram 83 Ananoothimangalam

Tank Ananoothiman-galam

Ramanathapuram

84 *Ananthakrishnankulam - Kanyakumari 85 *Ananthavashikulam - Kanyakumari 86 Anapathur Tank Anapathur Vellore 87 *Anathakulam - Kanyakumari

88 *Andarkulam Pillaikulam

- Kanyakumari

89 Andiveerar Thangal Eri Andveeran

Thangal

Kanchipuram

90 Angadimangalam Tank Angadimangalam Madurai 91 *Anjalkulam - Kanyakumari 92 Anjukottai Tank Anjukottai Ramanathapuram

93 *Annamalainagar Reservoir

Chidambram Cuddalore

94 Annamangalam Tank Annamangalam Tiruchirapally

95 *Annikyakulam - Kanyakumari 96 *Anniyakulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8






- - 0.21 Freshwater






13° 00’ 80° 06’ 109.00 Freshwater




1 2 3 4

97 *Anoor I & II Chengalpattu Kanchipuram

98 *Annupattikulam - Kanyakumari 99 Anuppanady Tank Anuppanady Madurai 100 *Annuvettikulam - Kanyakumari 101 *Annuvettikulam - Kanyakumari

102 *Anthiyakulam - Kanyakumari 103 *Anthuvattikulam - Kanyakumari 104 *Anumaneri Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

105 *Anumankulam - Kanyakumari 106 Appaneri Tank Appaneri Virudhunagar 107 *Appanur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 108 *Arappurakulam - Kanyakumari

109 *Arasakulam - Kanyakumari 110 Arasalur Tank Arasalur Tiruchirapally 111 *Arasandakulam - Kanyakumari

112 *Arasanerikulam - Kanyakumari 113 *Arasankottukulam - Kanyakumari 114 *Arasankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari

115 Arasapatti Tank Arasapatti Madurai 116 Arasathur Tank Arasathur Ramanathapuram 117 Arasur Large Tank Arasur Kanchipuram 118 *Ariyankadettikulam - Kanyakumari

119 *Ariyakudi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

120 *Ariyavalamkodetti-kulam

- Kanyakumari

121 Ariyur Big Tank Ariyur Vellore

122 Aroom Large Tank Aroom Kanchipuram 123 Arumbarur Small

Tank Arumbarur Tiruchirapally

124 Arumboor Tank Arumboor Ramanathapuram 125 *Arumkottukulam - Kanyakumari 126 Arumugamangalam

Tank Arumugamangalam Tank

Tirunelveli

127 *Arungulam Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 128 *Arunoothukulam - Kanyakumari 129 Arur Tank Arur Salem

130 *Athamozhi Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 131 *Athanimarkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 132 Athani Tank Svarakottai Ramanathapuram

133 Athanoor Tank Athanoor Ramanathapuram 134 *Athichanputhur

Perunkulam Thovalai Kanyakumari

135 *Athikulam Thovalai Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8







13° 00’ 80° 06’ 105.00 Freshwater









1 2 3 4

136 *Athimanam Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 137 *Athimanjeripet Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 138 Athiyur Tank Athiyur Tiruchirapally

139 Athur Tank Suganthalai Mela Athur Sendamangalam

Athur Kaspa Kayal Pattinam North

Tirunelveli

140 *Attakulam - Kanyakumari

141 *Atthanimarkulam - Kanyakumari 142 *Attu - Kanyakumari 143 *Attukulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari

144 Attur Big Tank Attur Kanchipuram 145 *Avanthakulam - Kanyakumari 146 *Avathandai Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 147 Avaniyapuram Tank Avaniyapuram Madurai

148 *Avayan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 149 *Avinnakulam - Kanyakumari 150 *Avoor Ponneri Tiruvallur

151 Ayanallur Large Tank Ayanallur Kanchipuram 152 Ayyalur Tank Ayyalur Tiruchirapally 153 *Ayyanallur Gummidipoondi Tiruvallur 154 *Ayyanarkulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari

155 *Ayyanarpudukulam - Kanyakumari 156 *Ayyanpattikulam - Kanyakumari 157 Ayyapatti Tank Ayyapatti Ramanathapuram

158 *Ayyappanarkulam - Kanyakumari 159 *Azhaganerikulam - Kanyakumari 160 *Azhagankulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari

161 *Azhayanerikulam - Kanyakumari 162 *Azhiyankulam - Kanyakumari 163 *Bagavatikulam - Kanyakumari 164 Balyee Ammal Eri T.Pettai Tiruchirapally

165 *Bambapattaikulam - Kanyakumari

166 *Beemaneri Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 167 Bannavadu Thottam

Hissa Thangal and

Banavadu Thottam Hisa Managammal Eri

Banavadu Thottam

Kanchipuram

168 Bhavani Sagar

Reservoir

Coimbatore -

169 *Bhoothakulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8













13° 00’ 80° 06’ 666.00 Freshwater

11° 28’ 77° 06’ 7,876.00 Freshwater

- - 6.37 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

170 *Bhutharathankulam - Kanyakumari

171 *Bhuthapandiyan Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 172 Big Tank Adamur Tiruchirapally 173 *Big Kenikkarai Orani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 174 *Bogalur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

175 *Boothapandiyankulam - Kanyakumari 176 Brahmanapatti Tank Brahmanapatti Ramanathapuram 177 *Budur Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu

178 *Chadayankulam (2 nos.)

- Kanyakumari

179 *Chadayankuzhikulam (2 nos.)

- Kanyakumari

180 *Chadiyankulam - Kanyakumari 181 *Chaenthanaserikulam - Kanyakumari 182 *Chakarivilaimanikulam - Kanyakumari

183 *Chalapathukulam - Kanyakumari 184 *Chamanchankulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 185 *Chammankulam - Kanyakumari

186 *Champakulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 187 *Chandrankulam - Kanyakumari 188 *Chanianeerkulam - Kanyakumari 189 *Chankanerikulam - Kanyakumari

190 *Charottukulam - Kanyakumari 191 *Chemanchikulam - Kanyakumari 192 *Chemantharkulam - Kanyakumari

193 *Chembanarakulam - Kanyakumari 194 *Chembanathukulam - Kanyakumari 195 *Chemdarikulam - Kanyakumari 196 *Chemmankulam - Kanyakumari

197 Chemtarabakkam Lake Pondamalli Kanchipuram 198 *Chenbagaramanputhoor

Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari

199 *Chenbankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 200 *Chengalpet Tank Chengalpet Kanchipuram 201 *Chenkulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 202 *Chenthancherikulam - Kanyakumari

203 *Chenthiakulam - Kanyakumari 204 *Cherikulam - Kanyakumari 205 *Cherkottkulam - Kanyakumari

206 *Cherkulam - Kanyakumari 207 *Chernkottavilaikulam - Kanyakumari 208 *Cheruchettyandarkulam - Kanyakumari

209 *Cherukottukulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8




- - 8.38 Freshwater







13° 00’ 80° 06’ 2,332.00 Freshwater


- - 0.37 Freshwater




1 2 3 4

210 *Cherukuzhikonapottakulam - Kanyakumari

211 *Cheruppankottuvenkulam - Kanyakumari 212 *Cheruthamarkulam - Kanyakumari 213 *Chettayarkulam - Kanyakumari

214 Chettiklurichi Big Tank

Chettikurichi Virudhunagar

215 *Chettikulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 216 *Chettipadukonathukulam - Kanyakumari

217 *Chettivilaivettithiruthu - Kanyakumari

(3 nos.) 218 *Chettuvankottpillaikulam - Kanyakumari 219 *Chettyandarkulam - Kanyakumari

220 *Chettykulam - Kanyakumari 221 *Chidambaram Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 222 *Chinambedu Ponneri Tiruvallur

223 *Chinnakulam - Kanyakumari 224 *Chinnankulam - Kanyakumari 225 *Chinna Kollukudi Patti

Tank Tirupathur Sivagangai

226 Chinnasalam Tank Chinnasalam Cuddalore 227 *Chirakulam - Kanyakumari 228 Chitheri Poolampady Tiruchirapally

229 *Chitrangudi Tank Mudukulathur Ramanathapuram 230 Chittar-I Kuzhithurai Virudhunagar 231 Chittar-II Kuzhithurai Kanyakumari

232 *Chittarkottai Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 233 *Cholavaram (Sholavaram) Ponneri Tiruvallur 234 *Choorakulam - Kanyakumari 235 *Coovam Tiruvallur Tiruvallur

236 *Cottukulam - Kanyakumari 237 *Dakkarakulam - Kanyakumari 238 *Damal Tank Damal Kanchipuram

239 *Daniel Mahadwankulam - Kanyakumari 240 *Deerakeralappanerikulam - Kanyakumari 241 *Deriyandankulam - Kanyakumari 242 Devadanam Tank Devadanam Kanchipuram

243 *Devakulam - Kanyakumari 244 *Devanerikulam - Kanyakumari 245 *Deviakulam - Kanyakumari

246 *Devilankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 247 *Devipattinam Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 248 *Devipattinam Pilaiyar Koil

Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram

5 6 7 8








10° 07’ 78° 35’ 6.30 Freshwater








- - 0.83 Freshwater - - 4.74 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - 0.80 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

249 *Devipattinam Sudukattu Oorani

Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram

250 Echur Tank Echur Vellore

251 *Edakkulam - Kanyakumari 252 *Edakottukulam - Kanyakumari 253 Edanachi Edanachi Kanchipuram

254 *Edapathakulam - Kanyakumari 255 *Edayankulam - Kanyakumari 256 *Edayarpakkam Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 257 Eguvarpalayam

Odapperi

Eguvarpalayam Kanchipuram

258 *Ekanapuram Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 259 *Ekkadakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

260 Elangadu Tank Elangadu Vellore 261 *Elanganerikulam - Kanyakumari 262 Elanthiraikondam Elanthirai-

kondam

Virudhunagar

263 *Elayamparkulam - Kanyakumari 264 *Eliankonattukulam - Kanyakumari 265 *Eluppakadattykulam - Kanyakumari

266 *Elyankulam - Kanyakumari

267 *Endathur Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 268 Enddur Periya Eri Endur Kanchipuram 269 *Ennakulam - Kanyakumari

270 Elur Tank Elur Salem 271 Eluvankottai Tank Eluvankottai Ramanathapuram 272 *Erampattikulam - Kanyakumari

273 *Erankollikulam - Kanyakumari 274 *Erankottaikulam - Kanyakumari 275 *Erattakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 276 *Eravikulam - Kanyakumari

277 *Eriyakulam - Kanyakumari 278 Eriyur Big Tank Eriyur Ramanathapuram 279 *Erumbanakulam - Kanyakumari

280 *Esalipurkulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 281 *Esaloorkulam - Kanyakumari 282 *Esanai Tank Esanai Tiruchirapally

283 *Esvankulam - Kanyakumari 284 *Eswarankulam - Kanyakumari 285 *Ethamparakulam - Kanyakumari 286 *Ettivayal Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

287 *Eyainainarkulam - Kanyakumari 288 *Ezhiyoorkulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8

- - 0.80 Freshwater


13° 00’ 80° 06’ 304.00 Freshwater - - 18.22 Freshwater - - 60.83 Freshwater - - 10.60 Freshwater

13° 00’ 80° 06’ 129.00 Freshwater

- - 9.50 Freshwater





- - 0.58 Freshwater






1 2 3 4

289 Gidangal Tank Gidangal Cuddalore

290 *Gnanambalkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 291 *Gnarakulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 292 *Gnarakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

293 *Gnarattuelanjiakulam - Kanyakumari 294 *Gnarettuvalankenath-

kulam - Kanyakumari

295 *Gnarottukaniyankulam - Kanyakumari

296 Gollapatti Periakulam Periagollapatty Virudhunagar 297 Gomapangi puram New

Tank Gomapangipuram Virudhunagar

298 Gomuktmanadhi Kallakurichi Villupuram 299 Govindamangalam Tank Govindamangalam Ramanathapuram 300 *Govindavadu Kanchipuram Kanchipuram 301 *Gudalur Thangal Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu

302 Gudappakkam Tank Gudapppakkam Kanchipuram 303 *Guduvancheri Eri Gummidipoondi Tiruvallur 304 Gulf of Mannar Marine

National Park

Palk bay -

305 Gunduperumbedu Tank Gunduperumbedu Kanchipuram 306 *Idakottukulam - Kanyakumari 307 *Idakulam - Kanyakumari

308 *Idayakottukulam - Kanyakumari 309 *Idayankulam - Kanyakumari 310 *Ikiyan - Kanyakumari

311 *Ilampalakulam - Kanyakumari 312 *Ilanjambur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 313 *Illanchikulam - Kanyakumari

314 *Illupakulam - Kanyakumari 315 *Illupparayarkulam - Kanyakumari 316 *Ilumichanparaikulam - Kanyakumari 317 *Immarankulam - Kanyakumari

318 *Inamkuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

319 *Irattakulam - Kanyakumari 320 Iraviamangalam Tank Iraviamangalam Ramanathapuram 321 *Irumbedu Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu

322 Irundirai Irundirai Virudhunagar 323 *Iylikottukulam - Kanyakumari 324 *Iyyankulammukkattu-

kulam

- Kanyakumari

325 Jamberi Tank Vairichettipalayam Tiruchirapally 326 *Kadamamkottukulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8







13° 00’ 80° 06’ 664.00 Freshwater

- - 1,922.00 Freshwater 8° 48’- 78° 10’ 9° 20’-79° 15’ - Brackishwater

13° 00’ 80° 06’ 143.00 Freshwater








1 2 3 4

327 *Kadalmangalam Eri I & II

Uthiramerur Kanchipuram

328 *Kadankulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 329 *Kadanpathukulam - Kanyakumari 330 *Kadayanerikulam - Kanyakumari

331 *Kadettykulam - Kanyakumari 332 *Kadukallur Eri Cheyur Tiruvallur 333 *Kafukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 334 *Kaithakottukulam - Kanyakumari

335 *Kaithakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 336 *Kaithottukulam - Kanyakumari 337 *Kaiyalakonathukulam - Kanyakumari

338 *Kakathankuzhukulam - Kanyakumari 339 *Kakkandankulam - Kanyakumari 340 *Kakkalur Eri Tiruvallur Tiruvallur

341 Kalari Kalari Ramanathapuram 342 Kalathur Tank Kalathur Ramanathapuram 343 Kalavaneri Kalavaneri Virudhunagar 344 *Kalavarkulam - Kanyakumari

345 *Kalavatukulam - Kanyakumari 346 *Kalayanur Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 347 *Kalaythankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

348 Kalianagari Tank Kalianagari Ramanathapuram 349 *Kalikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 350 Kalipattu Tank Puthagaram Kanchipuram 351 Kaliveli Tank Marakkanam -

352 Kaliyur Big Tank Kaliyur Vellore 353 *Kalkattu Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 354 *Kalkulam Taluk: - Kanyakumari

355 *Kalkulam (2 nos) - Kanyakumari 356 *Kalladichankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 357 *Kallamparakulam - Kanyakumari 358 *Kallankozhikulam - Kanyakumari

359 *Kallikattukulam - Kanyakumari 360 *Kallipattu Kanchipuram Kanchipuram 361 *Kallupattakulam - Kanyakumari

362 *Kalpatti Kulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 363 *Kalpatyakulam - Kanyakumari 364 *Kalvettankuttinkulam - Kanyakumari

365 *Kalvettankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 366 *Kalvikulam - Kanyakumari 367 *Kamankottai Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 368 *Kamathiyoorkulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8




- - - Freshwater - - 3.55 Freshwater - - 21.50 Freshwater - - 9.51 Freshwater





- - 0.74 Freshwater 13° 00’ 80° 06’ 1,394.00 Freshwater 12° 05’ 79° 47’ 13,200.00 Brackishwater




- - - Freshwater - - 0.93 Freshwater - - 8.90 Freshwater



1 2 3 4

369 Kambikudi Kambikudi Virudhunagar 370 *Kamblikulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 371 Kammalampoondy Tank Kammalam-

poondy Poondy Kanchipuram

372 Kammapatti Kammapatti Virudhunagar

373 *Kamudakudi Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 374 *Kanakulam Chettykulam - Kanyakumari

375 Kanapaddi Tank Kanapaddi Tiruchirapally 376 *Kanchiyaikulam - Kanyakumari 377 Kandadevi Tank Kandadevi Ramanathapuram

378 *Kandamangalam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 379 *Kandanchira Kulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 380 *Kandankulam - Kanyakumari

381 *Kandannarayankulam - Kanyakumari 382 *Kandukirishi Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 383 *Kandukondankulam - Kanyakumari 384 *Kangulam - Kanyakumari

385 *Kaniyankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 386 Kanjirangulam Tank Mudukulathur Ramanathapuram 387 *Kanjirankottukulam - Kanyakumari

388 *Kankulam - Kanyakumari 389 *Kannamangalamkulam - Kanyakumari 390 *Kannamangalathukulam - Kanyakumari

391 *Kannammakuthirchakulam - Kanyakumari 392 *Kannamparakulam - Kanyakumari 393 *Kannan

Pottalodaimarichankulam - Kanyakumari

394 *Kannancherikulam - Kanyakumari 395 *Kannandankonamponthu-

kulam - Kanyakumari

396 *Kannankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 397 *Kannanmangalam Kulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 398 *Kannanparaikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 399 *Kannanpathi Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

400 Kannanpottalvettithiruthu-kulam

- Kanyakumari

401 Kannanvarakulam - Kanyakumari

402 *Kannapottalmadyalkulam - Kanyakumari 403 *Kannattukulam - Kanyakumari 404 Kannavarakulam - Kanyakumari 405 *Kannigaiper Eri Uthukkottai Tiruvallur

406 *Kannikannimarkuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 407 *Kannimakurdukulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8


13° 00’ 80° 06’ 103.00 Freshwater







9° 20’ 78° 30’ 62.20 Freshwater








1 2 3 4

408 *Kannimulakundu - Kanyakumari

409 *Kannottukulam - Kanyakumari 410 *Kannukulam - Kanyakumari 411 *Kanukarakulam - Kanyakumari

412 Kapamea Tank Thevthirlpperi Tirunelveli 413 Kappalur Tank Kappalur Ramanathapuram 414 *Kappiyaraputhukulam - Kanyakumari 415 *Kappiyarkulam - Kanyakumari

416 *Karaikandarkudikulam - Kanyakumari 417 *Karakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 418 Karapattu Tank Karapattu Vellore

419 *Karichakulam - Kanyakumari 420 *Karikili Tank - Chengleput 421 *Karikudikulam - Kanyakumari

422 Karisalkulam Muruganeri Madurai 423 Karisalkulam Illupaikulam Madurai 424 Karivalamvan Karivalamvan Tirunelveli 425 *Karottukulam - Kanyakumari

426 *Karottunaduvattukulam - Kanyakumari

427 *Karottupendurakulam - Kanyakumari 428 *Karrakulam - Kanyakumari 429 *Karumpatturkulam - Kanyakumari

430 *Karunanikottukulam - Kanyakumari 431 *Karundikulam - Kanyakumari 432 Karungulam Karungulam Tirunelveli

433 Karungulam and Sengulam Tanks

Palayankottai Tirunelveli

434 *Karunkulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 435 *Karunkulam Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram

436 Karuppakurichi Tank Karuppakurichi Tirunelveli 437 *Karuppottukulam - Kanyakumari 438 *Karyakulam - Kanyakumari

439 Kasba Sri Moolakerai Tirunelveli 440 Kasikkuvaithan Kasikkuvaithan Tirunelveli 441 Kattakulam Kattakulam Madurai

442 Kattanur Kattanur Virudhunagar 443 *Kattatukulam - Kanyakumari 444 Kattavoor Hisa Tank Kattavoor Kanchipuram 445 *Katteri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram

446 *Kattimankuttuezhakulam - Kanyakumari 447 *Kattivarottukulam - Kanyakumari 448 *Kattiyodukulam - Kanyakumari

449 *Kattukulam (9 nos.) - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8
















10° 03’ 77° 05’ 181.00 Freshwater


13° 00’ 80° 06’ 160.00 Freshwater



1 2 3 4

450 *Kattupakathkulam - Kanyakumari 451 *Kattuvakonathukulam - Kanyakumari

452 *Kauerkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 453 *Kavadikulam Thankkuzhi - Kanyakumari 454 *Kavarkulam - Kanyakumari 455 *Kavikulam - Kanyakumari

456 Kavinadu Periakulam Kavinadu Melavattam

Pudukottai

457 *Kavookulam - Kanyakumari

458 *Kavukulam - Kanyakumari 459 *Kazhuvanparakulam - Kanyakumari 460 *Kealambar Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 461 *Keelakeelkudi Kanmoi Thiruvadanai Ramanathapuram

462 *Keelakodumalur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 463 *Keelakottai Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 464 *Keelaparithiyur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram

465 *Keelarakkulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 466 *Keelaramanathu Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 467 Keelaraoakularaman Keelaraoa-

kularaman Virudhunagar

468 *Keelasirupodu Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 469 *Keerakulam - Kanyakumari 470 Keerandy Tank Keerandy Tiruchirapally

471 Keerpaakkam Tank Keerpakkam Kanchipuram 472 Keethirambakkam Sanchi

Tank Keethirambakkam Kanchipuram

473 Keethirambakkam Tank Keethirambakkam Kanchipuram 474 *Keezapalayanpallath-

kulam - Kanyakumari

475 *Keezavilaithunnakulam - Kanyakumari

476 *Keezhakannankulam - Kanyakumari

477 *Keezhamankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 478 *Keezhamavadikulam - Kanyakumari 479 *Keezhameruthoorperum-

kulam

- Kanyakumari

480 *Keezhapeyodukulam - Kanyakumari 481 *Keezharkottikulam - Kanyakumari

482 *Keezhavannankulam (2 nos.)

- Kanyakumari

483 *Keezhavannankulam - Kanyakumari 484 *Keezhpulayanpallanthi-

kulam

- Kanyakumari

485 *Kenikkarai Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram

5 6 7 8












- - 3.21 Freshwater

- - 2.81 Freshwater

- - 4.74 Freshwater

- - 0.00 Freshwater

- - 1.38 Freshwater

- - 2.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

486 *Keralapuram

Peruneerkulam

- Kanyakumari

487 *Keriyamangalathikulam - Kanyakumari 488 Kilaravayal Kilaravayal Pudukottai

489 Kilavaneri Kilavaneri Virudhunagar 490 Kilumathur Tank Kilumathur Tiruchirapally 491 Kilvannak Kambadi Tank Kilvannak

Kambadi Madurai

492 *Kirandai Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 493 *Kirayarakulam - Kanyakumari 494 *Kizhvalam & Kinar Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu

495 Kodal Mangalam Tank Kodalmangalam Kanchipuram 496 *Kodamankottukulam - Kanyakumari 497 *Kodancherkulam - Kanyakumari

498 *Kodankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 499 Kodidulam Tank Kodidulam Pudukottai 500 *Kodupakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 501 *Koduvakarakulam - Kanyakumari

502 *Koduvayakonathukulam - Kanyakumari 503 *Kokilimedu Kalpakkam Kanchipuram 504 Kokkalancheri Kokkalancheri Madurai

505 *Kokkotukulam - Kanyakumari 506 *Kokkudikulam - Kanyakumari 507 *Kolakulam - Kanyakumari 508 Kolar Big Tank Kolathur Kanchipuram

509 Kolar Large Tank Lolur Kanchipuram 510 *Kolathur Pallipattu Tiruvallur 511 *Kolikulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

512 *Korapattu Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 513 *Kollakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 514 *Kollamkulam - Kanyakumari 515 Kollankondam (Imam) Kollankondam Virudhunagar

516 *Kollankulam - Kanyakumari 517 *Kollankunathukulam - Kanyakumari 518 *Kollankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

519 *Kollanur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 520 *Kollayikulam - Kanyakumari 521 *Kollenkulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari

522 Kollundampattu Tank Kollundampattu Madurai 523 *Kolur (Big & Small) Ponneri Tiruvallur 524 *Kompakotukulam - Kanyakumari 525 Konerikuppan Ponneri

Tank

Kongaraimam

Battu

Kanchipuram

5 6 7 8


- - 9.36 Freshwater














13° 00’ 80° 06’ 136.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

526 *Konasamuthiran Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 527 Kongaraimam Battu Tank Kongaraimam

Battu

Kanchipuram

528 *Koonathankattuvilaikuzhi - Kanyakumari 529 *Koonthakulam Tank - Tirunelveli 530 Kooram Big Tank Koram

Chitteri

Kooram Kanchipuram

531 *Koothankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 532 *Koozhivahalayyakulam - Kanyakumari

533 *Korakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 534 Korampallam Korampallam

Marvan Madam Ayyandhapuram

Mullakadu Meelavittan Kulayankaraisal

Tirunelveli

535 *Korandankulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 536 Korkai Korkai Tirunelveli 537 Korkonam Big Tank Korkonam Vellore

538 *Kothandasamarkulam - Kanyakumari 539 Kothandavadi Big

Tank Kothandavadi Vellore

540 *Kothanerikulam - Kanyakumari

541 *Kothan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 542 *Kothayarkonathukulam - Kanyakumari 543 Kothidal Tank Kothidal Ramanathapuram

544 *Kottachmakulam - Kanyakumari 545 Kottairuppu Tank Kottairuppu Ramanathapuram 546 Kottakachiendal Kottakachiendal Virudhunagar 547 *Kottankulam - Kanyakumari

548 *Kottapuzhithanikulam (3 nos.)

- Kanyakumari

549 *Kottaramkulam - Kanyakumari

550 *Kottuparakulam - Kanyakumari 551 *Kottur Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 552 Kovalai Big Tank Kovalai Vellore 553 *Kovilkulamthamara-

kulam

- Kanyakumari

554 Kovilur Tank Kovilur Vellore 555 *Kozhiyalam Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu

556 *Krishnankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 557 *Krishnasamudrarakulam - Kanyakumari 558 *Krishnasamudram Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur

5 6 7 8

- - 6.00 Freshwater

13° 00’ 80° 06’ 104.00 Freshwater

- - 0.94 Freshwater




- - 4.90 Freshwater










1 2 3 4

559 *Kudapakkam or Perumbakkam Eri

Madurantakam Chengalpattu

560 *Kudumiyankottuthan-kulam

- Kanyakumari

561 *Kulapattukulam - Kanyakumari

562 *Kulatharkulam - Kanyakumari 563 *Kulavipatti Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 564 Kullur Sandal Madurai - 565 Kumalur Tank Kumalur Pudukottai

566 *Kumarakovil Kulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari

567 Kumaralingapuram Meesalore Virudhunagar 568 *Kumarankaniyakulam - Kanyakumari 569 *Kumarankulam - Kanyakumari

570 *Kumarasakulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 571 *Kumaripathukulam - Kanyakumari 572 *Kumarisalapathukulam - Kanyakumari

573 *Kumbakenattukulam - Kanyakumari 574 *Kummukottai Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 575 *Kumppakottukulam - Kanyakumari 576 Kunamangalam Tank Madaholira-

manickam and Kunamangalam

Cuddalore

577 *Kundankulam (25 nos.) - Kanyakumari

578 *Kunjankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 579 *Kunkuzha

Akkiyadikulam - Kanyakumari

580 *Kunnanerkuzhiottukulam - Kanyakumari 581 *Kunnathukulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 582 *Kunnathur Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 583 Kunnavakkam Large Tank Kunnavakkam Kanchipuram

584 *Kunttuhukulam - Kanyakumari 585 *Kurakottukulam - Kanyakumari 586 *Kuram Kanchipuram Kanchipuram

587 *Kuramarkottukulam - Kanyakumari 588 *Kurandikulam - Kanyakumari 589 *Kurangakulam - Kanyakumari 590 *Kurikkulam - Kanyakumari

591 *Kurinjikulam - Kanyakumari 592 *Kurinthancikulam - Kanyakumari 593 *Kurnikottukattukulam - Kanyakumari

594 *Kurukuttikulam - Kanyakumari 595 Kurumavilaikulam - Kanyakumari 596 *Kurumbarai I & II Uthiramerur Kanchipuram

5 6 7 8

- - - Freshwater

- - 0.46 Freshwater

- - 8.38 Freshwater


9° 32’ 77° 58’ - Freshwater












1 2 3 4

597 *Kurunthankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 598 *Kurunthatti Kulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 599 *Kurunthenkottukulam - Kanyakumari 600 *Kuruthikulam - Kanyakumari

601 *Kusavankulam - Kanyakumari 602 Kuthanoor Big Tank Kuthanoor Vellore 603 *Kutharakulam - Kanyakumari

604 *Kuthikulam - Kanyakumari 605 *Kuthirakottukulam - Kanyakumari 606 *Kuthirapanchankulam - Kanyakumari 607 *Kuthiyakulam - Kanyakumari

608 *Kuttakavakulam - Kanyakumari 609 *Kuttikulam - Kanyakumari 610 *Kuttuvankulam - Kanyakumari

611 *Kuzavankonathukullam - Kanyakumari 612 *Kuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 613 *Kuzhipallamvadakai-

kulam

- Kanyakumari

614 *Kuzhipallamvadakaio-daimarichankulam

- Kanyakumari

615 *Kuzhipanthandalam Eri

I & II

Chengalpattu Kanchipuram

616 *Lakshmikulam - Kanyakumari 617 Landai Landai Ramanathapuram 618 *Lekshimiputhukulam - Kanyakumari

619 *Lathoor Eri Cheyur Tiruvallur 620 M.Sengulam Tank M.Sengulam Madurai 621 *Machakulam - Kanyakumari

622 *Macherikulam - Kanyakumari 623 *Machimarkulam - Kanyakumari 624 *Machukulam - Kanyakumari 625 *Madaathuvattukulam - Kanyakumari

626 Madakulam Tank Madakulam Madurai 627 *Madakulam - Kanyakumari 628 *Madapurattukulam - Kanyakumari

629 *Madavilagam Eri Cheyur Tiruvallur 630 *Madhavaram and

Manali Jheel Chennai Thiruvallur

631 *Madhavanoor Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 632 *Madhavanoor Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 633 Madiramangan Tank Perumalpatti Tirunelveli 634 *Madiyankulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8






- - 0.70 Freshwater

- - 0.79 Freshwater







13° 15’ 80° 00’ 28.33 Freshwater


- - 9.72 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

635 *Madurai Agricultural

College and Research Institute Campus (Wetland in)

- Madurai

636 *Madurantakam Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 637 *Maduvakulam - Kanyakumari 638 *Madyaiduvakulam - Kanyakumari 639 *Magarankulam - Kanyakumari

640 *Mahadevanpattukulam - Kanyakumari 641 Maikudy Maikudy Madurai 642 *Majadikulam - Kanyakumari

643 *Malamankottuayanar-kulam

- Kanyakumari

644 *Malamkottathupottakuzhi - Kanyakumari 645 *Malamvadikulam - Kanyakumari

646 *Malaranchakuzhi - Kanyakumari 647 *Malavilanagakulam - Kanyakumari 648 *Malayankulam Eri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram

649 Mallal Mallal Ramanathapuram 650 *Mallankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 651 *Mallikottukulam - Kanyakumari 652 *Mambukulam - Kanyakumari

653 *Manakattuvannankulam - Kanyakumari 654 *Manakulam - Kanyakumari 655 *Manakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

656 *Manalacharikulam - Kanyakumari 657 *Manalikulam - Kanyakumari 658 *Manaliyarakonam

Illupakulam

- Kanyakumari

659 *Manambakulam - Kanyakumari 660 *Manamkonathuvanan-

kulam - Kanyakumari

661 *Manamutikulam - Kanyakumari 662 *Manaththittaikulam - Kanyakumari

663 *Manavoor Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 664 *Manchadikulam - Kanyakumari 665 *Manchakavikulam - Kanyakumari

666 *Manchirakulam - Kanyakumari 667 *Mancottukulam - Kanyakumari 668 *Mandalamanickam

Kanmoi

Thiruvadanai Ramanathapuram

669 Mangalaguidi Tank Mangalaguidi Ramanathapuram 670 Mangulam Mangulam Virudhunagar

5 6 7 8

09° 54’ 78° 54’ 57.40 Freshwater




- - 1.94 Freshwater

- - 2.41 Freshwater











1 2 3 4

671 *Manichapathurikulam - Kanyakumari 672 Manimuktnwdhi Kallakurichi Cuddalore 673 Maninuthar Aneasanudrar Tirunelveli 674 *Mankaraichenthamari-

kulam

- Kanyakumari

675 *Mankkaraiputhukulam - Kanyakumari 676 *Mankulam - Kanyakumari

677 *Mankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 678 Mannarkottai Mannarkottai Virudhunagar 679 *Mannimarkuzhi - Kanyakumari 680 *Mannur Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram

681 Manoor Big Tank Manoor Tirunelveli 682 *Manthakulam - Kanyakumari 683 *Mantharamputhoorkulam - Kanyakumari

684 Maraiyur Maraiyur Virudhunagar 685 *Marakavookulam - Kanyakumari 686 Maramangalam Tank Maramangalam Salem

687 *Maramparampu - Kanyakumari 688 *Marankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 689 *Maravoorkulam - Kanyakumari 690 *Marayan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

691 *Marikka Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 692 *Marudham Eri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 693 *Marungoor Periakulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

694 Marungoor Tank Marungoor Ramanathapuram 695 Maruthadu Tank Maruthadu Vellore 696 Marutham Periakulam Kalingapatti Tirunelveli 697 *Maruthankottukulam - Kanyakumari

698 *Maruthankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 699 *Maruvoorkulam - Kanyakumari 700 *Maryyankulam - Kanyakumari

701 *Mathakulam - Kanyakumari 702 *Matharankulam - Kanyakumari 703 *Mathirakulam - Kanyakumari 704 *Mattiyankulam - Kanyakumari

705 *Mavadikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 706 *Mavazhikulam - Kanyakumari 707 *Mayakulam Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram

708 *Mecherikulam - Kanyakumari 709 *Mecottukulam - Kanyakumari 710 *Medhut Large Tank Ponneri Tiruvallur

711 *Meelakattukulam - Kanyakumari 712 *Meelamankuzhi - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8














- - 2.72 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

713 *Meelapupradukulam - Kanyakumari 714 *Mekkarakulam - Kanyakumari 715 *Mekkottukulam - Kanyakumari

716 *Melachettikulam - Kanyakumari 717 *Melakadukkarakulam - Kanyakumari 718 *Melakannarkulam - Kanyakumari 719 *Melakarunkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

720 Melakkarandaio Tank Meaakkarandai Tirunelveli

721 *Melakoilarkuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 722 *Melakulam - Kanyakumari 723 Melamadai Melamadai Virudhunagar

724 *Melamaruthooraperum-kulam

- Kanyakumari

725 *Melandankulam - Kanyakumari

726 Melanesaneri Melanesaneri Madurai 727 *Melapallathukulam - Kanyakumari 728 Melaparuthiyur Melaparuthiyur Virudhunagar 729 *Melaramanathi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

730 *Melaseethai Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 731 Melaserikulam

Periakulam Melaserikulam Sivagangai

732 *Melayakudi Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 733 *Meliyan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 734 Melpadi Small Tank Melpady Vellore

735 Melpadur Big Tank Melpadur Madurai 736 *Meniakulam - Kanyakumari 737 *Menimudarkarkulam - Kanyakumari 738 *Mennanthi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

739 *Meppanthirthkulam - Kanyakumari 740 *Mikkamkulam - Kanyakumari 741 *Minvaliyankulam - Kanyakumari

742 Mirattur Nilai Periakulam Mirattur Nilai Pudukottai 743 *Misanganerikulam - Kanyakumari 744 *Mohanarakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 745 *Mookaiyur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

746 *Moolikulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 747 *Moral Reservoir - - 748 *Mottakulam - Kanyakumari

749 Mudalaikulam Mudalaikulam Madurai 750 *Mudaliakulam - Kanyakumari 751 *Mudalur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 752 Mudukkanmkulam Mudukkanmkulam Virudhunagar

753 *Mudukulathur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

5 6 7 8





- - 4.90 Freshwater











1 2 3 4

754 *Mukkalampadu Kulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 755 *Mukunthankulam - Kanyakumari

756 *Mulachikulam - Kanyakumari 757 *Mulikulam - Kanyakumari 758 *Mullankulam - Kanyakumari

759 *Mullavelikulam - Kanyakumari 760 *Mullikulam - Kanyakumari 761 *Mumgapattukulam - Kanyakumari 762 *Mundakottukulam - Kanyakumari

763 *Munian Temple Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 764 *Munnottukulam - Kanyakumari 765 *Murikulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

766 *Murippilakonattukulam - Kanyakumari 767 *Murukkambattur Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 768 *Murukulam - Kanyakumari

769 *Murupanakulam - Kanyakumari 770 *Murvangakottukaniyar-

kulam - Kanyakumari

771 *Muthaliar Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

772 *Mutharunnikulam - Kanyakumari

773 Muthilthagam Tank Muthilthagam Ramanathapuram 774 Muthunadu Tank Nadakottai Ramanathapuram 775 Muthusamypuram Muthusamypuram Virudhunagar

776 *Muthuvayal Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 777 *Myladumaparakulam - Kanyakumari 778 *Mylakulam - Kanyakumari

779 *Mylottukulam - Kanyakumari 780 N.Mukkulam N.Mukkulam Virudhunagar 781 *Nachikonathikulam - Kanyakumari 782 *Nachikulam - Kanyakumari

783 *Nachimarkulam - Kanyakumari 784 *Nachiyarkulam - Kanyakumari 785 *Nachiyarpathukulam

(2 nos.)

- Kanyakumari

786 *Nadachikulam - Kanyakumari 787 *Nadankulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

788 *Naduvathukenathkulam - Kanyakumari 789 *Naduvoorkurichikulam - Kanyakumari 790 *Nagakonthuggakulam - Kanyakumari 791 *Nagakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari

792 Naganendal Tank Naganendal Ramanathapuram 793 *Nagarakulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8















1 2 3 4

794 *Nagaratharkurihi Chinna Kamoi

Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

795 *Nagaratharkurichi Kanmoi

Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

796 *Nagarkulam (Kallarkulam)

- Kanyakumari

797 *Nagarkulam (Vadaserikulam)

- Kanyakumari

798 *Nagatchi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

799 *Nagavathisamudrakulam - Kanyakumari 800 *Naikulam - Kanyakumari 801 *Nainarkulam - Kanyakumari 802 Nalayira Mudayan Kulam Kandasamy-

ruram

Tirunelveli

803 Nalur Nalur Angamagalam

Suganthalai

Virudhunagar

804 *Nallikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 805 Nallumelakulam Kayalpattinam

North Tirunelveli

806 Nallur Periya Eri Nallur Vellore 807 *Nambikulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 808 Nambipuram Tank Nambipuram Tirunelveli

809 *Nanankulam - Kanyakumari 810 Nandalar Periyaulam Madurai 811 *Nandankulam - Kanyakumari

812 *Nandthavanthu Thunsankuzhi

- Kanyakumari

813 *Nangakulam - Kanyakumari 814 *Nanganarkulam - Kanyakumari

815 Nangunerikulam Nanguneri Tirunelveli 816 *Narakottukulam - Kanyakumari

817 *Nankulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 818 *Narakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 819 *Narasingamarkulam - Kanyakumari

820 Narayanaerikulam - Kanyakumari 821 Narikulam - Kanyakumari 822 Nathampatti Big Tank Nathampatti Virudhunagar

823 Nathankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 824 Navitankulam - Kanyakumari 825 Navithankottukulam - Kanyakumari 826 Navolivettithirthukulam - Kanyakumari

827 Nayinkulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8



- - 9.23 Freshwater

- - 9.91 Freshwater














1 2 3 4

828 Nediyankottukulam - Kanyakumari 829 Nedumaram Tank Nedumaram Ramanathapuram

830 *Nedumkulam (12 nos.) - Kanyakumari 831 *Nedupangankulam - Kanyakumari 832 *Needuvalakulam - Kanyakumari

833 *Neelakulam - Kanyakumari 834 *Neerali (6 nos.) - Kanyakumari 835 *Neerazhi (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari 836 *Neerazhikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari

837 *Neerazhy - Kanyakumari 838 *Nelamadur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 839 Nellukurichi Nellukurichi Virudhunagar

840 *Nelpattakulam - Kanyakumari 841 Nemam Tank Nemam Ramanathapuram 842 Nemmeni Tank Nemmeni Ramanathapuram

843 *Neralikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 844 Nerkunnam Nerkunnam Vellore 845 Nerkuppai Tank Nerkuppai Ramanathapuram 846 Nerumeni Nerumeni Virudhunagar

847 *Nesapakkam Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 848 *Nettankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 849 *Neyyankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

850 *Nhavathivinayagan-kulam

- Kanyakumari

851 Nilamalagia Mangalam Tank

Nilamalagia Mangalam

Ramanathapuram

852 *Nilayambodi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 853 *Niliyur Tank Niliyur Madurai 854 *Nimayakulam - Kanyakumari

855 *Nochili Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 856 *Noyyal River Basin Noyyal Karur 857 *Nulikulam - Kanyakumari 858 *Nullikulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

859 *Ochankulam - Kanyakumari 860 *Odaimarichankulam - Kanyakumari 861 *Odaparachakarakulam - Kanyakumari

862 *Odiyakulam - Kanyakumari 863 *Odupparakoilankulam - Kanyakumari 864 Ogalur Tank Ogalur Tiruchirapally

865 *Olakottuchanttidakulam - Kanyakumari 866 *Olakottuparambukulam - Kanyakumari 867 *Olluppukonathukulam - Kanyakumari 868 *Oochankulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8








- - 5.74 Freshwater








1 2 3 4

869 *Oorankulam - Kanyakumari 870 *Oorva Kulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 871 *Oottukulam - Kanyakumari 872 *Ooty Lake - Nilgiris

873 Oranda Urappanur Urappanur Madurai 874 Orasur Big Tank Orasur Ramanathapuram

875 *Orathur Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 876 Oriyur Tank Oriyur Ramanathapuram 877 *Othapanai Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

878 *Othivilagam Eri Cheyur Tiruvallur 879 *Ottankulam - Kanyakumari 880 *Ottankulam

Ananthavattikulam

- Kanyakumari

881 *Ottappanaikulam - Kanyakumari 882 Otteri Tank Otteri Vellore 883 *Paakkam Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur

884 P.Pudupatti P.Pudupatti Virudhunagar 885 *Padalakulam - Kanyakumari 886 *Padanatapuli Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

887 *Padappankulam - Kanyakumari 888 *Paianur Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 889 *Paikulam - Kanyakumari

890 *Pakkam Eri Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 891 Pakkam Hissa Tank Pakkam Cuddalore 892 *Pakkam Peria Eri Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 893 *Pakkulam - Kanyakumari

894 *Palakulam (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari 895 *Palamudarkulam - Kanyakumari 896 Palar-Porandalar Palani Madurai

897 Palaya Kanmudi Palaya Pudukottai 898 Palayamkottai Palayamkottai

village Cuddalore

899 *Palayanoor Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur

900 *Palchakulam - Kanyakumari 901 *Palikulam - Kanyakumari 902 *Palkondankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari

903 *Palkulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 904 *Palladikulam - Kanyakumari 905 *Pallakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 906 *Pallamarthandankulam - Kanyakumari

907 *Pallankulam - Kanyakumari 908 *Pallikaranai swamp Saidapet Chengalpattu 909 *Pallikondarkulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8

- - 3.42 Freshwater


11° 18’ 76° 35’ 15.00 Freshwater

10° 03’ 77° 05’ 185.00 Freshwater - - 700.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater


- - 1.28 Freshwater



- - 88.00 Freshwater - - 7.13 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - 1.51 Freshwater







- - 8.66 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

910 *Palottarakulam - Kanyakumari 911 *Pambadikulam - Kanyakumari 912 *Panakulam - Kanyakumari

913 *Panankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 914 *Panavilagathukulam - Kanyakumari 915 *Panavilaikulam - Kanyakumari 916 Pandalam Hissa Tank Pandalam Cuddalore

917 *Pandarakonathupandara-kulam

- Kanyakumari

918 *Pandarakonathuputhu-

kulam

- Kanyakumari

919 *Pandarakulam - Kanyakumari 920 *Pandikanmoi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

921 *Pandiyankulam - Kanyakumari 922 *Pandoor Eri Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 923 *Pandravedu Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 924 *Pangulam - Kanyakumari

925 Paniyur Tank Paniyur Madurai

926 *Pannikundukulam - Kanyakumari 927 *Panuookkonathuoda-

kulam - Kanyakumari

928 *Panyankulam - Kanyakumari 929 Pappangulam Ladanendal Sivagangai 930 *Pappankottukulam - Kanyakumari

931 *Pappankulam - Kanyakumari 932 *Pappa Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 933 *Paracherykulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 934 *Parai Kulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari

935 *Parakkakulam - Kanyakumari 936 *Parakkamangalathu-

kulam - Kanyakumari

937 *Parakudykonathukulam - Kanyakumari 938 *Parakulam - Kanyakumari 939 Paralachi Paralachi Virudhunagar

940 *Parandur I & II Kanchipuram Kanchipuram 941 Paranur Tank Paranur Ramanathapuram 942 Parapalar Palani Madurai 943 *Paraserikulam - Kanyakumari

944 Paravai Paravai Madurai 945 *Parayankulam - Kanyakumari 946 *Parikulam - Kanyakumari

947 *Parppanakulam - Kanyakumari 948 *Parthipanur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram

5 6 7 8




- - 4.49 Freshwater




- - 0.18 Freshwater


- - 2.34 Freshwater





10° 25’ 77° 42’ 114.00 Freshwater


- - 4.35 Freshwater


1 2 3 4

949 *Parumkalkulam - Kanyakumari

950 *Paruthaikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 951 *Paruthikuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 952 Paruthipalli Tank Paruthipalli Salem 953 *Pasupathikulam - Kanyakumari

954 *Pathirikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 955 *Pathirottukulam - Kanyakumari 956 *Pathiyakulam - Kanyakumari

957 *Pathukulam - Kanyakumari 958 *Pattakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 959 *Pattankonathu Ezhukula - Kanyakumari 960 *Pattankonathukulam - Kanyakumari

961 *Pattanvilaikulam - Kanyakumari 962 *Pattikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 963 *Paulkulam - Kanyakumari

964 Pavoor Hissa Tank Pavoor Vellore 965 *Pazhayanoor Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 966 Peakulam - Kanyakumari 967 *Pechankulam - Kanyakumari

968 *Pechikulam - Kanyakumari 969 Pechiparai (Kodayar)

Reservoir Kuzhithurai Kanyakumari

970 Peikulam Irurappaputam Tirunelveli 971 *Perakulam - Kanyakumari 972 *Peravoor Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram

973 *Peria Eri 974 *Periakalakattur Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 975 *Periakaraumbur Big &

Small Ponneri Tiruvallur

976 Peria Kollukudi Patti Tirupathur Sivagangai

Tank 977 Periakulam Kaliyanoor Tirunelveli 978 Periakulam

(Therukukaracheri)

South Karaseri Tirunelveli

979 *Periakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 980 *Perianerikulam - Kanyakumari

981 Periyakanmoi Maruthangadui Madurai 982 Periyakkalkulam Keelathinivenka-

tanatha puram Tirunelveli

983 Periyakulam Muruganeri Theni

984 Periyakulam Villur Madurai 985 Periyakulam Sivagiri

Vasudevavallur Tirunelveli

5 6 7 8











10° 07’ 78° 35’ 13.70 Freshwater






09° 10’ 77° 70’ 200.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

986 *Periyakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 987 Periyaseval kulam Thennamanallur Madurai 988 Periyoor Big Tank Perumalpatti Tirunelveli

989 *Perukulam - Kanyakumari 990 *Perumakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 991 *Perumal Lake Kullanchawadi Cuddalore 992 *Perumalpuram

Periakulam

Thovalai Kanyakumari

993 *Perumankonathukulam - Kanyakumari 994 *Perumankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari

995 *Perumbair Kandigai Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 996 *Perumkottukulam - Kanyakumari 997 Perumkottur Periakulam Perumkottur Tirunelveli

998 *Perumkulam (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari 999 *Perunchakulam - Kanyakumari 1000 *Peruneeliyarakulam - Kanyakumari 1001 Perungalathur Tank Perungalathur Madurai

1002 Perungattur Tank Perungattur Vellore 1003 Perungulam Perungulam Tirunelveli 1004 *Perunkari Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram

1005 Perunoani Reservoir Vagecolil Madurai 1006 *Peruuilaikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 1007 *Peruvayal Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 1008 *Peruvilaikulam - Kanyakumari

1009 *Peunkulam - Kanyakumari 1010 *Peyottankulam - Kanyakumari 1011 *Peyottankulam - Kanyakumari

1012 *Peyottuvakulam - Kanyakumari 1013 *Pilakodukulam - Kanyakumari 1014 *Pilakudikulam - Kanyakumari 1015 Pilani Tank Kalambur Ramanathapuram

1016 *Pillaiyarkoil Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 1017 *Pillaiyarkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 1018 *Pillayaroothukulam - Kanyakumari

1019 *Pirakal Amkathukulam - Kanyakumari 1020 *Pirakalkulam - Kanyakumari 1021 *Pirakulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

1022 *Piramuttakulam - Kanyakumari 1023 *Piranthacherikulam - Kanyakumari 1024 *Piranthinaserikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 1025 *Piranthnrikulam - Kanyakumari

1026 *Pirathankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

1027 *Poatnikulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8




- - 1.66 Freshwater












1 2 3 4

1028 *Podaturpet Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 1029 *Poigaikulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 1030 *Polaiyan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

1031 Pollagacherri Tank Pollagacherri Cuddalore 1032 *Ponamkurikulam - Kanyakumari 1033 *Pondampuli Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1034 *Ponnagiramzhikulam - Kanyakumari

1035 *Ponnanikulam - Kanyakumari 1036 *Ponnankulam - Kanyakumari 1037 Ponneri Kuruvelappankoil Tiruchirapally

1038 Ponnu SamudramTank Arasiramani Salem 1039 Ponnur Tank Ponnur Vellore 1040 *Poochakulam - Kanyakumari

1041 *Pookulam - Kanyakumari 1042 *Pookuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 1043 *Poolankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 1044 *Poolankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

1045 *Poonakulam - Kanyakumari 1046 *Pooncheri + Painur II Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 1047 *Poondi Reservoir Tiruvallur Tiruvallur

1048 *Poonimangadu Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 1049 *Poonkottuvamakulam - Kanyakumari 1050 *Poothondi Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 1051 *Poothondi Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram

1052 *Poovilathur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1053 *Porumkulam - Kanyakumari 1054 *Porungankulam - Kanyakumari

1055 *Porur Eri Saidapet Chengalpattu 1056 *Pothiakulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 1057 *Pothikulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1058 Pottaikulam Karungulam Tirunelveli

1059 Pottaikulam Kulayankarasal Tirunelveli 1060 *Pottaikulam - Kanyakumari 1061 *Pottakulam (7 nos.) - Kanyakumari

1062 *Pottakuzhikulam (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari 1063 *Pottithaliti Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1064 Poyyallur Tank Poyyallur Ramanathapuram

1065 *Pthiramangalamputhulam - Kanyakumari 1066 *Puachalkulam - Kanyakumari 1067 Pudukottai Pudukottai Virudhunagar 1068 *Pudukotukulam - Kanyakumari

1069 *Pudukulam (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari

1070 *Pudukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8














1 2 3 4

1071 Pudur Tank Pudur Ramanathapuram

1072 *Puduvilaithanikulam - Kanyakumari 1073 *Pulakudiykulam - Kanyakumari 1074 *Pulakulam - Kanyakumari

1075 *Pulankulam - Kanyakumari 1076 *Puliangulam - Kanyakumari 1077 *Puliankuruchi Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari

1078 *Pulimpallikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 1079 *Pulimughutenkunja-

kulam - Kanyakumari

1080 *Pulithikulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1081 *Pulivarikulam - Kanyakumari 1082 *Puliveeramkulam - Kanyakumari 1083 *Puliyankulam - Kanyakumari

1084 *Puliyarakonathukulam - Kanyakumari 1085 *Puliykatnathkulam - Kanyakumari 1086 *Puliyoor Chengalpattu Kanchipuram

1087 *Puliyoorkurichikulam - Kanyakumari 1088 Puliyur Tank Puliyur Ramanathapuram 1089 *Pullakulam - Kanyakumari

1090 *Pullancherikulam - Kanyakumari 1091 *Pullukudi Kanmoi Thiruvadanai Ramanathapuram 1092 Pullur Tank Pullur Ramanathapuram 1093 *Pungarachellan Kulam

(2 nos.)

Kalkulam Kanyakumari

1094 *Punkarichellamkulam - Kanyakumari 1095 *Punnachakulam - Kanyakumari

1096 *Punnarkulam - Kanyakumari 1097 *Punniyakulam - Kanyakumari 1098 *Purakkal Kulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 1099 Purisai Tank Purisai Vellore

1100 *Purushothamanerikulam - Kanyakumari 1101 *Puthali Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 1102 *Puthankulam - Kanyakumari

1103 *Putharakulam - Kanyakumari 1104 *Puthenkulam - Kanyakumari 1105 *Putheri Periakulam - Kanyakumari 1106 *Putherikulam - Kanyakumari

1107 *Puthukulam (6 nos.) - Kanyakumari 1108 *Puthukuzhkulam - Kanyakumari 1109 Puthupalli Alam Swamp - Thanjavur

1110 *Puthur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1111 *Puthuvettikulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8








- - 6.70 Freshwater







1 2 3 4

1112 *Puyangankulam - Kanyakumari

1113 *Puzhal Eri (Red Hills) Saidapet Chengalpattu 1114 *Puzhukolikulam (2 nos) - Kanyakumari 1115 *Radathattikulam - Kanyakumari 1116 Radhanur Tank Radhanur Ramanathapuram

1117 *Raja Singa Mangalam Kanmoi


1118 *Rajendrakulam - Kanyakumari

1119 Ramalingapuram Ammapatti Virudhunagar 1120 *Ramanathapuram Big

Tank Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram

1121 *Ramankulam - Kanyakumari 1122 *Ramanpathoerkulam - Kanyakumari 1123 *Ramanpudurpandara-

kulam - Kanyakumari

1124 *Ramanputhoor Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

1125 *Ramapuram Big & Small Tanks

Tiruttani Tiruvallur

1126 *Ramapuram Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

1127 *Ramasamudramkulam - Kanyakumari 1128 Ravathanallur Large Tank Ravathanallur Cuddalore 1129 *Rayankulam - Kanyakumari

1130 *Remkulam - Kanyakumari 1131 *Rettai Eri (Madhavaram) Saidapet Chengalpattu 1132 *S. Kavanur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 1133 *S. Keeraandel Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

1134 *S. Thalvaikudi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1135 *Sabayarkulam - Kanyakumari 1136 *Sadayan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

1137 *Sakiyankottuvannan-kulam

- Kanyakumari

1138 Sakkandi Tank Sakkandi Ramanathapuram

1139 *Sakkarakottai Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 1140 *Salavakam Eri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 1141 *Saloor Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 1142 *Sambakulam - Kanyakumari

1143 *Samiyarkulam - Kanyakumari 1144 Samudram Eri Samudram Vellore 1145 Sarvoorkulam - Kanyakumari

1146 *Sasthankoilkulam (2 nos.)

- Kanyakumari

1147 *Sathankulam - Kanyakumari 1148 *Sathanparakulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8

- - 1.38 Freshwater - - 4,680.00 Freshwater - - 81.42 Freshwater - - 10.28 Freshwater






- - 7.14 Freshwater









- - 1.79 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

1149 Sathanur Reservoir - Tiruvannamali 1150 *Satharathankulam - Kanyakumari 1151 *Savar Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

1152 *Sayalkudi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1153 Sayamalai Periakulam Sayamalai Tirunelveli 1154 Seenankudi Tank Seenankudi Ramanathapuram

1155 Seerakulam Tank Seerakulam Tirunelveli 1156 *Seethapalkulam - Kanyakumari 1157 Seeyamuthu Tank Mattur Ramanathapuram 1158 *Semanur Big Tank Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

1159 *Semanur Small Tank Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1160 *Sembakkam Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 1161 Sembanur Tank Sembanur Ramanathapuram

1162 Sembattur Periakulam Sembattur Pudukottai 1163 *Sembilankudi Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 1164 Sengulam Sengulam Madurai 1165 Senjannattar Big Tank S.R. Pattanam Ramanathapuram

1166 *Serenserykulam - Kanyakumari 1167 Sethupuram Sethupuram Virudhunagar 1168 *Sevilimedu Kanchipuram Kanchipuram

1169 *Seyalur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1170 Sholavar Reservoir Pollachi Coimbatore 1171 *Sholinganallur (Velaleri

& Tamarraikani tanks)

Saidapet Chengalpattu

1172 *Siloorkulam - Kanyakumari 1173 *Sinianthiruthukulam - Kanyakumari 1174 Siripuranthan Peria Eri Siripuranthan Tiruchirapally

1175 Sirunallur Tank Sirunallur Ramanathapuram

1176 Sirupandal Hissa Tank Sirupandal Cuddalore 1177 Siruthavur Tank - Chengelpettu 1178 Sivagambivar Tank Sivagambivar Ramanathapuram

1179 Sivarakottai Tank Sivarakottai Madurai 1180 *Somacharikulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 1181 Somasipadi Tank Somasipadi Vellore

1182 *Sonaipriyakotaii Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1183 *Soorankudikulam - Kanyakumari 1184 *Sooratnankulam - Kanyakumari 1185 *Sottukulam - Kanyakumari

1186 *Sripandarakonathukulam - Kanyakumari 1187 *Sriperumbudur Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 1188 Srirangarajapurma Srirangarajapurma Vellore

1189 *Stanley Reservoir - - 1190 *Suchindrakulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8






10° 03’ 77° 05’ 117.00 Freshwater











1 2 3 4

1191 Sunallur Tank Sunallur Vellore

1192 *Sundarakulam - Kanyakumari 1193 *Sundarakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 1194 *Sundaranainarkulam - Kanyakumari 1195 *Suriyanagaram Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur

1196 *Suriyandiodai Chettikulam

- Kanyakumari

1197 *Suvarakottukulam - Kanyakumari

1198 T.Kalathur Tank T.Kalathur Tiruchirapally 1199 Tathampatti Big Tank Tathampatti Big

Tank Virudhunagar

1200 *Thaattankulam - Kanyakumari 1201 *Thachankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 1202 *Thadakkakulam - Kanyakumari 1203 *Thalakulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

1204 *Thalavedu Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 1205 *Thalayachakulam - Kanyakumari 1206 Thaliramarungoor Thaliramarun-

goor

Ramanathapuram

1207 *Thaltankonathkulam - Kanyakumari 1208 Thaluthalai Tank Thaluthalai Tiruchirapally 1209 Thamaraikulam Kalakadu Tirunelveli

1210 *Thamaraikulam (6 nos.) - Kanyakumari 1211 Thamathuvilayanpadiyan-

kulam - Kanyakumari

1212 *Thandalam Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 1213 Thanalur Tank Thanalur Tirunelveli 1214 *Thananjayan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 1215 *Thanappiramanamkulam - Kanyakumari

1216 *Thanarajayankulam - Kanyakumari 1217 *Thandanayagamkulam - Kanyakumari 1218 *Thanumalaiyankulam - Kanyakumari

1219 Thathaneri Tank Thathaneri Madurai 1220 *Thathiyarkulam - Kanyakumari 1221 *Thattamvilaiathuvelen-

kulam

- Kanyakumari

1222 *Thattankulam - Kanyakumari 1223 *Thattanpallakulam - Kanyakumari 1224 *Thattarakulam - Kanyakumari

1225 *Thavalikulam - Kanyakumari

1226 Thavamkurichi Big Tank T. Kallupatti Madurai 1227 *Thavittukulam - Kanyakumari 1228 *Thazhakudiykulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8















10° 03’ 77° 05’ 125.00 Freshwater


1 2 3 4

1229 *Thazhakulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 1230 *Thazhayankulam - Kanyakumari

(2 nos.) 1231 *Theeroallakulam - Kanyakumari 1232 *Theeyanur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

1233 *Thellikulam - Kanyakumari 1234 *Themgaipalam

Eswarankulam - Kanyakumari

1235 *Themmadikonamkulam - Kanyakumari 1236 Themmapatti Tank Themmapatti Ramanathapuram 1237 Thengal Tank Thirupparan

kundram Madurai

1238 *Thengankuzhikulam (3 nos.)

- Kanyakumari

1239 *Theniadikonthathuthen-

gadadi

- Kanyakumari

1240 Thenkarai Alvarthirunagari Tirunelveli 1241 Thenkarai Periyakulam Thenkarai

Mullipallam

Madurai

1242 Thenmathur Tank Thenmathur Vellore 1243 Thennampattu Thennampattu Vellore 1244 *Thenneri Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram

1245 *Thenpuduvakudi Kanmoi

Paramakudi Ramanathapuram

1246 *Therkkalkulam - Kanyakumari

1247 *Therkulam - Kanyakumari 1248 *Therkumettukulam - Kanyakumari 1249 *Theroor Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 1250 *Thettankulam - Kanyakumari

1251 *Thevarakulam - Kanyakumari 1252 *Thevijakulam - Kanyakumari 1253 Theyyar Big Tank Theyyar Vellore

1254 *Thirichanakulam - Kanyakumari 1255 *Thirukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 1256 *Thirumanthakula - Kanyakumari 1257 Thirumurthi Reservoir Udumalpet Coimbatore

1258 *Thirunilai Uthukkottai Tiruvallur 1259 *Thirupathisaramkulam - Kanyakumari 1260 Thiruppakkottai Tank Thiruppakkottai Ramanathapuram

1261 Thiruppalaikudi Tank Thiruppalaikudi Ramanathapuram 1262 *Thirupulivanam Eri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 1263 Thiruthervalai Tank Thiruthervalai Ramanathapuram

1264 *Thiruthukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8




- - 5.89 Freshwater

- - 0.87 Freshwater









- - 0.12 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

1265 Thiruvariman Tank Thiruvariman Madurai 1266 Thiruvengadam

Periakulam Thiruvengadam Tirunelveli

1267 *Thiruvenganerikulam - Kanyakumari 1268 Thiruvetriyur Tank Thiruvetriyur Ramanathapuram 1269 *Thiruvikramaserikulam - Kanyakumari

1270 Thiruvirundapuram Thiruvirunda-puram

Virudhunagar

1271 *Thittamathukulam - Kanyakumari

1272 Thiumanickam Thiumanickam Madurai 1273 *Thiyagasoundarikulam - Kanyakumari 1274 Thiyathur Tank Thiyathur Pudukottai 1275 *Thodukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

1276 *Tholur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram

1277 Thondamandurai Tank Thondamandurai Tiruchirapally 1278 *Thondansassambu - Kanyakumari 1279 Thorappadi Tank Thorappadi Vellore

1280 Thottakudikulam Perumkotture Tirunelveli 1281 *Thottakulam - Kanyakumari 1282 *Thottamangalam

Kanmoi


1283 *Thottipalamkulam - Kanyakumari 1284 *Thovalai Periakulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 1285 *Thudichikulam - Kanyakumari

1286 *Thudippankulam - Kanyakumari 1287 Thulakudi Cholapuram Virudhunagar 1288 *Thulukankulam

(2 nos.)

- Kanyakumari

1289 *Thumbavilaivivettu-thiruthu

- Kanyakumari

1290 Thusur Tank Thusur Salem 1291 *Thuvaramkulam

(2 nos.) - Kanyakumari

1292 *Thuvarapallikulam - Kanyakumari

1293 Tiruchuli Tiruchuli Virudhunagar 1294 Tirupathur Large Tank Tirupathur Vellore 1295 Tiruppattur Big Tank Tiruppattur Ramanathapuram

1296 *Tirurnoorthly - - 1297 Tnennagarm Tank Tindivavam Cuddalore 1298 *Tr. Bazaar Lake - Nilgiris 1299 *Trirporur

Chekikadithangal

Chengalpattu Kanchipuram

1300 Tripramadevi Tank Tripramadevi Salem

5 6 7 8












- - 0.43 Freshwater





- - 1.00 Freshwater


1 2 3 4

1301 *Uachankulam - Kanyakumari

1302 *Udamboorkulam - Kanyakumari 1303 *Udanparakulam - Kanyakumari 1304 *Udappakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari

1305 Ukkal Tank Ukkal Vellore 1306 *Ukkikulam - Kanyakumari 1307 *Ukulam - Kanyakumari 1308 Ulaganikanmoi Ulagani Madurai

1309 Ulakudi Ulakudi Virudhunagar 1310 *Ulankulam - Kanyakumari 1311 Unjanai Tank Unjanai Ramanathapuram

1312 *Uppanganerikulam - Kanyakumari 1313 Uppoor Tank Uppoor Ramanathapuram 1314 *Urakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 1315 *Uralinkulam - Kanyakumari

1316 Uravayal Tank Uravayal Ramanathapuram 1317 *Urayikonathuthmara-

kulam - Kanyakumari

1318 Uruvatti Tank Uruvatti Ramanathapuram 1319 *Utharankulam - Kanyakumari 1320 *Uthiradakulam - Kanyakumari

1321 *Uthiramerur Eri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 1322 Uthrabosamangari Uthrabosamangari Ramanathapuram 1323 *Uttakulam - Kanyakumari 1324 *Uttankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

1325 *Uttukulam - Kanyakumari

1326 *Vachankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 1327 Vadagarai Vadagarai Madurai 1328 *Vadakaithanikuzhi

(2 nos.)

- Kanyakumari

1329 Vadakarai Vadakarai Virudhunagar 1330 Vadakarai Tank Sholavanthan Madurai

1331 *Vadakkankulam (3 nos) - Kanyakumari 1332 *Vadamadurai Eri Uthukkottai Tiruvallur 1333 Vadamavali Tank Vadamavali Ramanathapuram 1334 *Vadankulam - Kanyakumari

1335 Vadi Vadi Virudhunagar 1336 *Vagalkulam - Kanyakumari 1337 Vaigai Reservoir Periyakulam Madurai

1338 *Vairavanendal Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1339 *Vairavikonathukulam - Kanyakumari 1340 Vakkadai Hissa Tank Vakkadai Vellore

1341 Valamvoor Tank Valamvoor Ramanathapuram

5 6 7 8











10° 03’ 77° 05’ 303.00 Freshwater





1 2 3 4

1342 *Valapuram Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 1343 *Valasoundarikulam

(2 nos.)

- Kanyakumari

1344 *Valathur Kanchipuram Kanchipuram 1345 *Valiakulam Puthukulam - Kanyakumari 1346 *Valiyakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari

1347 Vallakulam Padikaswitham Patti

Virudhunagar

1348 *Valliambalkuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

1349 *Vallichirakulam - Kanyakumari 1350 *Vallikulam - Kanyakumari 1351 Vallioor Big Vallioor (North) Tirunelveli 1352 *Valluvapakkam Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu

1353 *Valliykonamkulam - Kanyakumari 1354 *Valukkaikulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1355 *Vambiyarkonathukulam - Kanyakumari

1356 *Vanankulam - Kanyakumari 1357 Vandinipatti Tank Vandinipatti Ramanathapuram 1358 *Vaniankulam - Kanyakumari

1359 *Vaniyakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 1360 Vaniyambadi Tank Vaniyambadi Vellore 1361 *Vaniyankulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 1362 Vanjivakkam Large Tank Vanjivakkam Kanchipuram

1363 Vanjivakkam Small Tank Vanjivakkam Kanchipuram 1364 *Vannankulam (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari 1365 *Vannankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

1366 *Vannaparambukulam - Kanyakumari 1367 *Vannikudy Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 1368 *Varamarthandanputhu-

kulam - Kanyakumari

1369 *Variarkonathukulam - Kanyakumari 1370 Varichiyur Tank Varichiyur Madurai 1371 *Variyoor Puthukulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

1372 *Vathikonathukulam - Kanyakumari 1373 *Vattakudi Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 1374 Vattanam Tank Vattanam Ramanathapuram 1375 *Vattarkulam - Kanyakumari

1376 *Vattiaramankonathu-kulam

- Kanyakumari

1377 Vayakottukulam - Kanyakumari

1378 *Vayalur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1379 Vayalur Manaanikal

Tank Vayalur Kanchipuram

5 6 7 8












- - 1.83 Freshwater





1 2 3 4

1380 Vayalur Peria Thameria Tank

Vayalur Kanchipuram

1381 *Vayilakulam - Kanyakumari 1382 *Vazhimarichankulam - Kanyakumari 1383 *Vazhottukulam - Kanyakumari

1384 *Vdayankonathuparayan-kulam

- Kanyakumari

1385 *Vedakulam - Kanyakumari 1386 Vedal Tank Vedal Kanchipuram

1387 *Vedankangherykulam - Kanyakumari

1388 *Vedanthangal Tank - Chengleput 1389 *Vedunkulam - Kanyakumari 1390 *Veepankulam - Kanyakumari

1391 Veeracholam Veeracholam Virudhunagar 1392 *Veerakaraiappan Eri

Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari

1393 *Veerakeralkulam - Kanyakumari 1394 *Veerakulam - Kanyakumari 1395 *Veeramangalam Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 1396 *Veeramarthandan Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari

1397 Veeranam Big Tank Veeranam Tirunelveli 1398 Veeranam Tank Chidambaram Cuddalore 1399 *Veerapuli Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari

1400 *Veeraulikulam - Kanyakumari 1401 *Veeravanur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1402 *Veervilaiathkulam - Kanyakumari

1403 *Veeyankulam - Kanyakumari 1404 *Velachery Lake Velachery Tiruvallur 1405 *Velakulam - Kanyakumari 1406 *Velanjeri Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur

1407 *Velankattukulam - Kanyakumari 1408 *Velankulam - Kanyakumari 1409 *Velarakulam - Kanyakumari

1410 *Velayaputhur Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 1411 *Velayankulam - Kanyakumari 1412 *Velaydankulam - Kanyakumari 1413 *Veliagaram Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur

1414 Vella Vella Ramanathapuram 1415 *Vellaiyasanthikulam - Kanyakumari 1416 Vellappan Eri Big Tank Poolankulam Tirunelveli

1417 *Vellathur Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 1418 *Vellavarakulam - Kanyakumari 1419 *Vellichandaikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari

5 6 7 8



- - 0.71 Freshwater

- - 1.59 Freshwater


12° 32’ 79° 52’ 30.00 Freshwater




11° 20’ 79° 40’ 2,357.00 Freshwater







1 2 3 4

1420 Vellimar Tank Vellimar Ramanathapuram 1421 Vellur Peria Eri Vellur Pudukottai 1422 *Vemadikulam - Kanyakumari 1423 *Vembadykulam - Kanyakumari

1424 *Vembanur Kulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 1425 Vembakottai Tanks Madurai - 1426 *Vembakottukulam - Kanyakumari

1427 *Vembanoorkulam - Kanyakumari 1428 *Vembedu Ponneri Tiruvallur 1429 *Vemkuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 1430 *Vempadipuduthiruthu-

kulam

- Kanyakumari

1431 *Vengal Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 1432 Vengaloor Tank Vengaloor Ramanathapuram

1433 Venkita samudram Venkita samudram

Madurai

1434 *Vennathur Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram

1435 *Venthoni Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 1436 *Veparavilakikulam - Kanyakumari 1437 *Veppan Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 1438 *Verakadu Eri Gummidipoondi Tiruvallur

1439 Vethilai Urani Vethilai Urani Virudhunagar

1440 Vettakudi Karavetti Reservoir

Kilapalavoor Tiruchirapalli

1441 *Vettangudi Tank Tirupathur Sivagangai

1442 *Vettikonathukattukulam - Kanyakumari 1443 *Vidarikulam - Kanyakumari 1444 Vidayanarayam Vidayanaray-

anam

Tirunelveli

1445 Vidur Villupuram Cuddalore 1446 Vijayappanur Tank Vijayappanur Madurai 1447 *Vikramanarikulam - Kanyakumari

1448 *Vilaikannarkulam - Kanyakumari 1449 *Vilakkanar Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 1450 Vilanaur Eri Vilanaur Pudukottai

1451 Vilangadu Tank Vilangadu Kanchipuram 1452 *Vilangulathur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 1453 *Vilankakulam - Kanyakumari

1454 *Vilankulam Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 1455 *Vilathur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 1456 *Villaiyakulam - Kanyakumari 1457 Villur Ovari Tank Villur Ovari Madurai

1458 Viragasmudram Watrap Virudhunagar

5 6 7 8



9° 20’ 77° 46’ - Freshwater

- - 4.38 Freshwater - - 67.50 Freshwater - - 1,179.00 Freshwater - - 4.13 Freshwater

- - 0.80 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater





10° 30’ 78° 30’ 8,630.00 Freshwater

10° 07’ 78° 35’ 18.40 Freshwater



12° 35’ 79° 35’ 798.00 Freshwater






1 2 3 4

1459 *Vishupurattukulam - Kanyakumari 1460 *Voyila Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

1461 *Vumbatharkulam - Kanyakumari 1462 Watrap Big Tank Watrap Virudhunagar 1463 *Wdaancharikulam - Kanyakumari

1464 *Zillikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Harijala Kakmaban South Tripura

2 Khaurabil Kailashahar North Tripura 3 *Rudra Sagar Lake Sonamura West Tripura

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

4 Gomti Reservoir Jatanbari and Tirthamukh

South Tripura

TRIPURA

5 6 7 8



- - 3.40 Freshwater

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8


23° 25’ 91° 52’ 4,833.00 Freshwater


10,49,200 ha.

35. Forest Area

:

6,29,400 ha. (60.02%)



Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Alwar Jheel Shahpur Allahabad

2 Aranga Nawabganj Gonda 3 Badur Tal Maskanwa Gonda 4 *Chandu Tal Kishorganj Basti

5 Dahre Jheel Adampur Hardoi 6 Dhanari Jheel Dhannari Bareily 7 Dudhwa National Park

(Wetlands in) Nepalese border

-

8 Garha Tal Ratanpur Balia 9 *Gujar Tal Khetsarai Jaunpur

10 Gulari Tal - Gorakhpur

11 Hathiawa Tal Dashrathpur Gorakhpur 12 Joghra-Joghri Balrampur Gonda 13 Kaisarganj Swamps Kaisarganj Bahraich 14 Kitham Lake - -

15 Kodia Tal Mahulaina Gorakhpur 16 *Macpherson Lake Niwan Allahabad 17 *Naukuchiatal - Nainitol

18 *Soraon Lake - Faizabad 19 Kakraha-Samrai Marshes

(winthin Dudhwa

National Park)

Samrai Kheri (Lakhimpur)

20 *Khurpatal - Nainitol 21 Nalkiyon Tal Hardwar Bijnore 22 Nohojeel Noh Mathura

23 Noorpur Jheel Noorpur Budaun 24 *Pahunj Reservoir - Jhansi 25 Pakri Tal Pakri Bazurg Azamgarh

26 Paragpur Tal Pragpur Gorakhpur/ Anandnagar

UTTAR PRADESH


2,38,56,600 ha.

38. Forest Area

:

16,79,600 ha. (6.97%)


Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

25° 25’ 81° 15’ 54.00 Freshwater


27° 15’ 70° 15’ 210.00 Freshwater 28° 12’ 78° 18’ 107.00 Freshwater 28° 21’- 80°30’- - Freshwater



27° 12’ 78° 4’ - Freshwater 27° 21’ 83° 33’ 100.00 Freshwater 25° 28’ 81° 50’ 120.00 Freshwater

29°19’ 79°37’ 45.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater

28° 05’ 80° 45’ 8,000.00 Freshwater

29°25’ 79°27’ 14.00 Freshwater 29° 55’ 78° 13’ 250.00 Freshwater

27° 50’ 77° 35’ 110.00 Freshwater 28° 03’ 79° 20’ 108.00 Freshwater 23°8’ 78°11’ 518.00 Freshwater


1 2 3 4

27 Parbati Lake Nawabganj Gonda 28 Phaphamau-Dara Cant

Swamps - Allahabad

29 Pipraicha Tal Hata Deoria 30 Ramgarh Talao Gorakhpur City Gorakhpur

31 *Ratoi Tal Tatoi Mau 32 Salona Tal Azamgarh Azamgarh 33 *Samaspur Lake Sola RaeBareilly

34 Sardhwa-Pokhrawa Dashrath Pur Gorakhpur 35 Saruva Tal Gopalpur Gorakhpur

36 Soraon Lake Faizabad - 37 Suraha Tal Maritar Balia 38 Thuthari Tal Chauk Gorakhpur

39 Ukhimath Ukhimath Chamole

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

40 Adwa Bandh Ahraura Mirzapur 41 *Aheerwan - Mainpuri 42 *Bachhra Reservoir - - 43 Baghel Tal Baghelkhurd Bahraich

44 *Baghla Reservoir Barica - 45 *Bahausi - Farrukhabad 46 Bahgul Reservoir Kichha Nainital

47 *Bakhira Lake - Basti 48 *Bansidah - Sidharthnagar 49 *Bhadayal - Hardoi

50 *Bhaghar jheel - Barabanki 51 *Bhagnaiya - Sidharthnagar 52 Chander Prabha Sagar Chakiya Varanasi 53 *Chhata Lakes Chhata -

54 *Corbett National Park (Wetlands in)

- -

55 *Dabri jheel - Bareilly

56 Dadri Reservoir Halia Mirzapur 57 *Dahar Jheel - Hardoi and Etawah 58 *Dahital - Allahabad 59 *Devasi Deval - Mau

60 Dhan Reservoir Manikpur/Gadwari Banda 61 Dungiabandh Hadupur Mirzapur 62 *Gagnikhera - Unnao

63 *Gambhirban - Azamgarh 64 *Girital Lake Kashipur - 65 Gulhriya Bandh Deori Allahabad 66 *Haidergarh Jheel Haidergarh Barabanki

5 6 7 8


26° 45’ 83° 30’ 250.00 Freshwater



- - 90.00 Freshwater 25° 48’ 84° 08’ 1,570.00 Freshwater 27° 19’ 83° 35’ 200.00 Freshwater 30° 30’ 79° 05’ 200.00 Freshwater

24° 42’ 82° 15’ 1,667.00 Freshwater


27° 25’ 81° 55’ 140.00 Freshwater


28° 55’ 79° 40’ 2,000.00 Freshwater

26°52’30’’ 85°5’30’’ 1,583.00 Freshwater - - 49.00 Freshwater - - 200.00 Freshwater - - 80.00 Freshwater

- - 60.00 Freshwater 24° 57’ 83° 10’ 1,656.00 Freshwater 27° 45’ 77° 40’ 3,000.00 Brackishwater

29°25’- 78°45’- - Freshwater







25° 10’ 82° 00’ 240,240.00 Freshwater 26°35’ 81°15’ 100.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

67 *Khajua Lake Mubarakpur Azamgarh 68 *Katerniaghat Pashu Vihar

Sanctuary (Wetlands in) Nepalese border

-

69 *Keetham Lake Agra -

70 *Kishanpur Pashu Vihar Sanctuary (Wetlands in)

Nepalese border

-

71 *Kuthala - Farrukhabad

72 *Lakh & Bahosi Indergarh Farrukhabad 73 *Lohsartal - Pratapgarh 74 *Madha-ki-jheel Haidergarh Barabanki 75 *Manjhira Impoundment at

Girija Barrage

Katerniaghat -

76 *Matatilla Reservoir Matatilla Gorakhpur 77 *Mohane - Unnao

78 *Mohri-Sothna Jheel - Hardoi and Etawah 79 *Moosa Khand Reservoir Chakiya Varanasi 80 *Mundiari - Ballia

81 *Naraini Tal - RaeBareilly 82 *Nawabgani Priyadarshani

Bird Sanctuary Lucknow -

83 Obra Bandh (Anicut) Obra Mirzapur

84 *Patna - Etah

85 Pili Reservoir Dhampur Bijnore 86 *Pyagpur Jheel - Bahraich 87 *Raini Tal - Pratapgarh

88 *Ratanpur - Sitapur 89 *Rewati - Ballia 90 Rihand Reservoir Pipri Mirzapur

91 *Rohuatal - Jaunpur 92 *Salontal - Azamgarh 93 *Saman jheel - Mainpuri 94 *Sangara - Barabanki

95 *Sarsai Nawar Sarsai Etawah 96 *Sauj (Soj) Jheel - Hardoi and Etawah 97 *Sheoja and Gaundial

Jheels

- Hardoi and Etawah

98 Shrinagar (Pawah) Tank Rajdhani Gorakhpur 99 *Sikandarpur - Basti

100 Singrahna Tal Mahulaina Gorakhpur 101 *Sitadwar Jheel - Bahraich 102 *Sonari - Sitapur 103 *Surha Lake - Ballia

104 Trutharia Tank Chauk Gorakhpur

5 6 7 8

- - - Freshwater 28° 07’- 81°03’- - Freshwater



- - 80.00 Freshwater 26°35’ 81°15’ 1,600.00 Freshwater

28° 18’ 81°04 1,200.00 Freshwater

25°15’ 78°23’ 13,893.00 Freshwater

- - 48.00 Freshwater 26°56' 79°17' 300.00 Freshwater 24° 59’ 83° 17’ 1,625.00 Freshwater


- - 45.00 Freshwater 26° 50’ 81°10’ 600.00 Freshwater


29° 20’ 78° 48’ 200.00 Freshwater

27°25’ 81°48’ 2,800.00 Freshwater - - 40.00 Freshwater - - 900.00 Freshwater - - 150.00 Freshwater

23° 55’ 82° 35’ 45,757.00 Freshwater



27°01’ 79°11’ 400.00 Freshwater

27°05’ 79°11’ 500.00 Freshwater




25°48’- 84°8’- 3,500.00 Freshwater - - 200.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

105 Utardaha Tank Utardaha Allahabad 106 *Upper Ganga River

(Brijghat to Narora Stretch)

Brijghat to Narora -


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Arolital - Pauri 2 *Badhanital - Tehri 3 *Bhenital - Rudraprayag

4 *Bhikaltal - Chamoli 5 *Bhimtal - Nainital 6 *Brahmatal - Chamoli

7 *Deoriatal - Chamoli 8 *Devtal - Chamoli 9 *Dodital - Uttarkashi

10 *Gandhisarovar - Chamoli 11 *Garudtal - Nainital 12 *Gaurikund - Chamoli

UTTARANCHAL

13 *Hatyarital - Nainital 14 *Hemkund - Chamoli 15 *Kagbhusandital - Chamoli

16 *Kedartal - Uttarkashi 17 *Khurpatal - Nainital 18 *Mesartal - Tehri

19 *Nainital - Nainital 20 *Naukuchiatal - Nainital 21 *Roopkund - Chamoli 22 *Sahstrabahu Lake - Uttarkashi

5 6 7 8

25° 20’ 82° 10’ 900.00 Freshwater

28° 33' 78° 12' 26,590.00 Freshwater

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

- - - Freshwater



- - 1.60 Freshwater - - 2.00 Freshwater - - 3.50 Freshwater - - - Freshwater


- - - Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - 9.00 Freshwater


53,56,600 ha.

2. Forest Area

:

34,66,200 ha. (64.79%)



- - 37.00 Freshwater - - - Freshwater - - - Freshwater

1 2 3 4

23 *Satttal - Nainital 24 *Shymlatal - Champawat 25 *Tambakund - Tehri

26 *Taratal - Pauri 27 *Vasukital - Chamoli

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

28 Aasan - -

29 Baigul - - 30 Baur - -

31 Dhauliganga - - 32 *Dhaura Reservoir - - 33 Kalagarh Reservoir (Part

of Corbet National Park)

Dhakala Bijnore

34 Maneri - - 35 Nanak Sagar Nanakmatta/

Sitaganj Nainital

36 Sarda Sagar Bilauri Plilbhet 37 *Tehri Garhwal - 38 Tumaria Reservoir Kashipur Nainital


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Adh Soi Pachla Malda

2 Ashi Dob Kasimpur Malda 3 Balotali-Beel Jatra Danga Malda 4 Barabila Talao Arai-Danga Malda 5 Bochamari Bowalia Malda

6 Buxiganj-Nijiarap Haldibari Cooch-Behar

5 6 7 8

WEST BENGAL



- - 38.00 Freshwater - - 2,995.00 Freshwater - - 1,295.00 Freshwater


29° 25’ 70° 05’ 42,000.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater

29° 05’ 79° 56’ 76,000.00 Freshwater

28° 40’ 80° 10’ 17,000.00 Freshwater

30° 20’-30° 40’ 78°15’-78° 40’ 4,500.00 Freshwater 29° 20’ 79° 04’ 3,000.00 Freshwater

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

25° 25’ 88° 00’ 140.00 Freshwater



1 2 3 4

7 Chalua Beel, Pulal Beel

and Baglai Beel

Sitagram West-Dinajpur

8 Goal Bod Bajanna Malda 9 Haliday Island Namkhana

(Sunderbans) 24-Paraganas

10 Hazar Takia Talao Mobarak Pur Malda

11 Jaula Para Madarihat Jalpaiguri 12 *Kalyani Lake - Nadia

13 Kathambari Beel Odlabari Jalpaiguri 14 Konar Kurpur Ganj Malda 15 *Langalhata Beel Kirnahar Birbhum

16 Lothian Namkhana (Sunderbans)

24-Paraganas

17 Madhai Pur Bheel Malda Towr Malda 18 Risik Beel Toofan Ganj Cooch-Behar

19 Sajana Khali Gosaba (Sunderbans)

24-Paraganas

20 *Salt Lakes Swamp Calcutta 24-Paraganas

21 Sanak Beel Chandipur Malda 22 Singsar Chandipur Malda 23 Sundarbans Mangrove - -

24 Teesta Nadi Makheli Ganj Cooch-Behar

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

25 *Adra Lake Adra -

26 *Bakreswar Bakreswar - 27 *Ballavpur Bolepur - 28 *Bansdaha Beel Dantan Midnapore

29 *Bhaluka Beel Chakmanikya S. Dinajpur 30 *Bhomra Beel Kastadanga Nadia 31 Brace Bridge Wetlands Southwestern

Calcutta -

32 *Churamon moranadi Beel

Itahar North Dinajpur

33 *Datindighi Dubrajpur -

34 *Dhobi - Howrah 35 Durgapur Barrage - Burdwan 36 *East Calcutta Wetlands - - 37 *Gnorsha Rajgram -

38 *Goldighi Rampurhat - 39 *Guda Reservoir - - 40 *Haripur-closed Beel Haripur Maldah

41 *Haripur-open Beel Haripur Maldah 42 *Indira Beel Indrabil Bankura & Puruliya

5 6 7 8

25° 40’ 88° 00’ 140.00 Brackishwater


25° 40’ 87° 01’ 140.00 Freshwater 25° 58’ 89° 00’ 6,096.00 Freshwater 22°57’ 88°26’ 13.00 Freshwater

26° 50’ 88° 35’ 136.00 Freshwater 25° 25’ 88° 10’ 280.00 Freshwater 23° 45’ 87° 45’ 2,000.00 Freshwater

21° 25’ 88° 18’ 3,800.00 Freshwater

25° 00’ 88° 11’ 100.00 Freshwater

26° 30’ 89° 20’ 9,952.00 Freshwater 21° 30’ 88° 45’ 36,236.00 Brackishwater

22° 30’ 88° 35’ 5,000.00 Freshwater 25° 35’ 87° 45’ 200.00 Freshwater 25° 20’ 88° 00’ 140.00 Freshwater 21°32’ 88°85’ 178,100.00 Brackishwater

26° 20’ 88° 55’ 1,800.00 Freshwater


21°58’15” - 17.00 Freshwater

26°10’20” - 35.00 Freshwater 22°55’15” - 45.00 Freshwater 22° 31’- 88° 17’- 494.20 Brackishwater

26°45’15” - 24.00 Freshwater


23° 28’ 87° 18’ 600.00 Freshwater 22°25’- 88° 20’ 12,500.00 Brackishwater

- - - Freshwater - - 5.00 Freshwater - - 1,859.00 Freshwater

25°12’10” - 21.00 Freshwater 25°12’10” - 30.00 Freshwater


1 2 3 4

43 Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary (Wetlands in)

Hasimara Jalpaiguri

44 *Jamuna Bundh Bishnupur Bankura and

Puruliya 45 Kangsabati Mukutmanipur Bankura 46 *Karkaria dighi Tarapith - 47 *Kings - Howrah

48 *Krishna Bundh Bishnupur Bankura and Puruliya

49 *Kola Beel Bagdah 24-Parganas (N)

50 *Kole Beel Somra Bazar Hooghly 51 *Kulaijurir Bankadah Bankura and

Puruliya 52 *Mahananda Reservoir Fulbari Darjeeling and

Jalpaiguri 53 *Mirik Lake Mirik - 54 *Lal Bundh Bishnupur Bankura and

Puruliya

55 *Leeram - Howrah 56 *Loco Tank Asansol - 57 *Narathaly lake - Jalpaiguri

58 *Nehali Beel Raiganj North Dinajpur 59 *Patari Beel Sukhdevpur S. Dinajpur 60 *Prain Lake - Howrah

61 *Protappur Protappur - 62 *Purbasthali Lake Kasthashali Chupi 63 *Rabindra Sarovar Lake Southern part

of Kolkata -

64 *Rani Bundh Joypur Bankura and Puruliya

65 *Sainthia Beel Sainthia -

66 *Saheb Bundh Puruliya Bankura and Puruliya

67 *Santragachi Santragachi -

68 *Sarasanka Beel Dantan Midanpore 69 *Subhas Sarobar lake East Calcutta - 70 *Tilpara Barrage Suri - 71 *Wetlands of Hugli

District

- Hugli

72 *Wetlands of Haora District

- Haora

5 6 7 8

26°45’ 89°20’ - Freshwater


- - 12,400.00 Freshwater - - 6.20 Freshwater - - - Freshwater


22°10” - 12.00 Freshwater

23°7’28” - 70.00 Freshwater - - 18.00 Freshwater

26°40’ 88°15’ 280.00 Freshwater

26°54’ 88°26’ 109.00 Freshwater


- - - Freshwater


26°55’10” - 42.00 Freshwater 26°20’10” - 43.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater


22°34’ 88°23’ 48.20 Freshwater




21°58’15” - 17.00 Freshwater 22°34’ 88°24’ 16.00 Freshwater

- - - Freshwater

22°39’ 87°30’ 179.75 Freshwater

22°13’ 87°51’ 125.08 Freshwater


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Mangroves of Middle

Andaman

Middle Andaman -

2 Wetlands in the Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands

Andaman & Nicobar

-


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

1 Sukhna Chandigarh Chandigarh

ANDAMAN & NICOBAR

CHANDIGARH


8,24,900 ha.

2. Forest Area

: 7,17,100

ha. (86.93%)

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

12°15’ 92°40’ 23,395.00 Brackishwater

7°00'-15°00' 92°00'-94°00

115,000.00 Brackishwater

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

30° 45’ 76° 45’ 170.00 Fresh water


: 11,400 ha.

2. Forest Area

:

3,300 ha. (28.95%)


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Pilli Island Kavaratti -

2 *Minicoy Lagoon - -


Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 *Fatehpursikri Pond Agra -

2 Jamuna River Eastern outskirts of Delhi

-

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

3 *Barhwasni Sonipat - 4 *Dhindala Joar Dhindala Meerut

5 *Dhupeta Dhupeta - 6 *Gohana Pond Gohana - 7 *Juan Juan -

8 *Kheri-Dhamkan Sonipat -

LAKSHADWEEP

NEW DELHI

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

11°00’ 72°05’ 1.21 Brackishwater

8°17’ 73°04’ 2,180.00 Brackishwater

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

- - - Freshwater

28°30’-28°46’ 77°22’-77°13’ 20,000.00 Freshwater



- - 2.80 Freshwater

1 2 3 4

9 Purkhaspur Ponds Purkhaspur - 10 Rithal Gohana -

11 Rohat (Joar) Sonipat -


: 3,200 ha.

41. Forest Area

: -


1,48,300 ha.

2. Forest Area

: 8,500

ha. (5.73%)



Nearest

Village/Town

Name of the

District

1 2 3 4

NATURAL WETLANDS

1 Dussoudon Lake Puducherry Puducherry

MAN-MADE WETLANDS

2 Bahour Lake Puducherry Puducherry 3 Oustri Tank (Oussudu) Puducherry Puducherry

5 6 7 8


PUDUCHERRY


49,200 ha.

2. Forest Area

:

-

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E)

Area

(ha.)

Ecological

Category

5 6 7 8

11° 55’ 79° 50’ 402.00 Fresh water

11° 57’ 79° 45’ 431.00 Fresh water 11° 57’ 79° 45’ 700.00 Fresh water

(- data not found)

PAKHAL LAKE

Pakhal lake is a small, freshwater lake situated (17° 57’ N and 80° 00’ E) in

Warangal, 40 km east of Warangal, Andhra Pradesh; set in rolling hill country with good forest cover. The lake was created in the 16th century by the construction of an earthen dam which was renovated in 1918; it is fed by numerous ephemeral and semi-permanent streams. The lake and its environs form the core area of the Pakhal

Wildlife Sanctuary. Although a relatively small lake (maximum extent 1500 ha), Pakhal is of considerable significance as it remains in an undisturbed situation well within a sanctuary. Laknavaram Lake (600 ha) is 20 km to the north, and both lakes

lie some 60 km west of the Godavari river. The entire area was once the hunting preserve of the Nizam of Hyderabad.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of l225

mm and a temperature range of 15–45°C.

Macrophytes: The

lake supports a luxuriant growth of aquatic and

emergent marsh vegetation. The

extensive grasslands around

the lake are composed of Apluda mutica,

Echinochloa

colonum, Eragrostis pilosa,

E. tenella, Hackelochloa

granularis, Heteropogon contortus and Vetiveria zizanoides. Dominant trees near the lake include Barringtonia acutangula and Xeromphis uliginosa. The sanctuary protects extensive

tropical deciduous forest with a few evergreen species.

Fishes: Fish species including Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Ophicephalus striatus.

Birds: The lake is known to support large concentrations of migratory waterfowl

during the winter months, but no details are available.

Mammals: The forested areas of the Sanctuary support Tiger Panthera tigris, Leopard P. pardus and Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus together with a variety of

ungulates.

Land tenure: The lake and surrounding areas are state-owned.

Land use: Wildlife conservation. There is some livestock grazing and subsistence

agriculture within the sanctuary.

Conservation measures taken: Protected in the Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary (86,205 ha), established in 1952.

PAKHAL LAKE

•

Source: Google Earth

Disturbances and threats: Several villages are situated within the sanctuary. Grazing by domestic livestock and collection of firewood are significant problems. Illegal fires are a frequent disturbance during the dry season.

Reference: Jain and Sastry (1983); Karpowicz (1985); WWF India (1993).

KOLLERU LAKE

A large, natural, shallow, freshwater lake (16° 30’–16° 45’ N; 81° 05’–81° 20’ E) with associated marshes, situated between the Krishna and Godavari rivers, about 55 km east of Vijayawada and some 25 km northwest of the coastline, Andhra Pradesh.

Geologically, the lake is of recent origin, having been formed by siltation from the Krishna and Godavari rivers. The surface area of the lake is entirely dependent on the volume of monsoon run-off, and is subject to wide fluctuations as water levels rise

and fall. At its maximum depth of 3 m during the rainy season, the lake can cover some 90,000 ha; at 2 m it covers 67,500 ha, and at 1m only 13,500 ha. Over 30 canals and streams enter the lake from the surrounding intensively cultivated farmland. The

major streams are the Budameru, Thammileru, and Ramileru, the remaining water courses being mostly artificial. The lake drains into the Bay of Bengal through the Upputeru river, which flows for a distance of 42 km. Although essentially a freshwater lake, Kolleru sometimes receives a small amount of seawater through the

Upputeru river.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Based on limnological properties, the lake has been delineated into two aqueous environments, the eastern zone and the

western zone. The western zone is characterised by relatively high, dissolved oxygen content, low pH, high temperature, and low transparency values. As the eastern zone is farther from the river drainage points, the water temperature, transparency, and pH

are not affected so much by river water, but influenced largely by seasonal climatic changes. On the whole, the pH varies from 7.2 to 8.2. Surface water temperatures range from 24.2°C (December) to 31.6°C (June). There are only slight vertical variations in temperature (maximum of 1.0°C), largely because of the abundance of

aquatic vegetation. The lake shows rather high values of total alkalinity, hardness, and nitrates as compared with similar water bodies elsewhere in south India.

Source: http://www.ramsar.org/

Macrophytes: The lake is covered by littoral vegetation, predominantly of hydrophytes. It showed variation in different spots with emergent, submerged and free floating aquatic macrophytes. The floating vegetation dominated by Ipomea aquatica

and Eichhornia crassipes occurred throughout the lake and formed dense mats. The submerged weeds constituted by Ottelia alismoides, Vallisneria spiralis, Ceratophyllum sp. were abundant in deeper parts of the lake and along ferry lines.

Nymphaea nouchali, N. stellata, Nymphoides hydrophylla and Salvinia cucullata were moderately distributed in many parts of the lake. The notable feature of the lake vegetation was the presence of extensive stands of Phragmites karka which occur in vast stretches in many areas of the lake. Other weeds such as Cyperus sp.,

Paspalidium, Pistia, Alternathera and Typha were present in small patches in many parts of the lake. Utricularia, Polygonum and Scirpus sp. were distributed in some areas only.

The following macrophytes can be grouped under emergent vegetation: Phragmites

karka; Typha angustata Bory et chaub; Cyperus rotandus L; Scirpus articulatus Linn and Paspalidium flavidum (retz) Camus.

Floating leaved Hydrophytes:

Species Name Species Name

Alternathera sessilia

(L) R. Br. N. stellata wild

Ipomea aquatica Forak Nymphoides

hydrophylla (Lour) O. Ktze

Nymphaea nouchali

Barm. F

Submerged Hydrophytes:


Ceratophyllum sp. Ottelia alismodides

(L) Pers

Chara and Nitella Vallisneria spiralie Hydrilla verticillata Utricularia sp.

Free floating Hydrophytes: They occurred in standing or slow flowing waters. 1. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart) somls; 2. Pistia stratoites L; 3. Salvinia cucullata; 4. Mats of Azolla, Spirodella and Lemna.

Amphibious plants: Polygonum glabrun, Sueda maritima

Fishes: The Lake supports a rich fish fauna including an endemic sub-species. Sixty-

two species of fishes belonging to 27 families have been recorded in commercial catches from Kolleru Lake and the Upputeru River. These include


Amblyoharyngodon mols E. suratensis

Anabas oligolepia Heteropnoustes fossilis

A. testudinous Hyporhamphus gaimardi

Anguilla bicolor Kavei cakvasy

A. nebulosa K. funvruata

Aplocheilus panchax K. riguta

Barbus (Puntius) chola Labeo bata

B. (Puntius) sarana Lates calcarifer

B. (Puntius) seohore Leiognathus equulus

B. (Puntius) ticto Liza parsia

Caranx sexfasciatus Lutjanus jahngarah

Catla catla Macrognathus aculeatus

Cerres punctatus Mastacembellus armatus

Chanda commersonii M. pancalus

C. name Mugil cephalus

C. ranga Mystus cavasius

Channa maruila M. qulio

C. punctata M. vittatus

C. striata Nandus nandus

Chanos chanos Notopterus notopterus

Chela labuca Ompok bimaculatus

Cirrhinus mrigala O. pabda

C. reba Oxygaster clupeoides

Clarias batrachus 55 Raabora daniconius

Closso obius giuris 56 Rhinomugil corsuls

Colisa fasciata 57 Rigtei (Osteivrana) citui

Cynoglossus puncticeps 58 Scatophagus argus

Danio devario 59 Therapon jarbua

Elops saurus 60 Wallago attu

Esomus danricus 61 Xenentodon cancils

Etroplus maculates

Birds: The lake harbors a variety of resident and migratory birds. Open build storks are sighted from March to May every year near Bhujabalapatnam. The migratory birds include Gargeney teals, Mallards, Flamingos, Adjutant storks, etc., and they

visit the lake from October to March every year. The wild ducks including Mallards, Pintails and whistling teals, etc., are very large (more than 50,000) in numbers. The importance of this lake remains a very important wetland for both resident and

migratory waterfowl, although its importance has declined in recent years. Pelecanus

philippensis formerly bred in large numbers but no longer does so. Kolleru Lake was formerly a wintering area for huge numbers of ducks. The flocks of ducks have been

described as suggesting “smoke from a score of express trains running berserk”. Large number of birds still occur in winter; in a partial census of the lake in January 1988, over 17,000 waterfowl were recorded, including 110 herons and egrets of five species, at least 1000 open-bill storks (Anastomus oscitans).

Land tenure: State-owned

Land use: Fishing; the lake once supported an inland fishery of major importance, but catches have declined drastically in recent years. Huge numbers of ducks were

once netted and trapped for sale in local markets, and some illegal duck hunting continues. Large areas of the lake have been reclaimed for agriculture or converted into aquaculture ponds.

Conservation measures taken: The lake up to +5’ contour has been declared as a wild life sanctuary recently with a view to protect the flora, fauna and the ecosystem.

Conservation measures proposed: Kolleru conservation and management plan has

been prepared but could not be implemented for want for funding.

Disturbances and threats: The principal threat is the continued expansion of agricultural activities in the area. Some 34,000 ha of the lake have been reclaimed for

agriculture in recent years, and this agricultural encroachment continues. A spurt in the volume of agricultural and industrial effluents entering the lake is causing rapid eutrophication, and pollution with pesticides is becoming a serious problem. Fish ponds are being created in the shallow margins of the lake, and a large volume of

water is being extracted for irrigation purposes. Water inlets to the lake have been bonded, reducing the inflow in summer when water requirements for agriculture are

high and availability is low. As the lake waters recede, exposed sections are encroached upon for agriculture, further adding to the silt and pollutant loads. Domestic ducks are bred in huge numbers around the lake shore, compounding the

eutrophication problem. Dissolved oxygen levels can now fall to as low as 5.6 mg per litre in the western zone. The rapid intensification of agriculture in the region is also resulting in increased rates of sedimentation, and the lake bed is now rising at the rate

of 2.5cm per year. Waterfowl are still trapped for sale in the markets of Bhimavaram and Eluru, even though such hunting is officially prohibited.

Removal of aquatic vegetation, hunting, collection of birds eggs, over-fishing,

pollution with pesticides and noise, especially that generated by irrigation pumps, are assumed to have caused the disappearance of the large pelican colony in the late 1960s. The lake was once known to be the largest pelican breeding site in the world for the grey or spot billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), but the colonies declined

through the 1970s and disappeared completely by 1974. The conversion of extensive areas (3750 ha in 1984 and steadily increasing since) for pisciculture, the simultaneous growth of capture fisheries, establishment of transport facilities and

resulting anthropogenic pressures are now threatening the very existence of the lake. Most of the fish culture tanks are managed by private entrepreneurs. The tanks obstruct the free flow of water, especially during the monsoon. Manuring the tanks with fertiliser is common, and pesticides are used to combat various diseases. In a

majority of cases, fertilisers and pesticides used are far in excess of the necessary quantity. Waters drained from the tanks are rich in nutrients and are leading to eutrophication of the lake, while the large quantities of pesticides (also used in paddy

fields within the lake area) are eliminating other aquatic life. Uncontrolled expansion of capture fisheries is resulting in depletion of natural fish stocks. The introduced exotic species Java tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) - a prolific breeder,

omnivorous, and not easily attacked by predatory fishes - is likely to establish firmly in the lake ecosystem, competing with many wild species and even entering fish tanks, leading to reduced returns for fish farmers.

Research and facilities: Environment Protection, Training and Research Institute at

Hyderabad have taken up some Research activities mainly for the monitoring of lake water quality.

Past and Present status: The lake has been converting into a wetland and in large

parts, into land-mass, over the years. This natural process hastened by human economic activity exploiting and depending on the freshwater of this vast area. Partly due to the legal status extended to culture fishing and agricultural activity within and

around the lake spread in the last fifty years and partly due to the near – inelastic demand for freshwater fish besides paddy from the Kolleru, the ecological conservation of the area has become more a human than an aesthetic need.

A lack of regulation of the seaward flow of the Kolleru waters during monsoon is progressively increasing the high-flood line, causing major flood problems in the surrounding cities of Eluru and Gudivada, besides submerging second-crop paddy lands and fish-tanks below the +5 ft. contour of the lake spread area. The lack of

regulation also causes drying up of the major inlets into the lake during the summer, reducing the lake spread to about 10000 acres and that too in patches of shallow, weed infested ponds, good mainly for animal washing and basket-fishing. The obstruction

to free flowing drainage is caused mainly by haphazard raising of culture – fishing tank bunds and construction of three major roads within the lake spread, without

adequate cross drainage works. Intermittent floods during the monsoon, occurring every four to five years due to the back – up of rainwater and agriculture run-off has caused major economic losses. The State Government’s investments in constructing

upstream regulators to control river discharges, its recurring expenses on internal channel works, weed clearance and flood damage works, the losses of submerged crops, high water levels in the city of Eluru remaining static over 6 days at a time,

submersion of fish tanks even with bunds as high as 15 ft. loss of cattle feeding grounds, mosquito menance and water borne diseases among the lake – people are few of the yet to be quantified economic losses which need to be prevented. Conversely, drying up of the lake in the summer due to poor drainage in the inflowing

systems, also creates the problem of increasing nutrient concentration affecting lake water quality, fish and bird life adversely, thus slowly reducing the very basic natural interdependence of life forms upon which human economic life relies. The

eutrophication phenomenon in the lake also affects ground water recharge, directly causing drinking water scarcity in the surrounding bed villages, in the summer. Finally, tidal inflows have tended to increase after the Upputeru has been widened and

reduced in length. Increased salinity levels during cyclonic tidal inflows, could permanently damage the limnological quality of the Kolleru.

Surrounding areas: After the development of efficient ponds culture techniques resulting in increased yield from fish ponds, marginal areas of the lake have been

converted into fish ponds. World Bank extended financial assistance to farmers for the construction and management of the fish ponds. In the last decade nearly 20,000 hectare have been converted into fish ponds. This has resulted in the degradation of

the natural habitat in the lake proper over the years affecting the fishery. The area of the lake has diminished and the breeding areas of the many species are affected.

Reference: Government of India (1987, 1989, 1990); Seshagiri Rao (1990); WWF

India (1993); Siddiqi and Chandrasekhar, (1996); Ramakrishniah et al. (1996); Barman (2004); http://www.ramsar.org/ .

NEELAPATTU TANK

Neelapattu Tank is a small tank located 68 km south of Nellore, Andhra Pradesh (13° 50’ N; 79° 59’ E) and some of 160 ha at maximum flooding studded with Barringtonia acutangula trees. The tank dries out completely during the dry season.

The remainder of the sanctuary comprises scrub forest.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate.

Macrophytes: The tank supports a dense growth of floating aquatics and a reed

Pseudoraphis aspera, and has large numbers of Barringtonia acutangula growing in it.

Special floral values: The Barringtonia trees are of some interest.

Birds: The site was created to protect a large breeding colony of spot billed pelicans (Pelecanus philippensis). Other breeding species include Anastomus oscitans and Threskiornis melanocephalus.

Land tenure: State owned

Land use: The tank is used for fishing.

Conservation measures taken: The tank is protected in the Neelapattu Bird

Sanctuary (450 ha), established in 1976 by the State Government of Andhra Pradesh.

Disturbances and threats: None known

Socio-economic values: The breeding colonies of water birds are a popular attraction

for visitors at weekends, some people coming from far a field to observe the nesting birds.

Reference: Karpowicz (1985); WWF India (1993).

PERALI POGURU BAPATLA WETLAND

The site is situated (15° 49’–15° 53’ N and 80° 27’–80° 40’ E) at the confluence of Perali and Nallamada drains along the Bay of Bengal through the coastal mangrove

forest of the western part of the Krishna delta, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh. From the confluence to Nizampatnam (80° 32’–80° 40’ E), a creek on either side of the mangrove forest is formed with narrow channels. Mudflats are extended near Nizampatnam. The total area is about 1500 ha.

Abiotic factors: Climate is generally hot and humid. Temperature varies from 20°C to 44°C.The region receives rainfall from southwest, and northeast monsoons and cyclonic storms. The average rainfall is 1000 mm.

Macrophytes: Mangroves comprise the macrophytes. The common species of mangrove are Avicennia officinalis, A. alba, Exocoecaria agallocha, Acanthus

ilicifolius, Suaeda maritima and Salicornia brachiata.

Birds: An important area for local and migratory birds. The following species have been recorded from this area


Anas acuta L. ridibundus

A. crecca Plegadis falcinellus

Anser indicus Recurvirostra avosetta

Ardea cinerea Sterna albifrons

A. purpurea S. aurantia

Charadrius

alexandrinus

S. caspia

C. dubius Tadorna ferruginea

Ciconia episcopus Threskiornis

melanocephalus

Glareola lactea Tringa glareola

Larus

brunnicephalus

T. hypoleucos

Land tenure: The mangrove area is under the Forest Department, and the surrounding area near the seashore is revenue land.

Land use: Grazing of livestock, agriculture, and prawn farming.

Disturbances and threats: Cattle grazing, human ingress, poaching of birds, prawn culture, and movement of mechanized boats are some of the causes of disturbance.

Socio-economic values: The mangrove supports an important fishery.

Reference: WWF India (1993)

KRISHNA MANGROVES

The mangroves of Krishna delta, the second largest patch of mangroves in Andhra Pradesh, situated (Lat. 15° 45’–16° 10’ N and Long. 80° 45’–81° 10’ E) in the Krishna and Guntur districts. These are mostly under reserved forest category

confined to the marshy areas of the lower coastal plain and the mouth of the river Krishna. The total area of the mangroves is about 27,661 ha. The Krishna river emerges from the hills at Vijayawada, flows for about 96 kms downstream by forming

a delta before it eventually empties into the sea. The Hamsaladevi distributary is the first to branch out 60 km downstream from Vijayawada near Avanigadda and flows northward into the sea near Machilipatnam. Mangroves have been reported to be less abundant there. The Gollamattapaya and Nadimeru distributaries branch out 25 km

down stream from Avanigadda, and flow northward to join the sea. The main Krishna channel flows southward to join the sea near False Divi point. The abundance of mangroves is also more along the main Krishna river than the other distributaries.

Mangroves are mainly prevalent around these three distributaries in tidal creeks, channels, lagoons, tidal flats and mudflats. A perusal of the satellite imagery reveals a number of geomorphic features in the Krishna delta the natural levees, meanders, point bars, coastal dunes, beaches, spits, etc.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 34°C and minimum of 27°C. The salinity ranged from 23 to 32‰.

Mangroves and grasses: Mangrove forest dominated by Avicennia alba, A. marina,

A. officinalis, Rhizophora mucronata and Excoecaria agallocha, with the grasses by Porteresia coarctata, Myriostachya wightiana, and Sarcolobus carinatus.

Agricultural land and Prosopis juliflora in adjacent areas.

Reptiles: The littoral zone adjoining the mangroves harbours the rookeries of three species of marine turtles: Dermochelys coriacea, Eretmochelys imbricata and Lepidochelys olivacea. These are thought to be the largest concentrations of marine

turtles in India south of the Mahanadi river, Orissa.

Birds: A very important area for both resident and migratory waterfowl, supporting large concentrations of many species, notably herons and egrets, Mycteria

leucocephala and Phoenicopterus ruber. Approximately 500 P. ruber visit the area each year between June and December.


Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns, and crabs. There are several human settlements within the mangrove forest, and villagers from outside enter the forest to collect wood. Surrounding areas are mainly under cultivation for rice and pulses.

Conservation measures taken: The mangrove forest has been designated as Reserved Forest. Logging was discontinued in 1976, and none has been carried out since then.

Conservation measures proposed: It has been proposed that the Reserved Forest be upgraded to a National Park, and that a vigorous programme of scientific research be initiated. Research is required to prescribe the optimal exploitation of the resources so

that a sustained resource base can be maintained.

Possible changes in land use: Potential encroachment for salt production.

Disturbances and threats: The major problem is the dependence of local people on

mangroves for firewood. Expansion of agriculture in the hinterland is leading to increased encroachment on the landward margin of the forests, and overgrazing by cattle from neighbouring villages is becoming a problem. The proposed construction

of a new road from Nagayalanka town to Nagayalanka lighthouse would involve the destruction of some of the mangrove forest. Major irrigation projects currently in progress or planned in the catchment area of the Krishna River in Maharashtra and Karnataka will alter the water regime and thus interfere with the processes of

sedimentation, primary production and nutrient cycling.

Socio-economic values: The mangroves are an important breeding and nursery area for many fishes and crustaceans of economic importance, and act as a barrier to

coastal erosion. The area has considerable potential for wildlife tourism; if this could be shown to provide an alternative source of income for the local people, further destruction of the natural resources might be averted.

Research and facilities: Some research has been conducted on the mangrove ecosystem.

References: Narendra Prasad (1987); WWF India (1993); Madhyastha et al. (2002);

Shashikala et al. (2005).

JEEDIMETLA LAKE (FOX SAGAR)

Fox Sagar lake commonly known as Jeedimetla tank, situated (18° 30’–18° 20’ N and

77° 30’–79° 30’ E) 1km west of Hyderabad–Nizamabad road at a distance of 15 km from the Hyderabad city, Hyderabad district, Andhra Pradesh. The gross capacity of the lake is ten million cubic meters when full and total area of this wetland is 4700 ha.

The lake holds water throughout the year but the level decreases from the mouth of October due to letting out of water for irrigation. Lake is open on all three sides; littoral region is shallow and retains water throughout. The catchment area has

vegetable fields, grape gardens and some agricultural lands cultivating dry crops like Jowar, maize, etc. Jeedimath Industrial Estate, one of the fast growing industrial belts is coming up with in a kilometer radius and therefore, the suburban growth depends for its water requirement on the lake in future. In recent years, the lake margin is

utilized as dumping ground for the city garbage, and brick making industry, as a result of this anthropogenic activity in the lake vicinity, water quality deterioration is noticed affecting the biota of the lake ecosystem.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with minimum temperature of 25°C and maximum of 45°C. The pH ranged from 7.2 to 9.8.

Macrophyts: The following species have been recorded from this area.


Acanthospermum sp. Cyperus platystylis

Amarantahus

spinosus

Hydrilla veticillata

Argemone maxicana Jussiea repens

Blyxa octandra Marselia quadrifolia

Cassia fistula Paspadidinum

germinatum Ceratophyllum

demusrssum

Polygonum glabrum

Chara sp. Potamogeton crispus

Croton

bonplandianum

Tridax procumbens

Phytoplankton:


Anabaena

sphaerica Melosira sp.

Closterium

acutum

Microcystis aeruginosa

C. monoliferum Navicula sp.

Cosmarium

auriculatum

Oscillatorca sp.

C. striatum Selenastrum

acuminatum

Cyclotella sp. Senedesmus

quadricauda var

bicaudatus

Cymbella sp. S. quadricauda var

longispina

Euglena acus Spirogyra hyaline

Euglena sp. S. paludosa

Fragilaria sp. Spirulina major

Hydrodictyon

reticulatum

Vovox globator

Lyngbya gracilis Zygnaema sp.

Zooplankton:

Protozoa - Euglena acus, E. viridis, Arcella gibbosa, Diflugia elegans, Diflugia

globosa, Paramaecium caudatum, Vorticella companula, Carchesium sp. and Epistylis sp.;

Rotifera - Filinea longiseta, Anuraeopsis fissa, Brachyonus calcyflorus, Brachyonus

quadricaudatus and Keratella tropica;

Cladocera - Diaphanasoma sarsi, Moina micrura, Ceriodaphnia vetulus,

Simocephalus vetulus, Chydorus sphaericus and Alona pulchella;

Copepoda - Heliodiaptomus viduus and Mesocylops cf. Leucaartii;

Diptera - Chironomus, Aedes and Culex;

Odonata - Ischnura elegans, Ichtinogomphus rapax, Brachythemis contaminate,

Crocothemis servelia servelia, Pantala flavescens and Trithemis pallidinervis;

Hemiptera:


Anisops breddini Microneta

quadristrigata

A. exigera M. striata

Corixa heiroglyphica Microvelia

senghlensis

Diplonychus

annulatum

Notonecta glauca

D. molestum Plea frontalis

D. rusticus P. pallescens

Geris spinolae Ranatra filiformes

Heliochoris breviceps R. gracilis

Laccotrephes

elongates

R. sordidula

L. griseus

Coleoptera - Hydatian fabricii, Cybister sp. and Rhantaticus.

Crustacea: Macrobrachium rosenberghii and Cardenia sp.

Mollusca: Bellamya bengalensis, B. crassa, B. dissimilis, Gabbia orcula var

producta, Lymnaea acuminata, L. luteola and Indoplanorbis exustus.

Fish:


Amblypaharyngodon

mola

Mystus vittatus

Channa gachua Notopterus

notopterus C. punctatus Puntius chola

Chela labuca P. sophore

Clarias batrachus P. ticto

Garra malya Rasbora daniconius

Glossogobius giuris Sarcotherodon

mosambicus

Heteropneustes

fossilis

Wallago attu

Lepidocephalichtyes

guntea

Amphibia: Bufo laurenti, Bufo melanogaster, Rana limnocharis and Rana

cyanophlyctis.

Avifauna:


Acridotherus tristis Eudynamys

scolopacea

Alauda gulgula Galerida cristata

Alcedo atthis Halcyon smyrnensis

Ardea alba Himantopus

himantopus A. cinerea Hirundo rustica

Ardeola grayii Hydrophasianus

chirurgus

Athene brama Merops orientalis

Bubulcus ibis Milvus migrans

Caprimulgus

asiaticus

Motacilla flava

Centropus sinensis M. maderaspatensis

Charadrius dubius Mycterrenia

leucocephala Chloropsis aurifrons Neophron

percnopterus

Clamator jacobinus Phalacrocorax niger

Coracias

benghalensis

Podiceps ruficollis

Corvus

macrorhynchos

Prinia socialis

C. splendens Psittacula krameri

Cypsiurus parvus Pycnonotus cafer

Dendrocitta

vagabunda

Streptopelia

chinensis Dicrurus adsimilis S. decaocto

Dinopium

benghalenis

Turdoides affinis

Egretta garzetta T. caudatus

E. intermedia Upupa epos

Eremopterix grisea Vanellus indicus


Land use: Mainly used for irrigation and fishing.

Conservation measures taken: Andhra Pradesh State Government

Disturbance and threats: In recent years has been employed to dump city garbage thereby causing deterioration in the water quality, affecting the fauna, flora and human health. It was also observed, that a large number of Pariah kites (Milvus

migrans Boddaert) are hovering over the lake area, because of the abundant supply of food from the city garbage piled up in the area, in turn may cause serious damage to the air crafts (Airport is at an aerial distance of 3–4 km).

Socio-economic values: Its importance for water supply, the reservoir supports a

small fishery supplying local markets, and could, if appropriately managed, evolve into a readily accessible and important centre for conservation education.

Reference: Ramakrishna (2000).

MANJIRA BARRAGE

Manjira Barrage is a water storage reservoir situated (17° 38’ N and 78° 05’ E)

50 km northwest of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, formed by a barrage on the Manjira river. The lake is about 2000 ha and has a varied shoreline with agricultural land (chiefly rice paddies and maize fields) on two sides. There are filter beds behind the earthen bund at the eastern end of the lake. Two small islands and extensive marshy

fringes, together with a variety of aquatic vegetation in the lake, provide considerable ecological diversity. The maximum depth at the barrage is 16 m, the average depth

7.5–10.5 m. Parts of the lake are parched during the dry season. Together with Osman Sagar, Himayat Sagar, and Nizam Sagar, Manjira Barrage forms part of a complex of numerous small lakes west and northwest of Hyderabad.

Abiotic factors: Rather dry, tropical monsoon climate, with temperatures ranging from 10°C to 41°C. The pH value is 8.5 and the alkalinity 184 mg per litre.

Macrophytes: Extensive, marshy fringes and abundant aquatic vegetation with

species typical of the region. The islands were originally wooded, but these have recently been cleared. The surrounding areas are mainly agricultural land with scattered Acacia spp.

Reptiles: The marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) which occurs at the reservoir is the subject of a restocking programme.

Birds: The lake supports a rich avifauna typical of the undisturbed wetlands in this

region, and is an important wintering area for migratory waterfowl. Approximately 1650 waterfowl of 46 species, rather fewer birds than usual, were present in January 1987. They included 1.00 herons, egrets of seven species, and: 24 Pseudibis

papillosa, 53 Anser indicus, 450 Tadorna ferruginea, 60 Nettapus coromandelianus,

510 ducks of 12 other species, 50 Porphyrio porphyrio and 220 Fulica atra and small numbers of 12 species of shorebirds.


Land use: The reservoir provides drinking water for the city of Hyderabad.

Conservation measures taken: The reservoir is protected as a crocodilian sanctuary

for the marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris). A restocking programme was initiated in 1978, and by January 1987, 15 young crocodiles and been released.

Disturbances and threats: There is relatively little human activity in the area, but

some illegal hunting has been reported. The felling of trees on the islands has reduced the, availability of nesting sites for large waterbirds.

Socio-economic values: The reservoir provides water supply for the surrounding areas.

Research and facilities: Waterfowl censuses were carried out in January 1987.

Reference: van der Ven (1987); WWF India (1993).

LOWER MANAIR RESERVOIR

The reservoir is situated (18° 24’ N) in the Karimnagar, Andhra Pradesh and it was constructed in 1986. The total area of the reservoir is about 8,103 ha and maximum

depth is 21.9 m. The capacity of the reservoir is 680.6 106m

3 and annual inflow is 661

106m3.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Temperature ranged from 28°C to 32°C

and pH varies between 8.3 and 9.2.

Fishes: Catla, Mrigal and Rohu.


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation and fishing

Conservation measures taken: None

Disturbances and threats: No information

Socio-economic values: Its importance for water supply. The reservoir supports a


Reference: Das et al. (2001).

HUSSAIN SAGAR LAKE

Hussain sagar is one of the oldest artificial tank situated (17° 20’ N and 78° 30’ E) in Ranga Reddy district, Andhra Pradesh formed by constructing a bund, in the mid-16th

century, linking Hyderabad and Secunderabad. This lake is an ideal place for water sports. The lake is fed by streams originating from the Musi river, and Faulksagar and Kukatpally tanks. Hussain Sagar, which supplies drinking water to the residential areas in Hyderabad city, is bounded by the tank bund and Indira Park to the east,

Sanjivayya Park to the north, Begumpet residential area to the west and the secretariat/ commercial complex to the south. The total area of the lake is about 710ha. and catchment area is about 38,850 ha.

Abiotic factors: Temperature ranging from 25°C to 35°C. The water temperature is between 24°C and 31°C and pH from 7.4 to 8.7.

Arthropods: Tendepis sp.

Molluscs: Bellamya bengalensis, Pila virens, Thiara scabra, Thiara lineata,

Lymnaea acuminata and Indoplanorbis exustus.

Birds: The lake supports a rich avifauna. The 1991 avifauna count included;


Anas crecca

(360) Cypsiurus parvus (160)

A. penelope

(160)

Egretta alba (12)

A.

poecilorhyncha

(240)

E. garzetta (32)

A. querquedula

(118) Fulica atra (24)

Ardea cinerea

(6) Hirundo rustica (280)

Ardeola grayii

(56) Nettapus

coromandelianus (260)

Aythya ferina

(98) Phalacrocorax niger (62)

Ceryle rudis (2) Podiceps ruficollis (420)


Land use: In addition to being a recreational spot, this lake is also a stock reservoir

for the State Government’s fish-breeding station, which utilises the lake for fish

culture. The surrounding areas of the lake are being developed for residential and commercial buildings.

Conservation measures taken: Revenue Department

Disturbance and threats: Extensive human activity on account of water sports (sailing and regattas at national level) and fish culture is the cause of disturbance to birds. Being located in the heart of the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad,

the lake receives a huge amount of industrial effluents, municipal sewage, and agricultural wastes. Fish kills were observed in May 1975. Subsequently, a study on the pollution of the lake revealed that a heavy load of pollutants, containing soluble

and insoluble salts (nitrates, nitrites and phosphates of calcium), had entered the lake prior to the month of May.

Socio-economic values: The lake is used for recreation by the citizens of the twin

cities of Hyderabad and Secunderbad. Fish is cultured in the lake.

Reference: Mishra and Saxena (1992); WWW India (1993); Prasad (1993); Chandrasekar (1997); Naga Prapurna and Shashikanth (2002).

CORINGA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary is a complex of mangrove swamps and coastal lagoons, located in (16° 27’–16° 59’ N and 82° 01’–92° 22’ E) the Godavari Delta, 70 km

southeast of Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh. Most of the Sanctuary consists of mangrove swamps, but there are several open shallow lagoons behind the shoreline in the south and central sections of the delta. The northernmost part of the delta is the

northern tip of Godavari Point, a peninsula 20 km in length which encloses Kakinada Bay (11,000 ha). The southernmost of the delta’s principal channels links up with the Krishna Delta to the south. The total area of mangroves in the two deltas combined may now be as little as 10,000 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. During October and November, freshwater floods large areas of the delta; the seasonal variation in salinity is thus very high, ranging from 20–30 ppt during the hot, dry season (March-May), to less than 10

ppt during the rainy season.

Macrophytes: The mangrove forests of the Godavari and Krishna Deltas are unique in India because of their stands of Sonneratia apelata and assemblage of Avicennia

species. Mangroves include species of Rhizophora, Aegiceras, and Excoecaria. The grass Myriostachia wightiana is very common in both deltas, but practically unknown elsewhere. Two principal halophytic communities occur: those growing on the river

banks and those growing on the ancient alluvial soils in the interior of the delta.

Birds: An important area for a variety of resident and migratory waterfowl. Species known to occur include Pelecanus philippensis, presumably as a non-breeding visitor, various species of heron, egret, stork, ibis, and Phoenicopterus ruber, the latter in

large numbers.

Reptiles: Attempts are currently being made to re-establish the estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) in the area. Marine turtles occur within the sanctuary, but

details are lacking.

Mammals: Mammals include Lutra sp., Felis viverrina, and Canis aureus.


Land use: Fishing; subsistence agriculture on the landward edge of the Sanctuary.

Conservation measures taken: Protected within the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary

(23,570 ha), established in July 1978. The Sanctuary was created partly for the re-introduction of the estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), using animals reared at Hyderabad from eggs from the Andaman Islands. Three crocodiles, approximately 1.2 m in length were released in 1978. The Sanctuary is managed by the Divisional Forest

Officer, Kakinada. A management plan which has been drafted is now being implemented.

Disturbances and threats: The principal disturbance in the mangrove forest is from

small-scale fishing operations. Expansion of the human population in the agricultural hinterland and encroachment on the land-ward edge of the Sanctuary are continuing to cause further problems for the management of the Sanctuary.

Socio-economic values: No information

Research and facilities: Preliminary surveys of the fauna and flora have been carried out, and a management plan has been prepared for the Sanctuary.

Reference: Groombridge (1982); Kar (1984); Karpowicz (1985); WWW India (1993).

MUSI RESERVOIR

Musi reservoir situated (Lat. 17° 14’ N) in the Nalgonda, Andhra Pradesh and it was constructed in 1963. The total area of this reservoir is 2507 ha. and maximum depth of the reservoir is 15.3m. The capacity of the reservoir is 130.3 106m3 and annual

inflow is 87.7 106m

3.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with temperature ranged from 29.5°C to 30.0°C. The pH varies from 8.1 to 9.8.

Zooplankton: The reservoir has a fairly rich crop zooplankton and equally rich bottom fauna consisting of larvae of chironomids and other dipterans.

Prawns: Macrobrachium malcolmsonii

Fishes: Tilapia and murrels (Channa striatus and C. punctatus)


Land use: Irrigation and Fishing





Pollution status: Presently, the reservoir is a polluted by sewage


KADAM RESERVOIR

The reservoir is situated in (19° 18’ N) the Adilabad, Andhra Pradesh and constructed in 1958. The total area of the reservoir is about 2474 ha. and maximum depth is 28.4 m. The capacity of the reservoir is 215.3 106m3 and annual inflow is about 773.1 106m3.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with temperature ranged from 28.5°C to 30.5°C and pH varies from 7.9 to 9.8.

Fishes: Fishes consists of mostly indigenous fishes which include the Mahseer, Tor

khudree.


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation and fishing.



Socio-economic values: Its importance for water supply, the reservoir supports a small fishery supplying local markets, and could, if appropriately managed, evolve into a readily accessible and important centre for conservation education.


MID-PENNAR RESERVOIR

The reservoir is situated (14° 52’ N) in the Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh and was

constructed in 1964. The total area is about 1703 ha and maximum depth is 30.4 m. The capacity of the reservoir is 146.1 106m3 and annual inflow is 373.8 106m3.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Temperature ranged from 28.8°C to 30.0°C and pH varies from 8.1 to 8.9.

Zooplankton: It is rich in zooplankton.

Fishes: Puntius kolus, Labeo potail, Mystus seenghala were recorded.


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation and fishing.






SINGUR RESERVOIR

The reservoir is situated (17° 45’ N) in the Medak, Andhra Pradesh, and it was constructed in 1989. The total area of this wetland is 16,534 ha and maximum depth is 23.6 m. The capacity of the reservoir is about 849.5 106m3 and annual inflow is 595.8 106m3.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with temperature ranging from 25.5°C to 29°C. The pH varies from 8.0 to 9.2.


Fishes: Rohu, Mrigal and other fishes.


Land use: Water supply to Hyderabad city.

Socio-economic values: It is relatively a new impoundment meant for supply of water to Hyderabad city.


SOMASILA RESERVOIR

The reservoir is situated in (14° 29’ N) the Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, and it was

constructed in 1988. The total area of this wetland is about 21,349 ha. and maximum depth is 33.5 m. The capacity of the reservoir is 2208.4 106m3 and annual inflow is 2562.5 106m3.

Abiotic factors: Temperature ranged from 29°C to 31°C and pH range from minimum of 8.1 to 8.5.

Fauna: Catla and Mrigal show signs of good growth, while that of Rohu is poor.





Socio-economic values: The lake supports an important fishing industry and is a valuable source of water for irrigation and domestic use.


WETLANDS IN INDRAVATI NATIONAL PARK

Indravati national park is situated on 19° 00’–29° 30’ N, 81° 00’– 82° 00’ E along the Indravati River from Jagdalpur downstream to the region of Pusnar, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. The Indravati National Park consists of a broad

stretch of land along the Indravati River in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, which has been reclaimed for rehabilitation purposes. Wetland habitats include the river itself, spring-fed marshes and numerous tanks and pools in the clay deposits in low-lying areas. The area of wetlands are unknown, however, the National

Park is 125,837 ha within a Tiger Reserve of 208,400ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with the average annual rainfall increasing from 1,270 mm in the west to 1,520 mm in the east. Temperatures range from 11°C to 40°C.

Macrophytes: Aquatic plants in and around the tanks include Nelumbo nucifera,

Nymphaea spp, Trapa natans and Utricularia aurea, Isoetes coromandelina also

occurs. At Chapka and Jayathgiri, natural springs support a compact, closed swampy vegetation with Calamus ratang, Flagellaria indica, Pandanus tectonius, Similax

prolifera and tall specimens of Equisetum debile. Most of the Park consists of tropical mixed deciduous forest interspersed with grassy glades.

Birds: The wetlands are reported to be rich in water birds, but no details are

available.

Mammals: The National Park and Tiger Reserve support a wide variety of large

mammals including Panthera tigris, P. pardus, Bos gaurus, Cervus unicolor, Axis

axis, Sus scrofa, Canis lupus and Hyaena hyaena. The reserves contain the most

extensive potential habitat for wild Water Buffalo Bubalus bubalis in India, and would be suitable for re-introduction of the Swamp Deer Cervus duvaucelli.

Land tenure: State owned.

Land use: The area is managed as a nature reserve.

Conservation measures taken: The wetlands are protected in the Indravati National Park (125,837 ha), established in 1978. The Park is incorporated within the Indravati Tiger Reserve (208,400 ha), established in 1982 under Project Tiger.

Conservation measures proposed: The Management Plan under Project Tiger aims to relocate villages in central and northern parts of the reserve, develop water

supplies, and give effective protection against fire and poaching.

Disturbances and threats: There are some villages in the central and northern parts of the Tiger Reserve.

Economic and social values: No information.

Research and facilities: Most of the research in the National Park and Tiger Reserve has focussed on the larger mammals, and little if any work seems to have been carried out on the wetlands.

Reference: Jam and Sastry (1983); WWF India (1993).

WYRA RESERVOIR

The location of the reservoir is Lat. 7° 11’ N, and was constructed in 1930 in the Khamman, Andhra Pradesh. The total area of this wetland is about 1626ha. Maximum depth is 18.6m. The capacity of the reservoir is 64.7 106m3 and annual inflow is 193.7

x 106m

3.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with temperature ranging from 29°C to 30.0°C and pH varies from 8.2 to 9.9.

Zooplankton: Wyra has a good population of zooplankton and fairly rich bottom fauna consisting of Tendepes and other dipteran larvae.


Fishes: Besides Catla and Rohu, addition of common carp should be considered for stocking.







SRISAILAM RESERVOIR

It is a largest reservoir situated (16° 50’ N) in the Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh. The reservoir was constructed in 1984. The total area of this reservoir is about 61,404ha.

and maximum depth is 102.1m. The capacity of the reservoir is 8721 106m3 and annual inflow is 36449.9 106m3.

Abiotic factors: Temperature range from a minimum of 28.5°C and maximum of 28.8°C and pH varies from 7.9 to 8.8.

Fishes: Major carps are being exploited in considerable quantities.





Socio-economic values: Its importance for water supply and supports a small fishery supplying local markets.


POCHARAM RESERVOIR

Pocharam reservoir is situated on 18° 08’ N, 77° 57’ E on the Manjira River, 85 km

northwest of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. It is a large water storage reservoir on the Manjira River, about 70 km downstream from Manjira Barrage. The reservoir is situated in undulating hills with dry deciduous forest and scrub jungle. The lake varies

in extent from 15,000 to 20,000 ha depending upon the season and fluctuations in rainfall. It reaches a maximum depth of about 6–7 m. The total area of the wetland is 20,000 ha

Abiotic factors: Rather dry tropical monsoon climate, with temperatures ranging from 10–41°C and water is alkaline with a pH of 7.5–8.0.

Macrophytes: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. The lake is surrounded by cultivation with scrub jungle at 50–200 m from the shoreline.

POCHARAM RESERVOIR

•


Birds: The lake is known to support a wide variety of both resident and migratory waterfowl, but little information is available. Over 10,000 waterfowl of at least 53 species were present in January 1987, including: 90 herons and egrets of 7 species;


Anas acuta (1,400) Aythya ferina (400)

A. clypeata (760) A. fuligula (840)

A. crecca (960) A. nyroca (50)

A. penelope (800) Grus grus (50)

A. poecilorhynchos

(1,200) Netta rufina (180)

A. querquedula (700)

Nettapus

coromandelianus (630) A. strepera (300) Platalea leucorodia (100)

Anastomus oscitans (50)

Rhynchops albicollis (9)

Anser indicus (620) Tadorna ferruginea (560)

Anthropoides virgo (100)

Large numbers of shorebirds of at least 14 species were also present, but no count was possible.

Land tenure: The reservoir is state owned.

Land use: Water supply for irrigation and domestic use. Forestry exploitation and agriculture in surrounding areas.

Conservation measures taken: Part of the reservoir is included in the Pocharam Sanctuary (12,964 ha), established in 1952 and managed by the Divisional Forest Officer, Madak.

Disturbances and threats: Forestry activities in the watershed.

Socio-economic values: The reservoir provides an important water supply for the surrounding areas.

Research and facilities: A mid-winter waterfowl census was carried out in January 1987.

Reference: WWF India (1993).

WETLANDS IN MAHAO (MEHAO) SANCTUARY

Mahao Sanctuary is located (28° 05’–29° 15’ N and 95° 40’–96° 03’ E) around the

valley of the Dri river, 65 km from Balipara Railway Station and 100 km northeast of Dibrugarh, Dibang Valley district, Arunachal Pradesh, which flows almost due south from the extreme northeastern corner of India to join the confluence of the Dihang and Lohit rivers at 27° 55’ N, 95° 40’ E. Most of the Sanctuary is primary, tropical,

wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, but there are some areas of grassland and seasonally inundated valley floors with riverine formations. The total area of this sanctuary is about 28,150 ha.

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical to temperate climate, with an average annual rainfall of 4,189 mm, most of which occurs

during May–

September.

Birds: The endangered white-

winged wood-duck (Cairina

scutulata) still

persists in small numbers along the

lower course of the Dri river.

Mammals: The swamp deer

(Cervus

duvaucelli) inhabits the Sanctuary.


Land use: No information

Conservation measures taken: The Mahao Sanctuary (28,150 ha) was established in 1980.




WETLANDS IN LALI SANCTUARY

Lali is a forest sanctuary situated (Lat. 27° 53’–28° 10’ N, 95° 23’– 95° 30’ E) 16 km southeast of Pasighat and 80 km northeast of Dibrugarh, East Siang district,

Arunachal Pradesh and the sanctuary is incorporating the lower reaches and floodplain of the Dihang river just north of its confluence with the Lohit river. Wetland habitats include riverine marshes, seasonally flooded grassland and riparian

forest. There are several islands in the river, the largest of which is about 500 ha in area and the total area of this sanctuary is about 19,000 ha.

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate; temperature range from 12°C to 33°C.

WETLANDS IN MAHAO (MEHAO) SANCTUARY •


Macrophytes: Tropical, wet, evergreen forest with riverine forest and grasslands in the valley bottoms.

Mammals: Swamp deer (Cervus duvaucelli) and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) utilise the valley floor wetlands.


Land use: Sanctuary

Conservation measures taken: The Lali Sanctuary (19,000 ha) was established in 1978.

Socio-economic values: The large number of birds visiting this area.


WETLANDS IN NAMDAPHA NATIONAL PARK

The Namdapha National Park situated (27° 23’–27° 39’ N and 96° 15’–96° 58’ E) on the Burmese border, 90 km from Railway Station and 140 km east of Dibrugarh, Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh and the park is incorporates a great diversity of

ecosystems from riverine forest at the lowest elevations, through tropical, wet, evergreen forest, moist evergreen forest, mixed deciduous forest, and hill evergreen formations, to alpine barrens at over 4500m. Wetland habitats include the Miao river,

its tributaries, and associated marshes and riparian forests. The National Park is about 180,782 ha, including a core area of 69,500 ha.

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical to temperate climate, with an annual rainfall of

3000–4000 mm. The temperature range varies greatly, depending on altitude.

Macrophytes: Situated at the junction of three biotic provinces, the Park displays very diverse terrestrial vegetation. Particularly relevant are large areas of north Indian, tropical, moist deciduous forest on alluvial flats and along rivers and stream banks.

Extensive riverine formations, particularly along the Miao river, represent some of the least spoilt low-land forests in India (73 species of lichens, 59 bryophytes, 112 pteridophytes, five gymnosperms, 801 angiosprems are only a few of the species

recorded in 60% of the area of this reserve).

Special floral values: Several rare and endangered species are found here. Two new genera, four new species, four new species, and 14 new distributional records have

been recorded. There is a high level of endemism. Pinus merkusii and Abier delavavi

are found only here in India. Mishmi tita, of medicinal value, is also found in the reserve.

Insects: A total of 14 species of beetles have been recorded in the national park

Molluscs: Five species of mollusk have been recorded.

Fishes: A total of 5 species of fish were recorded in the national park.

Amphibians: Three of amphibians have been recorded.

Reptiles: A total of 90 species of reptiles were recorded.

Birds: A total of 350 species of birds were recorded. The endangered white-winged

wood-duck (Cairina scululala) may stil occur along the Miao river at the lowest elevations in the Park, although it is not known whether the species was ever truly resident here.

Mammals: The fauna of the National Park remains virtually intact; more than 96 species of mammals. Wetland mammals include the fishing cat (Felis viverrina) and common otter (Lutra lutra). It is the only reserve in India that is home to four of the

large cats: tiger, leopard, clouded leopard, and snow leopard. A new species, the Namdapha flying squirrel, was discovered here for the first time in 1983.


Land use: Managed as a nature reserve

Conservation measures taken: The National Park (180,782 ha) was established in 1972 and is a Project Tiger Reserve.

Conservation measures proposed: There are plans to reintroduce the endangered White-winged Wood-Duck Cairina scutulata into the Park from the Assam Valley captive breeding projects. There is a proposal to extend the National Park by 25,000

ha to the north, into Lohit District. Provision should be made for a sanctuary buffer zone of 10,000 ha along the western lowland border.

Disturbances and threats: The reserve is remote, inaccessible, with difficult terrain.

These factors prevent biotic pressures on the core and sustain the rich vegetation. There are, however, incidents of poaching on the Indo-Burmese border.

Socio-economic values: Namdapha, a biosphere reserve, has a high biodiversity. The

area caters to very few tourists. The local Chakma tribals hunt in the reserve on traditional and ceremonial occasions, but not on an excessive scale. They live in harmony with the forests.

Reference: Government of India (1993); WWF India (1993).

BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER VALLEY

The Brahmaputra flood plain (25° 45’ N, 89° 50’ E) forms one vast wetland region,

particularly during years of above average rainfall, for example 1987. The area stretches for over 600 kms from the frontier with Bangladesh (25° 45’ N, 89° 50’ E), where the valley exceeds 90 km in width, to the point where its two principal tributaries, the Lohit and Dibang, unite (27° 50’ N, 95° 40’ E). Here the valley has

narrowed to less than 50 km in width.

The river itself already exceeds three km in width at the confluence of the Lohit and Dibang, and widens to nearly 10 km at the Bangladesh border. In common with the other great north Indian rivers, it changes course frequently, leaving permanent or seasonal lakes and marshes in the abandoned channels. There are over 70 such lakes

of between 100 and 500 ha in area, but only five or six in excess of 500 ha. At several points, the valley is significantly constrained by the northward projecting spurs of the Naga and Shillong Hills, and it is here that the principal urban areas have become

established, e.g. Gauhati and Goalpara. The expansion of urban areas, industrial activity and the intensification of agriculture are putting great pressure on the wetland resources of the Brahmaputra. A number of sanctuaries have been established in the valley, but as yet none has been created specifically for its wetland ecosystem. This

would seem to be an urgent priority. Six of the most important sites within the Brahmaputra Valley are treated separately below; i.e. Deepar Bell, Beels of Assam, Sareswar Beel, Wetlands in Manas national park and Wetlands in Laokhawa, Orange

and Sona Rupai sanctuaries.

DEEPOR BEEL

Deepor beel (26° 08’ N, 91° 39’ E) is a permanent, freshwater lake, in a former

channel of the Brahmaputra river, now to the south of the main river south-west of Guwahati city, Assam. It is a large natural wetland having great biological and environmental importance besides being the only major storm water storage basin for

the Guwahati city (Deka and Goswami, 1992). Geomorphologically, its origin and development are intimately linked with the geologic and tectonic history of the region, hydrology and channel dynamics of rivers and pattern and intensity of land

use in the area. It is commonly believed that the beel together with those adjoining it

BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER VALLEY

•

Source: Google earth

represents an abandoned channel of the Brahmaputra system. The beel is located in a broad U-shaped valley rammed between the steep highlands on the north and south. The highlands lying immediately to the north and south of the beel are made up of

gneisses and schist’s of the Archaean age, whereas the beel and its lowland fringe is underlain by recent alluvium consisting of clay, silt, sand and pebbles. At maximum flooding, it is about four metres deep; during the dry season, the depth drops to about

one metre. The main sources of water are the Basistha and Kalmani rivers and local monsoon run-off between May and September. The beel drains into the Brahmautra river 5 km to the north, through the Khonajan channel. About half of the beel dries out during the winter months, and at this time, the exposed shores are converted into rice

paddies to a width of up to one kilometer. The total area of the wetland is about 4,000 ha.

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate with a prolonged monsoon season from May to September, a relatively cool, dry winter, and a pre-monsoon period in

March-May with occasional storms. Temperatures range from 10.6º to 32.0ºC.

Macrophytes: The dominant aquatic plants include


Azolla pinnata Nymphaea rubra

Eichhornia crassipes Ottelia alismoides Eleocharis

plantaginea Pistia stratiotes

Hydrilla verticillata Potamogeton

crispus Ipomoea reptans Sagittaria

sagittifolia Lemna minor Spirodela polyrhiza


Nymphaea albea Vallisneria spiralis

The giant water lily (Euryale ferox) also grows here. The lake shore vegetation includes Eupatorium odoratum, Achyranthes aspera, Cyperus esculoentus Phragmites

karka, Vitex trifolia, Accium basilium, Saccharum spontaneum, and Imperata

arundinacea. Dominant tree species in the nearby deciduous forests include Tectona

grandis, Ficus bengalensis, and Bombax malabaricum. The giant water lilies (Euryale

ferox) are of considerable botanical interest and economic importance.

Phytoplankton: Phytoplankton is one of the major components of the lowest level of the producers in the Deepor beel ecosystem. Again, the fluctuations of water regime during summer and winter also influence the diversity and abundance of the lowest

level of the food web. The dominant species are represented by Oscillatoria sp. and Microcystis sp. A total of 18 genera of phytoplankton are reported only from the core area of the Deepor beel ecosystem. The population density of phytoplankton reaches fairly high levels during winter season and re-treating monsoon but remain low during

summer season.

Zooplankton: Altogether 21 genera of zooplanktons were identified in Deepor beel, the dominant species were from the groups of Cladoceran, Copepod, Rotifers and

Protozoans, such as, Paramecium sp., etc. (Chetry 1999). The beel is rich with high zooplankton diversity during the pre-monsoon, monsoon and winter seasons.

Benthos: The important benthic fauna in the Deepor beel ecosystem includes Tubifex

sp., Nais sp., Pheritima sp., Dero sp., Limnodrillus sp., Chaoborus sp., Chironomus sp., Bellemya sp., Bortia sp., Chaoborous sp., Culicoids sp., Dragon fly larvae, stone fly larvae, Cybister larvae, Pyla globosa, Unio sp., etc.

Fishes: The diversity and concentration of indigenous fresh water fish species is very high in Deepor beel area owing to the diverse habitat types and high productivity of the wetland. Deepor beel is a permanent deep and shallow water wetland; hence, the natural breeding of some of them takes place within the beel itself. According to

Chetry (1999), Deepor beel supports 50 different fish species under 19 families. The rich fish fauna includes


Notopterus chitolus Botia Dario

N. notopterus Lepidocephalus guntea

Gadusia chapra Aorichtys seenghala

Anabus testudineus Mystus vitatus

Amblyphraygodon mola M. tengra

Aspidoporaria morar Ompok pabo

Puntius sophore Wallago attu

P. ticto Ailia colia

P. sarana Clarias batrachus

P. conchonius Heteropneustes fossilis

Catla catla Xenentodon cancila

Labeo rohita Monopterus cuchia

L. calbasu Chanda nama

L. gonius C. ranga

L. gonius Glossogobius giuris

L. diagonelis Colisa fasciata

Cirrhinus reba Channa punctatus

C. mrigala C. orientalis

Ctenopharyngodon idella C. marulius

Hypophthalmiethys molitrix C. striatus

Cyprinus carpio var communis C. gachua

Rasbora daniconius Mastacembalus armatus

R. bacaila M. aculeatus

Barilius barila Tetradon cutcutia

B. bola Lepidocephalus gunted

Reptiles: There are no comprehensive study reports on Herpeto fauna in Deepor beel, however, preliminary survey revealed the presence of at least 20 amphibian, 12

lizards, 18 snakes and 6 turtle and tortoise species in Deepor beel (Saikia 2000).

Birds: Deepor beel harbors a large number of terrestrial and aquatic birds, most of which are either endemic, threatened and endangered. Altogether 219 bird species

have been recorded, of which 70 species are waterfowl (Saikia and Bhattacharjee 1987, Barman at et. 1996 and Saikia 2000 unpublished. Rostratula benghalensia and Gallinago solitaria were reported in February 1988. Breeding species include Nettapus coromandelianus, Gallicrex cinerea, Porphyrio porphyrio, and Metopidius

indicus. The species known to occur includes Little grebe– Tachybaptus ruficollis (348), Great Crested Grebe–Podiceps cristatus (4), Blacknecked Grebe – P.

nigricollis (1), Spotbilled pelican – Pelecanus philippensis (5), Large Cormorant –

Phalacrocorax carbo (5), Little Cormorant – P. niger (1056), Indian Shag – P.

fuscicollis (1), Giant Heron – Ardea goliath (1), Pond Heron – Adreola grayii (261), Little Egret–Egretta garzetta (216), Intermediate Egret–Egretta intermedia (195),

Cattle Egret– Bubulcus ibis (63), Great Egret– Casmerodius albus (86), Purple Heron–Ardea purpurea (17), Grey Heron – A. cinerea (3), Black Bittern– Ixobrychus

flavicollis (1), Cinamon Bittern – I. cinnamomeus (16), Yellow Bittern –

I. Sinensis (7), Black Crowned Night Heron -Nycticorax nycticorax (17), Asian Openbill Stork – Anastomus oscitans (17), Lesser Adjutant Stork–Leptoptilos

javanicus (24), Greater Adjutant Stork–L. dubius (56), Blacknecked Stork – Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus (1), Barheaded Geese– Anser indicus (11), Large

Whistling Teal – Dendrocygna bicolor (27), Lesser Whistling Teal – D. javanica (3000), Ruddy Shelduck – Tadorna ferruginea (769), Indian Cotton Teal – Nettapus

coromandelianus (7), Eurasia Wigeon – Anas penelope (27), Gadwall – A. strepera

(500), Common Teal – A. crecca (1689), Spot billed Duck – A. poecilorhyncha (65), Mallard – A. platyrhynchos (35), Northern Pintail – A. acuta (5349), Gargany – A.

querquedula (317), Northern Shoveler – A. clypeata (914), Red Crested Pochard –

Netta rufina (7), Common Pochard – Aythya ferina (1000), Baer’s Pochard – A. baeri (1018), Ferruginous Duck – A. nyroca (609), Tufted Duck – A. fuligula (175), Water Rail – Rallus aquaticus (11), White breasted Waterhen – Amaurornis phoenicurus (22), Watercock – Gallicrex cinerea (3), Purple Swamphen – Porphyrio porphyrio

(60), Common Coot – Fulica atra (95), Pheasant Tail Jacana – Hydrophasianus

chirurgus (20), Bronze Winged Jacana – Metopidius indicus (90), Painted Snip – Rostratula benghalensis (8), Oriental Partincole – Iglareola maldivarum (10),

Northern Lapwing – Vanellus vanellus (19), Grey-headed lapwing-V. cinereus (24), Red-Wattled lapwing – V. indicus (24), Asiatic Golden Plover – Pluvialis dominica (235), Little Ringed Plover – Charadrius dubius (150), Spotted redshank – Tringa

erythropus (305), Marsh Sandpiper – T. stagnatilis (150), Green Shank – T. nebularia

(10), Green Sandpiper – T. ochropus (10), Wood Sand Piper – T. glareola (20), Spoonbilled Sandpiper – Eurynorhynchus pygmeus (1), Common Sand Piper – Actitis

hypoleucos (65), Solitary Snip – Gallinago solitaria (12), Pintail Snip – G. stenura

(12), Common Snip – G. gallinago (21), Little Stint – Calidris minuta (22), Black Headed Gull – Larus ridibundus (8), Whiskered Tern – Chlidonias hybridus (4), Indian River tern – Sterna aurantia (5) and Black bellied Tern – S. acuticauda (1).

Mammals: Wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) still visit the beel despite its proximity to Guwahati.

Land tenure: The site is owned by the Fishery Department of the Government of

Assam. The surroundings are in private property, except for the Gorbhanga Reserve Forest which is state-owned.

Land use: The wetland is used for fishery, domestic water supply, collection of natural products, fodder and food supply, transport, and recreation. Traditionally, the

Beel provides fodder to cattle and food to the local people.

Conservation measures taken: The Government of Assam vides Gazette Notification No. FRW.1/80/26 declared 414ha of the beel area as a Sanctuary (Dipor

Beel Sanctuary). Shooting and bird-trapping are prohibited by law, but enforcement is poor. The area is patrolled by the Fishery Department.

Conservation measures proposed: The newly constructed railway line through the

southern periphery of Deepor beel is a major threat to the ecosystem, particularly, in view of encroachments, forest destruction, erosion, disturbance, etc. Therefore the

following measures should be taken:

• Halting of trains should be avoided within the boundary of Deepor beel;

• Land adjacent to the railway line should be kept free from any encroachment;

• To keep the noise level down, suitable plantations should be raised on either side of the line;

• Any form of settlement should not be allowed within the low-lying parts of Deepor beel (all through the Deepor beel) even if private owned land are

available;

• Further destruction of adjacent hilly forest should not be allowed (destroyed during construction of railway line) and eco-restoration should be initiated immediately;

• The effectiveness of the Deepor beel system as a storm water detention basin for Guwahati city should be preserved and the increasing pressure of storm

runoff from the city to the beel should be lessened through creation of additional storage capacity in the naturally depressed areas within the greater metropolitan area;

• Saikia and Bhattacharjee (1987) have proposed that the entire beel be notified as a bird sanctuary;

• Considering the urgency for solution of the water logging problem of the city, the use of the Deepor beel system as a storm water reservoir should receive high priority and other uses of the beel system should be so planned as to be compatible with this overriding objective;

• The city runoff which includes sewage should be treated before being discharged into the Deepor beel system;

• More area should be covered under Bird sanctuary which includes highland

within it, and other small naturally depressed areas also should be included and proper plantation programme should be initiated to create breeding ground of residential waterfowl;

• Land cutting, brick making factory and industrial development should be stopped within and in the surrounding areas of Deepor beel;

• All forms of government settlements should be stopped immediately and the area should be preserved as a natural state.

• Development of bird related ecotourism for the benefit of local habitants and for conservation education.

Socio-economic values: The wetland is used for fishery, domestic water supply,

collection of natural products, fodder and food supply, transport, and recreation. Traditonally, the Beel provides fodder to cattle and food to the local people. Nymphea nuts and flowers are sold on the local markets and they constitute valuable natural

crops. Ornamental fish, aquarium and medicinal plants are also collected, but they are more commercial products. Seeds of Euryale ferox are a major source of income, as they are annaully leased by the Government Revenue Department. Several studies

from the Gauhati University have taken place in the Beel. The surroundings are used for settlement, cultivation of paddy, roads and railways, industries, a hospital and

educational institutions. Several natural products such as orchids of commercial value and valuable trees (e.g. Shorea robusta) are collected in the neighbouring forests.

Poor people inhabiting the vicinity of the beel ecosystem, collect their required protein in the form of fish and other animal meats. The people of southern boundary communicate with the city people through the beel water by country boats.

Disturbance and threats: Adverse factors threatening the site include intensive

fishing activities, hunting on waterbirds, wide use of agrochemicals on the adjacent lands, and eutrophication of the lake. Uncontrolled fishing practices are harmfull to the wetland ecosystem and permanently (day and night) disturbing waterbirds. The

birds are also under pressure by being hunted and netted illegally. Agrochemicals enter the lake by run-off, enhancing its eutrophication and its infestation with Eichhornia crassipes. The surroundings are threatened by illegal forestry activities,

encroachment, and construction projects. In order to supply timber to the saw-mills, the forests are being felled illegally resulting in increased erosion and causing rapid siltation of the Beel. Settlements and permanent agriculture are steadily encroaching the wetland and reducing the extent of the marsh vegetation. Construction projects

concerning a railway line, industrial development, settlements and a brick making- and soil cutting factory are a real threat to the wetland ecosystem.

Research and facilities: The beel has been studied in some detail by biologists from

the Animal Ecology Laboratory in the Department of Zoology, Gauhati University.

Importance: Deepor Beel is one of the largest and most important beels in the Brahmaputra valley of lower Assam and is a representative wetland type found within

the Burma Monsoon Forest biogeographic region. The site supports IUCN red-listed species such as the birds Pelecanus philippensis, Aythya baeri, Leptoptilos javanicus,

Haliaeetus leucogaster, and L. dubius and the mammal Elephas maximus. Deepor beel is one of the staging sites on the migratory flyways and some of the largest

congregations of aquatic birds in Assam can be seen here, particularly in winter. Highest number of single day count of waterbirds in Deepor beel recorded is 19,000 birds. Deepor Beel supports 50 fish species belonging to 19 families. These include

high concentration and diversity of indigenous freshwater species. Fish depend on the wetland for food, spawning and nursery.

Management authority: Principal Chief Conservator of Forests Assam State, P.O.

Rehabari Guwahati- 8 (Assam)

Past and Present status: The intensive fishing activities, prevalent both by day and night, causes a considerable disturbance and also there is heavy hunting pressure on

water birds. Large number of water birds are netted illegally during the winter months (December to March) for sale in local markets. Pesticides and fertilizers are widely used on adjacent agricultural land, and enter the lake in runoff. The fertilisers have accelerated eutrophication, and infestation with Echhornia crassipes is now

becoming a serious problem.

Surrounding areas: The forests in the catchment area to the south are often being felled illegally to supply timber for the sawmills, resulting in increased erosion, which

in turns, is causing rapid siltation in the beel. Settlements and permanent agriculture are steadily encroaching on the wetland and reducing the extent of the marsh vegetation. A government proposal to dig a canal from Guwahati city to the beel to

dispose of the city’s sewage would, if carried out, have disastrous effects on the wetland ecosystem. The major threats are summarized as follows;

• Construction of railway line along the southern boundary of the Deepor beel;

• Industrial development within the peiphery of the beel;

• Large scale encroachment and government as well as private settlement within

the Deepor beel area;

• Allotting the government vacant land to private party by Government settlement department;

• Brick making factory and soil cutting within the beel ecosystem;

• Hunting, trapping and killing of wild birds and mammals within and in the adjoining areas of Deepor beel;

• Unplanned fishing practice without controlling mesh size and using water pump, etc.

The newly constructed railway line through the southern periphery of Deepor beel is a major threat to the ecosystem, particularly, in view of encroachments, forest destruction, erosion, disturbance, etc.

Reference: Saikia and Bhattacharjee (1987), Sarma et al. (1993), Dutta et al. (1993), Boruah et al. (1992), Deka and Goswami (1992), Deka and Goswami (1993), Government of Assam, 1990. Assam Pollution Control Board, Guwahati, 1989.

http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website).

BEELS OF ASSAM

Derelict and semi-derelict wetlands constituting apart of the Brahmaputra floodplain,

the beels are a vitally important fishery resource of Assam. There are about 1392

beels in the state Assam, the maximum number being in Nagaon district (289), followed by Cachar (263), North Lakhimpur (153), and Jorhat (131). Together the

beels constitute over 80% of Assam’s lentic waters. Beels are of two types: lake-like

beels, which are wide, shallow, with an irregular shoreline and are connected to

rivers through channels; and oxbow beels, which are mostly parts of abandoned river

courses (although some may be connected to the main river system through channels),

are relatively narrow, long, and have a curved or serpentine shape. Districts North Lakhimpur and Nagaon have the maximum number of oxbow beels while lower

Assam, comprising Goalpara, Dhubri and Kokrajar, has batteries of large, lake-like

beels with high fisheries potential. Some specific beels are; Tamaranga (57 ha,

Goalpara district); Dhir (689 ha, Dhubri district); Dipor (4000 ha, Kamrup district -

see entry on wetland site 70); Sareswar (1700 ha, Dhubri district - see entry on

wetland site 69); Dighali, Dora, Chandubi, and Salsala (250 ha, 463 ha, 311 ha, and 21 ha, respectively, Kamrup district). Beel morphometry is affected by incursion of

river water, degree of precipitation, and nature of catchment. The deposits of decaying

weeds at the bottom contribute to richness of the bottom soils in beels. The pH ranges

from 6.0 to 7.6; and water depth from 1m to 5.3 m.

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate with a prolonged monsoon season

from May to September. A relatively cool, dry winter and a pre-monsoon period from March to May with occasional storms. Temperatures range from 10.6°C to 32°C.

Macrophytes: The forms of many large beels have favoured extensive development

of marginal and submerged vegetation dominated by macrophytes. With high values

of light quality and quantity combined with appropriate temperature regime and total

alkalinity, the submerged macrophytes playa major role in determining plankton

productivity and primary productivity in beels. Owing to a high rate of accumulation

of nutrients, macrophytes compete with phytoplankton and, under macrophyte-dominated conditions, phytoplankton do not get enough nutrients for their growth. As

a result, phytoplankton, in general, is poor in beels. In Dhir beel, phytoplankton is

dominated by Chlorophyceae (Pediastrum, Spirogyra, Eudorina Mongeotia) and

Myxophyceae (Microcystis, Anabena, and Oscillatoria). Macrophytes include

Hydrilla verticillata and Vallisneria spiralis. Other species are Salvinia, Lemna,

Wolffia, Potamogeton, Najas, and Trapa. A conspicuous feature of the beels is the unusually high proportion of detritus.

Zooplankton: Dominant zooplankton in Dhir beel includes Protozoans followed by

Copepods, Rotifers and Cladocerans. Due to high decomposition of organic matter at

the bottom, beels, in general, are rich in benthos. The macrobenthos in Dhir beel is

dominated by Gastropods (68.14%) and Pelecypods (19%).

Fishes: Fish fauna, however, have been studied. In beels that maintain connection

with the river, locally migratory fishes are of considerable significance. The Indian

major carps, particularly Catla and Rohu, depict such forms with Labeo gonius also

contributing significantly. Gravid fishes of these species enter the beel every year

during the monsoon months for spawning. Eutropichthys vacha and Gudusia chapra

migrate in large numbers to the beels during the monsoon and form a post-monsoon

fishery of considerable magnitude. Both juveniles and adults of the long-range migrant, Hilsa ilisha are found in the beels (e.g. Dhir, Dora, and Son beels). The

fishery of Dhir beel is dominated by Gudusia chapra and other miscellaneous species

including minor carps followed by major carps, cat fishes, live fishes, and common

carp.

Birds: Not much information is available on the birds of Assam beels.

Land tenure: Some are state-owned (Departments of Flood Control, Irrigation,

Agriculture and Fisheries); others are privately owned.

Land use: The beels are exploited for their fishery resources.

Conservation measures proposed: At a workshop held on development of beel

fishery in Assam in April 1987 under the auspices of Assam Agricultural University,

Guwahati, it was recommended that the beels be managed for their vast fishery

resources; that no part of any beel be reclaimed for agriculture, housing, and industrial purposes, and the wetland character should be maintained; that conservation measures

banning capture of brood fish and juveniles of prime food be enforced with strict

rigidity; and that pollution of beels by the release of domestic and industrial effluents

be prevented.

Disturbances and threats: Infestation by water hyacinth is a problem. Reclamation

for agriculture and urbanization, over-exploitation of fishery resources, and pollution

from domestic and industrial wastes and agricultural run-off are other problems.

Various government departments involved in the development of beels are unable to

coordinate their activities to formulate and implement a common strategy for beel

management.

Socio-economic values: Valuable for their fishery resources. In contrast to an average annual fish production of c.6-7 kg per ha per year from Indian reservoirs, the

overall fish production from Assam beels is more than 100 kg per hectare per year. Beel waters are also utilised for irrigation, domestic consumption, and bathing.

Research and facilities: Detailed environmental status of Assam beels has been

given by Bhuyan (1987). Biological investigations in Assam beels have been

undertaken by the Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, West

Bengal. Beel fishes have also been researched at the Assam Agricultural University,

Guwahati.

Reference: Jhingran (1991); Lahon (1983); Bhuyan (1987); Goswami (1985); Yadav and Chaudhury (1984, 1986); Adhikari et al (1986); Yadav (1987); Yadav et al.

(1981, 1982, 1983).

SARESWAR BEEL

Sareswar beel (26° 20’ N, 90° 05’ E) is a shallow, freshwater lake with abundant

aquatic vegetation on the floodplain to the north of the Brahmaputra river in lower Assam. The western edge of the wetland borders on the Rupshi and Bamunijoia Reserved Forests. The southern, eastern, and western margins are cultivated, with

small villages scattered amongst the rice fields. At maximum flooding, the beel is about four metres deep; during the dry winter season, the depth falls to about one metre, and the exposed shoreline is converted into rice paddies. The total area of the beel is about 1700 ha.

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate typical of lower Assam

Macrophytes: The principal aquatic plants are Eichhornia crassipes, Vallisneria

spiralis, Hydrilla verticillata, Monochoria hastata, Trapa bispinosa, Sagittaria

sagittifolia and Pistia stratiotes. Forestry plantations to the west include species of Shorea, Ficus, Tectona, Albizzia and Lagestroemia.

Fishes: The rich fish fauna includes


Anabas testudineus L. rohita Channa striatus Mystus seenghala

C. punctatus M. vitatus

Clarius batrachus Notopterus chitala

Heteropneustes

fossilis

Ompok bimaculatus

L abeo ceatatus Puntius puntius

L. gonius Wallago attu

Birds: The lake supports a great diversity of resident and migratory waterfowl, and is

particularly important in winter. Both the lesser adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus) and greater adjutant (L. dubius) are regular in the winter months. A waterfowl census in January 1987 recorded 36 species of waterfowl including: 270 Phalacrocorax niger,

100 Ardeola grayii, 12 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus, 13 Leptoptilos dubius, 7 L.

javanicus, 530 Dendrocygna javanica, 17 D. bicolor, 5 Gallicrex cinerea and 30 Porphyrio porphyrio and small numbers of eight other species of ducks.

Land tenure: The Lake and Reserve Forests to the west are State-owned; other adjacent areas are privately owned.

Land use: Fishing, gathering of edible plants and fodder for domestic livestock, and cultivation of rice during the dry season. The lake is famous for its large fish. Forestry

and agriculture in surrounding areas.

Disturbances and threats: The fishery is being over-exploited largely because there are no restrictions on mesh size, and this is causing a decrease in fish populations.

Cultivation of the lake margins during the dry season destroys large areas of aquatic vegetation, and there is some poaching of waterfowl.

Socio-economic values: The beel supports an important fishery and produces fish of

an unusually large size.

Reference: WWF, 1993. Directory of Indian wetlands, 263pp.

WETLANDS IN MANAS WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (26° 37’–26° 50’N, 90° 15’–91° 15’ E) in the 35 km north of Barpeta and 90 km northeast of Gauhati, Barpeta and Kokrajhar Districts, Assam. The Wildlife Sanctuary spans the Manas River and is bounded to the north by the

international border with Bhutan and to the south by the populated region of North Kamrup. Uninterrupted forest extends to the northeast and west. Wetland habitats include a network of rivers with associated riverine marshes and the adjacent lower-

lying swampy plains at l00–50 m. The entire area slopes gently from the north and is drained by the Manas, Jongrong, Gyati, Ganuchara and other small rivers which flow south into the Brahmaputra. Most of the permanent marshes and swamps are found in

the southernmost terai tract, where the water table is highest. The Wildlife Sanctuary is contiguous with the 43,854 ha Manas Wildlife Sanctuary in neighbouring Bhutan. The area of wetlands are unknown, however Wildlife Sanctuary is about 39,100 ha.

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical monsoon climate with an annual rainfall of 3,000–

4,500 mm, the great majority of which occurs during the monsoon from May to September. The mean maximum summer temperature is 37°C and the mean minimum winter temperature is 11°C.

Macrophytes: The rivers and numerous small pools support a wide variety of aquatic plants. There are extensive grasslands in the western part of the sanctuary, with a variety of trees and shrubs such as Dillenia pentagyna, Phyllanthus emblica, Bombax

ceiba and species of lerodendrum, Leea, Grewia, Premna and Mussaeuda. These grasslands can be subdivided into wet alluvial and highland savanna. The dominant vegetation elsewhere in the park is tropical moist and dry deciduous forests characterized by Bombax ceiba, Sterculia villosa, Dillenia indica, D. pentagyna,

Careya arborea, Lagerstroemia parviflora, L. speciosa, Terminalia bellirica,

T.chebula, Trewia polycarpa, Gmelina arborea, Oroxylum indicum and Bridelia spp, and tropical semi-evergreen forest dominated by species such as Aphanarnixis

polystachya, Anthocephalus chinensis, Syzygium cumini, S. formosum, S. oblatum,

Bauhinia purpurea, Ma/lotus philippensis, Cinnamonium tamala and Actinodaphne

obvata.

Reptiles: The Manas River still supports a small population of the endangered Gharial Gavialis gangeticus.

Birds: The waterfowl of Manas have not been well studied but several uncommon species are known to occur including Pelecanus philippensis, Leptoptilos javanicus

and L. dubius. Common residents include Phalacrocorax carbo, several species of herons and egrets, Esacus recurvirostris, Vanellus duvaucelii, Charadrius dubius,

Sterna aurantia and S. melanogaster. Regular winter visitors include Ciconia nigra,

Tadorna ferruginea, Mergellus merganser and Ibidorhyncha struthersii. Other noteworthy species associated with the wetlands include Pallas's Fish-Eagle, Swamp

Partridge, Bengal Florican and Crested Kingfisher (Haliaeetus leucoryphus,

Francolinus gularis, Houbaropsis bengalensis and Ceryle lugubris). There is an extremely large winter roost of swallows and martins (Hirundinidae) on the southern edge of the Sanctuary.

Mammals: The Wildlife Sanctuary supports an extremely varied mammal fauna including several rare and threatened species. The Tiger Panthera tigris, Asian Elephant Elephas maximus and Indian One-horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis

are to some extent dependent on the wetlands, and there are several wetland and grassland specialists such as Caprolagus hispidus, Lutra perspicillata, Felis viverrina,

Sus salvanius and Cervus duvaucelli. There is a residual population of the wild Water

Buffalo Bubalus bubalis, which is of considerable interest genetically.

Land tenure: State-owned.

Land use: Managed as a nature reserve. There is a buffer zone in which such

activities as the collection of firewood and gathering of fodder are permitted. Most forestry operations ceased in 1950, and the last timber was extracted in 1964.

Conservation measures taken: The area was first declared a Reserved Forest in

1907; it was designated as a Wildlife Sanctuary (39,100 ha) in 1928, and has recently been declared a World Heritage Site. The Sanctuary currently constitutes the core zone for the Manas Tiger Reserve (283,712 ha), established under Project Tiger in 1973. In 1971, 2,000 ha were excised from the Sanctuary for a seed farm.

Conservation measures proposed: Following the recent successful breeding in captivity of the Gharial Gavialis gangeticus, there are plans to re-introduce the species in all the rivers in the area.

Disturbances and threats: Poaching, particularly of the rhinoceros population, is a major problem within the Sanctuary, and there has been some encroachment by local villagers and graziers. Burning in the dry season, hunting and extraction of timber and

firewood are practiced at a non-sustainable level in the buffer zone. The Kokla Ban Seed Farm, run by the National Farm Development Corporation, continues to exist in the core area of the Sanctuary.

Socio-economic values: The Sanctuary is visited by a small number of tourists each year. The area has great potential for tourism and would doubtless become a major international attraction of considerable economic value if access to Assam were made easier.

Research and facilities: Some research was carried out on the vegetation of Manas by the Botanical Survey of India in 1982/83. Surveys of the tiger and elephant populations are regularly undertaken by Project Tiger. There are some facilities for

tourists in the Sanctuary, but in recent years, access to Assam has been difficult for

foreigners. A new hotel is being built on the southern boundary of the sanctuary at the Barpeta Road entrance.

Reference: Jam and Sastry (1983); Karpowicz (1985); WWF India (1993).

SONE LAKE

Sone lake is situated in Karimganj district, Assam. The lake is 12.5 km long and 3.9

km wide, with a 35.4 km shoreline. The total area of the lake is about 46,104. The maximum depth is 5.9 m (mean depth 0.29 m). The catchments of the lake has ravines, slopes and hilly terrains, with loamy, sandy or gravelly soil in the plains and

fine-grained sandstones in the hilly region. The major inflow to the lake is the Singla River, which originates from the Mizo Hills and drains a total catchment area of about 46.104 ha after flowing along a meandering course of about 63 km. The major outflow of the lake is the Kachua River out of the northernmost side of the lake,

which drains the lake water into the Kushiyara River after a torturous path of about 19 km. The maximum rates of water discharge from the Singla and Kachua Rivers are 33.91 and 87.03 m3/sec. respectively.

Abiotic factors: Temperature varies from 7.7°C to 37.7°C, and rainfall from 0.0 to 76.0 mm.

Fishes: Seventy species belonging to 49 genera under 24 families have been

recorded. Mostly made up of Puntius chola followed by Labeo rohita, Wallago attu.

Land tenure: No information

Land use: The lake is used for fishing

Conservation measures taken: A hard-line approach to the management and conservation of the aquatic resources of Lake Sone is to impose bans or restrictions on angling activities such as closing a specific area to fishing, forbidding fishing during a

particular season, restricting the number of size of fishes caught, restricting the types of fishing gear, promoting aquaculture practices, and supporting State and national legislations protecting particular endangered species. While imposing restrictions, it is essential to be adaptable and take into consideration the full spectrum of users of the

resource. Concomitant to administrative restrictions, encouraging results could be obtained through mass education of the lake-users (particularly the fisher folk) by the NGOs regarding harvest and conservation and management of the lake resources. The

potential health posed to the lake fishes by EUS is to be tackled through regular monitoring of the lake environment and fish health, and by adopting quarantine measures.

Socio-economic values: The wetland supports a locally important fishery and reed-harvesting industry, and provides excellent opportunities for sport hunting and scientific research.

Reference: Kar (1990), Devashish Kar et al. (1996).

WETLANDS IN LAOKHAWA, ORANG AND SONAI RUPAI SANCTUARIES

The wetlands are situated on 26° 15’–26° 40’ N, 92° 10’–92° 45’ E in the

Brahmaputra valley between Gauhati and Tezpur, Assam. Three small wildlife sanctuaries on the flood plain of the Brahmaputra River, with areas of riverine swamp and seasonally flooded grassland interspersed amongst tropical deciduous and semi-

evergreen forests. The area of wetlands are unknown, however, Laokhawa Sanctuary

is about 7,014 ha, Orang Sanctuary is about 7,259 ha and Sonai Rupai Sanctuary is 17,500 ha.

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical monsoon climate, typical of the Brahmaputra Valley.

Macrophytes: Riverine marshes, swampy grassland and tropical deciduous and genii-evergreen forest.

Birds: The wetlands are important for a wide variety of resident and migratory waterfowl, but few data area available. In 1967, 36 nests of Leptoptilos javanicus

were found in Laokhawa Sanctuary. The Bengal Florican Houbaropsis bengalensis

occurs in Orang Sanctuary.

Mammals: All three sanctuaries support small populations of the endangered Indian One-horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis and Swamp Deer Cervus duvaucelli.

Land tenure: Presumably state owned.

Land use: No information.

Conservation measures taken: All three sites are protected as Sanctuaries

established in 1979, 1915 and 1934 respectively.

Disturbances and threats: No information.

Socio-economic and social values: No information.


WETLANDS IN KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK

Kaziranga national park (26° 35’-26° 45’N, 93° 05’-93° 40’E) is situated between the

Brahmaputra river and the Mikir Hills in Nowgong and Sibsagar districts, 23 km from Bokaghat and 200 km ENE of Guwahati, Assam.

It is the largest unspoiled area on the floodplain of the Brahmaputra river. This river

forms the northern boundary of the National Park. Numerous smaller rivers and streams flow through the alluvial deposits, and relics of older channels remain as shallow lakes or beels. There are at least nine such beels, measuring 50–150 ha in area, within the Park. These permanent wetlands comprise 6% of the total park area.

Seasonally inundated grassland is the largest single type of habitat covering 66%. The

WETLANDS IN KAZIRANGA

NATIONAL PARK

•

SSoouurrccee:: GGooooggllee EEaarrtthh

southern boundary is formed by the Mora and Diphu rivers, and the eastern boundary by seasonal stream beds. The Mikir Hills rise to 1500 m south of National Highway 37, which cuts through the lower edge of the Park from southwest to northeast.

Annual flooding has prevented human settlement in the area, but the Park is bounded on three sides by cultivation and settlement.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of 2500

mm, most of which falls between April and October. Temperatures range from 10°C–30°C.

Macrophytes: There are three main vegetation types: alluvial inundated grassland,

tropical wet evergreen forest, and tropical semi-evergreen forest. The grassland predominates in the southwest, with tall elephant grasses on the higher ground and shorter grassland surrounding the beels. Scattered trees, predominantly Bombax ceiba,

Dillenia indica, Careya arborea, and Emblica officianlis, are a conspicuous feature of the grasslands. Tropical, wet evergreen forest predominates in the Kancharijhuri, Panbari, and Tamulipathar sections, whilst semi-evergreen forests occur near Baguri, Bimali, and Haldibari. Annual floods inundate the plains from June-October, and low-

lying areas may be under water well into December. Some 50% of the taller grassland is subjected to annual burning. Areas of recent alluvial deposition support extensive patches of Saccharum spontaneum and Tamarix spp. Arundo donax and Phragmites

karka predominate generally, otherwise species of Erianthus are the most common grasses. Andropogonous grasses less than a metre tall surround the beels, and form the only open areas in the park. The interplay of floods and fires has maintained Kaziranga in more or less its present form for thousands of years.

Mammals: The National Park contains 15 species of India’s threatened mammals, and has the largest population of the Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros

unicornis) in the world. This population increased from only 12 members in 1908 to

over 1000 in 1982. The animals are concentrated mostly in the central, southern, and western parts of the Park. However, the recent upsurge in poaching is causing a rapid collapse in this population. The Park also constitutes the best remaining habitat for

wild water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in India, and supports healthy populations of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) (780 in 1978), swamp deer (Cervus duvaucelli) and tiger (Panthera tigris). The common otter (Lutra lutra) and Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica) are common in the rivers.

Birds: The numerous water bodies are rich in amphibians, fishes, and invertebrates which support a substantial resident and migratory population of waterfowl. The first breeding record for India of the greater adjutant stork (Leptoptilos dubius) was

reported at Kaziranga in 1970, and in 1983, four pairs were nesting. There is a small breeding colony of Pelecanus philippensis near Kaziranga village, and Leptoptilos

javanicus is fairly common. Other residents include Anhinga melanogaster (very

common), at least eight species of herons and egrets, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus,

Anas poecilorhyncha, Porphyrio porphyrio, Metopidius indicus, Vanellus duvaucelii,

Sterna aurantia, and S. melanogaster. Winter visitors include Ciconia nigra (up to 15), Anser indicus (up to 300), several thousand ducks, mainly Anas penelope, A.

strepera, A. crecca, A. acuta, Aythya nyroca and A. fuligula, Vanellus cinereus

(common), and a wide variety of other shorebirds, mainly Tringa spp. Other noteworthy wetland species which still occur in reasonable numbers include the

eagles Haliaeetus leucoryphus and Ichthyophaga icthyaetus, pied harrier, (Circus

melanoleucos) Bengal florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis), swamp partidge (Francolinus gularis), and Jerdon’s bush chat (Saxicola jerdoni).

Land use: A wildlife sanctuary and managed nature reserve.

Conservation measures taken: Kaziranga National Park (42,996 ha) was established in 1974 and designated a World Heritage Site at that time. Management has been directed primarily toward protection of the rhinoceros populations. A

management plan is revised periodically. The Forest Department has built a number of earthen platforms inside the park as a retreat for animals during floods.

Disturbances and threats: Poaching, particularly of the now seriously endangered

Rhinoceros unicornis, is a major problem for the conservation programme: as many as 25 rhinoceroses were killed in the first six months of 1984. Lack of a buffer zone around the sanctuary has led to conflict, especially over illegal grazing by domestic

livestock and crop-raiding by animals from the Park. Domestic buffalo have gone feral in some localities and are interbreeding with, and thereby threatening the survival of, wild populations. Domestic livestock transmit diseases to the wild populations. There is a general inadequacy of finance, resulting in a shortage of anti-

poaching controls; the forest guards are poorly paid and there have been cases of staff being involved with poaching operations. The Brahmaputra is gradually eroding a portion of the northern boundary of the Park. Traffic is increasing every year on

National Highway 37 running through the southern edge of the Park, and settlement on either side of the highway is widening the gap between the Park and the southern hills. The greatest threat is the proposed railway running parallel to Highway 37.

Surveying and mapping are now complete. Following opposition to the railway, the original proposal was modified to include the provision of three 30 m wide passes under the railway line to allow animals, especially elephants, to continue their seasonal migrations.

Socio-economic values: Kaziranga, one of the most famous wildlife sanctuaries in Asia, has long been popular with tourists. The park would doubtless become even more important for tourism if some of the restrictions on travel in Assam were

relaxed. Some 22,000 people visited the Park in 1983–84.

References: Bradley Martin et al. (1987); Jain and Sastry (1983); Karpowicz (1985); WWF India (1993).

DIBRU FLOODPLAIN

Dibru floodplain is situated (27° 30’–28° 00’ N, 94° 55’–95° 40’ E) in Assam. A complex of wide river channels, sand banks, riverine marshes, oxbow lakes, and

seasonally flooded grassland and swamp forest on the floodplain of the Brahmaputra river downstream from the confluence of the Lohit and Dibang rivers. The Siang river enters in the north, and the Dangri, Doom Dooma, and Dibru rivers in the south. The

whole area is extensively flooded during the monsoon, and there is a good supply of water, both surface and subterranean, throughout the year. There are large tracts of permanent swamp forest and seasonally flooded forest in the Dibrugarh and Saikhowa Reserved Forests between the Brahmaputra and the Dangri/Dibru rivers. Frequent

changes in the course of the rivers have created a patchwork of transitional wetland and forest types, and precluded permanent settlement over much of the area. The total area of the floodplain is about more than 100,000 ha of riverine marshes and

floodplain wetlands in a strip up to 20 km wide along 80 km of river.

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of 4000 mm. The winters are relatively cool and dry. Mean temperatures range from 10°C in winter to 38°C in summer.

Macrophytes: A mosaic of swamp vegetation, grassland, swamp forest, and tropical deciduous forest. Eichhornia crassipes in some of the ponds and streams. The area supports a large variety of orchid species.

Fishes: The rich fish fauna includes rohu, ari, borali and a species of freshwater prawn. The mahseer (Tor sp.) a popular sport fish, is common in some of the tributaries.

Birds: The area is of special importance for the endangered white-winged wood-duck (Cairina scutulata). The species seems to have disappeared from the Dibrugarh and Saikhowa Reserved Forests in recent years, but still persists in the Doom Dooma

Reserved Forest to the southeast. A flock of eight C. scutulata has been observed as recently as 1985 along the Doom Dooma river bordering the south and southwest side of the Reserved Forest. The wetlands are also important for many resident and migratory waterfowl, particularly Anatidae, and a variety of freshwater turtles and

mammals.


Land use: Fishing in the permanent water bodies, and extensive timber operations in

the forested sections. Adjacent areas are under cultivation, chiefly for rice.

Conservation measures taken: Most of the forest on the south bank of the Brahmaputra is included within the Dibrugarh Reserved Forest (21,000 ha) and

Saikhowa Reserved Forest.

Disturbances and threats: Most of the forests have been heavily exploited for timber, and little dense forest now remains. Fishing activities cause a considerable

amount of disturbance, and there is heavy grazing pressure from domestic livestock. Peripheral areas are being reclaimed for agriculture, and there has been a considerable amount of encroachment at the southwestern end of the Dibrugarh Reserved Forest.

DIBRU FLOODPLAIN

•


Much of the Reserved Forest is now under threat because of a natural shift in the course of the Brahmaputra river.

Socio-economic values: The wetland supports a large commercial fishery, and provides a reliable source of water throughout the year. Because of its great natural beauty and wealth of wildlife, the area has considerable potential for outdoor recreation and tourism.

Reference: MacKenzie (1985)

KHABARTAL LAKE (KAWAR)

Khabartal lake (25° 35’ N, 86° 10’ E) is the largest freshwater lake in northern Bihar

and a fine example of the many excellent wetlands to be found in this part of the Ganges floodplain. It has been identified as one of the sixteen lakes of the country for its conservation and management mainly to protect migratory and non-migratory birds. It lies between Burhi Gandak, old Bagmati, and Kare rivers. The nearest village

is Manjhaul. The lake was formed by a meander of the Gandak river, and is now a residual oxbow lake, one of thousands in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In years of high rainfall, vast areas of these two states flood; discrete wetlands coalesce to form one

huge expanse of water, and at such times the wetlands of the Khabartal region may cover hundreds of square kilometres. The floods leave behind deposits of sand, silt, and clay in layers of varying thickness. In years of average rainfall, Khabartal gets connected with Burhi Gandak (a tributary of the Ganga) and, with the nearby Nagri

Jheel and Bikrampur Chaurs, unite to form a lake of about 7400 ha. By late summer, however, the water is confined to the deeper depressions, and only about 300–400 ha of Khabartal remain flooded and cut off from the adjacent floodplains (chaurs). As the

water level recedes, over 2800 ha of the exposed mudflats are converted into rice paddies. In 1951, a drainage channel was excavated to expose additional areas for agricultural purposes, but the channel silted up in a few years, and the lake reverted to its former condition. In recent years, further siltation of the overflow channel has

resulted in a slight increase in water levels throughout the lake. There is a permanent island (Jaimanglagarh) of about 130 ha in the southeast corner of the lake. The soil is sandy loam, and rich in humus. Water depth varies from 30 cm-400 cm.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the middle Ganges plain, with an a verge annual rainfall of 1100mm concentrated in the period July-September. Temperatures range from 5°C to 45°C.

Macrophytes: The lake supports a rich and diverse aquatic flora. These include submerged Macrophytes; floating Macrophytes; emergent Macrophytes. These are follows;


Hydrilla verticillata Royle

Paspalum

scrobiculatum L. Vallisneria spiralis L. Grangea

maderaspatana (L.) Poir.

Caldesia oligococca Buch.

Xanthium

strumarium L.

Polygonum plebejum R. Br

Nicotiana

plumbaginifolia Viv. Peristrophae

bicaliculata

N. tabacum L.

Cyanodon dactylon Phyla nodiflora (L.) Grume

Hygroryza aristata Nees ex Wt.

Alternanthera

philoxeroides

Grisebach. Phragmites vallatoria (L.) Veld.

A. sessiles R. Br.

Najas minor Allioni Cannabis sativa

Aeschynomene aspera

L.

Nymphaea nouchali

Burm. Ipomoea aquatica Forss.

Nymphaea

pubescens willd. Nymphoides indica (L.)

Kurz.

Ludwiga adsendens

Hara Nymphoides

hydrophylla (Lour.)

Kurz.

Abutilon indica

Oryza rufipogon Griff. Nelumbo nucifera

Gaerthen

Utricularia aurea Lour Eichhorria crassipes Solm-Laub.

Utricularia exoleta R. Br.

Pistia stratiodes

Aponogeton natans (L.) Engl ex Krause.

Spirodella polyrhiza (L.) Schl.

Ottelia alismoides (L.)

Pers.

Coccinia indica

Polygonum barbatum L. Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.

Leersia hexandra Sw. Spilanthus calva A.

P. decandole Vetiveria zizanoides (L.) Nash

Chenopodium album L.

Saccharum spontaneum

L. Commelina diffusa Burman.

Pseudographis

brunoniana

Fimbristylis

dichotoma Vahl.

Hymenachne

acutigluma (Steud.) Gilliland.

Potamogeton crispus

Hygrophylla spinosa Andr.

P. nodosus

Limnophila indica (L.)

Druce

Azolla bipinnata R.

Br. Cyperus platylis R. Br. Salvinia natans (L.)

Allione Ceratophyllum

demersum L.

Large areas of the lake surface have been invaded by Eichhornia crassipes. There are many species of algae of the Cyanophyceae and Chlorophyceae. Vegetation is poorly

developed around the wetland area. The shoreline supports stands of Acacia arabica,

Borassus flabellifer and Cassia occidentalis. The common tree species include

Barringtona acutagula, Acacia nilotica, and Delbergia sissoo which provide an excellent nesting and roosting site for avifauna.

Zooplankton: Brancionus calyciflarus and Naupliius larvae are the dominant zooplanktons.

Molluscs: The edible mollusc Pila globosa is particularly common.

Insects: Insects belonging to three orders Odonata, Ephemeroptera and Diptera are found.

Benthic fauna: The benthic fauna consists of Bellamya bengalensis, Lamellidans

marginalis, etc.

Fishes: The ichthyofauna of the lake is represented by Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus

mrigala, C. reba, Catla catla, Channa striatus, Channa punctatus, Heteropneustes

fossilis, Colisa fasciatus, Notopterus notopterus, and Anabas testudineus.

Birds: Khabartal is one of the most important wetlands for waterfowl in the Gangetic plain, supporting huge numbers of migratory ducks and coots throughout the northern

winter as well as large concentrations of many resident species such as dabchick, various herons and egrets, openbill stork, black ibis, whistling duck, cotton teal and purple moorhen, little grebe, grey pelican, greylag goose, golden plover, and common snipe. No comprehensive censuses have been carried out, but the fact that the local

duck-trappers were able to net at least 135,000 birds in one season (1984-85) gives some indication of the large numbers of birds present. An analysis of 33,954 birds trapped in the 1983-84 season revealed that 22.3% of the kill were Fulica atra, 16.5%

Anas acuta, 13.8% A. Crecca, 9.0% Porphyrio porphyrio, 5.4% Netta rufina, 4.6% Aythya ferina, 4.2% Anas strepera, 3.9% A. clypeata, 0.05% Podiceps cristatus (168 birds). The remaining 19.8% (6700 birds) were listed as “other species” and presumably included some Anas querquedula and Aythya nyroca, both reported to be

common at the lake. In January 1987, a partial census recorded: 100 Anastomus

oscitans, 50-60 Dendrocygna bicolor, 500 Anas crecca, 1500 A. acuta, 1000 A.

querquedula, 150 Netta rufina, 500 Aythya nyroca, 250 Porphyria porphyrio. Over 29

species of commercially valuable fish have been recorded.

Land tenure: State-owned; other areas are private-owned. It has been declared as a protected area under section 37 of the Wild Life Protection Act 1972 by the

Government of Bihar and National Bird Sanctuary in 1989 by the Government of India.

Land use: Water supply for irrigation and domestic purposes; fishing for major and

minor carps, and air-breathing fishes; grazing by livestock; navigation; some illegal

netting of migratory waterfowl for sale in local markets; harvesting of wild fruits and

wild rice; gathering of the edible mollusc Pila globosa. Some 2800 ha of the lake bed

are cultivated for rice during the dry season.

Conservation measures taken: The shooting and trapping of wild birds has been

prohibited by the State Wildlife Department since 1986. The wetland has been

declared a prohibited zone. Fishing is also banned in some zones of the lake.

Eradication of Eichhornia crassipes has commenced, but the results are as yet

unknown.

Conservation measures proposed: Implementation of the Wildlife Protection Act

(1972) would prohibit the trapping of birds by the Sahnis. A socio-economic survey

has been undertaken by the State Forest Department in order to ascertain their degree of dependence upon the birds of Khabartal. It was concluded that the uncontrolled trapping of birds should be stopped. Rehabilitation of trappers should be undertaken

by the Forest Department as follows:

1. A multiple resource utilization programme should be developed whereby fishing,duck-farming, and the harvesting of crustaceans, molluscs and plants can be

thoroughly organized and sustained at a commercially viable level.

2. Netting equipment used by the 490 Sahni families engaged in bird-trapping should be purchased by the Government.

3. Some of the adjoining ponds should be developed for pisciculture.

4. Any employment generated by these projects should be reserved exclusively for the Sahnis.

5. Existing rice cultivation should be maintained unless it is patently inimical to the birds’ ecological needs.

6. Any surplus land should be distributed among the Sahnis.

7. Local handicrafts and expertise should be identified and encouraged.

8. A dairy co-operative should be established nearby.

9. An integrated regional development programme should be initiated to benefit all the local people.

The Forest Department survey also concluded that for the time being at least, no

further drainage should be undertaken at the lake.

Disturbances and threats: In spite of the government’s prohibitory measures, many of the wetland’s natural resources are being heavily over-exploited. Shahi (1982) estimated that 70,000 ducks, coots, and other waterfowl were netted at Khabartal in

the winter of 1981-82 and sold in the Manjhaul market. A State Forest Department survey estimated that about 40,000 birds were trapped in the winter of 1983-84 (early December to early March 1984), and at least 135,000 in the winter of 1984-85 (a

"good year"). There are fears that this ruthless exploitation in the past is now having a deterimental effect on the waterfowl populations. Demands for water for irrigation are increasing, the lake is over-fished, and the aquatic vegetation is heavily grazed by

domestic livestock. There is some contamination with pesticides and fertilisers used by farmers in and around the lake, and infestation with Eichhornia crassipes has become a serious problem in recent years. There are constant disputes between farmers and fishermen over land use.. The drainage outlet of the Burhi Gandak river

has been blocked for the past few years, resulting in an increase in the water depth throughout. A drainage scheme in the early 1950s failed because of rapid siltation at the mouth of the drainage canal. However, the Drainage Division, Manjhaul, has

recently proposed another drainage scheme which would accelerate run-off after the monsoon and make available a further 2630 ha of the lake bed for agricultural purposes. This drainage scheme is still awaiting administrative approval. Expansion of agriculture and cattle grazing is proving to be a serious problem. Natural habitats of

migratory birds have been adversely affected by human pressures.

Possible changes in land use: If the proposed conservation measures are implemented, there would be an overall reduction in the exploitation of the natural

resources in an effort to achieve a sustainable level of resource utilization.

Socio-economic values: The lake is very important for its fisheries production during the wet season and rice production during the dry season. A large proportion of the inhabitants of the 15 villages around the lake are dependent on the wetland resources

for their livelihood. In particular, Khabartal played a significant role in the lives of over 1300 Sahni families (7400 individuals) engaged in fishing. For about 490 of these Sahnis, duck-trapping was the primary dry season occupation. The average

earnings from duck- trapping have been estimated at about Rs. 1500 per family per year. The small island of Jaimanglagarh in the southeast corner of the lake is of historical importance and is visited by pilgrims from all over India. Local people depend on the area for cattle fodder.

Management authority: The Bihar State Government declared the area as a protected zone in 1986 under section 37 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It was declared a bird sanctuary in 1989 by the Government of India.

Research and facilities: The State Forest Department has made a preliminary study of the lake ecosystem and has carried out a detailed socio-economic survey of the Sahnis (Mishra and Negi, 1985). Shahi (1982) and the Forest Department have

attempted to assess the numbers of birds taken by the bird-trappers. A field study team from the Bombay Natural History Society has initiated an ecological investigation involving a bird ringing programme, and the State Government has

agreed to fund a long term research programme.

Reference: WWF India (1993); Mohammad Ali (1994); Nandan and Singh (2004).

MASANJORE RESERVOIR

Masanjore reservoir is situated (23° 40’–25° 18’ N, 86° 28’–87° 57’ E) in 30 km away from Dumka (divisional headquarter of santal pargana) south Bihar. Masanjore reservoir is one of the biggest and important freshwater reservoirs of India. This

reservoir is constructed across the Mayurakshi river at Masanjore of Santal Parganas. The Mayurakshi river is the life-line of tribal dominated area of Santal Pargana which originates from Trikuti hill range (Deoghar) and meandering over 1860 km in Bihar

and Bengal joins the Ganges at Murshidabad (West Bengal). Except monsoon, the river does not carry and appreciable amount of water. Therefore, a storage i.e. Masanjore reservoir, was considered to be the only means to conserve the water and use it for irrigation throughout the year. Masanjore, where the river passes through a

narrow valley, was found to be an ideal site for a dam. Thus, a big dam (2150 feet long) was built in 1956 by the munificence and technical co-operation of Canada and so it is also called “Canada Dam”. The total area of the reservoir is 27 sq.miles.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 30.6°C and minimum of 19.2°C and pH varies from 7.3 to 8.2.

Phytoplankton:


Agmenellum sp. Lemna sp.

Anabena sp. Microspora sp.

Ankistrodesmus sp. Mongeota sp.

Arthrospira sp. Navicula sp.

Azolla sp. Nechamandra sp.

Ceratophyllum sp. Nitella sp.

Chaetophora sp. Nostoc sp.

Chara sp. Nymphia sp.

Chlorosarcina sp. Pediastrum sp.

Cladophora sp. Phormidium sp.

Closteriopus sp. Pinnularia sp.

Closterum sp. Pistia sp.

Commelina sp. Potamogeton sp.

Cosmarium sp. Protococcus sp.

Cylindrospermum sp. Rumex sp.

Cymbella sp. Scenedesmus sp.

Cyperus sp. Scirpus sp.

Dentella sp. Sphaerocystis sp.

Diatoma sp. Spirogyra sp.

Diatomella sp. Staurastrum sp.

Eichhornia sp. Synedra sp.

Eleocharis sp. Ulothrix sp.

Epithemia sp. Utricularis sp.

Fragilaria sp. Vallisneria sp.

Gomphasphaeria sp. Volvox sp.

Hydrilla sp. Wolfia sp.

Hydroryza sp. Xanthium sp.

Ipomoea sp. Zygnema sp.

Zooplankton: Keretella sp., Filinia sp., Testudinella sp., Brachionus forficula, B.

angularis, B. calyciflorus, Asplanchna sp., Polyarthra sp., Cyclop sp., Mesocyclop

sp., Moina sp., Cypris sp. and Diaptomus sp.

Macroinvertebrate:


Amphiops sp. Laccophilus sp.

Anisops sp. Laccotrephes sp.

Baetis sp. Lestes sp.

Berosus sp. Lithocerus sp.

Canthydrus sp. Macrobranchium

Eretes sp. Cordulegaster sp. Mesogomphus sp.

Corixa sp. Mesovelia sp.

Cybister sp. Micronecta sp.

Dinentus sp. Orectochilus sp.

Enallagma sp. Pantala sp.

Enochurs sp. Paratelphusa sp.

Guignotus sp. Plea sp.

Hydacticus sp. Potamorcha sp.

Hydrocoptus sp. Ranatra sp.

Hydrometra sp. Rhantaticus sp.

Hydrophilus sp. Sandracothes sp.

Hyphydrus sp. Zyxomma petiolatum

Ioschnura sp.

Mollusca: Pila sp., Lymnaea sp., Gabbia sp., Indoplanorbis sp. and Gyraulus sp.

Fishes:


Barilius sp. Macrognathus sp.

Botia sp. Mastacembalus sp.

Catla sp. Monopterus sp.

Chanda sp. Mystus sp.

Channa sp. Nandus sp.

Cirrhina sp. Neomacheilus sp.

Clarias sp. Notopterus sp.

Colisa sp. Ompak sp.

Gadusia sp. Oxygaster sp.

Glassogobius sp. Pseudoxygaster sp.

Goniolosa sp. Puntius sp.

Heteropneustes sp. Rasbora sp.

Labeo sp. Wallago sp.


Land use: Now-a-days, this reservoir is also used for hydroelectricity generating

centre.

Conservation measure taken: No information


small fishery supplying local markets and also used for hydroelectricity generating centre.

Reference: Arvind Kumar and Singh (1998).

RESERVOIRS OF CHOTA NAGPUR PLATEAU

The reservoirs situated on Lat. 22° 00’–25° 3’ N and Long. 85° 47’– 87° 50’ E in Dhanbad and Hazaribagh districts, on the Chota Nagpur plateau, Bihar. The four

important reservoirs on the Damodar river constitute a part of the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) Multipurpose Project. The drainage area of the reservoirs/dam is: Tilaiya: 98420 ha; Konar: 99210 ha; Maithon: approcimately 600,000 ha; and

Panchet: approcimately 100,000 ha the total area of these reservoir are Tilaiya 5957 ha; Konar 2590 ha; Maithon 10619 ha and Panchet 15281 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall is about 1163 mm.

Macrophytes: Wide range of phytoplankton species is reported.

Birds: A large number of migratory birds such as ducks and coots visit these reservoirs, and several species of resident birds have also been observed. No

waterfowl censuses seem to have been conducted.

Land tenure: The reservoirs are stone-owned.

Land use: The reservoirs are used for fishing, power generation, irrigation and flood

control.

Conservation measures taken: The Damodar Valley Corporation has undertaken programmes for mechanical destination, and afforestation for preventing soil erosion.

Disturbances and threats: All the four reservoirs are seriously threatened by siltation. Brick manufacturing units located in the catchment of Tilaiya dam are contributing to increased sedimentation of the reservoir. These problems are feared to

pose a threat to the vegetation.

Socio-economic values: Valuable for their fishery resources, power generation, irrigation and flood control.

Research and facilities: Several water management, reservoir conservation, and hydro-engineering research studies have been carried out on the reservoirs.

Reference: Bannerjee (1990); Jain, Naegamvala and Sahasrabudhe (1973)

CHAURS OF NORTH BIHAR AND WEST BENGAL

The wetlands of this extensive region of northern India are dependent upon six major tributaries of the Ganges flowing from the central Himalaya to the plains between the

Nepalese border and the Ganges itself. From the Great Gandak river in the west to the Mahananda river in the east, the northern part of the Ganges plain is studded with

RESERVOIRS OF CHOTA NAGPUR

PLATEAU

•


innumerable, small, freshwater lakes or “chaurs” with a profuse growth of aquatic vegetation. The vast majority are oxbow lakes, marking the historical courses of the Baya Nadi, Burhi Gandak, Sapt Kosi, and Mahananda rivers. Most are between 100

ha and 200 ha in area, but some are much larger and a few exceed 1000 ha. The chaurs are inundated by overflow from the rivers and local monsoon run-off. Typically, they have a maximum depth of 1.5m during the monsoon and dry out

completely during summer (March-June). Chaurs are particularly abundant in the southeast of the region, around Khabartal (site 64), and there are more than 14,000 ha of these wetlands in Darbhanga district alone. Some of the main chaurs in the Khabartal region are Nagri Jheel, Bikrampur Chaur, Rajakpur Chaur, Chalki Chaur,

the Chakka/Matihari chaurs, the Malipur/Brahampur chaurs, Rajor Chaur, the Dasin/Turki chaurs, the Korai Sajanpur Chaurs, and the Dunhi Chaurs.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about

1000 mm and temperatures in the range 5–45° C. Most of the rain falls during the monsoon in July-October. The pH values range from 7.6 to 7.9.

Macrophytes: During the wet season, the chaurs support a great abundance of

aquatic vegetation. The emergent vegetation is dominated by Cyperus rotundus with Hygroryza sp., Oryza sativa, scirpus articulatus, S. littoralis, and Paspalidium

geminatum. Free-floating plants include Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes,

Lemna minor, spirodela polyrhiza, Azolla pinnata, and Trapa bispinosa. Rooted-floating plants include Ipomoea aquatica, I. rubens, Enhydra fluctuans, Eclipta

prostata, Jussiaa repens, Nymphaea sp., Euryale ferox, and Bacopa monieri.

Submergent species include Potamogeton crispus, Hydrilla verticillata,

Ceratophyllum demersum, Vallisneria spiralis, and Najas graminea. Rai and Datta Munshi (1982) recorded 80 species of phytoplankton representing Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, and Bacillariophyceae. As the chaurs dry out, the exposed mud

becomes covered with several creeper grasses. Surrounding areas are almost entirely under cultivation for rice and other crops.

Birds: The area is known to be extremely important for waterfowl, particularly

wintering Anatidae, but no census data are available. Whilst individually none of the chaurs may be especially important, taken together they are critital to the survival of hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of ducks throughout the northern winter.


Conservation measures taken: No information

Land use: This region of Bihar has become the centre of waterfowl netting in India.

The Sahnis, traditionally a landless group of fishermen, have taken up waterfowl trapping on a massive scale to supplement their income during the dry season. The ducks, coots, and other waterfowl are trapped at night with fine nylon nets. The practice is particularly common in the Darbhanga, Parnea, and Saharsa region around

Khabartal.

Disturbances and threats: Hunting pressure is extremely heavy in some areas, and it is possible that the large harvests are having a detrimental effect on waterfowl

populations. Shahi (1982) has estimated that about 50% of the ducks visiting the Manjhaul area each winter are taken by the duck-trappers.

Socio-economic values: The annual harvest of waterfowl provides a valuable source

of food and income for a large number of local people. The maintenance of this rich renewable resource will be dependent on the implementation of adequate controls on

harvesting levels. Most of the smaller chaurs have little, if any, value for agriculture or pisciculture.

Research and facilities: The ecological characteristics of the chaurs of North Bihar have been studied by Rai and Datta Munshi (1982).

References: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Rai and Datta Munshi (1982); Shahi (1982).

RAVISHANKAR SAGAR RESERVOIR

Ravishankar Sagar reservoir (20° 34’ N, 81° 34’ E), named after Late Pandit

Ravishankar Shukla, former Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, came into being as a result of damming the river Mahanadi, originating in Pharsia village in Southeastern corner of Raipur district of Madhya Pradesh. The reservoir has a total catchment area

of 3670 sq.km and is the largest reservoir in Chhattisgarh. It has a gross storage capacity of 909.3 mcm. The reservoir water level fluctuates between FRL of 348.70 m and DSL of 336.21 m. The maximum and mean depths of the reservoir at FRL are 32.0 m and 10.0 m respectively. It has water spread area of 9540 ha. The shoreline

and shore development of reservoir are 102.4 km and 2.96 respectively. The volume development of reservoir being less than 1 (0.94) indicates convex shape of the basin. The reservoir extends 25 km in length and 15 km in breadth. The erection of Gangrel

dam was initiated in 1973 and consequently the Mahanadi was impounded in 1978 to emerge out as Ravishankar Sagar reservoir.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varies from 19 to 35°C

in atmosphere and 21 to 29.5°C in water. The pH values ranged between 7.6 and 8.4.

Phytoplankton:


Actidesmium Melosira

Actinastrum Meridian

Amphora Merismopedia

Anabaena Microcystis

Ankistrodesmus Microspora

Basicladia Navicula

RAVISHANKAR SAGAR RESERVOIR

•


Ceratium Nitzschia

Chroccoccus Nostoc

Closterium Oscillatoria

Cocconeis Pandorina

Coelastrum Pediastrum

Coelosphaerium Peridinium

Cosmarium Phormidium

Crucigenia Pinnularia

Cyclotella Rhopalodia

Cymbella Spirogyra

Desmidium Spirulina

Diploneis Staurastrum

Fragilaria Surirella

Gomphonema Synedra

Gomphosphaeria Treubaria

Gonatozygon Ulothrix

Gyrosigma Volvox

Zooplankton:


Copepods Filinia

Cyclops Hexarthra

Diaptomus Keratella

Nauplii Lecane

Cladocerans Monostyla

Acroperus Mytilina

Bosmina Notholca

Ceriodaphnia Ployarthra

Chydorus Synchaeta

Daphnia Trichocerca

Diaphanosoma Protozoans

Macrothrix Arcella

Moina Centropyxis

Sida Difflugia

Rotifers Euglena

Asplanchna Euglypha

Brachionus Trinema

Colurella Urostyla

Conochilus Anostracans

Diplois Eubranchipus

Epiphanes Pristicephalus

Fishes:


Amblypharyngodon

mola

Lepidocephalus

guntea

Aorichthys aor Macrognathus

pancalus

A. seenghala Mastaccembelus

armatus

Aspidoparia morar Mystus bleekeri

Barilius barila M. cavasius

B. bendelisis M. vittatus

Catla catla Nandus nandus

Chanda nama Nemacheilus sp.

Channa sp. Notopterus

notopterus C. striatus Ompok bimaculatus

Chela laubuca Osteobrama cotio

cotio

Cirrhinus mrigala O. vigorsii

C. reba Parluciosoma

daniconius

Clupisoma sp. Pseudambassis

ranga

Danio devario Puntius ambassis

Esomus danricus P. phutunio

Garra gotyla gotyla P. sarana sarana

Glossogobius giuris P. sophore

Gudusia chapra P. ticto

Labeo bata Rhinomugil corsula

L. calbasu Salmostoma bacaila

L. fimbriatus S. phulo

L. gonius Wallago attu

L. rohita Xenentodon cancila


Land use: The main purpose of constructing the reservoir was irrigation and

partially hydel but presently the reservoir water is also being used for drinking purpose and to meet out the demand of Bhilai Steel Plant, located nearby in district Durg.

Socio-economic values: The reservoir is used by the local people for irrigation, fishing, and the water is used for drinking and hydel purpose.

Reference: Desai and Shrivastava (2004).

MANDOVI - ZUARI ESTUARINE COMPLEX

Mandovi - Zuari Estuarine Complex is situated (15° 30’ N, 73° 50’ E) on the north

shore of Dona Paula Bay, Goa. A large estuarine complex on the west coast of peninsular India, comprising the Zuari and Mandovi rivers, their tributaries, and the inter connecting Cambarjua canal. They contain 90% of the mangroves of Goa. The remaining mangroves are along Chapora, Talpona, Galgibag, and Tiracol estuaries.

The estuaries are divided by extensive intertidal mudflats and adjacent rice paddies. Panjim and Old Goa are situated within this complex.

The estuarine complex is a central part of the coastal ecosystem of Goa. Mandovi and

Zuari are perennial rivers which rise from the Western Ghats, traverse a distance of 61 km and 66 km, respectively, before joining the Arabian Sea at the Aguada and Marmagao Bays. The drainage of the rivers is predominantly northwest and north-

northwest, following the regional trend, and eastwest, coinciding with major faults; fractures, or joints. The system is influenced by inflow of seawater to a considerable distance inland. Salinity varies with the seasons: during the monsoons the inflow of

fresh water increases. Zuari is the largest estuary, containing 9 ha of mangroves. The upstream region is narrow (0.5 km) and subjected to intense wave action. Mandovi estuary and Cambarjua canal have 7 ha and 2 ha of mangroves, respectively, occurring along the banks. Mandovi has greater freshwater influence than the other

estuaries. Chorao Island, which has now been declared a reserved forest and bird sanctuary, is situated in the Mandovi estuary.

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate. Average annual rainfall is about

3000 mm. Temperatures vary from 21°C to 34°C.

Macrophytes: About 20 species of mangrove, predominant ones being Rhizophora

mucronata, Sonneratia alba, and Avicennia officinalis. Other dominant species are R.

apiculata, S. caseolaris, Kandelia rheedii, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, B. parviflora,

Aegiceras corniculatum, Excoecaria agallocha, Derris heterophylla, and Acanthus

illicifolius. Some species such as K. candel and S. caseolaris are becoming rare on the west coast.

Fishes: The estuary is an important spawning ground for various crustaceans and molluscs, together with many species of fish, the major ones being Meretrix sp.,

MANDOVI-ZUARI ESTUARINE COMPLEX

•


Crassostrea sp., Penaeus sp., Scylla serrata, and Mugil cephalus. The commonly cultivated species are Penaeus monodon, P. indicus, and Metapenaeus monoceros.

Birds: The site is also an important staging and wintering area for migratory ducks and shorebirds. Anas acuta occurs in particularly large numbers, e.g. over 30,000 were present in January 1987. The ducks roost on the estuary during the day and feed in surrounding rice paddies at night. Other waterfowl present in January 1987 in

cluded: 100 Egretta gularis, 100 7 E. garzetta, 25 E. alba, 150 Tringa totanus, 30 T.

nebularia, 50 Actitis hypoleucos.

Land tenure: Partly government-owned and partly under private ownership.

Land use: Traditional methods of utilisation are for fishing, fish farming, fodder collection, timber, and medicines.

Conservation measures taken: A mangrove afforestation programme has been

started by the Forest Department.

Possible changes in land use: The Konkan Railway, which is being constructed through coastal Goa, will be cutting across the estuarine complex. This is likely to

impact the coastal wetland ecosystems of Goa.

Disturbances and threats: Contamination from industries upstream, city wastes, and sewage is increasingly threatening the estuary. Mining activities are causing silting of

the estuaries. The mangroves are being cut for fuel and green manure.

Socio-economic values: The region’s large inshore fishery is partially dependent upon Mandovi estuary as a spawning and nursery ground for many commercially

important fishes.

Research and facilities: A mid-winter waterfowl census was carried out in January 1987. The National Institute of Oceanography, Goa (NIO), is undertaking extensive

research on mangroves. Hydrobiological observations of the fisheries were made in 1968-69 by Dehadrai. WWF INDIA has undertaken an environmental impact assessment of the Konkan Railway alignment through coastal Goa.

Reference: WWF India (1992; 1993).

CHORAO ISLAND

Chorao Island is located (15°30’N, 73°50’E) at the confluence of the Mapusa river

flowing in from the north, and the Mandovi river from the south, Goa. The low-lying areas of the island support mangrove swamps. The central part of the island is hilly, the altitude ranging from 20 m to 93 m. A road runs some distance into the island. A ferry connects the island to the mainland. The total area of the island is 250ha.

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate. The average annual rainfall is about 2500 mm, mostly occurring during June and September. The salinity varies from 0.94–29‰.

Mangroves: Common mangrove species include Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Sonneratia alba, Kandelia candel, Avicennia marina, and A. officinalis.

Birds: The avifauna include migratory and residential species, such as lesser adjutant

stork, painted stork, pintail, common teal, cotton teal, garganey, spotbill, shoveller, little grebe, white-necked stork, black-necked stork, egrets, herons, bittern, and fishing eagle. Other fauna include bats, jackals, water snakes, marsh crocodiles, etc.

Fishes: Common fish species are Mugil cephalus, M.persica, Chanos chanos, and Lates calcifer.


Conservation measures taken: The island has been declared a bird sanctuary which is named after the late Dr. Salim Ali. Afforestation work is being undertaken.

Land use: Some areas are being brought under fish culture.

Possible changes in land use and proposed development projects: About 24 ha of the island are to be converted into a fish farm.

Disturbances and threats: Some poaching of birds has been reported. Fish culture operations are to commence.

Socio-economic values: The island is a tourist attraction.

Special floral values: The mangrove species Kandelia candel, which is on the brink of extinction elsewhere, is found here in abundance.

Research and facilities: The National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa,

has been conducting extensive research on the mangroves of Chorao Island.


CARAMBOLIM LAKE

Carambolim lake is a quadrilateral-shaped lake, situated (15° 23’ N, 73° 50’ E) Tiswadi (Ilhas) Taluka, 12 km west of Panaji, Goa. The lake is an occupying an area of 72 ha of which the centra 140 ha are water-laden and the surrounding 30 ha is

lateritic soil, supporting grassland used for grazing cattle. Grass cover is extensive, particularly towards its northern end. Situated about 5–10 m above sea level, the lake lies between the estuarine zone of the Mandovi and Zuari rivers. The water depth is

1.5–3 m, depending on the season. The lake has undergone rapid siltation over the years. The effect of tidal variations is absent since the lake is 10 km inland from the estuaries. The lake is very significant from the scientific and natural history aspects. It is a wintering area for the Coccilellid predator which preys on pests of the rice crop

grown around the wetland. In the rainy season, the lake gets filled up through drains, emptying into it. Just before the rains, sluice gates which bund the water at the southern end are opened to drain the water out of the lake, thereby facilitating fishing

operations.

Abiotic factors: Temperature ranges from 20°C to 33°C. Annual average rainfall is about 2500 mm; water temperature is between 15° and 20°C.

Macrophytes: Wild varieties of rice, along with other monocots and dicots, are cultivated around the lake. Several species of algae, such as Euglena,

Chlamydomonas, Phormidium, Oscillatoria, Anabana, Nitzschia, Pinnularia, and

Spirogyra, are found in the lake. Most of these species are detoxifiers of regular pesticides which are of chlorinated hydrocarbon origin. Species of Chlorella and Euglena play an important role in sewage treatment. Chlorella is also a rich source of Vitamin B and is consumed by local people. The wetland is enclosed by an

embankment on which coconut, jackfruit, mango, cashew nut, and teak are grown. Lateritic soil around the wetland is ideal for the growth of several varieties of graminae and herbs.

Special floral values: Nympheaceae are abundant. The lack of mosquitoes in the lake and its vicinity is believed to be due to the abundant growth of the algae-Chara

sp., (Chlorophyceae). Research has proved Chara to be a natural pest controller.

Insects: The abundance of insect fauna around the wetland makes it a natural field insectory.

Birds: About 120 species of bird (migratory and local) have been reported to be seen.

Some of these are: small-green barbet, crimson-breasted barbet, golden-backed woodpecker, wire-tailed swallow, red-rumped swallow, house swallow, golden oriole, black drongo, common myna, jungle myna, Indian tree pie, house crow, jungle crow,

common iora, goldfronted chloropsis, goldmantled chloropsis, red-whiskered bulbul, red-vented bulbul, white-cheeked bulbul, jungle babbler, flycatcher, paradise flycatcher, crowned leaf warbler, magpie robin, Indian robin, pied bush chat, stone

curlew, yellowcheeked tit, Indian tree pipit, paddy field pipit, yellow wagtail, grey wagtail, large pied wagtail, pied wagtail, Tickell’s flower pecker, plaincoloured flower pecker, purplerumped sunbird, house sparrow, baya, blackheaded bunting, shoveler, brahminy duck, pond heron, steppe eagle, buzzard, dab chick. Nearly eight

species of fish are found in the lake.

Land tenure: Formerly “Comunidade” property governed by Comunidade Code of 1961. This was later superceded by The Land Tenure Act, 1964. At present, the

surrounding area is governed by the Agricultural Tenancy Rules, 1975.

Conservation measures taken: Since 1991, the lake is under the Forest Department for providing special protection to the migratory birds arriving here from Siberia and

Kashmir. Two forest guards are posted during this season to keep off poachers.

Land use: Fishing in the lake; agriculture, and grazing in the surrounding area.

Disturbances and threats: A major threat to this lake is the proposed Konkan

Railway line which, according to the construction plan, will cut across Carambolim Lake. The noise produced by the moving trains may affect the behaviour of migratory birds which visit the lake, though there is still some doubt among scientific authorities

about the precise conditions spelling this danger and the extent to which the birds would be thwarted. Moreover, organic and other wastes generated by the railway infrastructure and resultant human activity, as well as run-off from the railway embankment, will increase siltation and eutrophication of the water body. Another

threat is the proposed construction of a highway in the vicinity of the lake.

Socio-economic values: The lake is inhabited by about 5-6 species of freshwater fish and several crustacean species. The waters are annually auctioned for fishing in the

month of April. Nympheaceae flowers are picked for sale.

Reference: WWF India (1993); Shanbhag et al. (2001).

GREAT RANN OF KACHCHH

The Great Rann is a vast saline plain stretching eastwards from the eastern edge of the

Indus delta, 340 km to longitude 71° 15’ E. Isolated hill ranges within the salt waste rise to over 500m elevation. India's frontier with Pakistan passes through the northern edge of the Rann; its western boundary is the Arabian Sea; to the south lies the peninsula of Kachchh, and to the north and east the great Thar Desert. It is linked by a

narrow channel to the Little Rann which, in turn, is linked to the Gulf of Khambhat through the marshy depression in which Nalsarovar survives as a freshwater remnant of the sea that once covered all three sites. The Arabian Sea formerly isolated present

day Saurashtra and Kachchh into islands; a combination of tectonic uplift, silt deposition by the southerly water courses of the Indus, and aeolian input has caused the marine recession. The total area of the wetland is about 700,000 ha.

The modern Great Rann is now flooded only between May and October when sea water, driven by high winds and tides from the Arabian Sea and monsoon run-off from the hills of Gujarat and Rajasthan, mix together over the plains. For the remainder of the year, the Rann is a vast expanse of sun-baked mud and sand with

halite and gypsum efflorescences. During years with low rainfall or drought no freshwater, or very little, enters the Great Rann and the tidal sea water has high salinity. In such years water starts evaporating and seeping underground quite fast,

leaving the surface dry sooner than in other years. Vegetation is more or less confined to the “bets”, areas of relatively salt-free land a few metres higher than the plains and several hundred hectares in extent. These become true islands during the monsoon and support grasses and a few shrubby bushes. At its western extremity, the Rann

merges into the southern part of the Indus Delta, a region of numerous low-lying muddy islands, tidal creeks, mangrove swamps, and extensive intertidal mudflats.

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of

less than 300 mm concentrated in July, August, and September. Temperatures range from about 7°C in winter to well over 40°C in summer.

Macrophytes: Areas with low salinity support grassland with many grass species,

notably Dichanthium annulatum, Sehima nervosum, Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setigerus

and Panicum antidotale, and the occasional Acacia nilotica, and Capparis sp. In the more saline areas, Salvadora persica and Tamarix dioica are widespread.

Mangroves: The mangroves in the coastal zone are mostly poor and disturbed; the dominant species is Avicennia alba. Peripheral to the Rann, the climax vegetation was probably a low xerophytic scrub dominated by stunted Acacia spp., and Euphorbia

spp., together with the introduced Prosopis juliflora.

Fishes: The small fish Cyprinodon dispar is very common in the Rann.

Birds: The Asian population of the lesser flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor) is

centred on the Great Rann of Kachchh. Very little information is available on the numbers, movements, and breeding of the population. One estimate suggests that a few tens of thousands of birds are involved. Large numbers of young immature birds are frequently reported, and it is assumed that the breeding colony of the greater

flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) in Indian territory was at Pachham Island in the centre of the Great Rann. Numbers have declined drastically this century; the population was estimted at some 200,000 adults in 1945 and 400,000 in 1960, but

only 18,000 breeding pairs were located in 1970, and the Pachham site has since been abandoned. It is likely that the birds still breed somewhere in the Rann, but the precise

location of the colony is unknown. Pelecanus onocrotalus and Recurvirostra avosetta

have also been found breeding in the past, and may still do so. The Rann is an important staging area for migratory waterfowl, particularly Anatidae and shorebirds,

during their southward passage into the peninula of India in autumn. Large numbers of birds remain throughout the winter when conditions permit, e.g. during a brief visit to the Rann in late February 1980, de Block recorded: 1200 Pelecanus onocrotalus,

600 Phalacrocorax carbo, 10 Ciconia nigra, 6000 Phoenicopterus ruber, 300 Anas

acuta, 8000 Fulica atra.

The coastal mudflats and mangroves swamps in the west support breeding colonies of

Ardeola grayii, Egretta gularis, E. alba, and Ardea cinerea, and are known to be of great importance for shorebirds, gulls, and terns, but no census data are available. In years of low rainfall or drought, no birds visit the area due to high water salinity.

Mammals: The Great Rann is a critically important refuge for the Indian wild ass (Equus hemionus khur); a threatened subspecies of the Asiatic wild ass. Other mammals include the chinkara gazelle (Gazella dorcas) and wolf (Canis lupus).


Land use: The grasslands are extensively grazed by domestic livestock. There is a permanent military presence on both sides of the international frontier.


Conservation measures proposed: A proposal was made for the establishment of a Flamingo Sanctuary to protect the breeding colony of flamingos at Pachham Island (Flamingo City), but the site has been abandoned by the birds.

Disturbance and threats: There is excessive grazing by camels in the salt marshes and mangrove swamps. The pressure of military personnel and equipment on the northern edge of the Great Rann is having an adverse effect on several wildlife

species, and hunting of the larger species has become a major problem. Prosopis

julifora, an introduction from Mexico, has been planted extensively and may well pose a serious threat to the indigenous flora. Wild asses (Equus hemionus khur)

occasionally graze in peripheral croplands.


Research and facilities: Occasional visits have been made to the flamingo colony,

and the Wild Asses have received considerable attention, but much of the area remains difficult of access and is poorly known.

Reference: WWF India (1987); WWF India (1993).

NALSAROVAR LAKE AND SURENDRANAGAR RESERVOIRS

Nalsarovar lake (22° 47’ N, 72° 03’ E) and Surendranagar reservoirs (22° 30’–23° 12’ N, 71° 25’–72° 05’ E) is situated in Surendranagar and Ahmedabad districts, 60

km southwest of Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Saurashtra is separated from the mainland of Gujarat by a narrow depression which links the Gulf of Khambhat with the Little Rann of Kachchh. Tectonic uplift, increased sedimentation, and aeolian infill have

reduced this former estuary to a series of saline flats and a large freshwater lake, Nalsarovar, with extensive marshes. The terrain is uniformly flat, and the lake very shallow. Nalsarovar is unique in Saurashtra by virtue of the extensive reed-beds and marshes that surround it. The lake is fed entirely through the rivers Bhogavo,

Bharmani, and the catchment run-off dependent upon monsoon rainfall; it dries out completely in years of low rainfall (e.g. 1986), and even in wet years, is almost dry by early summer. The total area of the Nalsarovar lake is about 11,500ha (Bird Sanctuary

12,082 ha). During very heavy monsoons, the water may be as much as two metres deep over most of the area. There are 360 islands, 36 of which are fairly large, scattered in the lake. Most of these islands remain submerged during the monsoon and

are exposed when the water level recedes: Salinities range from fresh in winter to slightly brackish in summer. The other major wetlands of Surendranagar district are artificial water storage reservoirs surrounded by cultivation, scrub, desert, or upland habitats. The principal reservoirs are Sukhbhadar (up to 2 m deep), Moti Moladi (30

cm deep), Muli (3.5 m. deep, retaining water longer than most others), Thoriani (over 3 m deep, usually retaining water even in very dry years), and Sayala (1 m deep, the only reservoir with extensive emergent vegetation). To the north of Surendrangar, the

two other important wetlands, Brahmani and Kharaghoda, are not well documented.

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate, with rainfall from the southwest

monsoon concentrated in July, August, and September. Average annual rainfall is about 400 mm.

Macrophytes: Hydrophytes including Chara, Potamogeton, Najas, Vallisneria,

Nymphaea, Limnanthemum, Lemna, Wolfia, and Hydrilla. The temporary water

bodies are characterised by a rich growth of Xanthium strumarium, Solarnum

surattense, and Tephrosia purpurea. The semi-aquatic and marshland zones hold Ammania bacciferu, A.multiflora, Bergia sp., Alternanthera sessileis, Cyperus sp.,

Scirpus sp., Polygonum plebeium, and Marsilea aegyptiaca. Surrounding agricultural land supports crops of cotton, cereals, pulses, and groundnuts. The few trees in the region include Prosopis juliflora, P. spicigera, Salvadora persica, Salvadora

oleoides, and Acacia nilotica among others.

Birds: In years of adequate rainfall, all these wetlands are important for a wide variety of waterfowl, notably pelicans, flamingos, ducks, cranes, Fulica atra, and shorebirds. The numbers of ducks have, however, been decreasing at a fairly steady

rate since the 1880s. The region is now perhaps most important for its wintering

NALSAROVAR

L

•


cranes. Over 30,000 Anthropoides virgo were observed in central and eastern Saurashtra in the winter of 1984, the majority of these birds roosting at Muli, Sayala, and Nalsarovar. Grus grus also occurs in large numbers at several sites. Both species

spend most of the day at the lakes, flying out to feed on agricultural land at dawn and dusk. Large numbers of great cormorant (Phoenicopterus ruber), occasionally frequent Kharaghoda and Nalsarovar. Pelicans appear in substantial numbers if water

conditions permit; white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus) is relatively common and widespread, and up to 100 Dalmatian pelican (P. crispus) have been recorded at Nalsarovar, but only a few P. philippensis have been observed. The importance of all these wetlands has been severely reduced by the worsening cycle of drought years

with fewer and fewer years of adequate rainfall in the past two decades. In wet years, over 20,000 Anatidae winter at Nalsarovar but few, if any, appeared in the winters of 1975-76, 1984-85, 1985-86 and 1986-87. In January 1980, the Lake hosted: 350

Plegadis falcinellus over 1,000 Tachybaptus ruficollis 40 Platalea leucorodia 40 Anser anser, 100 Tadorna ferruginea, 3000 Nettapus coromandelianus, 5000 Anas

crecca, 5000 A. acuta, 6000 A. querquedula, 2000 A. clypeata, 1500 Aythya fuligula,

60000 Fulica atra, 100 Glareola lactea, 400 Limosa limosa, 200 Gallinago gallinago

300 Calidris minuta and many other species in smaller numbers; this was evidently a year of adequate water. By contrast, in January 1987 the Lake was completely dry and held only three birds. The other five major sites, Thoriani, Sayala, Sukhbhadar, Muli,

and Moti Moladi, still retained some water in January 1987, and held a total of 2550 waterfowl, including: 70 Pelecanus onocrotalus, 8 P. crispus, 180 Platalea

leucorodia, 240 Phoenicopterus ruber, 62 Anser indicus, 230 Tadorna ferruginea, 6

Grus antigone, 180 Anthropoides virgo, and 11 Rynchops albicollis and a small number of a wide variety of shorebirds.

A waterfowl census in 1991-92, after a year of plentiful rainfall, recorded a total of

over 200,000 birds, including the following: Grebes mainly Tachybaptus ruficollis: 738, Pelicans: 42,877, including Pelecanus onocrotalus (37583), P. crispus (4364), and P. philippensis (643), Ducks and geese: 25,074, including A. crecca (1384), A.

clypeata (6028), A. acuta (1406), and Tadorna ferruginea (625), Herons and egrets:

8010, Ibises and spoonbills: 12,062, including Platalea leucorodia (6244), Plegadis

falcinellus (2742), and Pseudibis papillosa (1933), Flamingos: 10,413, including Phoenicopterus roseus (8715), Cranes: 32,548, including Anthropoides virgo (16362)

and Grus grus (1165), Shorebirds and waders: 63,836, including Limosa limosa

(13,996) and Actitis hypoleucos (8028), Mammals include the Indian wild ass, nilgai and blackbuck

Land tenure: Nalsarovar Lake is state-owned.

Land use: The principal activities at Nalsarovar are fishing, grazing by domestic livestock, cutting of aquatic vegetation for fodder, and outdoor recreation. The sanctuary has a small population mostly of Padhar tribals who are dependent on the

Lake for their livelihood. They fish during the monsoon and winter, and graze cattle on the dried-up river bed in summer. The Lake is a popular boating and picnic area for people from Ahmedabad. The other wetlands provide a source of water for

irrigation and domestic use. In 1987, parts of the exposed bed of Nalsarovar Lake were being cultivated.

Conservation measures taken: Nalsarovar Lake is protected in the Nalsarovar Bird

Sanctuary (12,082 ha), established in April 1969. A core zone of approximately 100

ha is kept free from all disturbances. A management plan (1990-2000) for the Sanctuary has been prepared. The other wetlands are unprotected.

Conservation measures proposed: Nalsarovar Lake has been proposed for designation as a Wetland of International importance under the Ramsar Convention. WWF-India and Lavkumar Khacher have made a number of recommendations concerning the management of the sanctuary. These include: (a) the establishment, by

the State Government, of a special committee to investigate the problems at Nalsarovar; (b) the establishment of a special education and tourist centre at the existing recreation complex; (c) the designation of boating lanes and demarcation of

disturbance-free zones; (d) strict protection of all the major islands, particularly during the breeding season; (e) the construction of fully equipped observation hides; and (f) the planting of Acacia nilotica trees on some of the islands to provide nesting sites for large waterbirds. Any master plan for the sanctuary should include the

surrounding villages so that the welfare of the sanctuary can be clearly linked to the welfare of the local people.

Disturbances and threats: The burgeoning human population of Gujarat is placing

increasingly heavy demands on all natural resources, and the wetlands, in particular, are suffering from excessive exploitation. The marsh vegetation at Nalsarovar is heavily over-grazed by domestic livestock and is cut for fodder and fuel. Illegal

shooting and trapping feature at several of the wetlands, including Nalsarovar, and visitors from urban areas cause considerable disturbance, particularly at weekends. The common crane (Grus grus) and demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) make substantial depredations on the groundnut and pulse crops, and this has given rise to

some resentment among local farmers. Fishing activities at Nalsarovar, together with the increasing use of boats by visitors, can be a major cause of disturbance to the birds.

Socio-economic values: Nalsarovar Lake is visited by large numbers of local tourists every winter. The local people operate boats for tourists. With proper management, the Bird Sanctuary could become one of the finest reserves for waterbirds in India,

attracting significant numbers of foreign tourists as well. Fishing, cattle grazing, extraction of aquatic vegetation, and the use of neighbouring water bodies for irrigation, transport, and domestic use are the other uses of the wetlands.

Research and facilities: Preliminary faunal and floral surveys have been carried out at Nalsarovar Lake, and several waterfowl censuses have been made. The Gujarat Tourist Department established a recreation complex at the lake, and this has subsequently been handed over to the Forest Department.


LITTLE RANN OF KACHCHH

The Little Rann (23° 10’–23° 45’ N, 70° 45’–70° 45’ E) is usually described as a flat, saline waste or salt-impregnated wilderness. It lies to the southeast of the Great Rann and along a line of marine recession between the Indus Delta and the Gulf of Khambhat. During the southwest monsoon (July to September), large areas are

inundated by up to two metres of water, much of which is pushed up from the Gulf of Kachchh by strong westerly winds. The saltflats dry out almost entirely during the prolonged dry season. Saline areas are relieved by areas of slightly higher ground with

salt-free soil supporting stunted, scrubby vegetation. There are about 30 of these little hillocks, or “bets”, of varying sizes in the Little Rann. In years of ample rainfall, the

flood water overflows into the Nalsarovar depression to the southeast. Soil conditions are saline to hypersaline. The total area of the wetland is about 495,300ha.

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of less than 300 mm concentrated in July and August. The maximun temperature is about 42°C, the minimum temperature about 12°C, and the average relative humidity 25%.

Macrophytes: The vegetation consists of xerophytic shrubs and thorny scrubland between open saline flats devoid of vegetation. There are virtually no trees and most of the vegetation is confined to the higher ground and transitional zones, these areas

totalling approximately 33,000 ha. The 'bets' support a slightly richer flora than elsewhere. Some of these formerly supported mature stands of Acacia nilotica,

Prosopis spicigera, Salvadora persica, and S.oleoides, but most of the large trees

were felled and converted into charcoal in the 1950sand 1960s. Small shrubs of S. persica, Tamarix dioica, and the alien mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) are common in several areas, together with Suaeda fruticosa, Salsola barysoma, and Haloxylon

salicornicum. Gramineae and Cyperaceae are better adapted to the hydromorphic

conditions and include Aleuropus lagoporides, Cenchrus setigerus, C. ciliaris.

Sporobolus marginatus, S. helveticus and Cyperus rotundus.

Mammmals: The Little Rann supports a sizeable population the Indian wild ass

(Equus hemionus khur) which has gradually increased, under protection, from about 800 animals in the late 1960s to 1989 in 1983; but the asses are subjected to a considerable amount of disturbance and remain very wary. The Rann formerly

supported large populations of nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), chinkara (Cazella

gazella) and blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), but these have been decimated in recent decades by illegal hunting.

Birds: The region is still of considerable importance for a wide variety of waterfowl

such as pelicans, herons, egrets, storks, spoonbills, ducks and shorebirds. Thousands of common cranes (Grus grus) winter in the area, and large numbers of flamingos both (Phoenicopterus ruber and Phoenicopterus minor) are present when water levels

are suitable. A breeding colony of the Lesser Flamingo (P. minor) has recently been discovered in the Little Rann at Surajbari. The mouth of the Banas river is an important staging area for migratory shorebirds, and large concentrations of ducks,

mainly Anas crecca, A. poecilorhyncha. A. acuta, A. querquedula, and A. clypeata,

have been observed during the migration periods.

Land tenure: The Little Rann is state owned; surrounding areas are partly state-owned and partly private.

Land use: Grazing by domestic livestock. Parts of the Sanctuary are leased out by the Government to salt manufacturers, and salt production is now an occupation all along the periphery of the Rann. There is also limited cultivation of millet in the less

saline areas.

Conservation measures taken: The entire area has been declared a Wildlife Sanctuary by the Government of Gujarat to protect the population of wild ass (Equus

hemionus khur).

Disturbances and threats: There is almost no effective control in the Wild Ass Sanctuary, and no clear demarcation of its boundaries. As a result, the area has been

exposed to a variety of abuses. Large herds of domestic cattle are driven into the Rann to graze on the ‘bets’, and most of the indigenous trees are now heavily browsed and

lopped. Local villagers enter the Sanctuary to collect firewood and make charcoal, and some areas have been ploughed for agriculture. Large areas of native vegetation have been replaced with plantations of the exotic mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), and

this has now invaded the ‘bets’. A considerable amount of disturbance is caused to wildlife by jeeps and motorcycles driving at will across the flats, and the wild asses in particular are deliberately chased by tourists. Illegal shooting and trapping are

common and the populations of some of the larger mammals have been decimated. A rapid expansion in salt production, although not in itself harmful to wildlife, has led to a multiplication of other forms of disturbance.

Socio-economic values: The Little Rann of Kachchh, if managed efficiently, could not only remain an important salt-producing area, but could once again become a great wildlife sanctuary with tremendous potential for tourism.

Reference: WWF India (1987); WWF India (1993).

SOUTHERN GULF OF KACHCHH

The Gulf of Kachchh is a large inlet of the Arabian Sea, about 60 km wide at its

widest and tapering northeastwards for 170 km. The Marine National Park and Marine Sanctuary are situated along the southern shore of the Gulf from Okha (22°

30’ N, 69° 00’ E) eastwards to the vicinity of Khijadia (22° 30’ N, 70° 05’ E). A vast

area of intertidal mudflats, salt marshes, and seasonally inundated coastal flats extend northeastwards along Wagardhrai Creek to about 23° 15’ N, 70° 40’ E. Information from this area, a transitional zone between the Gulf and the Little Rann of Kachchh, is lacking. The National Park and Marine Sanctuary include 42 islands and a complex of

fringing reefs backed by mudflats and sandflats, coastal salt marsh, and mangrove forest at various stages of exploitation. The towns of Okha, Salaya, Vadinar, Sikka, and Jamnagar, which have developed along the southern edge of the Gulf, exert

considerable influence over it. The major islands (from west to east) are Beyt, Chusnas, Bhaidar, Nora, Ajad, Chauk, Dhanibet, Karumbhar, Goos Reef, Moouada, Pirotan, Jindra, and Chhad. The Gulf is rightly famous for its coral formations which are now the only living reefs between the Arabian Gulf and the Laccadives. The reefs

are generally restricted to areas exposed to strong tidal currents, and living reefs are confined to the northern and western sides of the islands where the currents are strongest. They are most extensive near Poshitra Point and on Boria Reef (western

part of the Gulf). The extent and variety of coral formations have been declining over the recent geological past as tectonic uplift has diverted the flow of the Indus away from the Gulf of Kachchh and thereby substantially reduced freshwater input. The deterioration of the reefs has accelerated noticeably in recent times. The total area of

the Gulf of Kachchh is about 735,000 ha, Marine National park, is about 16,289 ha and Marine Sanctuary is 45,592 ha.


about 300 mm concentrated in July and August. The mean maximum temperature is 40°C, and the minimum 7°C.

Macrophytes: Over 108 species of algae (70 fairly common and 38 rather rare)

have been recorded in the Gulf of Kachchh. Twenty-nine species of green algae (Chlorophyceae), 30 species of brown algae (Phaeophyceae), and 49 of red algae (Rhodophyceae) have been identified. The Gulf contains some of the best mangrove

forests on the west coast of India, but large areas have been totally cleared, or at least seriously degraded, by exploitation for domestic and commercial use. In the last 20

years alone, 95% of mature trees have been cut down. Only four islands, Ajad, Bhaidar, Pirotan, Kharachusa, and a small area on the mainland near Okha still support true mangrove forest. These areas have been protected by sacred traditions of

the goodwill of local people. Elsewhere in the Gulf, the mangroves have been reduced to low bushes with a maximum height of two metres. The principal species are Avicennia alba, Rhizophora mucronata, and Ceriops tagal.

Coralreefs: A total of 32 hard (Scleractinavian) and 12 soft (Alcyonarian) corals have been recorded.

Fishes: About 150 species of fishes and 27 species of prawns have been recoreded.

Reptiles: The marine turtles Chelonia mydas and Lepidochelys olivacea breed on islands in the Gulf, but both are threatened by the fishermen of the Wagher community. Several species of snake occur, particularly in the mangrove scrub, and

one species of banded sea snake has been recorded.

Birds: An Oxford University Expedition to the Gulf in 1984 focussed attention on the avifauna, and discovered large concentrations of many species, particularly

migratory shorebirds. No overall census was possible, but a high-tide roost of 10,000 shorebirds was located on Pirotan Island, and a similar number were found on all the other islands that were visited during the survey. The most numerous species were Charadrius mongolus (over 3000 at Pirotan and 6000-9000 on Bhaidar), Arenaria

interpres (1500 at Pirotan and many more on Bhaidar), and Calidris ferruginea

(3000-4000 on most of the islands). Other common shorebirds included Haematopus

ostralegus (roosts of 50 at Goos Reef and 25 at Pirotan), Pluvialis squatarola,

Charadrius leschenaultii, Limosa limosa. L. lapponica, Numenius phaeopus (120 at Pirotan), N. arquata (flocks of up to 50), Tringa totanus (200-300 on Bhaidar and 150 at Pirotan), Xenus cinereus (300 at Pirotan and larger numbers on Bhaidar), Calidris

alba (200 at Pirotan), C. minuta, Limicola falcinellus, and Philomachus pugnax (2000

at Pirotan). A particularly significant population of the crab plover (Dramas ardeola) occurs in the Gulf of Kachchh (over 5000 individuals in February /March 1984), and the species may well breed here. The great knot (Calidris tenuirostris) and Indian

skimmer (Rynchops albicollis) have been recorded in winter.

Other waterfowl observed in February/March 1984 included: Pelecanus onocrotalus,

P. crispus, P. philippensis, Egretta gularis, Sarkidiornis melanotos and over 2200

other ducks mainly (Anas clypeata), hundreds of gulls, (mainly Larus ichthyaetus, L. brunnicephalus and L. argentatus), and smaller numbers of the terns Gelochelidon

nilotica, Hydroprogne caspia and Sterna albifrons.

Many of the islands in the southern part of the Gulf support sizeable breeding colonies of Phalacrocorax niger, Anhinga melanogaster, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola

grayii, Butorides striatus, Egretta gularis, E. alba, Ardea cinerea, Mycteria

leucocephala, Threskiornis melanocephalus, and Platalea leucorodia. The coastal salt

marshes and salt evaporation ponds are used by many of these birds, along with hundreds of Phoenicopterus ruber, Phoeniconaias minor, Himantopus himantopus

and Recurvirostra avosetta. In a first comprehensive study of waterbirds ever made in

the Gulf by scientists of Saurashtra University as part of a WWF INDIA sponsored project (1984-89), 86 species of waterbirds were recorded in the salt-works, and 80 species on the islands and coast along the Gulf. Most of the species found in the Gulf and the saltworks were common. The cattle egret, black ibis, ruddy shelduck, eastern

golden plover, yellow wattled lapwing, eastern knot, sanderling and eastern little stint,

were recorded in the Gulf but not in the salt-works. The avocet, blacktailed godwit, blackwinged stilt, temminck's stint, pheasant-tailed, jacana and whitewinged black tern, which were recorded in the salt-works were not observed in the Gulf. The

avocet, great crested grebe and rednecked phalarope were found in the salt-works and not in the coastal waters in the Gulf, though they are known to use the coast elsewhere. The salt-works were a breeding habitat for four species of birds, all of

them ground-nesting, namely, little tern, blackwinged stilt, Kentish plover and redwattled lapwing. All the salt-works lacked trees and most lacked a good growth of mangrove within their boundaries. The islands and coast provided a habitat for 11 species of tree-nesting waterbirds, namely, painted stork, grey heron, large egret,

Indian reef heron, night heron, pond heron, white ibis, black ibis, darter, little cormorant, spoonbill and six species of ground-nesting waterbirds, namely lesser flamingo, little tern, Saunder's tern, great stone plover, Kentish plover, and red

wattled lapwing. During the study, a number of species previously not known to occur in the area, or that are very rare on the west coast, were reported; these include eastern knot, eastern little stint, ringed plover, whitewinged black tern, brownwinged tern,

slenderbilled gull, and sandwich tern.

Mammals: The dugong (Dugong dugon) is present in small numbers, this being the only population on the west coast of India. The WWF INDIA sponsored project recorded the presence of immature-sized individuals and herds of up to 15

individuals, indicating that there are resident animals that breed in the Gulf. The cetaceans Sousa plumbea and Neophocaena phocaenoides occur in the Gulf, but no data are available on their status.

Land tenure: Largely state-owned; there are some private holdings on Beyt and Ajad Islands.

Land use: Until the early 20th century, Jamnagar was the centre of the one of the

biggest pearl fisheries in the world, exploiting the eastern Gulf islands. A window-pane oyster fishery was developed at Okha in 1910, but uncontrolled exploitation has led to a temporary ban on the collection of all oysters in the Gulf. Fishing remains an

important source of income and employment, although catches have declined markedly in recent years. For many years, the Digvijay Cement Corporation dredged sand from an area of 1600 acres (648 ha) in the Gulf, but this has now ceased. There are several salt-works along the southern shore; the largest, at Okha, has over 20,000

ha of salt pans. The Gulf of Kachchh is one of the best natural harbours in India; an oil terminal has been built at Vadinar Island to accommodate very large oil tankers (300,000–400,000 tonnes). There is an offshore single-buoy mooring system from

which the oil is pumped ashore. Several new industries have been established in the area in recent years. Beyt and Ajad islands are permanently inhabited, and there is a lighthouse on Pirotan with permanent staff.

Conservation measures taken: Some 45,792 ha of the Gulf of Kachchh were declared a Marine Sanctuary in 1980, and a further 16,289 ha were declared a Marine National Park in 1982. A survey of the extent of the coral formations formed the basis for the delineation of the Park boundaries. The protected areas were established in

response to the serious pollution and degradation of the mangrove/ coral reef ecosystem that now threatens the future of the Gulf. The cutting of mangroves has been prohibited, and the collection of pearl and window-pane oysters temporarily

banned. Since the establishment of the National Park, the cement industry has been

fined for dredging outside its legal boundaries. Some 60 ha of Pirotan Island have been replanted with mangroves by visiting school parties.

Disturbances and threats: The many disturbances and threats to the Gulf of Kachchh are summarized by Palmes and Briggs (in press). Uncontrolled exploitation has severely depleted the stocks of oysters. The dredging of sea sand to supply the cement industry had a deleterious effect on the coral reefs. Unsubstantiated reports

suggested that there was some direct dredging of coral reefs, while considerable damage was caused to the reefs, both directly and indirectly, through increased sediment load. Fish catches in the Gulf are declining because of damage to the reefs

and uncontrolled exploitation of the mangrove forests. Large areas of mangroves have been damaged by local people gathering firewood and fodder for their livestock. Renewed growth of the mangroves near the salt pans is severely constrained by the needs of the largely itinerant salt workers for firewood. During the drought years of

1985-87, pressures increased on the mangrove areas. In late 1987, the government gave local people permission to collect mangrove foliage for fodder. This precipitated a massive increase in the cutting of mangroves, and it is anticipated that by the end of

1988 not a single tree will have escaped unscathed.

In some areas, the residues from the salt evaporation process are damaging the coastal fauna and flora. There are no facilities to cope with oil spillage at Vadinar Island;

minor spills have already been reported, and the danger of a major spillage cannot be ignored. There are various sources of pollution along the coast, chiefly from light industries in the various towns, and a new fertiliser factory has been established at Sikka. Additionally, a considerable amount of municipal waste is dumped in the Gulf

from barges. A proposal has recently been made to build a tidal barrage across the mouth of the Gulf to produce power for the region. If this plan is carried out, the changes in tidal regime would almost certainly spell disaster for the coral reefs and

mangrove/mudflat ecosystem, and adversely affect the fishing industry and indigenous wildlife populations.

Socio-economic values: The Gulf supports a major fishery which is largely

dependent on the mangrove/mudflat ecosystem and coral reefs. The great variety of fishes available in local markets indicates the wealth of these waters. The value of the mangrove swamps as breeding and nursery grounds for commercially valuable fishes, molluscs, and crustaceans exceed their value as firewood and fodder. Similarly, the

long-term values of the living coral formations far outweigh their short- term value as a source of cheap limestone for the cement industry. Developments in education, conservation, and tourism will undoubtedly help the socio-economic expansion of the

region if managed in an appropriate manner. Wildlife tours to the Gulf began in 1985 and have helped to publicize the importance of the Gulf outside India.

References: WWF INDIA (1987, 1991, 1993)

WETLANDS OF KACHCHH PENINUSLA

The Kachchh Peninsula (22° 45’–23° 45’ N, 68° 40’–71° 00’ E) situated on the Kachchh Peninsula, north of the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat. It is a region of relatively

high relief comprising sheets of lava intersected by trap dykes. Much of the low-lying country has saline soils. The region extends for about 230 km from east to west, and up to 70 km from north to south. Natural lakes are very scarce in this semi-arid and

rocky environment. As a consequence, numerous water storage reservoirs (tanks) have been constructed over the centuries to permit the cultivation of groundnuts,

pulses, cereals, and cotton. At least 60 of these reservoirs exceed 100 ha in area. Many wetlands, mostly in artificial, ranging in size from 5 ha to approximately 1000 ha, in a region of 1,500,000 ha. Virtually all the water courses flowing out of the

Chaduva Katrol Range (the central spine of the Kachchh peninsula) are dammed at some point along their relatively short path to the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Kachchh, or inland salt wastes of the Great and Little Ranns. There are several small estuaries

along the south and west coasts of Kachchh and a few larger areas of saline and brackish marshes, particularly along the Wagardhrai Creek which connects the Gulf of Kachchh with the Little Rann. Some of the best known wetlands are the Bhimasar and Sinai Lakes, Dewisar Tank, Rudarmata Dam and Ninghar Dam, Kukma Village

Tank and Lair Dam, Don Dam Reservoir, Topansar Tank, and Vijaysagar Dam.

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about 400 mm concentrated in July, August and September. In periods of below

average rainfall, most of the wetlands remain dry, or virtually dry, for the entire year.

Macrophytes: None of the Kachchh wetlands manifest the rich profusion of aquatic and emergent plants so typical of the wetlands of lower Sindh in Pakistan. Species of

Typha, Juncus, and Phragmites occur at some of the lakes, but are intensively grazed by domestic livestock and cut for fodder. Most of the peripheral vegetation, particularly tamarisk (Tamarix dioica), has been cut for fuel. Many of the tanks are

therefore decidedly bare of vegetation, compounding the appearance of aridity with the processes of desertification. The saline tracts and river beds support sparse woodland composed of Salvadora persica, S. oleoides, Tamarix spp., and Calotropis

procera. The flora of surrounding areas is generally xerophytic. Thorn forest is

presumed to be the climax vegetation but it is everywhere degraded into various stages of scrub.

Birds: Some of the larger lakes, e.g. Rudarmata Dam, are important for pelicans and

cormorants. Anastomus oscitans, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Threskiornis

melanocephalus, and Pseudibis papillosa appear at many of the tanks, and up to 150 Mycteria leucocephala have been reported at Vijaysagar. In addition, Pelecanus

onocrotalus, Phalacrocorax carbo, Mycteria leucocephala, Pseudibis papillosa, Platalea leucorodia, Phoenicopterus ruber, ducks, Grus grus, Anthropoides virgo,

Fulica atra and shorebirds, gulls and terns were also found.


Conservation measures taken: Ninghar Dam (23° 08’ N, 69° 55’ E) was once maintained as a hunting preserve and in the 1930s, was considered to be the best area for duck, hunting in Kachchh.

Land use: The tanks were built to supply water for irrigation and domestic use. They have also been heavily exploited for firewood and fodder. As the tanks dry up, they are often brought under cultivation and, after a series of dry years, cultivation of the

lake beds inevitably evolves into semi-permanent agricultural operations. Many of the tanks are centres of spiritual and physical recreation.

Disturbances and threats: Excessive exploitation of the aquatic and peripheral

vegetation exacerbates the deterioration of the tanks induced by lack of water. Over-grazing and cutting of natural vegetation in the catchment area is accelerating the processes of desertification.

Socio-economic values: The wetlands provide a source of firewood and fodder to the local inhabitants, but harvests have consistently exceeded sustainable levels and, as a

result, yields have fallen. Many of the lakes are scenically attractive and are the sites of temples.

Research and facilities: Some mid-winter waterfowl counts were carried out in February 1975 and in January 1987.

References: WWF India (1993).

NANDA ISLAND

Nanda island is situated (23° 33’ N, 71° 05’ E) in Kachchh district, Gujarat, 10 km southwest of Adesar (Kachchh district) and 5 km off Piparala (Banaskantha district),

Gujarat. The Little Rann is a vast stretch of salt-affected, barren wasteland covering an area of 3,88,500 ha, frequently flooded to a depth of 0.30–0.91 m. Numerous rivers pour their silt-laden waters annually into this Rann from the north, south, and east. The Banas, Rupen, and Saraswati rivers drain into the Rann from the east and

northeast, and Machhu, Brahmani, Kankavati, Phulka, and Chandrabhaga from the south. The Rann is partially drained through a narrow creek to its west. The land is also affected by the ingress of tides. This water is driven by the strong southwest

winds beyond the head of the Gulf of) Kachchh. Most of the Rann is dry by the end of November or middle of December. Nanda Island is a part of the Rann. The island remains above high flood water level during the monsoon. With the departure of the

monsoon, the flood waters dry up, leaving behind a hard, flat surface covered with salt which makes the ground shine dazzling white.

Abiotic factors: Mean annual rainfall is about 320 mm. Rainfall is highly erratic. The maximum temperature was recorded in summer and minimum in winter.

Macrophytes: Flat, barren area without vegetative cover. There is some algal growth in stagnant water. On the island the main vegetation is Prosopis juliflora,

Salvadora oleoides, Salvadora persica, Capparis aphylla and Melia azadirachta, in

addition to agricultural crops such as castor, cotton, jowar, and bajra. Grasses and thorny vegetation also found.

Birds: A very important place for resident and migratory birds. A waterfowl count in

1991 recorded the following:


Anas acuta (7) Larus ridibundus

(2800+)

Anas clypeata (47) Mycteria

leucocephala (40+) Ardea cinerea (50+) Numenius arquata

(11) Egretta gularis (5) Pelecanus oncrotalus

(3200) Egretta intermedia

(50+)

Phoenicopterus minor

(175) Fulica atra (1000+) Platalea leucorodia

(200+)

Himantopus Tringa nebularia (1)

himantopus (620) Hydroprogne caspia

(100) Tringa totanus (1)

Larus brunnicephalus

(380+)

The Island is inhabited by herds of wild ass (Equus hemionus khur), red antelope, and blackbuck.


Land use: A part of the island is under seasonal cultivation.

Conservation measures taken: It is a part of the Wild Ass Sanctuary.

Possible changes in land use and proposed development projects: Salt production

may start here in the near future.

Disturbances and threats: Some disturbance to the migratory birds by fishermen and salt transporters from the Rann.

Socio-economic values: Many of the local people are dependent on the area for fish.

References: IWRB (1991); WWF India (1993).

GULF OF KHAMBHAT

An extensive area of estuarine habitats around the periphery of the Gulf of Khambhat. Gulf of Khambhat is situated (20° 35’–22° 20’ N, 72° 05’–72° 55’ E) from the region

of Talaja on the west coast to the head of the Gulf at Khambhat, and south on the east coast for about 200 km to Valsad, Gujarat. The Tapi, Narmada, Mahi, Sabarmati, and several other rivers have deposited alluvium over large areas as the marine recession has united Saurashtra with the mainland of Gujarat. There are extensive areas of

intertidal mud and sand flats, coastal salt marshes, and degraded mangrove associations, particularly in the deltas of the Mahi and Sabarmati rivers. One of the largest areas of intertidal mudflats (3000 ha) is located immediately to the north of

Ghogha, near Bhavnagar. There are some coral reefs around small islets in the western part of the Gulf.


about 800 mm. The monsoon commences in June or July and ends in September, but the rainfall is erratic in occurrence, duration and intensity. The winters are generally cool and dry, with minimum temperatures around 10°C. The pre-monsoon period in March-June is very hot, with temperatures reaching 45°C.

Mangroves and associates: Formerly extensive tracts of mangrove forest, but now probably less than 20,000 ha. The forests are heavily utilised, and have been reduced to an open, scrub type of forest, with few trees exceeding 3m in height. Individual

trees of Avicennia marina, a species highly valued by the local inhabitants, have a bushy, mutilated appearance with multiple vegetative shoots. Species of Rhizophoraceae are now rare and have disappeared completely from most sites. Thus,

the zonation of mangrove forests in the Gulf is very simplified: a seaward band of Avicennia marina gives way to a back-mangal consisting of Salicornia brachiata,

Suaeda fruticosa, and Atriplex stocksii, and a Caespitose grass, Urochondra setulosa,

which appears at the extreme eastern limit of its distribution.

Reptiles: Two species of marine turtles, Chelonia mydas and Lepidochelys olivacea,

nest in large numbers along the coast and on Piram Island.

Birds: Parasharya (1984) has recorded 62 species of waterbirds in the area. The coastal marshes and mudflats provide feeding areas for large numbers of herons, egrets, storks, and ibises which breed in groves of trees in nearby towns and villages, such as Bhavnagar, Gogha, Khambhat, Bharuch, and Surat. The New Port of

Bhavnagar harbours one of the largest colonies of Egretta gularis in the world, approximately 1000 pairs in 1980, 1981, and 1982. Other common breeding species include Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola grayii, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta garzetta, E.

alba, Mycteria leucocephala, Threskiornis melanocephalus, Pseudibis papillosa, and Platalea leucorodia. The heron colonies in this area are one of the few places where E. gularis and E. garzetta nest side by side and interbreed.

The extensive mudflats and sandflats such as those at Ghogha support very large numbers of migratory shorebirds, gulls, and terns, together with large feeding flocks of Phoenicopterus ruber and Phoeniconaias minor. The most abundant shorebirds are Recurvirostra avosetta, Charadrius mongolus, C. leschenaultii, Tringa and Calidris,

and Limicola falcinellus. Numerous of crab plovers (Dromas ardeola) winter in the area, and a few Indian skimmers (Rynchops albicollis) have been reported. Large roosting flocks of Grus grus and Anthropoides virgo are often present.


Land use: Fishing in the Gulf. The mangrove woodland is heavily utilised by the local population; the leaves and fruits of Avicennia marina are fed to cattle, and

camels graze the landward edge of the forest. In some coastal villages and towns, the mangroves are the only source of firewood and the main source of green fodder. Salt extraction industries are located at several points around the Gulf.


Disturbances and threats: Levels of exploitation continue to increase to meet the demands of an increasing human population in the region. The mangroves have

already been over-exploited to the point at which much of the value of the resource has been lost. Coastal towns and several large cities in the catchment area are a major source of pollution.

Socio-economic values: The mangroves constitute an important source of fuel and

fodder, and presumably provide essential breeding and nursery grounds for many commercially important species of fishes, molluscs, and crustaceans. Despite their degraded condition, the forests remain vitally important for the survival of many

coastal villages and towns.

Research and facilities: Parasharya (1984) has studied the waterbirds of the Gulf of Khambhat for his Ph.D. at Saurashtra University.

Reference: Gole (1984b); Parasharya (1984); WWF India (1993)

KHIJADIA LAKES

A group of three, shallow, freshwater lakes and extensive marshes adjacent to a large area of saltpans and salt marsh on the south shore of the Gulf of Kachchh. During the 1930s, a barrage was constructed between Jamnagar and Navlakhi (43 km to the east) to reclaim coastal salt marsh for agricultural land. Only seven kilometres of the

barrage, in the Khijadia area, have been maintained in working order. The principle of

the barrage was to desalinate the salt marsh by preventing tidal inundation and to use the monsoon rains to fertilise the soil with the rich silts washed down by the flood waters. As the salinity decreased in the 1940s and 1950s, the lakes were colonised by

aquatic plants, and extensive reed-beds developed. By this time, however, the need for fresh water had become more important than the requirement for agricultural land, and plans to drain the area were abandoned. Instead, four pumping stations were

installed at the east of the main Khijadia Lake to supply fresh water to nearby villages.

The lakes and marshes are fed by monsoon run-off in several seasonal streams.

Khijadia salt pans, which lie to the north and east of the barrage, extend into a large area of salt marsh between the barrage and the sea. A deep channel connects the outflow from the lakes with a tidal channel running down to the sea. By the end of the monsoon, the flood waters may reach 2 m in depth and cover over 1000 ha; as the dry

season advances, the area of open water decreases, exposing extensive mudflats, especially at the eastern end of the lake. At low water levels, salt water seeps under the barrage from the Gulf during high tides. Studies conducted in February and March

1984 revealed no contamination of the water with salt, a pH of 7, a noticeable green algal bloom, and a steady rate of water loss of 0.8-0.9 cm per day. Two of the three lakes are bunded with a motorable road along one side, and the third is dammed by a larger structure of cement, stones, and earth. In 1985 and 1986, all three lakes dried

out in the summer months (March to June) as a result of inadequate monsoon rainfall.

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate, with rainfall concentrated in July and August. The mean maximum temperature is 40°C, and the minimum 7°C.

Macrophytes: The principal emergent species include Typha angustata, Scirpus sp., Cyperus sp., and Saccharum spontaneum. Submerged aquatic plants include Hydrilla

verticillata, Vallisneria spiralis, and Najas minor. Screens of Prosopis juliflora have

been planted along the bunds. There is some scrubby mangrove in the adjacent salt marsh, but all the mangrove trees have been cut down. Avicennia marina still thrives in the channels, but grazing camels and constant cutting prevent any recovery to full

tree height. The natural vegetation in surrounding areas includes Acacia nilotica,

Capparis decidua, and Phoenix sp.

The endemic Cyperus dwarakensis is found near Dwarka (Kamnaar); similarly

Tephrosia jamnagarensis is endemic to the area.

Birds: An extremely important staging and wintering area for a wide variety of waterfowl. Almost 200 species of birds have been recorded in the Sanctuary, including some 94 species of waterbirds. Waterfowl observed during a survey in

February/March 1984 included:


Ardea cinerea Philomachus pugnax

Egretta alba Platalea leucorodia

Fulica atra Plegadis falcinellus

Himantopus himantopus

Porphyrio porphyrio

Limosa limosa Recurvirostra

avosetta

Mycteria

leucocephala

Tachybaptus ruficollis

P elecanus crispus Threskiornis

melanocephalus

Pelecanus

onocrotalus

2000 small shorebirds and 600 gulls (Larus spp.), 8500 ducks (mainly Anas penelope,

A. crecca, A. acuta, and A. clypeata), and 600 terns (mainly Chlidonias hybridus,

Gelochelidon nilotica, and Sterna aurantia). Other counts in recent years have included:


Anas poecilorhyncha Grus grus

Anthropoides virgo Phalacrocorax spp. Aythya ferina Phoeniconaias minor

Aythya fuligula Phoenicopterus

ruber Aythya nyroca Rynchops albicollis

Egretta gularis

Several species of waterfowl breed in the area, including Tachybaptus ruficollis,

Porphyrio porphyrio, Fulica atra, Hydrophasianus chirurgus, and Himantopus spp.

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus is a regular visitor. At least four pairs of Podiceps

cristatus bred in 1984; this is a very uncommon breeding species in India south of the Himalaya. The area is also important for migratory swallows and martins

(Hirundinidae), wagtails (Motaccillidae) and various other small passerines.

Reptiles: Canis aureus and Felis chaus are common, and various freshwater turtles are known to occur. Little information is available on the other fauna of the Bird

Sanctuary.

Land tenure: Partly state-owned (Forest Department and Revenue Department) and partly under private ownership; surrounding areas are mainly privately owned. Private

land in and around the Bird Sanctuary is soon to be transferred to the Forest Department.

Land use: Many visitors come to observe birdlife in the Sanctuary. The Khijadia

Lakes provide water for irrigation and domestic use, while salt is extracted from the two neighboring salt works: As water levels recede, local villagers cultivate vegetables on the exposed beds of the lakes. Cattle and other domestic livestock graze the edge of the reed-beds, and up to 150 camels graze the adjacent salt marsh at neap

tides.

Conservation measures taken: The main lakes (604.9 ha) have been declared a Bird Sanctuary where hunting is prohibited, and the local WWF Group (Jamnagar) and Maharajah Jamsaheb have taken an interest in preserving the wildlife. There is no

effective management as yet, but efforts are being made to fence the area, and a forestry official is available to control the cutting of firewood, illegal grazing, and poaching.

Conservation measures proposed: It has been suggested that the area should be managed primarily as a nature reserve, partly because of its excellent location close to the city of Jamnagar. Continuing efforts will be made to exclude cattle and other

livestock by fencing the area, and plans have been made to dredge part of the lakes so that they will retain more monsoon floodwater.

Disturbances and threats: Increased grazing could cause deterioration of the reed-

beds, but unchecked reed growth would be undesirable from a wildlife management point of view. The volume of fresh water extracted by the pumping stations must be monitored to avoid excessive depletion of reserves. If too much water is extracted, the lakes will become saline, the reed -beds will be destroyed, and the value of the lake as

a source of fresh water will be lost. As Jamnagar is one of the fastest growing towns in Gujarat, urban expansion and pollution may pose a threat in the near future.

Socio-economic values: Of great importance both as a source of water and as a

grazing area for Khijadia and other local villages. The lack of alternative grazing sites makes the reed-beds especially important. The Sanctuary could become an excellent nature reserve attracting many visitors; it has great potential for scientific research,

and could be developed as an educational centre for school children and college groups.

Research and facilities: Several waterfowl censuses have been carried out, and more detailed research on the avifauna has been undertaken by T. Mundkur et al. and an

Oxford University Expedition to the Gulf of Kutch in February/March 1984 (Palmes and Briggs, in press).


KANKAVATI AND SAPDA DAMS

Kankavati irrigation reservoir was constructed in 1983, near Fall village on the

Jamnagar-Rajkot of highway along Kankavati river. It is an earthen dam, 12.3 m high, 2274m along and has a storage capacity of 6.8 cubic metres. The total area of the reservoir is 435 ha. Sapda dam is a 1828 m long earthen dam, constructed in 1987 on the banks of Ruparei river near Sapda village. The waterspread area of the reservoir is

about 193ha. The catchment area of the dam is 5180 ha. Maximum water depth is 7.88 m.

Abiotic factors: Average rainfall, 570 mm. Hot winds blow throughout the summer

season, and the rate of evaporation is high. Maximum temperature is 42°C and minimum temperature, 8°C.

Birds: A good roosting site for wintering waterfowl, specially demoiselle crane

(Anthropoides virgo) and ducks. Among the bird species observed in the area are


Anas crecca Hydroprogne caspia

Anas penelope Limosa limosa

Ardea cinerea Mycteria

leucocephala

Aythya ferina Podiceps rufficollis

Bubulcus ibis Pseudibis papillosa

Dendrocygna bicolor Sarkidiornis

melanotos

Egretta alba Sterna aurantia

Fulica atra Tringa stagnatilis

Himantopus

himantopus

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding areas are under private ownership.

Land use: Water from both the reservoirs are used for irrigation the cultivated tracts in the surrounding regions. The waters are also utilized for fisheries.

Disturbances and threats: Overfishing is a problem. Farming in the areas along the reservoirs exposed during winter when the water level decreases, disturbs the roosting migratory waterfowl.

Socio-economic values: The reservoirs provide the nearby villages with water for irrigation and are used for fishing. Seasonal cultivation along the shores also provides occupation.

Reference: Dodhia (1990); WWF India (1993).

PARIEJ AND KANEVAL RESERVOIRS

Pariej and Kaneval situated (22° 33’ N, 72° 38’ E) near Kheda, 50 km south of

Ahmedabad, Gujarat are water storage reservoirs on the plains to the north of the Gulf of Khambhat. Pariej lies in a natural depression and is surrounded by an embankment; it has a circumference of about nine kilometres. Kaneval, with a circumference of at

least 15 km, is considerably larger and contains several small islands. Both lakes are rich in aquatic vegetation, unlike most other wetlands in Gujarat. The total area of the Pariej reservoir is about 500 ha and Kaneval is 1500 ha.

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about 800 mm concentrated in July, August and September.

Macrophytes: Both lakes are known to support an abundant growth of aquatic

vegetation; including beds of Typha sp., no other details are available.

Birds: Both lakes are of great importance for wintering waterfowl, particularly ducks and Fulica atra, and assume special significance in years when Nalsarovar is dry: In January 1975, Pariej held almost 25,000 waterfowl, including 235 Pelecanus

onocrotalus, 95 Platalea leucorodia, 125 Phoenicopterus ruber, 8750 ducks (mainly

Anas penelope, A. strepera, A. crecca, A. acuta, and A. clypeata) and 15,000 Fulica

atra. Only 2000 birds were seen at Kaneval, but these included 18 Sarkidiornis

melanotos and 148 Grus antigone. A waterfowl census in mid January 1987 recorded

over 28,000 waterfowl; 17,000 at Kaneval and 11,500 at Pariej. These included: 420 Tachybaptus ruficollis, 19 Podiceps cristatus, 27 Pelecanus onocrotalus, 6 P. philippensis, 920 Phalacrocorax niger, 140 Mycteria leucocephala, 130 Plegadis

falcinellus, 80 Anser anser, 810 Dendrocygna javanica, 200 Nettapus

coromandelianus, 105 Anthropoides virgo, 85 Porphyrio porphyrio, 23,200 Fulica

atra, 245 Himantopus himantopus and 300 Glareola lactea but only 1190 dabbling ducks (Anas spp.).

Land tenure: The islands in Kaneval Reservoir are privately owned.

Land use: Water supply for irrigation and domestic use. The trapping of ducks and

coots on a large scale at Kaneval, and to a lesser extent at Pariej. At Kaneval, the birds are netted at night with mistnets. During the winter season, some 100-150 birds are trapped every night, and these sell for Rs. 10 each in the local markets. At Pariej, small numbers of birds are caught with nylon nooses. There is also some fishing at

Pariej, and the islands at Kaneval are under cultivation.


Disturbances and threats: Large numbers of waterfowl, are trapped for local

consumption, particularly at Kaneval, and this may be having a detrimental effect on the populations. There is also some shooting at both sites. The disappearance of the breeding colony of Mycteria leucocephala at Kaneval has been attributed to the

disturbance from hunting, and other human activities.

Socio-economic values: The reservoirs are an important source of fresh water, and Pariej supports a small fishery. The annual harvest of ducks and coots provides a

useful source of protein, but will require careful management if it is to be maintained on a sustainable basis.

Research and facilities: Waterfowl counts were carried out in 1975 and again in

1987.

Reference: van der Ven (1987); WWF India (1993).

WETLANDS OF SABARKANTA AND BANASKANTA DISTRICT

Sabarkanta and Banaskanta district is situated (23° 21’ N–23° 59’ N and 71° 20’–73° 20’ E) in the Gujarat. The site includes a few tanks, reservoirs, and small dams. These are Temba talav, Jamwada dam, Soneth dam, Morwada village tank, Futa talav,

Dhansura talav, Hathmati reservoir, Lodra dam, and Dhambolia talav.

Abiotic factors: Semi-arid to dry with extreme temperatures; maximum temperatures go up to 44°C, the minimum temperature is 8.4°C or less. Weather is very hot and

oppressive in the latter part of the summer season. Average annual rainfall is 670 mm.

Macrophytes: Trees include teak, mango, Prosopis juliflora, Acacia arabica, Melia

azadirachta, Salvadora persica, S.oleoides, Capparis aphyla, Zizypus spp. The

surrounding areas are used for cultivating jowar, bajra, sesamum, maize, gram, cotton, mustard, wheat, etc.

Birds: The following birds were recorded at the sites during January 1991: Little grebe (20), grey heron (1), black ibis (18), greylag goose (8), comb duck (4), Eurasian

wigeon (25), spotbill duck (6), northern pintail (345), common pochard (30), common coot (781), ruff (50), Indian river tern 3, black-winged stilt (38), black-tailed godwit (100), Indian pond heron (1), median egret (2), purple heron (1), Indian cotton teal

(26), lesser whistling teal (200), and northern shoveller (30).

Land tenure: Panchayat owned

Land use: Surrounding land is used for agriculture.

Disturbances and threats: Poaching of birds is reported.

Socio-economic values: Water from the tanks is used for irrigating the surrounding

agricultural fields and for domestic purposes.

References: Asian waterfowl census (IWRB 1991); WWF India (1993).

AJWA, VADHWANDA AND PAVAGADH LAKES

Ajwa (22° 24’ N, 73° 24’ E), Vadhwana (22° 11’ N, 73° 29’ E) and Pavagadh (22° 29’ N, 73° 22’ E) lakes are water storage reservoirs with some associated marshes, in the vicinity of Vadodara in mainland Gujarat. These three lakes are thought to be

representative of the large number of small wetlands in eastern Gujarat and southern Rajasthan. Numerous ancient tanks and semi-natural lakes extend northwards in a broad band from the Narmada river (which enters the Gulf of Khambhat at 21° 40’ N) all the way into Rajasthan. In general, these lakes support more aquatic vegetation

than lakes further west in Gujarat. The total area of the Ajwa lake is 300 ha, Vadhwana lake is 400 ha and Pavagadh lake is 100 ha.

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about 800 mm. The monsoon commences in June or July and ends in September. The

winters are cool and dry, with minimum temperatures around 10°C; the pre-monsoon period in March-June is very hot, with temperatures reaching 45°C.

Macrophytes: The lakes support a rich growth of aquatic vegetation. The dominant

emergents include Ammania baccifera, A. multiflora, Bergia sp., Alternanthera

sessilis, Cyperus sp., Scirpus sp., Polygonum plebeium, and Marsiliea aegyptiaca.

Floating and submerged aquatic plants include species of Chara, Potamogeton, Najas,

Vallisneria, Nymphaea, Limnanthemum, Lemna, Wolffia, and Hydrilla.

Reptiles: Six marsh crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) were observed on an island in Ajwa Lake during this survey.

Birds: Thought to be a critical wintering area for waterfowl, particularly ducks, Fulica atra, and some shorebirds. In the winter of 1974-75, following a rather poor

AJWA RESERVOIR

•


VADHWANA RESERVOIR

•


monsoon, Ajwa and Vadhwana were two of the richest wetlands for waterbirds in the whole of Gujarat. Over 27,500 waterfowl were recorded during a brief survey in February 1975, including:


Anas acuta (3,050) Calidris minuta (200)

Anas clypeata

(2,300)

Fulica atra (8,270)

Anas crecca (2,300) Grus antigone (22)

Anas penelope (3,050)

Limosa limosa (2,850)

Anas

poecilorhyncha (230)

Nettapus


Anas querquedula

(440)

Philomachus pugnax

(1,600) Anas Strepera (300) Plegadis falcinellus

(115)

Anastomus oscitans (40)

Tachybaptus ruficollis

(450) Aythya farina (1,100)


Land use: The lakes are used by local people as a source of fodder and as a grazing

area during the long, dry season. They supply water to the town of Vadodara, and for irrigation.

Disturbances and threats: No recent information. Grazing pressure was reported to

be very heavy at Ajwa and Vadhwana in February 1975.

Socio-economic values: No information.

Research and facilities: A waterfowl survey was carried out in 1975, but no recent

information is available.

Reference: Koning and Koning-Raat (1975); WWF India (1993).

WETLANDS OF CENTRAL AND EASTERN SAURASHTRA

Saurashtra, the larger of Gujarat’s two peninsulas, extends from the port of Dwarka (22° 15’ N, 68° 58’ E) 250 km eastwards to the Gulf of Khambhat. The peninsula is

generally rather flat, relieved in some areas by low hills rising to a peak at 1117 m. Much of the region is very fertile, and agricultural fields dominate the landscape. The peninsula has a radial drainage pattern flowing out of the central highlands. All the significant wetlands are water-storage reservoirs created by damming small rivers and

streams. Gopa Kumar and Nageswara Rao (1987) have listed 108 dams, 617 Checkdams, and 694 percolation tanks in the districts of Rajkot (837 sites),

Bhavangar (403 sites), and Amreli (179 sites) alone. A further 96 checkdams and 30 percolation tanks are currently under construction in these three districts. About 55 of the reservoirs exceed 100ha in area, and several exceed 1500 ha. Veri reservoir, with

an area of approximately 2800 ha, is the largest. The most important reservoirs include Lalpari, Randhanda, Nyari, Aji, Veri, Sardhar, Eshwaria, and Alansagar in Rajkot district; Hargovind, Ramdhari, Valavad and Shankar Talao in Bhavangar

district; and Hiran Lake and Madhuvanti Dam in Junagadh district .

Although most of the reservoirs are shallow (less than 2-3 m), some have maximum depths exceeding 12-15 m water levels fluctuate widely and, as a result, the reservoirs

generally lack abundant aquatic vegetation. Maximum water depths are achieved in late September after the monsoon which, in good years, commences in June or July and continues up to the beginning of October. As the water level falls, some of the reservoirs, particularly in the vicinity of Rajkot, become brackish. The great majority

dry out completely in years of poor rainfall, and in the recent succession of drought years, many of the wetlands thoughout Saurashtra have been dry all year round. Hiran Lake, in the Gir National Park, and Madhuvanti Dam to the west have remained in

good condition, as they benefit from the better vegetation in the Park and hence the greater number of perennial streams.

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall

ranging from about 800 mm in the southeast to 500 mm, or less, in the northwest. The monsoon starts in June or July and ends in September, but the rainfall is erratic in occurrence, duration, and intensity. The winters are generally cool and dry, although sporadic rainfall may occur. Minimum temperatures do not normally fall below about

5°C. The pre-monsoon period in March-June is very hot, with temperatures reaching 45°C, and dust storms are frequent.

Macrophytes: The absence of vegetation at most of the Saurashtra wetlands is a

fairly recent phenomenon; in the past, a variety of sedges and grasses formed a broad margin around the lakes, and there were extensive reed-beds at some sites. Only small patches of this marsh vegetation now remain, for example, at Veri, where there are

still significant reed-beds. Shankar Talao, well vegetated until 1965, is now barren. A number of the reservoirs have rocky or masonry margins with no emergent vegetation whatsoever and a few are situated in urban areas, with dwellings reaching down to the edge of the water. Most of the reservoirs are surrounded by agricultural

land or barren flats. In the upland areas, there are remnants of the dry, tropical, thorn forest which once covered the peninsula; this is best exemplified by the forests of the Gir National Park.

Birds: Collectively, the wetlands of Saurashtra constitute an extremely important breeding, staging, and wintering area for a very wide variety of waterfowl. Gopa Kumar (1985) lists 138 species of waterfowl and five species of kingfishers

(Alcedinidae) for the region. Common and widespread residents include


Amaurornis akool Glareola lactea

Amaurornis

phoenicurus

Himantopus

himantopus

Anas poecilorhyncha Ixobrychus sinensis

Anastomus oscitans Mycteria

leucocephala

Ardea cinerea Phalacrocroax

carbo Ardeola grayii P. niger

Bubulcus ibis Platalea leucorodia

Charadrius dubius Pseudibis papillosa

Chlidonias hybridus Sterna albifrons

Egretta alba S. aurantia

E. garzetta Tachybaptus

ruficollis Esacus recurvirostris Vanellus indicus

Gelochelidon nilotica

The region is a major wintering area for pelicans, flamingos, ducks, cranes, and shorebirds, some species occurring in huge numbers. Numerous Pelecanus

onocrotalus have been reported at many wetlands, notably at Alansagar, and P.

crispus occurs in small numbers at several sites. Both flamingos, Phoenicopterus

ruber and Phoeniconaias minor, appear as non-breeding visitors, the former often in very large numbers, e.g. at Veri in 1983. Several species of ducks winter in large

numbers throughout the region, Anas penelope, A. crecca, A. acuta, A. clypeata, and Aythya ferina being the commonest. Tadorna ferruginea is widely distributed in small numbers, but Anser indicus is only an occasional visitor. Many of the wetlands

provide secure roosting sites for large concentrations of Grus grus; over 15,000 individuals were observed in January-February 1983, mainly at Veri, Valavad, Ramdhari, and Hargovind. The region is also of major importance as a wintering area for the demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo). The wintering population in the early

1980s was estimated at about 30,000 birds. Roosts with over 1000 birds were located at Shankar Talao, Alansagar, Randharda, Aji, Lalpari, and Nyari in January-February 1983, and a pre-migratory gathering of 20,000 was observed at Lalpari in March

1985. Grus antigone is rather scarce, although 22 were seen together in the Rajkot area in 1985. Many species of shorebirds occur on migration and in winter, the most abundant being Himantopus himantopus, Recurvirostra avosetta, Limosa limosa,

Calidris minuta, and Philomachus pugnax.

Even in the winter of 1986-87, a year of extreme drought, there were important concentrations of waterfowl in Saurashtra. Censuses at nine sites in January 1987 recorded over 11,000 waterfowl of about 70 species, including:


Anthropoides virgo (4,820)

Pelecanus Crispus

(13)

Ardea cinerea (80) Pelecanus

onocrotalus (320) Ciconia episcopus (16) Philomachus pugnax

(1,040)

Ciconia nigra (8) Phoenicopterus

ruber (200) Ephippiorhynchus

asiaticus (10)

Platalea leucorodia

(140)

Grus grus (900) Pseudibis papillosa (250)

Limosa limosa (550) Rhynchops albicollis (18)

Mycteria leucocephala

(35)

Sarkidiornis

melanotos (40)

Hiran Lake within Gir National Park supports the largest known population of the

marsh crocodile or mugger (Crocodylus palustris) at one site: an estimated 60 individuals in 1978. The surrounding forests support the last wild population of the Asiatic lion (Pantheraleo persica): there were 205 in 1970.

Land tenure: Most of the reservoirs are state-owned, and most of the surrounding areas are privately owned.

Conservation measures taken: Shooting is prohibited at most of the wetlands. Hiran

Lake is protected in the Gir National Park (35,948 ha), established in 1974. At some wetlands, particularly Hiran Lake, the population of Crocodylus palustris has been augmented by animals reared in captivity. A captive-rearing programme was initiated in 1975, and by January 1987,145 animals had been released in the National Park.

Land use: The lakes provide fresh water for irrigation and domestic use. Some of the lakes are still a source of firewood and fodder, but in most cases these resources have been eliminated by over-exploitaion. In recent years, the exposed beds of some of the

lakes have been cultivated on a semi-permanent basis (e.g. at Lalpari, Nyari, and Randharda). Surrounding areas concentrate on grazing and the cultivation of groundnuts, pulses, mustard, and other crops.

Disturbances and threats: The major problems stem from the apparently increasing unreliability of rainfall in this sem-arid region. As the periods of drought intensify, so the pressures on the wetlands increase and the vegetation, particularly, suffers further

degradation. Illegal hunting occurs at some lakes (e.g. Veri). The expansion of Rajkot may soon cause excessive pollution to those lakes nearest the city.

Socio-economic values: Water supply and recreation.

Research and facilities: Koning and Koning-Rahat (1975) conducted waterfowl censuses at 18 reservoirs around Rajkot, Jasdan, and Bhavangar in February 1975, and Gole (1984b) surveyed ten lakes in January and February 1983. Gopakumar (1985) studied the wetlands of Saurashtra and their birds for an M.Sc degree at the

Department of Biosciences at Saurashtra University. His research, carried out between July 1983 and June 1984, included a study of avian population dynamics at three

representative reservoirs near Rajkot. Further waterfowl censuses were carried out at nine lakes in January 1987.

Reference: Gopakumar (1985); Gopakumar and Nageswara Rao (1987); Joel (1986); Khacher et al. (1987); WWF India (1993).

WETLANDS OF KUTCH PENINSULA

Kutch Peninsula situated on 22° 45’–23° 45’N, 68° 40’–71° 00’ E in the north of the Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat. The Kutch Peninsula is a region of relatively high relief comprising sheets of lava intersected by trap dykes. Much of the low-lying country

has saline soils. The region extends for about 230 km from east to west, and up to 70 km from north to south. Natural lakes are very scarce in this semi-arid and rocky environment. As a consequence, numerous water storage reservoirs (tanks) have been constructed over the centuries to permit the cultivation of ground nuts, pulses, cereals

and cotton. At least 60 of these reservoirs exceed 100 ha in area. Virtually all the water courses flowing out of the Chaduva Katrol Range (the central spine of the Kutch peninsula) are dammed at some point along their relatively short path to the

Arabian Sea, Gulf of Kutch, or inland salt wastes of the Great and Little Ranns There are several small estuaries along the south and west coasts of Kutch and a few larger areas of saline and brackish marshes, particularly along the Wagardhrai Creek which connects the Gulf of Kutch with the Little Rann. Some of the best known wetlands are

the Bhimasar and Sinai Lakes, Dewisar Tank, Rudarmata Dam and Ninghar Dam, Kukma Village Tank and Lair Dam, Don Dam Reservoir, Topansar Tank and Vijaysagar Dam. In periods of below average rainfall, most of the wetlands remain

dry or virtually dry for the entire year. The monsoon has failed several times in the past decade and as a result, most of the tanks have held very little water in recent years. Many wetlands of Kutch Peninsula are mostly artificial, ranging in size from 5 ha to c.1,000 ha, in a region of 1,500,000 ha.

Abiotic factors: Dry tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about 400 mm concentrated in July, August and September.

Macrophytes: None of the Kutch wetlands manifests the rich profusion of aquatic and emergent plants so typical of the wetlands of lower Sind in Pakistan. Species of Typha, Juncus and Phragmites occur at some of the lakes, but are intensively grazed by domestic livestock and cut for fodder. Most of the peripheral vegetation,

particularly tamarisk Tamarix dioica, has been cut for fuel. Many of the tanks are therefore decidedly bare of vegetation, compounding the appearance of aridity with the processes of desertification. The saline tracts and river beds support sparse

woodland composed of Salvadora persica, S. oleoides, Tamarix spp. and Calotropis

procera. The flora of surrounding areas is generally xerophytic. Thorn forest is presumed to be the climax vegetation but it is everywhere degraded into various stages of scrub.

Land tenure: No information.

Land use: The tanks were built to supply water for irrigation and domestic use. They have also been heavily exploited for firewood and fodder. As the tanks dry up, they

are often brought into cultivation, and after a series of dry years, cultivation of the lake beds inevitably evolves into semi-permanent agricultural operations. Many of the tanks are centres of spiritual and physical recreation.

Conservation measures taken: Ninghar Dam (23° 08’ N, 69° 55’ E) was once maintained as a hunting preserve, and in the 1930s, was considered to be the best area for duck hunting in Kutch.

Disturbances and threats: Excessive exploitation of the aquatic and peripheral vegetation exacerbates the deterioration of the tanks induced by lack of water. Over-grazing and cutting of natural vegetation in the catchment area is accelerating the

processes of desertification.

Socio-economic values: The wetlands provide a source of firewood and fodder to the local inhabitants, but harvests have consistently exceeded sustainable levels, and as a

result, yields have fallen. Many of the lakes are scenically attractive and are the sites of temples.

Birds: In years of average or above average rainfall, the region is a very important

wintering area for migratory waterfowl, particularly Anatidae. Some of the larger lakes, e.g. Rudarmata Dam, are important for pelicans and cormorants. Anastomus

oscitans, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Threskiornis melanocephalus and Pseudibis

papillosa occur at many of the tanks, and up to 150 Mycteria leucocephala have been

reported at Vijaysagar. However, during a waterfowl survey of five tanks in January 1987, following three consecutive years of drought, only small numbers of birds were recorded. These included: 20 Pelecanus onocrotalus; 75 Phalacrocorax carbo; 33

Mycteria leucocephala; 24 Pseudibis papillosa; 36 Platalea leucorodia; 130 Phoenicopterus ruber; 700 ducks of 12 species; 50 Grus grus; 150 Anthropoides

virgo; 680 Fulica atra and 275 shorebirds of 16 species, and 150 gulls and terns of

eight species.

Research and facilities: Some mid-winter waterfowl counts were carried out in February 1975 and in January 1987.

Reference: Gole (1984b); Karpowicz (1985); Koning and Koning-Raat (1975); Luthin (1984); WWF India (1993)

LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH

Little Rann of Kutch (23° 10’–23° 45’ N, 70° 45’–71° 45’ E) southeast of the Great Rann of Kutch and 130 km west of Ahmadabad, Gujarat. The Little Rann is usually described as a flat saline waste or salt impregnated wilderness. It lies to the southeast

of the Great Rann and along a line of marine recession between the Indus Delta and the Gulf of Khambhat. During the Southwest Monsoon (July to September), large areas are inundated by up to two metres of water, much of which is pushed up from the Gulf of Kutch by strong westerly winds. The salt flats dry out almost entirely

during the prolonged dry season. Saline areas are relieved by areas of slightly higher ground with salt-free soil supporting a stunted, scrubby vegetation. There are about 30 of these little hillocks, or “bets”, of varying sizes in the Little Rann. In years of ample

rainfall, the flood water overflows into the Nalsarovar Depression to the southeast. Soil conditions are saline to hypersaline. The total area of the wetland is about 495,300 ha.

Abiotic factors: Dry tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of less than 300 mm concentrated in July and August. The maximum temperature is about 42°C, the minimum temperature about 12°C, and the average relative humidity 25%.

Macrophytes: The vegetation consists of xerophytic shrubs and thorny scrubland between open saline flats devoid of vegetation. There are virtually no trees and most

of the vegetation is confined to the higher ground and transitional zones, these areas totaling some 33,000 ha. The bets support a slightly richer flora than elsewhere. Some of these formerly supported mature stands of Acacia nilotica, Prosopis spicigera,

Salvadora persica and S. oleodes, but most of the large trees were felled and converted into charcoal in the 1950s and 1960s. Small shrubs of S.persica, Tamarix

dioica ssp indica and the alien mesquite Prosopis juliflora are common in several

areas, together with Suaeda fruticosa, Salsola barysoma and Haloxylon salicornicum.

Gramineae and Cyperaceae are better adapted to the hydromorphic conditions and include Aleuropes lagoprides, Cenchrus setigems, C. ciliaris, Sporobolus marginatus,

S. helveticus and Cyperus rotundus.

Land tenure: The Little Rann is state owned; surrounding areas are partly state owned and partly private.

Land use: Grazing by domestic livestock. Parts of the Sanctuary are leased out by the Government to salt manufacturers, and salt production now occurs all along the periphery of the Rann. There is also a little cultivation of millet in the less saline areas.

Conservation measures taken: The entire area has been declared a Wildlife Sanctuary by the Government of Gujarat to protect the population of Wild Ass Equus

hemionus khur.

Conservation measures proposed: There is a proposal to upgrade the sanctuary and to declare it a Biosphere Reserve. There is an urgent need to improve the level of wardening in the sanctuary, and to develop an integrated management plan for the

entire area. Lavkumar Khacher has recommended the establishment of a composite sanctuary incorporating the Great and Little Ranns of Kutch, and the development of an imaginatively radial programme for their effective management.

Disturbances and threats: There is almost no effective control in the Wild Ass Sanctuary, and no clear demarcation of the boundaries. As a result, the area has been open to a variety of abuses. Large herds of domestic cattle are driven into the Rann to graze on the bets, and most of the indigenous trees are now heavily browsed and

topped. Local villagers enter the sanctuary to collect firewood and make charcoal, and some areas have been ploughed up for agriculture. Large areas of native vegetation have been replaced with plantations of the exotic mesquite Prosopis juliflora, and this

has now invaded the bets. A considerable amount of disturbance is caused to wildlife by jeeps and motorcycles driving at will across the flats, and the Wild Asses in particular are deliberately chased by tourists. Illegal shooting and trapping are common in the sanctuary, and the populations of some of the larger mammals have

been decimated. A rapid expansion in salt production, although not in itself harmful to wildlife, has led to a great increase in other forms of disturbance.

Socio-economic values: The Little Rann of Kutch, if managed efficiently, could not

only remain an important salt producing area, but could once again become a great wildlife sanctuary with tremendous potential for tourism.

Birds: The region is still of considerable importance for a wide variety of waterfowl

such as pelicans, herons, egrets, storks, spoonbills, ducks and shorebirds. Thousands of Common Cranes Grus grus winter in the area, and large numbers of flamingos (both Phoenicopterus ruber and Phoeniconaias minor) are present when water levels

are suitable. A breeding colony of the Lesser Flamingo P. minor has recently been discovered in the Little Rann at Surajbari (Mundkur et al., in press). The mouth of the

Banas River is an important staging area for migratory shorebirds, and large concentrations of ducks, mainly Anas crecca, A. poecilorhyncha, A. acuta, A.

querquedula and A. clypeata, have been observed during the migration periods.

Mammals: The Little Rann supports a sizeable population of the Indian Wild Ass

Equus hemionus khur. The population has gradually increased under protection from about 800 animals in the late 1960s to 1,989 in 1983, but the asses are subjected to a

considerable amount of disturbance and remain very wary. The Rann formerly supported large populations of Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus, Chinkara Gazella

gazella and Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra, but these have been decimated in recent

decades by illegal hunting.

Research and facilities: Some ornithological research was carried out in the area by the late Dharmakumarsinhji. Biologists from Saurashtra University are currently

studying the recently discovered breeding colony of Phoeniconaias minor, and carrying out research on the ecology of Gazella gazella and Boselaphus

tragocamelus.

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Ali (1945); Blasco (1977); Fernandes

(1987); Gole (l984b); Karpowicz (1985); WWF India (1993).

SOUTHERN GULF OF KUTCH

Southern Gulf of Kutch situated on 22° l5’–23° l5’ N, 69° 00’–70° 40’ E in the southern shore of the Gulf of Kutch in Saurashtra, Gujarat. The Gulf of Kutch is a large inlet of the Arabian Sea about 60 km wide at its widest and tapering northeastwards for 170 km. The Marine National Park and Marine Sanctuary are

situated along the southern shore of the Gulf from Okha (22° 30’ N, 69° 00’ E) eastwards to the vicinity of Khijadia (22° 30’ N, 70° 05’ E). A vast area of intertidal mudflats, salt marshes and seasonally inundated coastal flats extends northeastwards

along Wagardhrai Creek to about 23° 15’ N, 70° 40’ E. Information from this area, a transitional zone between the Gulf and the Little Rann of Kutch, is lacking. The National Park and Marine Sanctuary include 42 islands and a complex of fringing

reefs backed by mud and sand flats, coastal salt marsh and mangrove forest at various stages of exploitation. The coral formations are now the only living reefs between the Arabian Gulf and the Laccadives. The towns of Okha, Salaya, Vadinar, Sikka and Jamnagar have developed along the southern edge of the Gulf and exert considerable

influence over it. The major islands (from west to east) are Beyt, Chusnas, Bhaidar, Nora, Ajad, Chauk, Dhanibet, Karumbhar, Goos Reef, Moouada, Pirotan, Jindra and Chhad. The Gulf is rightly famous for its coral formations but their extent and variety

have been declining over the recent geological past as tectonic uplift has diverted the flow of the Indus away from the Gulf of Kutch and thereby substantially reduced freshwater input. This deterioration of the reefs has accelerated noticeably in historical times. The corals are most extensive in the western part of the Gulf,

particularly near Poshitra Point and on Boria Reef. The total area of Gulf of Kutch is 735,000 ha, Marine National Park is about 16,289 ha and Marine Sanctuary is 45,592 ha.

Abiotic factors: Dry tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about 300mm concentrated in July and August. The mean maximum temperature is 40°C, and the minimum 7°C.

Macrophytes: Over 100 species of algae have been recorded in the Gulf of Kutch in the past, but in recent years only 74 species have been found.

Mangroves: The Gulf contains some of the best mangrove forests on the west coast of India, but large areas have been totally cleared or at least seriously degraded by exploitation for domestic and commercial use. In the last twenty years alone, 95% of

mature trees have been cut down. Only four islands, Ajad, Bhaidar, Pirotan and Kharachusa, and a small area on the mainland near Okha still support true mangrove forest. These areas have been protected by sacred traditions or the good will of local

people. Elsewhere in the Gulf, the mangroves have been reduced to low bushes with a maximum height of two metres. The principal species are Avicennia alba, Rhizophora

mucronata and Ceriops tagal.

Invertebrates and fishes: The coral reefs, mudflats and mangrove swamps support a great variety of invertebrates, fishes and birds. A total of 32 hard (Scleractinavian) and 12 soft (Alcyonarian) corals have been recorded, along with over 150 species of fishes. Species diversity is probably highest amongst the sponges and worms, but only

preliminary investigations on most phyla have been carried out so far. Rarities include an unusual Echiurid. Great range extensions have recently been discovered amongst brittlestars and sponges, revealing an overlap between the marine faunas of the

Arabian Gulf and South India.

Reptiles: The marine turtles Chelonia mydas and Lepidochelys olivacea breed on islands in the Gulf, but both are threatened by the fishermen of the Wagher

community. Several species of snakes occur, particularly in the mangrove scrub, and one species of banded sea snake has been recorded.

Birds: An Oxford University Expedition to the Gulf in 1984 focused attention on the

avifauna, and discovered large concentrations of many species, particularly migratory shorebirds. No overall census was possible, but a high-tide roost of 10,000 shorebirds was located on Pirotan Island, and similar numbers were found on all the other islands that were visited during the survey. The most numerous species were Charadrius

mongolus (over 3,000 at Pirotan and 6,000–9,000 on Bhaidar), Arenaria interpres

(1,500 at Pirotan and many more on Bhaidar), and Calidris ferruginea (3,000–4,000 on most of the islands). Other common shorebirds included


Calidris alba (200 at Pirotan)

Numenius arquata

(flocks of up to 50) C. minuta N. phaeopus (120 at

Pirotan) Charadrius

leschenaultii Philomachus pugnax

(2,000 at Pirotan)

Haematopus ostralegus

(roosts of 50 at Goos Reef and 25 at Pirotan)

Pluvialis squatarola

Limicola falcinellus Tringa totanus (200-300 on Bhaidar and

150 at Pirotan) Limosa lapponica Xenus cinereus (300

at Pirotan and larger

numbers on Bhaidar) L. limosa

A particularly significant population of the Crab Plover Dromas ardeola occurs in the Gulf of Kutch (over 5,000 individuals in February/March 1984) and the species may well breed here. The Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris and Indian Skimmer Rynchops

albicollis have been recorded in winter. Other waterfowl observed in February/March 1984 included: 500 Pelecanus onocrotalus; 50 P. crispus; 3 P. philippensis; up to 20 Egretta gularis; 40 Sarkidiornis melanotos; and over 2,200 other ducks mainly Anas

clypeata, hundreds of gulls, mainly Larus ichthyaetus, L.brunnicephalus and L.

argentatus, and smaller numbers of the terns Gelochelidon nilotica, Hydroprogne

caspia and Sterna albifrons.

Many of the islands in the southern part of the Gulf support sizeable breeding colonies of Phalacrocorax niger, Anhinga melanogaster, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola

grayii, Butorides striatus, Egretta gularis, E. alba, Ardea cinerea, Mycteria

leucocephala, Threskiornis melanocephalus and Platalea leucorodia. The coastal salt

marshes and salt evaporation ponds are used by many of these birds, along with hundreds of Phoenicopterus ruber, Phoeniconaias minor, Himantopus himantopus

and Recurvirostra avosetta.

Mammals: The Dugong Dugong dugon is present in small numbers, this being the only population on the west coast of India. The cetaceans Sousa plumbea and Neophocaena phocaenoides occur in the Gulf, but no data are available on their

status.

Land tenure: Largely state owned; there are some private holdings and Beyt and Ajad Islands.

Land use: Until the early 20th century, Jamnagar was the centre of one of the biggest pearl fisheries in the world, exploiting the eastern Gulf islands. A window-pane oyster fishery developed at Okha in 1910, but uncontrolled exploitation has led to a temporary ban on the collection of all oysters in the Gulf. Fishing remains an

important source of income and employment, although catches have declined markedly in recent years. For many years, the Digvijay Cement Corporation dredged sea sand from an area of 1,600 acres (648 ha) in the Gulf, but this has now ceased.

There are several salt works along the southern shore; the largest, at Okha, has over 20,000 ha of saltpans. The Gulf of Kutch is one of the best natural harbours in India; an oil terminal has been built at Vadinar Island to accommodate very large oil tankers (300,000-400,000 tons). There is an offshore single-buoy mooring system from which

the oil is pumped ashore. Several new industries have been established in the area in recent years. Beyt and Ajad islands are permanently inhabited, and there is a lighthouse on Pirotan with permanent staff.

Conservation measures taken: Some 45,792 ha of the Gulf of Kutch were declared a Marine Sanctuary in 1980, and a further 16,289 ha were declared a Marine National Park in 1982. A survey of the extent of the coral formations formed the basis for the

delineation of the Park boundaries. The protected areas were established in response to the serious pollution and degradation of the mangrove/coral reef ecosystem that now threatens the future of the Gulf. The cutting of mangroves has been prohibited, and the collection of pearl and window-pane oysters temporarily banned. Since the

establishment of the National Park, the cement industry has been fined for dredging

outside its legal boundaries. Some 60 ha of Pirotan Island have been replanted with mangroves by visiting school parties.

Conservation measures proposed: It has been widely proposed that the salt extraction companies should be obliged to restore mangrove forests wherever possible, and should be held responsible for the well-being of the forests surrounding their operations. A plan to restock mangrove forests with seedlings has failed to gain

financial or political support, yet with proper legislation and cooperation, a sustainable yield of mangrove products and a secure coastal fishery could be achieved. A distinguished local Islamic leader is persuading visitors to plant

mangrove seedlings as part of their pilgrimage to Pirotan. The Gulf of Kutch has been recommended on several occasions for designation as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention.

Possible changes in land use: Depending upon administrative decisions and Government resolve, the Gulf of Kutch could become an important centre for environmentally sensitive development. However, it would seem likely that more, rather than fewer, ontentioul illuel will arise as more pressure is exerted on the area by

industrial enterprises and an increasing human population in the hinterland.

Disturbances and threats: The many disturbances and threats to the Gulf of Kutch are summarized by Palmes and Briggs (in press). Uncontrolled exploitation has

severely depleted the stocks of oysters. The dredging of sea sand to supply the cement industry had a serious deleterious effect on the coral reefs. Unsubstantiated reports suggested that there was some direct dredging of coral reefs, while considerable

damage was caused to the reefs both directly and indirectly through increased sediment load. Fish catches in the Gulf are declining because of damage to the reefs and uncontrolled exploitation of the mangrove forests. Large areas of mangrove forest have been cleared to make room for new saltpans, and the remaining mangroves have

been damaged by local people gathering firewood and fodder for their livestock. Renewed growth of the mangroves near the salt plans is severely constrained by the needs of the largely itinerant salt workers for firewood. During the drought years of

1985-87, pressures increased on the mangrove areas. In late 1987, the Government gave local people permission to collect mangrove foliage for fodder. This precipitated a massive increase in the cutting of mangroves, and it is anticipated that by the end of 1988 not a single tree will have escaped unscathed. In some areas, the residues from

the salt evaporation process are having a damaging effect on the coastal fauna and flora. There are no facilities to cope with oil spillage at Vadinar Island; minor spills have already been reported, and the danger of a major spillage cannot be ignored.

There are various sources of pollution along the coast, chiefly from light industries in the various towns, and a new fertilizer factory has been established at Sikka. Additionally, a considerable amount of municipal waste is dumped in the Gulf from barges. A proposal has recently been made to build tidal barrage across the mouth of

the Gulf to produce power for the region. If this plan is carried out, the changes in tidal regime would almost certainly spell disaster for the coral reefs and mangrove/ mudflat ecosystem, and have a serious adverse effect on the fishing industry and

indigenous wildlife populations.

Socio-economic values: The Gulf supports a major fishery which is dependent to a very large extent on the mangrove/mudflat ecosystem and coral reefs. The great

variety of fishes available in local markets indicates the wealth of these waters. The value of the mangrove swamps as breeding and nursery grounds for commercially

valuable fishes, molluscs and crustaceans, far outweighs their value as firewood and fodder. Similarly, the long-term values of the living coral formations far outweigh their short-term value as a source of cheap limestone for the cement industry.

Developments in education, conservation and tourism will undoubtedly help the socio-economic expansion of the region if managed in an appropriate manner. Wildlife tours to the Gulf began in 1985 and have helped to publicize the importance

of the Gulf outside India.

Research and facilities: The Maharajah of Baroda recruited James Hornell to undertake the first comprehensive study of the Gulf in 1908-1909. Several general

surveys have been carried out in recent years, and an Oxford University Expedition made a detailed study of the Gulf in February and March 1984. Biologists from Saurashtra University are currently conducting research into the natural resources of the Gulf and their levels of exploitation. A field study centre and nature interpretation

cum tourist headquarters are now being developed on Pirotan Island.

Reference: De Block (1981); Fernandes (1987); Frazier and Mundkur (in prep); Hussain (1987a); Karpowicz (1985); Naik et al. (1985); Silas et al. (1985); Yadava

(1985); WWF India (1993).

LAY KUSH TIRATH

Lay Kush Tirath situated on 29° 55’ N, 76° 00’ E in 95 km WNW of Karnal,

Haryana. It is a small freshwater lake and associated marshes on the rolling plains of northwestern Haryana. The total area of the wetland is 8 ha.

Abiotic factors: Dry tropical monsoon climate typical of the Upper Ganges Plain.

Flora: No information.

Birds: An important area for both resident and migratory waterfowl, notably Ardeidae, Ciconiidae, Anatidae and Gruidae.



Conservation measures taken: A reserve was established in May 1974, but the

status of protection is unknown.


Socio-economic values: The area is a site of religious significance.


SULTANPUR JHEELS

A group of shallow freshwater lakes and associated marshes on rolling cultivated plains southwest of Delhi, Haryana. The lakes and marshes flood during the monsoon and, in years of adequate rainfall, retain water until at least March or April. Some of the Jheels, including the main lake in the Bird Sanctuary, have been increased in size

by the construction of embankments (bunds). A large area of seasonally flooded sedge marsh extends north from the main lake. In recent years of low rainfall, only a few small pools have remained by mid-winter, some 30 cm in depth. The total area of the

Jheels is 13,727 ha including a core are of 144 ha containing the main lake (346 ha). Consequently, pumping of groundwater is undertaken each year to maintain some waterfowl habitat. Surrounding areas are cultivated, heavily grazed, and for the most

part rather degraded. The land slopes gently northwards through a region of innumerable stabilised sand dunes; the climate and soils are not conducive to the existence of permanent water bodies, and thus saline flashes predominate by late winter even in years of normal monsoon rainfall.

Abiotic factors: Ganges Monsoon climate with scanty rainfall, very similar to that of Delhi. The monsoon rains have been well below average in several recent years.

Macrophytes: There are small areas of Typha sp., and Phragmites sp., around

several of the Jheels, and some emergent vegetation within the lakes, particularly in the core area. Extensive sedge marshes, particularly to the north of the main lake, form a loose mosaic with areas of dry grassland. The natural vegetation of the region

is semi-arid scrub, but 78% of the buffer zone is under cultivation.

Birds: In years of adequate rainfall, a very important wintering area for a wide variety of waterfowl, notably pelicans, ducks, geese, and cranes. Waterfowl observed

during a brief survey in January 1986 included: 450 Pelecanus onocrotalus, 15 P.crispus, 150 Phalacrocorax carbo, 70 herons and egrets of seven species, 35 Mycteria leucocephala, 200 Platalea leucorodia, 150 Phoenicopterus ruber, 100 Anser anser, 350 A. indicus, 120 Grus grus, 500 Fulica atra, 50 Chlidonias hybridus,

and over 12,000 ducks of 12 species (mainly wigeon, gadwall, common teal, shoveler, pochard) and small numbers of shorebirds of 20 species. Noteworthy species recorded in small numbers included white necked stork, white ibis, black ibis, spoonbill, comb

duck, sarus crane, purple moorhen, painted snipe. As many as 250 Pelecanus crispus,

300 Platalea leucorodia, 200 Phoenicopterus ruber and 800 Grus grus have been reported in other winters, and Anthropoides virgo has been recorded on migration.

Following the failure of the monsoon in 1986, the wetland was much reduced in size, and less than a thousand waterfowl were present in January 1987. No information is available on the breeding birds. The trees planted on islands in the main lake are still too small to support sizeable numbers of breeding herons and storks, but the situation

will doubtless improve as the trees mature. Many species of raptors occur in the area, including the Imperial eagle, greater spotted eagle, and tawny eagle and marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus).

Land tenure: The core area (144 ha) is state-owned (State Wildlife Department); surrounding areas are under private or village panchayat control.

Land use: The core area is managed primarily as a waterfowl reserve and tourist

attraction. The buffer zone encompasses 17 revenue villages. Local villagers graze their livestock within the Sanctuary, and gather aquatic vegetation for thatch and fodder, although this has become illegal since the area was declared a National Park.

Conservation measures taken: A core area of 144 ha, including the main lake, was declared a Bird Sanctuary by the Haryana State Government in April 1971. In 1991, Sultanpur was upgraded to National Park status. The Park is administered by the

Wildlife Department and adjoining tourist complex by the Haryana Tourism Development Corporation. The Park is under the control of the Divisional Forest Officer, Gurgaon, assisted by a Range Officer, an Inspector of Wildlife, and their staff. All hunting has been prohibited within a radius of 10 km of the core area.

Acacias have been planted on islands in the main lake to attract breeding birds.

Conservation measures proposed: A study by the Environmental Services Group of WWF India (Fernandes 1987) has suggested several possible management approaches

which take into account the prevailing land-use practices and the local resource needs of the area. These include: (a) better demarcation of the buffer zone, which should include the catchment area of the wetlands; (b) the planting of salt tolerant species

such as Tamarix sp. and Sesbania bispinosa at the wetlands; (c) reafforestation in surrounding areas with ground cover and deep rooted trees to stabilize the soil. This vegetation would reduce surface run-off velocity, thereby reducing siltation, and would serve as wind breaks reducing the amount of wind blown sand and silt. The

vegetation would help to reduce the rate of evapo-transpiration, thereby maintaining the water in the wetlands for a longer period, and would also provide shelter and nesting habitat for water birds. The Environmental Services Group also recommended

that land-use patterns in surrounding areas be modified; there should be a change in cropping patterns to rotational and mixed cropping, and in areas where dry farming takes place, permanent cropping should be promoted, e.g. Zizyphus spp., Vigra spp., Cajanus cajan, Psidium guava and Morus alba. Livestock grazing should be

prohibited near the wetlands, and social forestry should be encouraged in order to prevent the unscrupulous cutting of trees for fodder and fuel. All industrial activities should be banned and steps taken immediately to reclaim the quarried areas for social

forestry and agriculture. Pisciculture might be encouraged at some of the wetlands,

and additional grazing land should be provided through planting to reduce overall grazing pressure.

Disturbances and threats: Small numbers of cattle and water buffalo are grazed within the Sanctuary, but there is no fishing or human activity on the lake itself. There is a high level of disturbance from tourist activity, particularly when water levels are low and the birds are concentrated in a small area. Siltation caused by soil erosion in

the catchment area is increasing. The excavation of sand for nearby lime and brick industries also poses a serious threat to the Sanctuary. Land-use practices in the catchment - expanding settlements, and construction of farmhouses and other

buildings have impeded the natural flow of water into the lake, with the result that the wetland is drying up. Monsoon failure and siltation on account of windblown dust settling in the lake have accentuated the problem. Except for a brief spell after the rains, pools of water have to be artificially maintained by pumping up groundwater.

Many of the surrounding waterbodies have been reclaimed for cultivation.

Socio-economic values: Situated only 45 km from centre for outdoor recreation, notably bird-watching, and provides excellent opportunities for scientific research and

conservation education.

Reference: WWFINDIA (1987, 1992, 1993); Wetlands of India – A Directory, 1990.

BHATEGAON DAM

Bhategaon dam is situated (19° 25’ N, 77° 25’ E) in the Parbhani district,

Maharashtra. Bhategaon pond is perennial natural water body used for culture of Indian major carps, which received rainwater from surrounding hills. The catchment area of pond is 15.54 sq.km, annual utilization 2.07 sq.km and total water spread area is about 46.94 ha. The length of the earthen dam is 452 m and maximum flood

lift 1.50 m, while top width of wall is 360 m.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The water temperature varies from 18 to 29°C. The pH values ranged from 7.1 to 8.8.

Phytoplankton: Oscillatoria, Microcystis, Diatoma sp., Synedra, Euglena sp., Hydra, Cattalis, Typha, Potamogeton.

Zooplankton: Amoeba cyst, Paramoecium, Rotifera sp., Daphnia pulex, D. vosea,

Diaphanosoma, Cyclops scutifer, Diaptomus sp., Mesocyclops sp.

Mollusca: Lemadian corrionus, Indonia caerules, Thaira tuberculata, Limpet

ferrica.

Crustaceans: Barytelphusa cunicularies and Insect larvae (Chironomus-Chironomidae; Dobensofly – Margarati)


Land use: The dam is used for fishing and domestic purpose.


Conservation measures proposed: No information


Socio-economic values: The lake supports an important fishing industry and

domestic use.

Reference: Kadam et al ., (2005); Ugale and Hiware, (2005).

JAGATUNGA SAMUDRA RESERVOIR

Jagatunga Samudra reservoir is one of the ancient, perennial water bodies, situated near (18° 15’–19° 55’ N, 77° 40’–70° 15’ E) Kandhar town, Nanded district, Maharashtra.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The water temperature varies from 21 to 33°C. The pH values ranged from 7.1 to 10.18

Fauna: No information


Land use: Domestic purpose and irrigation




Socio-economic values: The reservoir water is fir for irrigation, fish culture, cloth washing unfit for drinking.

Reference: Hiware and Ugale, (2002).

JAYAKWADI RESERVOIR

Jayakawadi reservoir is situated in (19° 30’ N, 75° 20’ E) Aurangabad district, 180 km northeast of Pune, Maharashtra. A large water-storage reservoir, some 56 km long and up to 27 km wide, formed behind the Jayakwadi Dam on the uppermost reaches

of the Godavari river. The shoreline supports little emergent vegetation. Seven seasonal streams and two perennial or near-perennial streams feed the lake. In years of normal monsoon rains, the reservoir fills up in September and October to a maximum depth of 32 m. The water spread area is about 40,000 ha at maximum

extent. The surroundings are generally rather arid, with irrigated areas of cotton, pulses, and other crops. The reservoir was declared a bird sanctuary in 1986; however, the boundary of the sanctuary has not yet been demarcated and neither has any staff

been recruited.

Abiotic factors: Semi-arid, tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of 359 mm, a maximum temperature of 44°C, and a minimum temperature of 10°C. pH value of 8.0 has been recorded.

Macrophytes: The aquatic vegetation includes species of Chara, Spirogyra,

Hydrilla, Potamogeton, and Vallisneria. Argemone mexicana occurs in surrounding areas.

Fishes: The lake is reported to be rich in fishes, freshwater molluscs and crustaceans.

Birds: In years of adequate rainfall, the reservoir is an important wintering area for migratory waterfowl. In January 1987, following several years of low rainfall, relatively few birds were observed; these included:


Anas Penelope (810) Gelochelidon

nilotica (90) Anastomus oscitans (17) Glareola lacteal

(385)

JAYAKAWADI RESERVOIR

•


Aythya ferina (200) Nettapus


A. fuligula (1650) Phalacrocorax niger (220)

A. nyroca (50) Tachybaptus

ruficollis (106) Ciconia episcopus (11) Threskiornis

melanocephalus (38) FuIica atra (3750)

The reservoir is a very important roosting site for demoiselle cranes (Anthropoides

virgo); some 3085 were recorded in January 1987.

Land tenure: The reservoir is state-owned; surrounding areas are privately owned.

Land use: Fishing and water supply for irrigation and domestic use; agriculture and plantation forestry in surrounding areas.

Conservation measures taken: The reservoir was gazetted as a Bird Sanctuary in November 1986. Hunting, including both trapping and shooting, is prohibited.

Conservation measures proposed: There are plans to plant trees around the edge of the lake.

Disturbances and threats: Trapping and shooting of birds continue to a limited extent, despite the ban on hunting.

Socio-economic values: The waters of the lake supply neighbouring agricultural land and urban area.

Research and facilities: Some waterfowl censuses have been carried out.


PANZARA DAM

Panzara dam located (20° 55’ 1” N, 74° 5’ 30”E) near Pimpalner town of Tal-Sakri, Dhule district, Maharashtra. The dam was constructed in the year 1966. The reservoir has water spread area about 6478 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The mean water temperature is 26.27°C. The mean pH value is 7.86.

Algae: A total of 23 genera were recorded. These are follows;


Anabaena Oocystis

Chlamydomonas Oscilatoria

Cocconies Pandorina

Coelastum Pediastrum

Cosmarium Phormidium

Cymbella Pinnularia

Euglena Scenedesmus

Fragillaria Spirogyra

Lyngbya Spirulina

Microcystis Surirella

Navicula Synedra

Nitzschia






Socio-economic values: Its importance for water supply, the reservoir supports a small fishery supplying local markets, and could, if appropriately managed, evolve

into a readily accessible and important centre for conservation education.

Reference: More and Nandan, (2003); More and Nandan, (2001)

SIDDHEWADI RESERVOIR

Siddhewadi reservoir is situated (16° 46’–17° 1’ N, 73° 42’–72° 4’ E) near Ped village, about 30 km from Tasgaon, sangli district, Maharashtra. This is an medium irrigation reservoir. It is constructed during the year 1972–1977 having height of 421

meters. The water spread area of the reservoir is about 200.48. The reservoirs store rain water received from adjoining catchments area through smaller channels. The substratum is almost hard with rocky nature.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varies from 24 to 28°C in atmosphere and 20 to 32°C in water.

Phytoplankton: A total of 27 species were recorded. These are follows;


Anabaena spp. Nitzchia spp.

Anguillula spp. Nostoc spp.

Apanotheca stagnina Oscillatoria chlorine

Arthrospira spp. Pharaddium spp.

Beggiatoa spp. Pinnularia spp.

Cladophora spp. Rhizochloris

mirabilis

Closterium spp. Scenedesmus

acuminatus Entrophysalis granulose Spirochaetes spp.

Gleothece confluence Spirogyra spp.

Lygnbya majuscule Stauronesis spp.

Merismopedia

tenuissima

Strastrum spp.

Microcystis aeruginosa Tabellaria spp.

Microspore spp. Tribonema spp.

Navicula mutica


Land use: The reservoir is used for fishing and irrigation




Socio-economic values: Its importance for water supply, the reservoir supports a small fishery supplying local markets.

Reference: Hiware and Ugale, (2002)

PED RESERVOIR

Ped reservoir is situated (16° 46’–17° 1’ N, 73° 42’–72° 4’ E) near Ped village, about

30 km from Tasgaon, sangli district, Maharashtra. This is medium irrigation reservoir. It is constructed during the year 1970–1974 having height of 747.45 meters. The water spread area is about 33.20 ha. The reservoirs store rain water received from adjoining catchment area through smaller channels. The substratum is almost hard

with rocky nature.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varies from 25 to 37°C in atmosphere and 24 to 31°C in water.



Anabaena spp. Nitzchia spp.

Apanotheca stagnina Oscillatoria chlorine

Chlorella spp. Pharaddium spp.

Clathrocystis spp. Pherimidium spp.

Closterium spp. Pinnularia spp.

Coelosphalerium spp. Scenedesmus

acuminatus Gleocapsa spp. Spaeracystis spp.

Hydrodicyton spp. Spirogyra spp.

Hyella caespitosa Tetraspora spp.

Lygnbya majuscule Tribonema spp.

Navicula mutica


Land use: The reserved is used for fishing and irrigation





Reference: Hiware and Ugale, (2002)

DHOM RESERVOIR

Dhom reservoir is situated (17° 5’–18° 11’ N, 73° 33’ E) in the Dhom village, Satara district, Maharashtra. The Dhom dam is constructed on the river Krishna primarily for

the irrigation purpose. It is irregular in shape and has a masonry work 241 m at the dam site and is constructed 10 km downstream of the origin of the river and is surrounded by hills. The stored water is mainly used for irrigation. It has a catchment area of 217.55 km2. Total submerged area is 2021 ha. stored water is primarily used

for irrigation. The length of the reservoir is 2237 m in earthen and 241 m in masonry. The storage of clam is 382.32 mm3 in Gross, 335.10 mm3 in live and 47.22 mm3 in dead.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The water temperature varies from 21 to 29.5°C. The pH values ranged from 6.5 to 8.17.

Phytoplankton:


Amphora Monoraphidium

Ankistrodesmus Navicula

Anomoeoneis Nitzchia

Chlorella Pandorina

Closterium Peridinium

Cocconeis Phacus

Cyclotella Phormidium

Cymbella Pinnularia

Diatoma Raphidiopsis

Elakatothrix Scenedesmus

Eudorina Spirogyra

Fragilaria Staurastrum

Mastogloia Surirella

Melosira Synedra

Meridion Tetraedron

Merismopedia Ulothrix

Microcystis

Zooplankton: Keratella sp., K. serrulata, Notholca sp., Nauplius (copepodes), Brachionus calcyflorus, Monostyla sp.


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation purpose.




Socio-economic values: The lake supports an important fishing industry and is a

valuable source of water for irrigation and domestic use.

Reference: Khatavkar and Trivedy (1993); Trivedi (1993)

AMBEDKAR TANK

Ambedkar tank is situated on Lat. 16° 42’ N and Long. 74° 14’ E in the north-eastern out skirts of Kolhapur city, very near to the bank of Panchaganga river and Kolhapur sugar mill, Maharashtra. The age of this ware body is considered to be about 100

years. It was initially a stone querry which was later given rectangular shape after constructing walls around, and a garden all along one side of the water body. The total water spread area is about 12,000 m2. Major source of water to this water body is rain, domestic sewage from the surrounding human settlements and the cloth washing

wastewater.


Macrophytes: Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes

Fishes: Tilapia mosambica


Land use: The reserved is used for irrigation





Pollution status: The water body is highly polluted with organic matter as is apparent from the foul smell and colour of the water. The major sources of pollution is the entry of sewage and cloth washing waster from the surrounding areas. A heavy

silting has been reported from the water body, and for this reason, the sediments were removed thrice in 1962, 1972 and 1986 by municipal authorities. Morphologically the water body is rectangular with a maximum length of 150 m and a maximum breadth

of 80 m. The area of this water body at the full capacity is 12,000 m2. The maximum

depth of this water body has been reported to be about 20 feet. An outline map showing the contours, sampling site and surrounding areas.

Reference: Khatavkar and Trivedy (1993).

EKRUK RESERVOIR

The Ekruk is a oldest reservoir, situated in the Solapur district, Maharashtra. It was

constructed in 1871. The total area is about 1842 ha. The length of the reservoir is 2134 m and depth is 21.45 m.


Fishes: Fishes are regularly stocked and harvested by owners.

Land tenure: State-owned (During the past few years the reservoir given on lease to private parties for fishing).

Land use: The reserved is used for irrigation and fishing





Reference: Sakhare (2001); Khatavkar et al. (2004).

RANKALA LAKE

Rankala lake is situated (16° 42’ N, 74° 14’ E) in the western part of the city on Kolhapar-Goa road, Maharashtra. The lake is flanked by hills and agriculture on

western and southern sides. East and North sides were compounded by stony walls. A beautiful picnic resort has been developed around the lake with recreational boating. The place is commonly known as “Rankala-Chaupati”. The length of the dam is 3.6 km. The water from the Rankala irrigate 283 ha of the land. The lake with an area of

1.05 m2, 4.06 m

2, mean depth 4.26x10

6m

3 capacity and about 4450 m shore is about

110 years old. There seems to be no big industry in the catchment area. The lake is fed only from the run-off in the catchment area. Large amount of organic matter is

brought through the run-off and lake itself is subjected to tremendous human activity.


Macrophytes: Hydrilla veticillata, Chara sp., Nymphaea stellata and Eichhornia

crassipes.


Land use: The lake is used for irrigation purpose.




Socio-economic values: The lake supports an important fishing industry and is a valuable source of water for irrigation.

Pollution Status: The most important being recreation, large scale clothe washing, human bathing, cattle wading and also the disposal of offerings on the religious occasions. Another important source of pollution is the disposal of raw sewage through some small drains, through it seems to be very minor and irregular.


HINGNI RESERVOIR

Hingni reservoir is situated in the Solapur district, Maharashtra. Hingni (Pangaon) the second important reservoir in the district and was constructed in 1976 near village Pangaon and Hingni. The depth of the reservoir is 21.87 m and length is 2134 m. The

total area is about 1006 ha.


Fishes: The major fishery of the reservoir is supported by Channa marulins,

Mastacembelus armatus, Ambassis spp., Mystus spp., etc.


Land use: The reserved is used for irrigation and fishing





small fishery supplying local markets.

Reference: Sakhate (2001).

HADI MANGROVE WETLAND

It is situated (16° 08’ 38” N, 73° 28’ 36” E) on the upland area (10-40 m) between the creek and the creek arm, which is extended southwards to Kandalgaon, Maharashtra. The tidal amplitude in this region is around 2 m.

Abiotic factors: The temperature range between 18°C to 35°C and relative humidity ranges from 50 to 90%. The average rainfall is 2000–3000 mm during the months of June to September and the mean salinity ranges from 5–3%.

Mangroves: The fringing areas are dominated by Rhizophora mucronata and Avicennia officinalis. In addition, mangroves like Rhizopora apiculata, Avicennia

marina, Sonneratia alba and Excoecaria agallocha occur frequently. A rare

population of Kandelia candel has also been encountered from this region. In the oligohaline zone (salinity less than 5%) Aegiceras corniculatum grows in abundance.


Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns, and crabs.





coastal erosion.

Reference: Kumaran et al. (2004)

JAWALGAON RESERVOIR

Jawalgaon reservoir is situated on Solapur district, Tuljapur-Vairag road about 27 km from Tuljapur, Maharashtra. The reservoir was constructed in the year 1977 at village

Jawalgaon. The length of the reservoir is 1230 m and depth is 21.71 m. The total area of the reservoir is about 858 ha.


Fishes: About 23 species have been recorded. These are follows;


Catla catla Mystus cavassius

Chanda nama M. seenghala

C. ranga Notopterus chitala

C. gachua N. notopterus

Channa marulius Ompak bimaculatus

Cirrhinus mrigala Puntius kolus

C. reba P. sarana

Cyprinus carpio P. sophore

Glossogobius giuris

giuris

P. ticto tict

Hypopthalmicthys

molithrix Rhinomugil corsula

Labeo calbasu Wallago attu

L. rohita






Socio-economic values: The reservoir supplies water for irrigating about 4,451 ha of area.

Reference: Sakhare (2001).

SHAMBHU LAKE

It is a famous place of pilgrimage situated in a book of the Shikhar Shingnapur hills,

Maharashtra. The hill, crowned by a temple of Mahadev to which the village owes its celebrity, appears at a distance like the points of a very obtuseangled cone. The hills which surround the town look bare and wretched. The rains too are so light and intermittent in this part of the Satara District that little difficulty would be experienced

in visiting Shingnapur even during the mansoon. It is ‘T’ shaped, the cross of the ‘T’ stretching north and south and shoot stem to the west. The catchment area of the reservoir is largely occupied by bare hills and very few agricultural fields. There are

only few human settlement present. Except for the openings, the water body is completely enclosed by walls. The walls are highest and strongest at the openings before mentioned where they constitute a masonry dam to the streams which could

otherwise pour their waters away from those hills in a south easterly direction. The wall at this part was about 3 m – out of the water, and therefore probably 7 m high atleast. Its breadth here, as everywhere also, it about 1.5 m while nowhere does the

masonry appear to have given way. The flood mark of the water appears at 1.2 m from the wall top, and the leakage from the waterbody is high. On the south where lies the village is a set of bathing ghats or steps. These, with the solid and square built

houses of the village which give it almost a fortified appearance, have very picturesque aspect viewed from the north end of the pond. The wall is everywhere studded with projecting stones to enable bathers or others to climb up and down. At

the east and is a sluice through which water is let out to garden lands, while in the north east corner and the centre of the north bank are two waterlifts by which water is drawn from wells dug in the sides of the lake.

Macrophytes: Myriophyllum and Potamogeton


Land use: The lake is used for drinking purpose.




Socio-economic values: The local villagers are dependent on the lake for fish, drinking water, and other domestic needs.

Pollution status: There is no industry in the village and whatever waste are

generated are only in the form of domestic sewage. There is neither an organized systems of sewage collection nor any septic tank.


YAMAI LAKE

Yamai lake is situated on Lat. 17° 33’ N and Long. 74° 23’ E at Aundh which fall in

khatav taluka, Satara district, Maharashtra. The area is in the rain shadow of Sahayadri ranges of Western ghats. It experiences comparatively quite low rainfall. The village Aundh is a famous place of Pilgrimage and lies in a basin of small hills entirely sheltered from the north and east. It has been a state ruled by the Pant

Pratinidhi family. The water body is rectangular with an area of 8316 m3, a length of

108 m and breadth of 77 m. The maximum depth of the water body is about 3 m. There are bathing ghat on one side and masonry steps on the three sides for access of

the people to the water. The water body is completely bound by stoney walls, having inlet towards north and outlet towards east. There are no macrophytes in the water body. Water is usually dark green in appearance. The water body is surrounded mainly by the human settlements and temples on two sides while the remaining sides

have agricultural fields in close proximity. The main source of the water is rain and the over flow from the adjacent pond. The main source of water to the adjacent pond is from an ephemeral river called Nanni river, originating from a nearby hills, which

flows through agricultural fields. The overflow from this pond is the main water source of Yamai lake.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate



Land use: The lake water is used for domestic purpose.




Socio-economic values: The village peoples are used bathing and washing purpose

Pollution status: There is no direct entry of any waste in the lake but cloth-washing

and bathing is common. At the time of festival when a large number of people (about 70,000 to 80,000) take holy dip in the water, the water body is subjected to intensive human activity.


UJJINI RESERVOIR

Ujjini is a large reservoir of the Maharashtra state is constructed across river Bhima in

1978. The total water spread area of the reservoir is about 29,000 ha. and maximum depth is 10.7 m.


Fishes: The reservoir was stocked with fingerlings of Indian major carps at two numbers of them per hectare.







valuable source of water for irrigation and domestic use.

Reference: Sakhare (2001).

NATHSAGAR RESERVOIR

Nathsagar reservoir is one of the major irrigation projects in Maharashtra state. It has been constructed across the river Godavari, a major river in southern India. The catchment area of Nathsagar dam is 21750 km2 and impounding gross storage of dam

is 2909 million cubic meters. The submergence area of dam is 35000 ha. The maximum height of this dam is 37 meter. This project has rehabilitated 107 villages. Nathsagar is one of the largest shallow wetland habitats which was traced by the

migratory birds, 10-12 years ago. Now due to favorable environmental factors, ample food and safeness, this habitat is at the peak in fetching the birds from November to February every year.


Fishes: A total of 66 species were recorded. These are follows:


Amblypharyngodon mola Muraena anguilla

Aorichthys aor Muraenesox bagio

A. seenghala Mystus armatus

Barilius bendelisis M. tengara

Branchydanio rerio Nandus nandus

Catla buchanani Nemacheilus aureus

C. catla N. botia

Channa marulius Notopterus notopterus

C. orientalis Ompak bimuculatus

C. punctatus Osteobrama bhimensis

Chitala chitala O. cotio

Cirrhinus cirrhosus Osteochilichthys

godavariensis

C. mrigala Pangasius pangasius

Clarius batrachus Parasilorhynchus

tentacularis

Ctenopharyngodon idellus Plotosus lineatus

Cyprinus carpio carpio Poecilia reticulate

Danio aequipinnatus Pseudeutropinus taakree

taakree

D. fraseri Puntius chola

D. malbaricus P. dorsalis

D. rerio P. fraseri

Esomus danricus P. jerdoni

Eutropiichthys vacha P. melanostigma

Gambusia affinis P. sahyadriensis

Gara gotyla gotyla P. sarana sarana

G. mullya P. sophore

Glossogobius giuris giuris P. ticto

Glyptothorax conirostrae

poonaensis

Rasbora daniconius

Heteropneustes fossilis Rohtee ogilbii

Hypothalmichthys molitrix Salmostoma clupeoides

Labeo calbasu S. novacula

L. rohita Silonia childreni

Mastacembelus armatus Thannichthys sandkhol

Monopterus cuchia Wallago attu


Land use: The reserved is used for irrigation for agriculture





small fishery supplying local markets, and could, if appropriately managed.

Reference: Khedkar (2005).

WADALI LAKE

Wadali lake is situated (20° 55’ N, 77° 48’ E) on the southeast of the Amravati University campus, Amravati, Maharashtra. The lake is surrounded by open hills

towards East which drain water during monsoon. The lake also receives waste water from the Wadali Zoo and forest quarters from South and additional drainage is also from S.R.P. Camp from the North side. The catchment area of the lake is about 1.5 km2 and water spread area is 1,99000 m3. The lake shows varied depth from 0.2 m

to maximum 3.06 m.


Macrophytes: The macrophytic flora was dominated by Hydrilla, Vallisnaria,

Ceratophylum and Chara spp.

Crustacean: Macrobrachium kistnensis, Macrobrachium malcomsoni and Caridina

nilotica. Paratelphusa macanni; P. cunicularis and P. hydrodromus.

Insects:


Aedes sp. Laccotrephes

maculates Anisops sardea Lepidiapharius

kashmirensis

Caenis perpusilla Lestes spp.

Corixa sp. Limnometra

fluviorum Culex sp. Lithocerus indicum

Cybister limbatus Macrogomphus

Cybister rugulosus Matrona

Diplonychus rusticurn Mesovelia onentalis

Donacia sp. Microvelia dileta

Eretes sticticus Plea pallula

Herbrus pusillus Ranatra elongata

Hydrometra vitttata Sandracottus festiviis

Hyphoporus sp.

Land tenure: Private-owned

Land use: Human activities like washing of clothes and vehicles are predominant on south and west shore of the lake.



Disturbances and threats: The area of lake is bound by marginal weeds and vegetal coverage on which domestic animals graze adding their excreta into the water.

Socio-economic values: The lake water is used for bathing and washing by local inhabitants.

Pollution status: Lake water polluted by domestic animals.

Reference: Meshram (2003).

YELDARI RESERVOIR

The Yeldari reservoir (19° 43’ N, 76° 45’ E), a purely hydro-electric project, was constricted in the year 1962 in the hilly area of Jintur tashsil, Parbhani district, Maharashtra. The reservoir is included in the Survey of India top sheet map no.564/10. The area around the reservoir comprises forest covered hills. The reservoir

having catchment area of 7,330 sq.km. The maximum level of reservoir is 462.380 m.


Phytoplankton: The following phytoplankton species are recorded in this reservoir;

i.e.


Anabaena sp. Navicula mutica

Arthrospira spp. Nitzchia sp.

Chlorella vulgaris Nostoc spp.

Cladophora sp. Oedogonium sp

Closterium sp. Oscillatoria chlorina

Cosmarium

microsporum

Pandorina morum

Cyclotella operculata Pediastrum duplex

Cymbella turgida Phormidium sp.

Eudorina sp. Pinnularia viridis

Fragilaria sp. Scenedesmus sp.

Gomophonema gracile Spirogyra

margariata

Lygnbya majuscule Stichococcus sp.

Melosira sp. Synedra ulna

YELDARI RESERVOIR

•


Microcystis areuginosa Ulothrix zonata

Microspora sp. Volvox sp.

Zooplankton:


Brachionus calyflorus Euchianis dilate

B. diversicornis Filina longiseta

Alona rectangular Indialona ganapati

Biapertura karma Keratella tropica

Brachionus flacatus Lecane bulla

Candocypria osborni Mesocyclops

hyalinus

Ceriodaphnia cornuta M. leukarti

Cyclocypris globosa Moina micrura

Cyclops viridis Nauplius larva

Cypris sp. Neodiaptomus

lindbergi

Diaphanosoma excisum Phylladiaptomus

annae

D. sarsi Stenocypris sp.

Diaptomus marshianus Trichocera porellus


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation





Reference: Sakhare and Joshi (2006).

NANDUR MADHAMESHWAR

The reservoir is situated (20° 01’ N, 74° 07’ E) at the headwaters of the Godavari river, 35 km east of Nasik, Nasik district, Maharashtra. Nandur Madhameshwar is a large water-storage reservoir (1500–2000 ha) created by the construction of a dam at

the confluence of the Godavari and Kadva rivers in 1907. The reservoir fills with monsoon run-off during July-September and may overflow in years of heavy rainfall. Water is released from the reservoir at fixed intervals from October to April. Huge

amounts of silt have been deposited over the last 80 years; consequently much of the lake is now marshland or very shallow water. There are three large islands covered with reed-beds and sedge marshes. As the dry season progresses, the Godavari river becomes the main water-course once again. An ancient temple (Madhameshwar) is

situated on the banks of Godavari river below the dam. The presence of about 23 small lakes within a radius of 25 km of the reservoir adds to the overall importance of the region.

Abiotic factors: Semi-arid, tropical monsoon climate with a average annual rainfall

of 500 mm. Summer temperatures range from 25°C to 43°C, winter temperatures from 4°C to 26°C.

Macrophytes: Almeida (1983) lists 463 species of plants, including over 80 species

of aquatic plants; The latter include


Azolla pinnata P. geniculatum

Cryptdcorine spiralis Phyla nodiflora

Cyperus spp. Polygonum glabrum

Echiinochloa colnum P. plebeium

Eichhornia crassipes Potamogeton crispus

Hydrilla verticillata P. pectinata

NANDUR MADHAMESHWAR

•


Hygrophila auriculata P. perfoliata

Ipomoea aquatica Rumex dentatus

I. fistulosa Spirodela polyrrhiza

Marsilea minuta Typha angustata

Ottelia alismoides Vallisneria spiralis

Paspalidium flavidum Zeuzine

strateomatica

The surrounding areas are intensively cultivated for sugarcane, wheat, jawar, and vineyards, and the landscape is almost devoid of trees.

Fishes: Over 20 species of fish have been recorded in the reservoir, including


Aspidoparis morar Mastacembelus

armatus

Barilius bendelisis Mystus cavasius

Channa ranga Ompok bimaculatus

Chela clupeoides Parasilorhynchus

prateri

Cirrhina reba Puntius amphibius

Danio malabaricus P. fraseri

Gawa mullya P. sarena

Labeo boggut P. ticto

L. calbasu Rasbora daniconius

Birds: At least 235 species of bird are known to occur, of which 85% are migratory. The reservoir is particularly important as a staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl. Up to 15,000 waterfowl have been recorded in winter, and even more are

reported to be present during the migration seasons. A waterfowl census in January 1987 recorded aIn1ost 12,000 waterfowl, including:


Anastolmus oscitans (100)

Nycticorax

nycticorax (25) Anthropoides virgo

(700)

Phalacrocorax niger

(750) Ardeola grayii (290) Platalea leucorodia

(80)

Bubulcus ibis (210) Plegadis falcinellus (115)

Calidris minuta (500) Pseudibis papillosa (110)

Ciconia ciconia (40) Tadorna ferruginea (60)

Egretta alba (60) Threskiornis

melanocephalus (40) E. garzetta (200) Tringa Nebularia

(300)

Fulica atra (2000) T. tetanus (300)

Glareola lactea (800) Other Tringa sp. (1200)

Himantopus himantopus (600)

Other ducks (2500)

Limosa limosa (700)

Mammals: Mammals known to occur in the area include the Fishing Cat (Felis

viverrina)

Land tenure: Some 1758 ha is under the State Irrigation Department; 21,867 ha under the Revenue Department; 8177 ha under private ownership and 55 ha under Forest Department.

Land use: The reservoir supplies water to the local villages for irrigation and domestic use. Cattle are grazed along the edge of the reed-beds, and reeds are harvested each year. There is a little fishing in the open waters. Surrounding areas are used for agriculture.

Conservation measures taken: A non-hunting area of 2380.6 ha was established in September 1983. The area, including the reservoir, was declared a Bird Sanctuary in February 1980, although lands under the State Revenue and Irrigation Departments

have not been transferred to the sanctuary authorities. There are 11 villages (yet to be settled) within the Sanctuary. Plantation has been done on 55 ha of land under the Forest Department.

Conservation measures proposed: Proposals for the development and management of the Bird Sanctuary include the eradication of Eichhornia crassipes and Parthenium, demarcation of the boundaries, construction of observation towers and

footpaths, creation of a fish pond, construction of a museum, information centre and accommodation facilities, and purchase of boats to enable visitors to approach the birds. An immediate requirement is the planting of Acacia, Ficus and Neem trees on the islands and bunds to provide nesting and roosting sites for large water birds.

Possible changes in land use: There are plans to replace the old dam with a new one and dredge out parts of the lake to restore its original capacity. The fishery could be expanded, particularly if dredging is carried out.

Disturbances and threats: The main disturbance to the ecosystem at present is the large-scale removal of aquatic vegetation for fodder and fuel. Fishing is sometimes excessive, and grazing by domestic livestock may cause disturbance to waterfowl

populations. A sugar refinery near the reservoir is a. possible source of pollution. The replacement of the old dam, with a new dam and extensive dredging could have catastrophic effects on the aquatic vegetation and wildlife of the reservoir. No

development plans, nor any security and management staff have yet been sanctioned for the sanctuary.

Socio-economic values: The reservoir supports a great diversity of wildlife, and has

considerable potential for tourism; indeed, the area has been called the “Bharatpur of Maharashtra”. Under appropriate management, the area could become a major centre of nature-oriented tourism.

Research and facilities: Survey teams from WWF India and the Bombay Natural

History Society carried out avifaunal surveys from 1982 to 1984. The Nasik Bird Protection Society has continued these studies since then. The flora has been investigated by M.R. Almeida of the Bombay Natural History Society.

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Almeida (1983); Daniel (1985); Mohan (1984); Rane (1983).

PUNE-SHOLAPUR RESERVOIRS

A number of small water-storage reservoirs constructed on the headwaters of the Krishna and Bhima rivers in Maharashtra. Compared with the ancient percolation tanks of the Deccan plateau, these reservoirs are generally of relatively recent origin,

and some are a little more than 100 years old. About 20 tanks exceed 100 ha in area. They fill during the monsoon but become progressively drier and more brackish as the dry season advances. Most flood to a maximum depth of 3–6 m in September and

October; some dry out completely by January or February while others retain up to 1 m of water until April or May. Canal systems and overflow channels have created seepage lagoons, and areas of marshland exist where waterlogging occurs. Some of the more important reservoirs are:

1. Hipparga Tank, near Sholapur: a small tank which floods to a maximum depth of 4 m in September and October, and has a pH value of 8.0.

2. Mayani Tank, near Satara: a small tank which floods to a maximum depth of 3 m in September and October, and dries out completely by January or February.

3. Varvand Tank 60 km east of Pune: a large tank with a maximum depth of 3 m and pH value of 7.0; extensive grassy flats are exposed at low water levels.

4. Shirsuphal (Victoria) Tanks, 70 km east of Pune: two large tanks with rocky shorelines and an adjacent small Typha marsh fed by seepage from the tanks.

5. Patas Tank, 40 km east of Pune: a small tank of about 50 ha with abundant submerged vegetation and surrounded by grassy flats and mudflats.

6. Matoba Tank, northwest of Pandharpur: a large tank which floods to a maximum in July and is usually dry by May.

Abiotic factors: Semi-arid, tropical monsoon climate, with an annual rainfall of 300-400 mm, most of which falls in August and September. The maximum temperature in summer is 41°C, and the minimum in winter 10°C.

Macrophytes: The lakes support a rich growth of Vallisneria sp., Hydrilla sp., Potamogeton sp., and a variety of algae. Emergent and peripheral vegetation includes Scirpus sp., Typha sp., and Cyperus sp. The adjacent landscape is dominated by

xerophytic vegetation, with species of Zizyphus, Capparis, Prosopis, Acacia, and Cassia auriculata. Many crops including cotton are grown in the valleys.

Birds: The region, as a whole, is of considerable importance to migratory waterfowl,

particularly in winter. The reservoirs support large populations of cormorants, herons, egrets, storks, ibises, flamingos, ducks, cranes, and rails. Significant numbers of Anser

indicus winter at Hipparga Tank in some years and there are particularly large

roosting concentrations of Anthropoides virgo at several tanks (e.g. 10,000 at Shirsuphal Lake in January 1986). Phoenicopterus ruber also sometimes occurs in very large numbers. Mayani Tank is important for wintering ducks of the genus Aythya. A wide variety of shorebirds are observed on passage and in winter,

especially Himantopus himantopus, Charadrius dubius, C. alexandrinus, Limosa

limosa, species of Tringa, Actitis hypoleucos, Gallinago gallinago, Calidris minuta,

and C. temminckii. Sterna aurantia breeds at several of the lakes.

In January 1987, waterfowl counts at seven localities (Pashan, Hipparaga, Mayani, Varvand and Matoba Tanks, and riverine marshes at Kavdi and Mula Mutha) recorded over 13,300 waterfowl of 58 species. These included: 140 Tachybaptus

ruficollis, 140 Phalacrocorax niger, 300 herons and egrets of 7 species, 37 Mycteria

leucocephala, 85 Anastomus oscitans, 24 Ciconia episcopus, 45 Threskiornis

melanocephalus, 70 Plegadis falcinellus, 150 Platalea leucorodia, 250 Phoenicopterus ruber, 315 Tadorna ferruginea, 420 Anas Penelope, 360 A. crecca,

400 A. poecilorhyncha, 2,300 A. acuta, 415 A. querquedula, 310 A. clypeata, 1760 Aythya farina, 31 Sarkidiornis melanotos, 780 Anthropoides virgo, 115 Porphyrio

porphyrio, 2700 Fulica atra, 130 Hydrophasianus chirurgus, 740 Himantopus

himantopus, 230 Glareola lactea and 800 other shorebirds of 18 species.

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding areas are mostly privately owned.

Land use: The reservoirs supply water for irrigation and domestic use. Fishing takes

place at some of the lakes. Surrounding areas are used for grazing and agriculture.

Conservation measures taken: Shooting has been prohibited at all the reservoirs, but no other conservation measures have as yet been taken.

Conservation measures proposed: There are plans to make the largest reservoir into a Bird Sanctuary.

Socio-economic values: Obviously important in a semi-arid environment as a source

of water for irrigation, and domestic and industrial use. Some of the reservoirs support small fisheries.

Research and facilities: Limnological studies and waterfowl counts have been

undertaken by the Ecological Society of Pune, and the population of Phoenicopterus

ruber has been investigated by WWF India.


RATNAGIRI MANGROVES

The Ratnagiri Mangroves (Bhatye: 16° 58’ N, 73° 17’ E; Kalbadevi: 17° 2’ N, 73° 16’ E; Are: 17° 4’ N, 73° 17’ E) region comprises the three estuaries Bhatye, Kalbadevi, and are, located near the city of Ratnagiri, Maharashtra. Anthropogenic

pressures are heavy at the mouth of Bhatye estuary/ Kajvi river (forming the southern boundary of Ratnagiri city) while the upstream areas are relatively less disturbed, Human activity is also intense at the mouth of Kalbadevi estuary from where a large

channel of water descends southward, forming the Shirgaon creek, which supports a large number of mangrove species. The smallest of the three estuaries, is relatively less inhabited and supports more extensive vegetative cover than the other two. Daily tides flood the vegetation, affecting soil salinity. Bhatye, Kalbadevi and are estuaries

occupy 80.65 ha, 62 ha, and 71.37 ha, respectively.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Average annual rainfall is 2000 mm. Temperature vary from 12.5° C to 36° C.

Macrophytes: Woody mangroves cover the area.


Dominant Species R. mucronata

Aegiceras corniculatum Sonneratia alba Avicennia marina Subdominant

Species A. officinalis Bruguiera

gymnorrhiza Ceriops tagal Derris heterophylla

Excoecaria agallocha Kandelia candel

Rhizophora apiculata Lumnitzera

racemosa

Acanthus ilicifolius helps as a biomonitor of sewage pollution. Rhizophora apiculata

is found only along Bhatye estuary (Kajvi river). There are a total of 28 mangrove

species, including mangrove associates. Mangrove species such as Bruguiera

gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Avicennia marina var resinifera, Kandelia candel, and Cynometra sp., found in Ratnagiri are on the verge of extinction.

Birds: Birds in the estuary include egrets, herons, sandpipers, plovers, oyster catchers, kingfishers, lapwings, stilts, and moorhens, Fish species include


Ambasis

gumnocephalus

E. fasciata

Batrachus grunniens Gerres poeti

Caranx boops Gobius criniger

Chateossus nasus Hippocampus

guttulatus Chorinemus toloo Mugil carinatus

Chrysophrys haffara Naucratus ductor

Echeneis naucratus Platycephalus

macracanthus Equula dussumieri Sardinella melanura

Land tenure: Most of the area is privately owned or under the control of the State Revenue Department. Some parts are under the Forest and Fisheries Departments.

Land use: The estuarine areas are exploited for fishes, crustaceans, and molluscs, as well as used for navigation. Forest resources are utilized for timber, fuelwood, fodder, and grazing.

Conservation measures taken: Dominant mangrove species have been declared protected under the Forest Act.

Disturbances and threat: Human and cattle pressures have seriously threatened the

mangroves, especially of Bhatye and Kalbadevi estuaries. Sewage pollution is affecting the primary productivity and regeneration of mangroves.

Socio-economic values: Tall poles of Sonneratia are used as timber. All other

species are used as firewood, and Avicennia officinalis is used also as fodder. Large quantities of prawns, molluscs, crabs, and fish are harvested. The water ways are used for navigation.


LOKTAK LAKE

Loktak lake (24° 26’ N, 93° 49’ E), the biggest natural wetland in the North-eastern

region of India (Manipur), is a large expanse of water on the West of the river Imphal. The catchment area of the lake is about 980 sq. kms. And water spread area is about 26,600 ha. Run-off from this catchment is drained into the lake mainly through seven streams which originate primarily in the northern and western flanks of the

lake. Thick floating mats of weeds covered with soil called ‘phumids’ are a characteristic feature of this lake. Invasion of lake area by water hyacinth has created severe programs resulting in deterioration of the lake ecosystem. The main fish fauna

present in the lake is minnows and minor carps. In the Southeastern region of this lake, there is Keibul Lamjao National Park which is the habitat of the brow antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi) locally called Sangai which is a threatened species.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of 1183 mm; temperature ranges from 0° to 35°C. The driest months are February and March.

Flora: A total of 28 species were recorded. These are follows;


Anabaena circinalis Limnothrix redeckei

A. doliolum Microchaete

loktakensis

A. flos-aquae Microchaete tenera

A. laxa Nostoc carneum

A. oscillarioides N. ellipsosporum

A. torulosa N. punctiforme

A. variabilis N. rivulare

Calothrix clavata N. spongiaeforme

Cylindrospermum

gorakhpurense

Phormidium lucidum

Cylindrospermum

sphaerica

P. stagnina

C. tropicum P. subfuscum

Gloeotrichia raciborskii Plectonema notatum

Hapalosiphon

hibernicus

Rivularia manginii

Hormidium moerlianum Tolypothrix tenuis


Land use: It is a source of water for hydro-power generation, irrigation and drinking water supply.

Conservation measure taken: The wetland has been identified as one of the sites for conservation under Indian National Wetland Programme. The State Government has also constituted a Loktak Development Authority for development of the wetland

area on sound ecological basis.

Disturbance and threats: The damming of the lake in 1983 (by the Ithai Barrage) caused the local extinction of several native fish species from the lake and the loss of extensive areas of rice cultivation, increasing the pressure on adjoining land which

was already intensively cultivated. Local people can no longer use traditional fishing techniques developed for use in shallow water, and have even resorted to poisoning fish. The lake is undergoing rapid eutrophication caused by the inflow of domestic

sewage, and fertilisers/pesticide runoff. This has been accelerated by the damming of the lake, which has restricted water circulation. Over-fishing is a problem, and waterbirds are intensively hunted and sold in Imphal. Increasing siltation has been

caused by deforestation and shifting cultivation in the catchment area, involving the cutting and burning of forest for only three or four seasons of rice cultivation.

Socio-economic values: There are many rural and urban settlements around the lake, with the total human population on and around the lake estimated at approximately

100,000. Local populations depend heavily on Loktak lake for food, animal feed, fibre, fuel and shelter. Fishing is the predominant activity. Tourism plays an increasingly important role in the region. The planned activities in the future include

the construction of a 126 km dyke encircling the lake, dredging of a major portion of the lake, encouragement of further human settlements, establishment of large fish culture pens in the middle of the water, destruction of a number of hillock islands and

the installation of a large number of sluice gates, culverts and canals.

Importance: Loktak Lake is an ancient lake and plays an important role in the economy of the Manipur State. Without the lake, the valley would be subjected to high floods during monsoon and drought during the dry season. It is a source of water

for hydropower generation, irrigation and drinking water supply. The livelihood of the surrounding rural population is largely dependent upon the fish of the lake. The site is

an important wintering and staging area for waterbirds. In the southeastern region of this lake, there is Keibul Lamjao National Park that is the only refuge for the highly endangered Manipur brown-antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi). Other endangered

species include Python molurus.

Research and facilities: Yadava and Varshney (1982) have studied the ecological and socio-economic importance of Logtak Lake and other wetlands in Manipur. The

region has been closed to most outsiders for many years, and little recent information is available on the wildlife.

Source: WWF India (1993); http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar site); Hosetti (2002);

Jugeshor Singh and Pebam Rocky (2004).

SANAPAT LAKE

Sanapat lake (24° 40’ N, 93° 51’ E) is one of the thirteen major lakes in Manipur,

situated in the Bishnupur district. Sanapat is a Oblongata shape lake. The average length is 1500 m and average breadth is 540 m. The lake, a sub-basin of Loktak lake (one of the Ramsar sites of global importance). The lake is shallow and its depth

varied between 1.2–2.6 m during rainy season. The total area of the lake is 81 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, temperature ranges from 16°C to 25.3°C. The pH values varied from 5.8 to 7.2.

Macrophytes: Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)


Land use: Marginal paddy cultivation.

Disturbances and threats: The mountain lake is deteriorating rapidly in recent years due to diverse pressures from the surroundings catchments and their longevity is certainly under threat. Sanapat lake with its diverse environmental problems has

affected the lake significantly. Marginal paddy cultivation should be checked and the use of chemical fertilizers be minimized. As Sanapat lake has its unique scenic beauty and huge biodiversity, ecotourism can be one of the options which provides

alternative income to the local community and in turn conserve the lake ecosystem.

Socio-economic values: Lotus grown in the lake is a good economy for the local people. Paddy cultivated in margin of the lake.

Pollution status: The lake is mostly surrounded by human settlement, except hills in the south western side.

Source: Alka Jain et al. (2005).

KEIBUL LAMJAO NATIONAL PARK

Keibul Lamjao National Park is situated in (24° 40’ N, 93° 57’ E) 15 km south of Imphal, Manipur. Keibul Lamjao is a large expanse of swamp with floating mats of

vegetation (phumdi) covering much of its surface. The swamp lies at the northeast comer of the Loktak Lake basin, and is connected with Loktak Lake by a channel. Within the National Park, the only waterway that is open all year round is artificially

maintained to enable boats to reach Pabot Hill in the north. The phumdi is composed of decaying vegetation and varies in thickness from 0.33 m to 1.33 m. It floats on the water with about one-fifth of its thickness above the surface, and is capable of supporting the weight of large mammals. The water is acidic, and varies in depth from

1.0 m to 1.5 m. At low water levels in February and March, the peripheral areas of phumdi come to rest on the ground. With the onset of monsoon, majority of the Park is covered with water and, three or four days later, the phumdi rises to the surface

once again. Severe flooding washes away large amounts of the floating vegetation. This habitat, often referred to as “too deep to be marsh, too shallow to be a lake” is unique in India. Three hills, Pabot, Toya and Chingjao, rise out of the swamp and

provide a refuge for the large mammals during the wetter periods. The total area of the Keibul Lamjao National Park is formerly 4000 ha, recently reduced to 2160 ha

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of 1183

mm. Most of the rain falls in July and August, and the driest months are February and March.

Macrophytes: There are two types of phumdi, phumdi ataoba (floating) and phumdi

aruppa (sinking). The ataoba consists of reeds, grasses, and other plants growing on a mat of dead and decaying vegetation floating on the lake surface. Phumdi aruppa

consists of mats of vegetation which have sunk to the bottom of the lake and support a rich emergent growth of reeds and grasses. In 1960, the composition of the phumdi

was estimated to be as follows: 45% Phragmites karka, 25% Erianthus ravennae,

15% Saccharum munja, 5% S. latifolium, 5% Alpinia allughas and 2% Saccharum

procerum and 3% other species, including Zizania latifolia, a plant much relished by

swamp deer (Cervus eldi). The floating phumdi gets thicker and heavier each year, the accumulation being greatest at the edge of the swamp. During a series of dry years, the edges of the phumdi become hard ground and the area of the swamp thus decreases. Eichhornia crassipes has recently appeared in the open water areas of the

swamp, where species of Polygonum and Trapa also occur. The three small hills in the Park were formerly wooded, but are now almost barren.

Special floral values: The phumdi association of Phragmites, Saccharum, and other

species is a unique ecosystem within India.

Birds: The swamp doubtless supports a wide variety of waterbirds, but no information is available. The fish fauna includes Channa striatus, Channa punctatus,

Cyprinus carpio, Wallago attu and Puntius sophore.

Mammals: The Keibul Lamjao swamp is the last refuge of the nominate subspecies of the Manipur brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi), locally known as “Sangai”. The

subspecies was once thought to be extinct in the wild, but a small herd was discovered in Keibul Lamjao in 1950. By 1975 this population had dwindled to only 14 individuals. Under protection, however, the mammals living in the swamp include sainbar (Cervus unicolor), hog deer (C. porcinus), common otter (Lutra lutra), the

civets (Viverra civetta, Viverricula indica), and wild boar (Sus scrota).

Land tenure: Largely state-owned, with lands belonging to the Thang, Brel, and Maril tribes almost dividing the sanctuary into two parts. Surrounding areas are

privately owned.

Land use: Prior to the establishment of the National Park in 1977, grass-cutting was officially permitted during the dry season, but this has now ceased. The grasses were

used for thatching and for the production of mats, hats, and other decorative articles. Grazing, mostly by buffaloes, was a prominent feature of both the northern and southern parts of the Park and caused some habitat degradation. All agricultural and

fishing rights within the Park ceased in 1977, but fishing, although now illegal,

continues on a small scale in the open water areas. Surrounding areas are almost entirely under rice cultivation

Conservation measures taken: Keibul Lamjao was declared a Sanctuary in 1954; and officially gazetted in 1966. The 4000 ha Sanctuary was upgraded to a National Park in March 1977. However, because of strong opposition to the National Park from local villagers, the Park was reduced to its present 2160 ha in Apri11987. The Park is

managed by the Forest Department of the Manipur Government. By 1978, the Government of India had spent Rs. 719,000 on construction works, including a perimeter fence of 2281 m to prevent people and domestic livestock from entering the

reserve where it is most vulnerable. A cattle-proof trench has been dug along 870 m of the boundary; seven canoes have been purchased and four check points have been established at strategic places in the Park. The Department of Environment, Government of India; is financing a conservation programme for the endangered

Manipur brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi), and an army helicopter has been leased to carry out census work. The Park is under the supervision of a full-time Assistant Conservator of Forests. Additional staff includes an assistant veterinary

surgeon, a ranger of forests, field assistant, three foresters, four forest guards, and eight others.

Conservation measures proposed: There is a need to ensure that the legal

provisions against poaching, fishing, encroachment, grazing, and other detrimental activities are properly enforced. The maintenance of the grassy swamp may require periodic burning. A proposal has been made for the establishment of a second sanctuary across the Manipur river at Khoidum Lamjao. This is the only other

significant patch of swamp remaining in Manipur, and would be suitable for re-introduction of Cervus eldi eldi.

Disturbances and threats: Even though the Sanctuary has been upgraded to

National Park status, levels of exploitation by the local inhabitants remain high. Illegal grass-cutting still constitutes a major disturbance in some areas, and the continued presence of domestic livestock poses a threat to the brow-antlered deer.

Emmeria wassilewskyi, a protozoan disease common in local cattle, afflicts the deer population. Poaching has been a major problem, particularly during the dry season in March-May. The shortage of reserve staff at Keibul Lamjao prohibits the implementation of effective conservation measures. Surrounding areas are intensively

farmed, and the use of insecticides, herbicides, and fertilisers is increasing. There have been reports of water pollution derived from nearby human settlements, and the run-off of agro-chemicals needs to be monitored. Inevitably, deforestation and

subsequent soil erosion in the water catchment area are affecting the water regime and water quality. The Loktak Dam, which will maintain a constant water level in the swamp, is likely to have a severe impact on the entire ecosystem of Keibul Lamjao. The possible effects of the dam on the hydrology and ecology of one of the most

complex wetland systems in India has yet to be thoroughly investigated. There has been strong opposition to the National Park amongst local people since its establishment. In a violent demonstration against enforcement measures in 1979,

villagers set fire to dry grasses, check-posts, staff quarters, and the observation tower within the swamp. As a result of the continued opposition, 1840 ha were excised from the National Park in April 1987. The high level of local antipathy persists, placing

land-use predictions in considerable doubt.

Socio-economic values: The swamp is of considerable scientific interest as a unique habitat within India and the last refuge for Cervus eldi eldi.

Research and facilities: The Zoological Survey of India and the Botanical Survey of India have carried out various investigations in the National Park, and Ranjitsinh (1978 & 1982) has studied the Cervus eldi population. The populations of large mammals are now censused annually.

Reference: Singh (1980); Yadava and Varshney (1982); WWF India (1993).

PHUMLEN, KHARUNG, AND IKOP LAKES

Three major lakes, namely, Phumlen, Kharung, and Ikop, located close to one another, remain inundated in most seasons of the year. These lake is situated (24° 15’–25° 30’ N, 94° 0’–94° 15’ E); km south of Imphal city, Thoubal district, Manipur. Kharung is fed by two rivers, Heirok and Sekrnai, from the east, and a small

channel, Soirei, from the west. There are three outlets-Thongyai, Thongjil and Natekkhong-on the southwestern side. Morphometric features of Kharung lake include maximum length 7.2 km; maximum breadth 6.15 km; shoreline length 32.1

km; maximum depth 2.65 km; mean depth 2.65 m; and total volume 35.3 cubic metres. Ikop Lake is surrounded by agricultural land on the north, west and east. The Lake has three feeder streams and outlets. Morphometric features include maximum

length 7.4 km; maximum breadth 4.95 km; shoreline length 25.7 km; maximum depth 3.6 m; mean depth 2.08 m; and total volume 34.79 cubic metres. Phumlen is an extensive lake with three perennial streams on the west and two other streams on the north. Shallow peripheral areas on the east, west, and north have been reclaimed for

agriculture. The deepest part is on the southern side. The major portions of the Lake are occupied by floating phumdi. Morphometric features include maximum length 9.75 km; maximum breadth 5.45 km; shoreline length 37.35 km; maximum depth

3.51 m; mean dep!pc2.io m; and total volume 66.94 cubic metres.

Abiotic factors: Sub-tropical monsoon climate with annual rainfall ranging from 975 mm to 2646 mm. Temperature ranges from 0° C to 36.5° C.

Macrophytes: Vegetation of the lakes is represented by floating emergent, submergent, and marginal macrophytes. Dominant species found in the lakes are


Alisma plantago

aquatica

Paspalum

scrobiculatum Alpinia nigra Polygonum

barbatum

Ceratophyllum

demersum Sagittaria

sagittifolia Eichhornia crassipes Salvinia sp.

Hydrilla verticillata Setaria pallidefusca

Jussiaea repens Utricularia stellaris

Lemna sp. Zizania latifolia

Marsilea quadrifolia

Special floral values: Altogether 213 plant species have been collected and identified from these lakes, including some of food and medicinal value.

Reptiles: Among the reptiles, Python molurus is a rare species.

Birds: About eight species of migratory ducks: common teal, gadwall, common pochard, red-crested pochard, ferruginous duck, brahminy duck, and shoveller visit

the Lake every year between October and February.

Mammals: Among mammals, stoat/ermine (Mustela erminea) is a rare species. Sus

scrota, Felis chaus, Vulpes vulpes, Cuon alpinus and Arctonyx collaris are

noteworthy.


Land use: Agriculture, fishing, fish farming.

Conservation measures taken: The deeper parts of the lakes have been reserved by the State Government as fishery reserves.


Socio-economic values: These lakes are exploited for their fishery resources. Some aquatic plants are harvested for consumption and other uses.


WARD’S LAKE

The lake has had many names like Hopkinston’s Tank, Elliot’s Lake, Ward’s Lake,

Nan Palok (in Khasi) and Laath Saab ko Talao (In Nepal), situated (25° 34’ N, 91° 32’ E) in the heart of Shillong, Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya. The origin of the lake though the date is not known was the initiation of digging by a convict, when water was struck that the district authorities took over and extended the digging to the

present lake. The idea of using this lake for recreation with a small park all around it goes to the credit of the then Chief Commissioner, William E. Ward 1893 after whom the lake id presently known. The lake has a maximum length of 333 meters and

maximum breadth of 75 metre with a shore line of 1,284 metre. The maximum depth is 6 metre with a mean depth of 3.4 metre.

The lake receives water through two inlets, both perennial, one from the South end of

the lake and the other from the west. There is only one outlet at the North end. This outlet is controlled by sluice gates for allowing excess water to flow away during peak monsoon. It is therefore that the water level does not change appreciably throughout the year, the inlet from the south end is primarily water from of the hills streams

which traverses from the upper hills to reach Ward’s Lake and then flow away as hill streams. The inlet at the west end of the lake is water of the drains and canals of Shillong. The latter therefore is allowed to flow first into the isolated pond which

serves as a sedimentation tank from where the decanted water flows into the major lake. In addition, the lake receives surface run-off waters from the adjoining slopes of the hills.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varied from 13.4°C to 25°C in atmosphere and 10.9°C to 23.6°C in water. The pH values ranged from 5.7 to 6.9.

Macrophytes:


Anthoxanthum odoratum Nymphaea nauchali

Axonopus compresus Osmunda regalis

Cardamine hirsute Oxalis corniculata

Centella asiatica O. corymbosa

Cynodon dactylon Paspalum dilatatum

Davallia imersa Pinus kesiya

Denothera rosea Plantago major

Eleochariis congesta Poa annua

Emilia sonchifolia Pogonatherum crinatum

Eragrostris gangetica Polygonum hydropiper

E. nigra P. orientale

Erigeron karvinskianus P. punctatum

Erigeron sp. Potentilla mooniana

Eurya acuminats Pteris vittata

Galinsoga parviflora Ranunculus contoniensis

Gnaphalium luteoalbum Richardsonia sp.

Hedychium caronarium Rotala rotundifolia

Hydrilla vertricillata Selaginella

Hydrocotyle javanica Sonchus asper

Hypocharis radicata Sonchus sp.

Imperata cylindrical Sphaeroearyum sp.

Juncus prismatocarpus Thuja oreientalis

Kyllinga brevifolia Trifolium repens

Lindernia cordata Utricularia bifida

Lipocarph chinensis U. caerulea

Nasturtium indicum Utricularia sp.

Phytoplankton:


Amphipleura Melosira

Anacystis Meridion

Ankistrodesmus Merismopedia

Aphanocapsa Micrasterias

Botryococcus Microcystis

Ceratium Navicula

Chlamydomonas Nitzschia

Chrysococcus Oocystis

Closterium Oscillatoria

Coelastrum Pandorina

Coelosphaerium Pediastrum

Cosmarium Peridinium

Cyclotella Phacus

Desmidium Pinnularia

Diatoma Scenedesmus

Dictyosphaerium Selenastrum

Dinobryon Spirogyra

Eudorina Staurastrum

Euglena Synedra

Gloeobotrys Synura

Gloeocapsa Tabellaria

Gloeocystis Tribonema

Gymnozyoa Ulothrix

Hormidium Westella

Kirchneriella

Zooplankton: Asplanchna, Brachionus, Cephalodella, Epiphanes, Keratella,

Lecane, Lepadella, Polyarthra, Proales, Testudinnela and Trichocerca (Rotifera); Bosmina, Chydorus, Daphnia, Diaphanosoma, Simocephalus (Cladocera); Centropyxis, Difflugia (Protozoa); Cyclops and Diaptomus (Copepoda); Cypris

(Ostracoda).




Reference: Alfred, Thapa.

UMIAM RESERVOIR

Umiam reservoir is located (25° 39’ 30” N, 91° 54’ 12” E) in Ri-Bhoi district, Meghalaya. This reservoir was commissioned in 1964 for hydal power generation as

phase-I of the Umiam-Umtru hydal power project. The total area of the reservoir is 250 ha. Maximum depth of this reservoir is 50 m.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varied from 23.4°C to 33.4°C in atmosphere and 4.1°C to 21.1°C in water. The maximum pH value of 7.8 was recorded.

Phytoplankton: Microcystis aeruginosa, Anabaena sp., Spirulina sp., Ceratium

hirundinella, Dinobryon sociale and Phacus sp.


Land use: The reservoir is used for Hydal power generation

Socio-economic values: It is very importance for Hydal power generation

Reference: Sharma and Lyngdoh (2003).

UMIAM RESERVOIR

•


UPPER KOLAB DAM

Upper Kolab dam is situated (18° 47’ N, 82° 27’ E) at Koranga village, 15 km from

Jeypore town, Orissa. The project got the approval of Government of India in 1975. Construction work started in 1978. The total area of the dam is about 15,380 ha. (3600 ha forest area, 9,180 ha of private land and 2600 ha of government land were submerged under the reservoir).




Land use: The dam is used for irrigation and power house.



Socio-economic values: The dam supports an important fishing industry and is a valuable source of water for irrigation and power house.

Reference: Biswanath Sahu (1993).

CHITRAKONDA DAM

Chitrakonda Dam is one of the Machkund-Sileru river system, situated in the Orissa. The river system carries 3.28 million acre foot of annual surface run-off with maximum flood discharge of 3,23,000 cu.sec. The dam is a joint project with the Government of Andhra Pradesh. The construction of the projects were completed in

1972. The total area of the dam is about 17,180 ha. (Forest land 8,328 ha, private land 5,039 ha, Government land 3,813 ha).




Land use: The dam is used for irrigation






BHITARKANIKA MANGROVE

The word ‘Bhitarkanika’ is derived from Oriyan language- ‘Bhita’ means inside and ‘kanika’ refers to the kingdom. In those days, the king of kanika used to go often for hunting into the Bhitarkanika forest endowed with animals. Bhitarkanika mangrove is situated (20° 39’ N, 86° 54’ E) in the deltaic region of Brahmani and Baitarani rivers

in the Kendrapara district, Orissa. The Bhitarkanika Mangrove represents one of the finest remaining patches of mangrove forests along the entire Indian coast; besides

these, Sanyal et al. (1999) had reported about 20.0 km2 mangrove areas from the mouth of the river Subarnarekha. The Bhitarkanika mangrove in the Orissa coastal areas in the 3rd important mangrove area in India, i.e., after Sundarbans and Andaman

& Nicobar Islands. Mangrove areas of the Orissa coast are both dense and sparse, which are estimated through Satellite imagery as 108.5 km2 and 84.4 km2, respectively. The mangroves in Orissa state are distributed in three zones, viz., (i)

Mangroves of the Mahanadi Delta, (ii) Mangroves of the Brahmani – Baitarini Delta and (iii) Mangroves of the Balasore coast. There are totally about 70 species of mangroves and associated plant species so far recorded in Bhitarkanika. About 53% of the area is covered by forest and the remaining 47% by the estuarine impoundment.

The recent extent of mangrove forest cover estimated by the Forest Survey of India is 219 sq.km.

Abiotic factors: The climate of the area is tropical. In general there are three main

seasons prevalent in this region. Summer begins from February and extends up to June. The rainy season usually starts in June and extends upto October. November to January is the winter season. The annual rainfall ranges from 920 to 3000 mm. and

the main rainy months are August and September. In winter the temperature dips down to 10°C minimum and in summer the maximum temperature reaches up to 40° C. Wind velocity becomes 40 km per hour during the monsoon which ranges between

15 to 25 km per hour in winter. The area is prone to severe cyclonic storms twice almost every year during April to May and October to November and also, there are occasional tidal bores. The humidity of the area varies between 35 to 95%.

Macrophytes: Principal vegetation on these dunes includes Ipomea pescaprae,

Hydrophylax maritima, Spinifex littoreus, Launaea sarmentosa and Gisekia

pharnaceoides.

Mangroves: Fifty-eight species of mangroves have so far been recorded in India of

which 55 are found in Bhitarkanika (Bannerjee and Rao, 1990). Compared to the Sunderbans, India's largest tract of mangrove forest, Bhitarkanika represents a wide diversity of mangrove flora. The Heritiera formation of Champion and Seth (Type

4B/TS-4, 1968) comprising the brackish water association of Heritiera, Cynometra, Aglaia, Cerbera, and Intsia is not found in the present Sunderbans of Indian territory


but are well represented in Bhitarkanika. Rhizophora stylosa, Sonneratia griffithii and Heritiera littoralis have been recorded new for Indian mangroves from Bhitarkanika (Bannerjee and Rao, 1990). This association is unique only to Bhitarkanika

mangroves. In Bhitarkanika a variety of wild rice (Porteresia coarctata) grows abundantly in tidal mud flats. Based on the genetic strain of this wild rice several saline and flood resistant varieties of rice have been developed. This has led to a

tremendous economic impact making it very important. The dominant mangrove species in this region are


Aegiceras corniculatum Merop angulata

Avicennia officinalis Rhizophora

apiculata Cerbera manghas R. mucronata

Excoecaria agallocha Sonneratia apetala

Heritiera fomes Xylocarpus

granatum

H. littoralis X. mekongenesis

Kandelia kandel X. molucensis

Pure formations of many of these tree species occur in the inner estuarine bank

Reptiles: Bhitarkanika harbours one of the largest populations of endangered saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) in India and is globally unique in that 10% of the adults exceed 6 m length. Nearly 700 saltwater crocodiles inhabit the rivers and

creeks of Bhitarkanika today (Kar and Pattnaik, 1999). The eastern boundary of Bhitarkanika supports the largest nesting ground of the endangered olive ridley sea turtle in the world (Bustard, 1976). Nearly half a million olive ridleys on an avereage

nest every year along the Gahirmatha coast of Bhitarkanika (Dash and Kar, 1990). The water monitor lizard (Varanus salvator) otherwise rare in most part of India, commonly occurs here. Besides water monitor, two other species namely common (V.

bengalensis) and yellow (V. flavescens) monitors are also sympatric here (Biswas and

kar, 1981). Notable among other reptiles of Bhitarkanika are king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus), banded krait (Bungarus fasciatus), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) and golden tree snake

(Chrysopelia ornata).

Birds: Extremely high congregations of migratiory waterfowls are observed in the coastal wetlands around Satbhaya village and in the Bhitarkanika forest block of the

Sanctuary during December and January. The mangrove forests of Bhitarkanika harbours one of the largest congregation of breeding water birds in the country (Subramanya, 1996). Eleven species of Ciconiiformes are known to nest in this multi species nesting colony (Pandav, 1997). The breeding birds in this mixed species

colony are


Anastomus oscitans (Asian Openbill)

Egretta garzetta (Little Egret)

Anhinga melanogaster

(Darter)

Mesophoyx

intermedia (Intermediate Egret)

Ardea cinerea (Grey

Heron)

Nycticorax

nycticorax (Black-crowned Night Heron)

A. purpurea (Purple Heron)

Phalacrocorax niger (Little Cormorant)

Bubulcus ibis (Cattle Egret)

Threskiornis

melanocephalus

(Black-headed Ibis) Casmerodius albus (Great Egret)

The endangered Lesser Adjutant Stork (Leptoptilos javanicus) also breeds in Bhitarkanika. Six species of kingfishers, Black-capped (Halcyon pileata), White-

breasted (H. smyrnensis), Brownwinged (H. amauroptera), Collared (Todirhamphus

chloris) Common (Alcedo atthis) and Pied (Ceryle rudis) are sympatric here. Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary has recently been identified as an important bird area (IBA) of the country.

Mammals: Bhitarkanika is also home for several mammals. Five species of marine dolphins have been recorded from the area. The commonest species encountered in this area is the Indo-pacific humpbacked dolphin (Sousa chinensis). The other four

species of marine dolphins that are found in the coastal waters off Gahirmatha are Irrawady dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), Pantropical spotted dolphin, Common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) and Finless black porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides).

Notable among the other mammalian fauna of Bhitarkanika are Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena), Fishing cat (Felis viverrina), Jungle cat (Felis chaus), Smooth-coated otter (Lutra perspiciliata), Common palm civet (Paradoxurus

hermaphroditus), Small Indian civet (Vivericula indica), Indian Porcupine (Hystrix

indica), Wild boar (Sus scrofa), Spotted deer (Cervus axis) and Sambar (Cervus

unicolor).

Land tenure: The site is owned by the state and its surroundings also by private

Land use: The wetland is used for non-urbanized settlements; rice growing; water regulation; aquaculture and irrigation.

Conservation measures taken: The very first step towards conservation of

Bhitarkanika has been its declaration as a wildlife sanctuary. Bhitarkanika is one of the earliest protected areas of Orissa being declared as a wildlife sanctuary in 1975. A separate wildlife division with headquarters at Chandbali was created in 1980 to

effectively manage this area. The headquarters of the division later shifted to Rajnagar in 1991. The Gahirmatha Marine (Wildlife) Sanctuary on the eastern boundary of Bhitarkanika was notified in 1997. Bhitakanika National Park was notified in 1998.

Comprehensive Management Plan involving the Protected Areas and surrounds is now under preparation. While this is being done, specific species conservation measures have been initiated and are summarised below. The wetland has been

accorded international importance by its designation as a Ramsar Site in 19.08.2002.

• Saltwater crocodile conservation program: Bhitarkanika was declared as a wildlife sanctuary primarily to protect its endangered saltwater crocodile population. In 1975 and integrated Government of India and FAO/UNDP project

was launched to protect and restock the saltwater crocodile population in Bhitarkanika with Dr. H. R. Bustard as its Technical Advisor. A rearing centre was established at Dangamal for this purpose. This has achieved tremendous success in rearing and rehabilitating the species and the population of

estuarine crocodile in the wild is estimated to be nearly 700 (Kar and Pattnaik, 1999). Fishing has been completely stopped in Bhitarkanika River and associated creeks and the project has resulted in rejuvination of large tracts of mangrove

forests.

• Sea turtle project: The Gahirmatha coast which forms the eastern boundary of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary harbours the largest known nesting population of olive ridley sea turtle in the world. After its discovery in 1974 (Bustard, 1976), the wildlife wing of the Orissa Forest Department established Gahirmatha Marine

Turtle Research and Conservation Centre at Habalikhati-on-sea near the nesting beach and took up study on the ecology and nesting biology of sea turtles. Immediately after the nesting beach came under protected area status, egg

collection was banned and through the combined efforts of Orissa and West Bengal forest departments, the road and rail transport of sea turtles from Orissa was stopped.

• The death of olive ridley sea turtle because of intense fishing activities increased during later part of nineties and concerns were expressed from various quarters

over this high sea turtle mortality. In order to provide adequate protection to the sea turtles in the coastal waters the Gahirmatha Marine (Wildlife) Sanctuary was notified in 1997 taking 20 km wide coastal stretch from south of Wheeler Islands

spanning 35 km to the south. The sanctuary area is patrolled by Forest Department and Coast Guards and number of fishing vessels violating the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 are being seized and prosecuted.

• Mangrove conservation: Although Bhitarkanika is the 4th largest stretch of mangrove forest in mainland India, the diversity of mangrove species is at its

maximum in Bhitarkanika. This area has been included in the national mangrove network and has started receiving support from Government of India for its conservation. The “Kalibhanjdia Island” has been identified to be designated as

the Mangrove Genetic Research Centre. Afforestation of depleted mangrove patches have started in different pockets after removal of encroachments due to prawn culture.

Conservation measures proposed: Most important intervention required to save this magnificent wetland is to properly delineate the boundary of the diversity rich zones. At present the mangrove area encompasses large number of villages which clearly fall out side the forested areas. However, large tracts of forest lands still remain

undemarcated, which requires to be demarcated and reserved. All protected reserve forests (PRF) once demarcated in the field and final notification of these PRFs announced will benefit management of the area. All newly accreted islands and

mudflats needs to be declared as Reserve Forests. Settlement of all forest blocks should be completed within a specified time frame. Any part of the sanctuary where the mangroves have vanished or depleted due to anthropogenic intervention and

creeks have been dyked need to be freed and planted up with suitable species of mangroves.

A shift in house construction strategy, which do not need forest products for

construction or repairs needs to be promoted. They need to be trained in the new technique of construction using local non-forest materials. Social and farm forestry needs to be encouraged in the surrounding villages for meeting the need of forest

material without much dependence on mangroves. Eco-development initiatives to be taken up in a big way to reduce people’s dependence on the forest and wetland. Ecofriendly aquaculture need to be encouraged in the area to reduce the fishing pressure on the surrounding rivers. A regional policy on migration of people from

other areas need to be developed to prevent further growth in migrating population in the region. Political and administrative will are crucial to prevent such inflow of people.

Recent developmental activities on the periphery of the Bhitarkanika region has put tremendous pressure on this wetland. A moratorium in construction of roads, jetties and harbors in the sanctuary or its fringes to reduce their adverse impact, needs to be

considered. Wherever they exist, movement of vehicles or number of mechanised boats should be properly regulated to minimize the disturbance.

Tourism in the sanctuary need to be regulated in order to reduce pressure on particular

patches. All arrangements to accommodate the tourists should be located away from the sanctuary and a proper eco-tourism plan for the park need to be developed.

Disturbance and threats: Due to the rich aquatic life people moved into the area resulting in a densely populated and agriculturally prosperous alluvial flat land. The

site is threatened by construction of saline embarkments for aquaculture and consequently elimination of mangroves, clearing of the mangrove forest for agriculture including irrigation, intensive fishing in the peripheral river systems,

exploitation of mangroves for house construction, fencing and fuel wood, as well as poaching of wild animals. Successful conservation measures increased the crocodile population but also the man-crocodile conflict. The surroundings harbour sizeable

populations of migratory waterbirds but many of these wetlands lack protection. With the recent change in land use pattern, the coastal wetlands and agricultural fields are increasingly being converted into brackish water prawn-culture ponds, resulting in hypersaline land and a loss of wintering ground for migratory waterbirds. The

abundant Asian Openbill is loosing its feeding ground (the mollusc Pila globosa living in paddy fields). Pressure on the surroundings has increased due to migration and settlement of people from West Bengal.

Socio-economic values: There is a major influx of tourists to Bhitarkanika during winter and tourism during rest part of the year is moderate. The influx of tourists to the area has generated employment for local inhabitants. For recreation and tourism

facilities of rest houses and Dormitory are available at Dangmal, Ekakula and Habalikhati.

Mangrove ecosystems have traditionally been sustainably managed by local populations for the production of food, medicines, tanins, fuel wood and construction

materials. Most of the villagers living around Bhitarkanika derive benefits from the

mangrove forests in one way or the other. The entire fishing industry in the area that provides employment to local communities is dependent on the rivers and the coastal waters adjoining the mangrove forests. The area is commercially important for fishes

(Hilsa illisha, Lates calcarifer, Mystus gulio and Mullet sp.), for prawns (Penaeus

indicus and P. monodon), and for honey (3,000 – 5,000 kg in Feb.–May), traditionally collected by the local community of ‘Dalei’. In addition to the fishing

industry, plant species provide employment for the locals: the grass Myriostachia

wightiana and the climber Flagellaria indica are used for basket and rope making, the abundant palm Phoenix paludosa for thatching. Research activities take place, e.g. functioning of the mangrove ecosystem, botanical surveys, studies on rice as food

supplier, wildlife monitoring (incl. a saltwater crocodile and marine turtle centres), and peoples dependency on the mangroves. Bhitarkanika mangroves harbour wild strains of Paddy, that is tolerant of long duration saline inundation and has significant

genetic research value for the staple rice-eating community of east-coast of India.

Importance: Bhitarkanika Mangroves are representing one of the finest and largest contiguous remaining patches of mangrove forests along the Indian coast. Of India's

58 recorded species of mangroves, 55 species are found. The dense coastal forests provide vital protection for millions of people from devastating cyclones and tidal surges. Gahirmatha beach is said to host the IUCN red-listed, largest known Olive Ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) nesting beach in the world, with half a

million nesting annually. The coastal waters are a major mating area for migratory turtles. Furthermore, the site hosts the vulnerable Grey Pelican (Pelecanus

philippensis), and the nationally highest density of endangered saltwater crocodiles,

with nearly 700 Crocodylus porosus. One of the largest Indian heronries counts more than 20,000 nesters. The area regularly supports 30,000 birds with a maximum of 50,000 in 1995. The site hosts 174 bird species of which 82 species breed. It is also a

wintering habitat for 57 species of waterbirds. It is also the east coast's main nursery for brackish water and estuarine fish.

Management authority: Divisional Forest Officer; Mangrove Forest Division (Wildlife) Rajnagar, Orissa.

Past and present status: Bhitarkanika is surrounded by thickly populated and agriculturally prosperous alluvial flat land. This part of mangrove forest surrounded by rivers and criss-crossed creeks is very rich in aquatic life. Taking advantage of this

people have moved in to this area in large number resulting in creation of new settlements and increase in population of the old settlements. The ever increasing human population has been a major threat to this wetland resulting in the following

disturbances:

a. Construction of saline embarkments for aquaculture and destruction of mangroves

b. Clearing of the mangrove forest for agriculture.

c. Intensive fishing activities in the peripheral river systems.

d. Exploitation of mangroves for house construction, fencing and fuel wood.

e. Poaching of wild animals.

Nearly two and half decades of successful conservation measures have resulted in an increased crocodile population in Bhitarkanika and its associated river systems. Along with the increase in human and crocodile population, and biotic interference in and

around the park, has led to an increased man-crocodile conflict. So far, there have

been 35 instances of human casualties in the area because of crocodiles (Kar and Patnaik 1999). Besides these casualties, there have been numerous accounts of attack both on human beings and livestock by crocodile in the area. There is also a growing

feeling of over abundance of crocodiles in the area among the local communities. Of late, this successful conservation measure is becoming a victim of its own success resulting in an increased human crocodile conflict.

Surrounding areas of the wetland: The wetlands adjoining the mangrove forests of Bhitarkanika harbour a sizeable population of migratory waterfowl in winter. However, many of these wetlands do not come under the jurisdiction of Bhitarkanika

Wildlife Sanctuary and lack protected area status. With the recent change in land use pattern (evident after 1993) all along the Orissa coast, the coastal wetlands and the agricultural fields adjoining these wetlands are increasingly being converted into brackish water prawn culture ponds. Conversion of the coastal wetlands around

Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary has resulted in a loss of wintering ground for the migratory waterfowl. The Asian Openbill, which constitutes a significant percentage of breeding birds in the heronry, feeds exclusively on molluscs Pila globosa, in the

paddy fields surrounding the sanctuary. With the conversion of these paddy fields to prawn culture ponds, the Asian Openbills are facing a loss of their feeding grounds. This, in the future, may affect the breeding behaviour of these birds in the heronry and may be detrimental for the survival of Asian Openbills in the long run.

Research and facilities: Ever since its establishment as a wildlife sanctuary, Bhitarkanika is in the focus of various research activities relating to the mangrove ecosystem and its function, vegetation of the mangroves, endangered animals

inhabiting the mangrove forest and peoples dependency on the mangrove forest.

Bhitarkanika was declared as a wildlife sanctuary in April 1975 primarily to protect the endangered saltwater crocodile from the brink of extinction. Because of poaching

and loss of habitat the saltwater crocodile population in Bhitarkanika was reduced to a mere 35 adult and sub-adult individuals (Kar and Bustard. 1989). In 1975 the Government of Orissa established a saltwater crocodile research and conservation

centre at Dangamal. Through the rear and release program nearly 2,500 crocodiles of 1m length have been restocked in Bhitarkanika and the present population is around 700 individuals of both size classes (Kar and Patnaik, 1999). The average density of crocodiles (other than hatchlings) in Bhitarkanika has increased from 0.87

individuals/km in 1976 (Kar and Bustard, 1976 and 1991) to 5.0 individuals/km in 1998 (Kar and Patnaik, 1999). The breeding population of saltwater crocodile in Bhitarkanika is well established now and more than 40 breeding females have been

recorded in the area (Pandav, 1998).

Along with the saltwater crocodile head start program, the Government of Orissa in 1976 established the Gahirmatha marine turtle research centre at Habalikhati to study

the world's largest nesting population of Olive ridley sea turtles. A long term tagging program was taken up by the Orissa Forest Department in 1977 and this programme has broadened our present knowledge on the sea turtles nesting at Gahrimatha (Dash and Kar, 1990). The Olive ridley nesting population at Gahiramtha was monitored by

the Wildlife Institute of India between 1995 and 1999. Nearly 9,000 Olive ridleys were tagged during this period and several of these tagged turtles have been recovered from the western coast of Sri Lanka.

The most detailed botanical survey of Bhitarkanika mangroves has been carried out by the Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta and the result of this survey has been

published in the form of a book (Bannerjee and Rao, 1990). The study by Bannerjee and Rao (1990) revealed the presence of 55 of the 58 recorded Indian mangrove species in Bhitarkanika. The mangrove plant community in Bhitarkanika is

characterised by an abundance of species flowering from February to April, during which period there is a seasonal migration of bees into the area. The pollination biology of some of the mangrove species have been studied by Pandit (1997).

Research and monitoring has been a regular activity of the wildlife wing of the Orissa Forest Department in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary. Some of the regular research activities of the wildlife wing in Bhitarkanika includes the annual census of saltwater

crocodile, nesting olive ridley sea turtle at Gahirmatha and census of the colonial nesting birds in the heronry.

Reference: Banerjee and Rao (1990); Biswas and Kar (1981). Bustard (1976);

Chadha and Kar (1999); Dash and Kar (1990); Kar and Bustard (1989); Kar and Bustard (1991); Kar and Patnaik (1999); Lopex and Mundkur (1997); Pandav (1997); Pandav (1998); Pandit (1997); Subramanya (1996); http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website).

HIRAKUD RESERVOIR

Twenty five kilometers from the end to end, Hirakud (21° 32’ N, 83° 52’ E) is

the world’s longest main stream dam over the river Mahanadi and one of the major dam in India. River Mahanadi drains an area of 141, 600 km

2 of which 46.5 per cent

lie in Orissa. Its main tributaries are Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, Jonk, Ib, Ong and Tel – the last two join the river downstream of the Hirakud Reservoir. Its construction

started in 1951 and its reservoir started impounding water from monsoon of 1956. The total length is 4800 m.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The water temperature ranged from 21 to 30°C and pH values from 7.3 to 8.5.

Phytoplankton:


HIRAKUD RESERVOIR

•


Actinaustraum sp. Melosira sp.

Amphora sp. Meoismopedia

glauca Anaebaena orientalis Microsystis sp.

Anaebaena sp. Navicula sp.

Ankistrodesmus felcatus Nitzschia sp.

Anthrospira sp. Nostoc sp.

Chlamydomonas

globosa Oscillatoria amoena

Chlorolla vulgaris O. orientalis

Crucigenia sp. O. simpliccisima

Cyclotella sp. Pandorina sp.

Cymbella sp. Pediastrum sp.

Diatoma elongata Phacus sp.

Dispora cunciformes Phormidium sp.

Eudorina sp. Sienedesmus sp.

Euglena sp. Spirogyra sp.

Fragilaria sp. Spirulina sp.

Frustulia sp. Surirella sp.

Gyrosigma sp. Synecocchus sp.

Kirchnerilla sp. Synedra ulna

Melosira ambiguna

Zooplankton: Rotifera (Brachionus sp., Keratella sp., Asplancha sp., Polyarthra sp.) Cladocera (Daphnia sp., Bosmina sp., Moina sp.); Copepoda (Mesocyclops sp.,

Cyclops sp., Nauplii sp.).


Land use: It is a multipurpose dam meant for irrigation, flood control (down stream

delta) and power generation.

Socio-economic values: Irrigation for 2,64,228 ha. (Khari-1,55,428 ha; Rabi-1,08,800 ha). Power installed is 270 mw. The water can be used for drinking after preliminary treatment.

Reference: Dash et al. (1993).

RENGALI DAM

Rengali dam is situated (21° 17’ N, 85° 02’ E) in the Dhenkanal district, Orissa. Brahmani is the second largest river in Orissa. It carries 70.50 million acre foot of mean annual run-off with maximum flood discharge of 8,00,000 cu.sec. The delta

region is subjected to frequent flood. The reservoir spreads over 414 sq.km area and stores 4.4 lakh hectare meter at RL 120 meter and 5.15 lakh hectare meter at RL 125 meter.




Land use: The dam is used for irrigation and fishing.

Socio-economic values: The dam supports an important fishing industry and is a valuable source of water for irrigation and domestic use.


SATKOSHIA GORGE SANCTUARY

Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary is situated in (20° 33’ N, 84° 50’ E) the 105 km west of Cuttack, Orissa. A 22 km stretch of the Mahanadi river in the Satkoshia Gorge between Tikerpara and Barmul. The river is very slow-flowing for much of the year and contains many deep pools, even during the dry season. Numerous sand bard and

gravel beds are exposed at low water levels. The total area of the Sanctuary is 79, 552 ha.

RENGALI DAM •



Reptiles: Until recently, the Satkoshia Gorge section of the Mahanadi river supported one of the significant populations of the endangered gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) in India. The last wild hatchlings were seen in 1974, and no eggs have been laid since

the 1976 breeding season. A major efforts, however, being made to restore the population with animals reared in captivity from eggs collected elsewhere.


Land use: The wetland is used for Sanctuary.

Conservation measures taken: The Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary was established in 1976 to protect a population of the endangered gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). Some

107 captive-reared individuals were released into the river between 1977 and March 1980 to augment the vestigial wild population. The animals are strictly protected within the Sanctuary.


Research and facilities: There has been a considerable amount of research centered around the Gharial project.

Reference: Groombridge (1982)

CHILKA LAKE

Chilka lake is (19° 28’–19° 54’ N, 85° 06’–85° 35’ E) in Puri and Ganjam districts,

Orissa. Chilka, the designated Ramsar site, is the World’s second largest brackishwater lagoon, is about 64.5 km long (NE – SW) with a width varying from 18.5 km in the northern part to 5 km in the souther sector. Chilka is a shallow lake

separated from the Bay of Bengal by a long sandy ridge not less than 200m wide. The range in water depth is from 0.9–2.6m in the dry season to 1.8–3.7m in the rainy season.

SATKOSHIA GORGE SANCTUARY

•


In the north, the Daya and Bhargavi rivers flow into the lake and, with some eight other rivers, annually discharge about 375,000 cusecs of freshwater carrying some 13

million metric tonnes of silt into the lake. The lake is connected to the Bay of Bengal via a channel through the sand ridge in the north-east. The opening point of this channel with the lake is known as Magarmukha (Mouth of the Crocodile). The important islands found lake are the Nalabana, Kalijai Hill, Krushnaprasadrah (Old

Parikuda), Badakuda, Sanakuda, Kanthapantha, Nuapara and Honeymoon. The lake has been divided into four separate zones namely the southern, central and northern sectors and the outer channel area. The total area of this lake is 116,500 ha. in

monsoon and 89,100 ha. in summer.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 32.5°C and minimum of 17.5°C was recorded. Salinity ranged from 0.1 to 36‰ and pH

values form 6.8 to 9.7.

Algae: Enteromorpha, Gracillaria, Spirogyra, Cladophora and Polysiphonia, Najas sp., stoneworts Chara sp., Nitella sp. and Hydrilla sp. Potomegeton spp.

Amphibians: True Frogs-Rana cyanophlyctis, Rana tigerina, Rana limnocharis,

Rana breviceps, Polypedates maculatus, Microhyla ornata, Bufo melanostictus

Fishes: Hilsa ilisha, Mugil macrolepis, Mystus gulio, Lates calcarifer, Polynemus

tetradactylus, Glossogobius giuris, Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella,

Gerres setifer and Mystus gulio.

Reptiles: Soft-shelled Turtles-Lissemys punctata punctata; Lizards-Hemidactylus

brooki, H. frenatus, H. leschenaulti, Sitana ponticeriana, Calotes versicolor, Psammophilus blanfordanus, Mabuya carinata, Mabuya bibroni, Barkudia insularis, Varanus bengalensis; Snakes-Blind Snakes (Ramphotyphlops braminus, Typhlops

porrectus, Typhlops acutus), Boas (Eryx conicus), File Snakes (Chersydrus

granulates), Colubrid Snakes (Ptyas mucosus, Boiga trigonata, Dendrelaphis tristis, Xenochrophis piscator, Enhydris enhydris, Cerberus rhynchops), Cobras and Kraits (Bungarus caeruleus, Naja naja naja), Sea Snakes (Enhydrina schistosa, Hydrophis

obscurus), Vipers (Vipera russelli).

Birds:



Anas acuta E. intermedia

A. clypeata Fulica atra

A. crecca Himantopus

himantopus

A. penelope Larus

brunnicephalus

A. querquedula Limosa limosa

A. strepera Netta rufina

Anastomus oscitans Nettapus

coromandelianus Anser indicus Pelecanus

philippensis

Ardea cinerea Phalacrocorax niger

Ardeola grayii Phoeniconaias minor

Aythya ferina Phoenicopterus

ruber A. fuligula Podiceps cristatus

Calidris ferruginea Porphyrio porphyrio

C. minuta Tachybaptus

ruficollis Charadrius mongolus Tadorna ferruginea

Chlidonias hybridus Threskiornis

aethiopica

Egretta alba Tringa erythropus

E. garzetta T. tetanus

Land tenure: State-Owned. Measures are being implemented to declare the area a sanctuary under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. It already has sanctuary status under Orissa Forest (Shooting) Rules 1972. Designated as a Ramsar site on accession

in October 1981.

Land use: A great deal of human activity takes place at Chilika. More than 9000 fishing boats operate on the lake, and there are over 15 mechanised ferries

transporting people between various points. Aerial operations reveal that at least 25% (4000 ha in 1991) of the littoral zone of Chilika lake has been taken over for prawn culture operations. A huge number of cattle and water buffalo graze in and around the

lake, and local villagers gather reeds and grasses for thatching purposes. A small, but growing, number of naturalists and tourists have been attracted to the sanctuary in recent years. The drainage basin (over 43000 ha) is heavily populated. Forests, mostly

deciduous stands of Shorea, Dillenia and Pterosperumum species, cover the upper reaches of rivers draining into Chilka, between 300 m and 600 m altitude. They are largely over-felled and over-grazed. Stone quarrying in the hilly terrain is common.

Cultivated areas lie mostly in the fertile, alluvial flat lands to the north of Chilka and at place extend right up to the lake. Some 1600 ha of the lake have been reclaimed for rice cultivation. The lucrative prawn fishery of the lake has transformed the fish landing points into large commercial centres. Rambha and Barkul along the lake are

tourist centres. Apart from the towns, the shore has 122 fishing villages with a total population of around 100,000 while the surrounding area has about 273 villages.

Conservation measures taken: The entire lake was given "Sanctuary" status in 1973

under the Orissa Forest (Shooting) Rules 1972. Measures are now being implemented to declare the area a Sanctuary under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. The lake was designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in

October 1981. A core area has been delineated around Nalban Island where fishing and grazing will be banned. Hunting is prohibited throughout the lake, and night fishing has been banned since 1986. The lake is under the control of the State Wildlife Department. The number of staff has recently been increased and is headed by a

Divisional Forest Officer.

Conservation measures proposed: An integrated study of the problems facing Chilka Lake is urgently required. The area is too vast to permit rigorous control over

land use, and the great number of people dependent upon the lake will have to be accommodated in any conservation strategy for the area. Fishing will be allowed to continue at present levels, except in the Nalban core area, but the introduction of

motorized fishing vessels is to be prohibited throughout the lake. The Fisheries Department has submitted a series of proposals to regulate the size of fishing nets, declare parts of the lake fish sanctuaries, and earmark seasons for certain species, but these have yet to be implemented.

Socio-economic values: The lake supports a major fishery for finfish, prawns and other crustaceans with an estimated 6000 MT of fish taken annually. There has been a steady drop in the total fish landings with only 42170 MT being taken in 1990–91.

About 22% of the catch consists of prawns, followed by mullets. Only a relatively small quantity are consumed by local fishermen. Most of the fish landed is exported primarily to fish markets in Calcutta. A net revenue of over Rs.70 million is taken by

the Government from 24 revenue villages along the lake shore, the majority of this revenue coming from prawn catches. The State Government receives an annual income of Rs. 1 million from the fishing leases. The lake has enormous potential for scientific research, outdoor recreation, and tourism, and the State Government is

developing the area as a tourist attraction. The site has a rich birdlife with over 150 recorded migratory and resident species. It has one of the largest concentrations of migratory waterfowl in India including large flocks of ducks (Anatinae), geese

(Anserinae), flamingos Phoenicopterus sp., pelican Pelecanus sp., plover Charadrius sp., gulls Larus sp. and terns Sterna sp.

Pollution status: The area is threatened by pollution from domestic and industrial

waste. The large number (400) of buffalos on Nalban Island is disturbing the avifauna.

Research and facilities: The Bombay Natural History Society has made some investigations at the lake, and conducted bird ringing programmes at Nalban Island in February–March 1981 and February–April 1984. A total of 4,546 waterfowl of 56

species were ringed during the two seasons. The State Government has indicated to the Society that it will finance a long term research station at Chilka under the supervision of the Society.

Reference: http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website); Abbsai (1997); Rath and Adhikary (2005).

ROPAR RESERVOIR

Ropar wetland is situated (31° 01’ N, 76° 30’ E) near Ropar City, 45 km northwest of Chandigarh City, in Ropar and Nawanshahr districts, Punjab. This reservoir at Ropar (manmade wetland) was formed due to the construction of Ropar head regulator in

1952. Before that, small headwork was constructed during the year 1882, on the right side of river Sutlej near Ropar Town so as to supply water to Sirhind Canal. With the construction of main barrage during the year 1952 water was also diverted into another canal - Bist Doab Canal. The reservoir level is maintained at Reduced Level

(RL) 873.50 feet above Main Sea Level (MSL) compared to the bed level at RL 857.00 feet above MSL. Depth of water varies from half meters to 6 meters in the Reservoir area. Shallow water features exist along both the sides of the river located

within the wetland area. The annual average inflow during 2000 has been reported to be 3677400 cusecs. Per day incoming water at Ropar Wetland from River Sutlej is 10215 cusecs out of which 2460 cusecs flows into the rivers downstream of Ropar

Reservoir. 7346 cusecs water is released into Sirhind Canal and 490 cusecs is released into Bist Doab Canal per day. Upstream of Ropar Wetland 850 cusecs is diverted through Bhakra Main Line.

Abiotic factors: Climatically this area falls under semi-arid zone of Punjab with mean annual rainfall of 1518 mm.

Trees: A total of 19 species of trees were recorded. These are follows;



Acacia catechu F. religiosa

A. modesta Mangifera indica

A. nilotica Melia azadirachta

Albizzia lebbek Moringa oleifera

Azadirachta indica Morus indica

Bombax ciba Prosopis juliflora

Cassia fistula Salix willow

Dalbergia sissoo Syzygium cuminii

Eucalyptus tereticornis Zizyphus jujube

Ficus Bengalensis

Bushes and Grasses: A total of 14 species were recorded. These are follows;


Adhatoda vasica Erianthus munja

Arundo doanx Eulaliopsis binnata

Cannabis sativa Heteropogon

contortus

Carissa spinarum Lantana camara

Chrysopogon fulvus Saccharum

spontaneum

Cymbopogon maritini Typha elephantine

Dodonaea viscosa Zyzyphus mauritiana

Fishes: A total of 21 species of fishes were recorded. These are follows;

Zoological Name Local

Name

Status

Ambasis nama Shisha

Machi

Ornamental

Value A. ranga Shisha

Machi Commercial Value

Aorichthys

seenghala

Sangarha Commercial

Catla catla Thal Commercial

Ceenopharyngodon

idelle

Grass Carp

Commercial

Channa punctatus Dolla Commercial

C. striatus Curd Commercial Cirrhinus mrigala Mori Commercial

Colisa fasciata Kanghi Ornamental

Value Cyprinus carpio

communis

Common Carp

Commercial

C. carpio spacularis Mirror Carp

Commercial

Labeo calbasu Kalbans or Dhai

Commercial

L. dero Gid Commercial L. dyocheilus Kunni Commercial

L. gonius Seerha Commercial

L. rohita Rohu Commercial

Mastacembelus

armatus

Sam Commercial

Puntius sarana Puthi Commercial P. ticto Ticher Wild

Wallago attu Mali Commercial

Amphibia (Frogs): Rana tigrina (Indian tiger frog), Rana limnocharis (Indian rice frog), Rana breviceps (Indian burrowing frog), Bufo melanostictus (Common toad).

Reptiles: A total of 18 species of reptiles were recorded. These are follows;

Zoological Name Common Name

Tortoises

Chitra indica

Geoclamys hamilton

Lizards

Calotes versicolor Girgit (blood sucker)

Mabuya macularia Ophiodactylus

tridactylus

Uromastix hardwicki Sanda Varanus monitor

Snakes

Echis carinatus Phoorsa Eryx johnii johnii Johns sand boa

Fungarus caerulens Common Indian Krait

Leptotyphlops

blandfordi

Lycodon striatus Wolf snake

Naja naja Cobra Phython molurus Indian python or

ajgar

Psammophis leithi Sand snake Ptyas mucosus Rat snake Typhlops porrectus Blind snake

Vipera russelli Russel's viper

Birds: A total of 49 species of local birds, 11 species of migratory birds, 3 species of

rare birds and 54 species of common birds were recorded in this wetland.

Zoological Name Common Name

Local Birds Accipiter badius Shikra

A. nisus Sparrow hawk Aeriodotherco

giniginianus

Bank myna

A. tristis Common myna Alcedo atthis Small blue

kingfisher

Ardea alba Large egret Ardeola grayii Pond heron Athene brama Spotted owlet

Aythya ferina Common Pochard Bubo bengalensis Great hornedowl Bubulcus ibis Cattle egret Calidris minuta Little stint

Caprimulgas indicus Jungle nightjar Ceryle rudis Pied kingfisher Charadrius dubius Little ringed

plover Coracia benghalensis Indian roller Dicrurus adsimilis King crow or

Drongo Elanus caeruleus Blackwinged kite Francolinus

francolinus

Black partridge

F. pondicerianus Grey partridge Fulica atra Coot Gallinula chloropus Moorhen

Gullus gallus Peafowl Halcyon smyrnensis Whitebreasted

kingfisher Haliastur indus Brahminy kite

Himantopus

himantopus

Blackwinged stilt

Lanius cristatus Brown shrike

Lanius excubitor Grey shrike L. schach Rufousbacked

shrike Oriolus oriolus Golden oriole

Pandion haliaetus Osprey Perdicula asiatica Jungle bush quail Pitta brachyura Pitta

Podiceps niger Little Cormorant Porphyrio porphyrio Purple moorthen Psittacula eupatria Green Large

parakeet P. krameri Roseringed

parakeet Pycononotus cafer Red vented

bulbul Sterna aurantia River tern Streptopelia chinensis Spotted dove

S. decaocto Ring dove Sturnus contra Pied myna Tockus birostris Grey hornbill

Treron phoenicoptera Blue rock pigeon Tringa hypoleuces Common

sandpiper Tyto alba Barnowl

Upupa epops Hoopoe Vanellus indicus Redwattled

lapwing

V. malabaricus Yellow wattled lapwing

Migratory Birds Anas acuta Pintail A. clyopeata Shoveller A. penelope Wigeon

A. platyrhynchos Mallard A. poeccilorhyncha Spotbill duck A. steopera Gadwall Aythya ferina Common pochard

Circus aeruginosus Marsh harrier Hydrophasianus

chirurgus

Pheasat tailed jacana

Netta rufina Red Crested pochard

Tadorna ferruginea Ruddy shelduck

Rare Birds Dinopium benghalense Goldenbacked

woodpecker Megalaima

haemacephala

Crimsonbreasted

barbet M. zeylanica Green barbet

Other Birds Acrocephalus

stentoreus

Ashy grey warbler

Alauda gulgula Skylark Ammomanes Rufoustailed

phoenicurus finch-lark Anthus similis Rock pipit A. trivalis Tree pipit

Apus affinis House swift Certhia himalayana Tree creeper Cisticola juncidis Streaked fantail

warbler Clamator jacobinus Pied crested

cuckoo Copsychus saularis Mag-pie robin

Corvus

macroryhynchos

House Crow

Cuculus varius Common hawk-

cuckoo Cypsiurus parvus Palm swift Dendrocitta vagabunda Tree pie

Dicaeum agile Thickbiled flower pecker

Embeviza

melangcepala

Blackheaded bunting

Estrilda amandava Red munia Eudynamys scolopacea Koel Galerida cristata Crested Lark

Hirundo daurica Redrumped swallow

H. rustica Swallow H. smithii Wire-tailed

swallow Megalaime asiatica Purple sunbird Megalurus palustris Striated marsh

warbler Meolphus lathami Crested bunting Mirafra erythroptera Red-winged bush

lark

Motacilla alba White wagtail M. caspica Grey wagtail

M. citreola Yellow head wagtail

M. flava Yellow wagtail

Muscicapa thalassina Verditer flycatcher

Oenantive fenschi River pied chat Orthotomus sutorius Tailor bird

Parus major Grey tit Paseer domesticus House sparrow P. manyar Streaked weaver

bird P. pyrrhorstus Jungle sparrow Pericrocotus

crinnamomeus

Small minivet

Phonicurus ochruros Black red start Ploceus phillipinus Weaver bird Prinia socialis Ashy wern

warbler P. subflava Plain wern

warbler

Sanocoloides fulicata Indian robin Saxicola caprata Pied bush chat S. leucura White tailed stone

chat

S. torguata Stone chat Tichodroma muraris Wall creeper Tophrodornis

pondicarianus

Wood shrike

Turdoides caudatus Common babbler T. earlei Striated babbler

T. malcolmi Grey babbler T. striatus Jungle babbler Turdus merula Black bird T. ruficollis Blackthroated

thrush

Land tenure: The site belongs to the government of Punjab and surrounding areas

are mostly privately owned.

Land use: The reservoir is an important source of water for irrigation, industry and domestic use in remote places via Sirhind and Bist Doab Canals.

Conservation measures taken: Ever since the recognition of Ropar Wetland as a Wetland of National Importance by the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India (MEF, GOI), the Punjab State Council for Science & Technology has initiated

efforts to take up conservation programmes involving the state executing departments. Proposals for this purpose are formulated and submitted to the MEF, GOI on annual basis. The Ministry has so far provided Rs. 12.70 lac to the State Government for various activities. Activities undertaken include plantation in 10 ha area, water quality

monitoring, fencing in strategic locations and public awareness. A TV and VCR has been provided to the district administration for generating public awareness through local Environment Protection Society. The district administration has constructed an

Information Centre-cum-Watch Tower for generating mass awareness and promote public participation in the wetland conservation programmes. This information centre comprises of a porch (14'x15'), Hall (32'x15'), Room (16'x10'), Toilet (6'x9') and high rise watch tower. One public awareness programme was also organised at wetland site

to infuse grass root level gatherings in our conservation measures.

Conservation measures proposed: Ropar Wetland essentially has tremendous ecological values. But the ecosystem is threatened on many counts, which include

excessive siltation as a result of the erosion from the adjoining nude hills. Interference to the avifauna is also a matter of concern. Immediate steps, particularly, afforestation and soil conservation in the highly erosion prone catchment areas in the vicinity of

this wetland, fencing of strategic areas and awareness of general public are required to be initiated. The State Govt. has already constructed an Information Centre and Watch Tower for stimulating and sensitising public to understand environment in general and

wetlands in particular. This Centre, however, requires to be strengthened with basic facilities like books, blow-ups, binoculars, small telescope, video films, etc. Details of the conservation and management and awareness steps alongwith the financial

requirements are given hereunder:-

1. Survey and Mapping: A preliminary survey of Ropar Wetland Ecological Zone has been done by the Deptt. of Town and Country Planning, Punjab. However, to

undertake long term conservation and management programmes and to protect this wetland it is desirable to conduct detailed survey, including remote sensing survey, and prepare comprehensive maps. Subsequently the steps for its notification may be

taken up. A sum of Rs. 11.34 lac is required for undertaking plane table and contour surveys. Work has been started to survey the area.

2. Afforestation and Soil Conservation: Since this wetland is located right in the lap

of badly damaged and absolutely nude erosion prone Shivalik Foothills, thousands of tonnes of silt gets transported into this wetland and further down every year. This excessive siltation is not only reducing the extent of lake but also is transforming the functioning of this ecological system. It has been planned to check silt loading in a

phased manner by undertaking plantation and soil conservation work. This work will be initiated first in the vicinity of the wetland. The Deptt. of Forests & Wildlife, Punjab shall take up plantation of indigenous species in 50 ha area. Funds to the tune

of Rs. 40.00 lac are required for this purpose. Council is also proposing to take up concrete grid support plantation at strategic locations and arial seeding on inaccessible hills.

3. Fencing and Wildlife Development: The Deptt. of Wildlife, Govt. of Punjab has proposed to erect chain-link fence to protect certain strategic areas of the wetland. This will help in checking the excessive exploitation of vital wetland resource and prevent encroachments of the wetland area. Funds to the tune of Rs. 30.00 lac are

required for raising fence during the ninth five year plan. Wildlife Deptt. also proposes to provide wooden nests of different shapes. Recent experiments in some western countries shows that landing of some important birds in wetlands also

depends upon the clues and signatures supporting the occurrence of some related birds in that habitat. Since the birds are important ecological components of any ecosystem the results of such experiments may help in artificially encouraging the landing of birds. Punjab State Council for Science & Technology proposes to install suitable

number of plastic birds initially at Ropar and Kanjli Wetland marshes. For this purpose Rs. 50,000/- will be required during first two years of the 9th Five Years Plan.

4. Monitoring of Water Quality: Quality of water determines the ecosystem health of wetlands. Preliminary studies undertaken by Punjab Pollution Control Board (PPCB) under MINARS programme of the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India

has found that water quality is of 'A' category at Nangal, when the river makes its turn into Punjab and deteriorates to 'D' downstream of Ropar reservoir. The deterioration of water quality is mainly due to the industrial effluents from Nangal Fertilizer Limited, Punjab National Fertilizer Corporation, Naya Nangal; Ropar Thermal Plant,

United Paper Mills, Zenith Paper Mills, etc. Without the immediate curative and preventive measures, water quality of this wetland, particularly the areas located downstream of Ropar Barrage, may deteriorate still further. Such measures can be

better planned and executed if detailed base line data regarding pollution levels and their source is available. For this purpose, it is essential to undertake extensive

pollution monitoring studies of point and non-point source along the river. PPCB undertook studies during 1998-99 and had reported that water quality in the reservoir and its upper areas mainly fall in Class ‘A’ to ‘C’ but it deteriorates to Class ‘D’ in the

downstream area where industrial effluents join the river (PPCB, 2000). The PPCB would continue to undertaken such studies at five river monitoring stations. Besides physico-chemical analysis of important parameters, biological estimations as well as

pesticide residue analysis will be undertaken. An amount of Rs. 9.25 lac is required for five years for undertaking the above said studies.

5. Restoration of Storage Capacity of Reservoir: The Irrigation Department, Punjab

has observed that lot of silt deposition is taking place in the lake thereby reducing the lake storage capacity considerably. The Irrigation Deptt. plans to undertake operations to remove silt from the reservoir at an approximate cost of Rs. 98.00 lac for five years.

6. Conservation and Development of Fisheries: This wetland had been a major source of fisheries ever since. However, the contractors have over exploited this resource although some regulation measures are being implemented by the

Department of Fisheries, GOP. Since the fisheries form an important and integral part of food web and human food chain, it is essential to sustainably maintain this fragile relationship between the Fish level and the other biotic resource like birds and

primary producers. Regular release of fish species is highly essential for this purpose. To upkeep the fish level it may also be essential to set up some fish seed farms nearby and renovate the existing ponds. Besides, some other infrastructure associated with the project is required to be developed. An amount to the tune of Rs. 25.00 lac is

required in this regard.

7. Research Studies: To analyse the biotic components, foodchain sequence in our wetlands and potential threats to these places and their components, and to make long-

term conservation strategies, the research studies on aquatic ecosystems of Punjab are being promoted by the State Science & Technology Department. Certain future programmes for wetland conservation will definitely depend upon the research

database. Punjabi University Patiala undertook studies on aquatic ecosystems of Punjab particularly for evaluating the food chain structure. Studies on biodiversity of this wetland and limnological parameters besides habitat characteristics and economic valuation of Ropar Wetland resource are priority areas of research as are described

hereunder:

a) Hydrology and productivity: wetland quality depends closely on water quantity and quality. However, decisions regarding dam construction and river

embankments are made with little thought on their impact upon the productivity of rivers and flood plains. The effects of degradation or improvement of wetland may not be felt instantaneously or in immediately surroundings. It may be felt at

later dates and in far away areas. Detailed studies, therefore, need to be carried out to study the impact of the wetland on hydrogeology of the area.

b) Fisheries and sustainable use of wild life Population: Due to heavy pressure on the

wetland areas on account of various factors like encroachment for agriculture, pollution, etc. the impact on faunal populations is catastrophic. It is clear that unless solid argument based on hard scientific data is presented for maintenance of these sites, this pressure is likely to continue. Hence the need of investigation in

this area.

c) Traditional human use: Human beings are an important component of any ecosystem and are in reciprocal relationship with it. It is important to understand how breakdown of traditional controls of land use has increased the rate of habitat

loss and how it can be checked. Wetland conservation practices can be successful only if its social impact is conducive to its use by the people inhabitating that ecosystem. It is, therefore, important that social impact analysis of developmental

versus conservation projects be carried out alongwith environmental impact analysis of various human activities initiated in the wetland area.

d) Land use planning: A thorough understanding of the hydrology, pedology and

agricultural potential of the site is required in taking decisions regarding demarcation of the wetland area.

e) Economic assessment: Wetlands have been playing crucial role in human

development by providing functional and ecological values. It is essential to undertake economic assessment of Ropar Wetland. Such an assessment would definitely act as a motivating tool to convince the public to protect and conserve it.

f) Flora and Fauna: Detailed taxonomic studies of plant and animal species of this wetland need to be carried out. This will also help to identify the endemic species, if any, of this region, which will invite particular attention for

conservation.

A corpus amount of Rs. 25.00 lac for five years will be required for conducting these studies. The research projects can be initiated depending upon the availability of

funds.

Disturbance and threats: Ropar wetland is facing severe problems of siltation from the adjoining deforested hills. Increasing industrialisation is causing an inflow of

pollutants. Invasive species such as Parthenium sp. and Lantana sp. are a further cause of concern. Illegal fishing and poaching also occur.

Socio-economic values: Ropar area has its distinct place in the District since Anglo

Sikh relations and territories were defined by an agreement between Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Lord William Bentick in October, 1831 under the shade of an old Ficus Tree which existed on the bank of River Sutlej. The area is deeply associated with the socio-economic development of the State and adjoining regions. The strategic

location of Ropar Headworks and its link with important towns attract inumerable visitors daily. Having tremendous recreational values a number of birds watchers and nature lover visit the area. A Tourist Banglow named Pinccasia Tourist Complex

located inside the wetland offers necessary cuisine facilities. Since this wetland is an important source of fisheries, it is significant from economic point of view for the State.

This wetland contributes to the tourism activities to a substantial extent. Nature lovers, bird watchers, swimmers and environmentalists visit the area regularly and enjoy the nature. A tourism complex 'Pinccasia' within the wetland boundary opened in 1975 is also an important attraction for the visitors. A Boat Club is also functioning

in the area and the boating lovers visit the area from time to time. Tourism facilities, at present, at Ropar are being provided by the Punjab Tourism Development Corporation. Tourism potential has further enhanced with declaration of Ropar

Wetland Region as a National Wetland.

Importance: Ropar wetland is an extremely important ecological zone located in the lap of Shivalik Foothills. The wetland provides habitat to the endangered turtle Chitra

indica and the threatened snake Python molurus ("at lower risk"). The site is an

important breeding area for the globally vulnerable otter Lutrogale perspicillata and "at lower risk" mammals such as the deer Axis porcinus, and probably the Indian Pangolin Manis crassicaudata. The nationally protected deer Cervus unicolor, and

several reptiles also breed at the site. Some 35 species of fish play an important role in the food chain. The site is also an important staging ground for migratory waterbirds. In total, at least 9 mammal, 154 bird (migratory and local), 35 fish, 9 arthropod, 11 rotifer, 9 crustacean and 10 protozoan species have been reported from the site.

Research and facilities: There are three Universities in the State namely Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana, Punjabi University, Patriala and Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar where necessary infrastructural and scientific facilities are

available for undertaking studies on this wetlands. Sludge and Water Quality Monitoring is being carried out by the Punjab Pollution Control Board, Patiala. Ropar Wetland, supporting a large number of biotic components is an important open

ecosystem for undertaking in-depth studies relating to food chain parameters, energy flow cycling, hydrological parameters, biotic status, etc.

Management authority: Principal Secretary, Department of Science, Technology &

Environment, Government of Punjab.

Past and present status: This ecosystem is hard pressed under a diversity of threats calling immediate measures. Some of the threats looming over Ropar Wetland

(PSCST 1992, Ladhar and Handa 1992, Ladhar, 1995) are as under:

Ropar Wetland is facing severe problems of siltation from the adjoining nude and soft hills, which need immediate treatment and greening. The hills being prone to continuous and extensive erosion will lead to shrinkage of wetland area.

The outside interference with the resident and migratory birds, illegal fishing and poaching of wildlife may put many species in danger. This needs protection by way of fencing, etc.

Increasing industrialisation is posing a big problem to the ecological status of Ropar Wetland. Fertilizer plant at Nangal, Thermal Power Plant at Ropar, etc. are responsible for water quality degradation of this eco-system. Inflow of chemical

pollutants like agrochem-residues run off, industrial effluents and sewage from some towns in the upper reaches like Nangal, Naya Nangal, Anandpur Sahib, Kiratpur Sahib, etc. need to be immediately assessed and rectification initiated.

Invasion and growth of weeds like Parthenium and Lantana into the wetland zone is also a cause of concern.

It is, therefore, recommended that the conservation measures need to be initiated

without any delay since the measures at Ropar will not only restrict at this place but also will provide results downstream thus helping the improvement in the ecological character of Harike Wetland too.

Reference: Deptt. of Wildlife, Govt. of Punjab (1993); Dhillon, SS and Kaur H. (1996); Ladhar S.S. (1995); Ladhar S.S. and Handa, S.M. (1992); Punjab Pollution Control Board (PPCB) (2000); Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (1992); Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (PSCST) (1998); Punjab

State Council for Science & Technology (PSCST) (2000); Randhawa, A.S. (1990);

Sharma, BR (1987); Verma, et al. (1994); http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website).

HARIKE LAKE

Harike lake is situated (31° 13’ N, 75° 12’ E) in the Kapurthala, Ferozepur and Amritsar districts, Punjab. The lake is formed by damming of Beas-Sutlej watershed, is the biggest watershed of Punjab. The lake was created in 1953 by the construction

of a barrage at Harike. On account of heavy siltation due to denuded catchment area, the ponded area is gradually decreasing. The lake is heavily infested by water hyacinth. The total area of the lake is about 4100 ha.

Abiotic factors: North Indian monsoon climate, typical of the Punjab. The monsoon rains have been well below average in many recent years.

Macrophytes: Dense floating beds of Eichhornia crassipes cover approximately

70% of the lake, and the emergent vegetation is dominated by Typha sp. Various trees have been planted on the reservoir embankments.

Fishes: The main fish fauna in the lake is Hilsa.

Birds: The site is important for wintering and staging waterbirds, supporting over 200,000 Anatidae during the peak of migration. Species include


Anas acuta A. rapax

A. clypeata Aythya ferina

A. crecca A. fuligula

A. falcata A. marila

A. penelope A. nyroca


A. strepera Grus grus

Anser anser Netta rufina

A. indicus Oxyura leucocephala

Aquila clanga Tadorna ferruginea

A. heliaca

The area is also important for breeding birds, including Haliaeetus leucoryphus.

Mammals: The mammals include Felis chaus, Canis aureus and the threatened Lutra perspicillata.


Land use: The lake is used for water supply for drinking and irrigation

Conservation measure taken: The wetland has been identified as a site for

conservation under the Indian National Wetland Programme. The State Government has prepared a Management Action Plan for conservation of the wetland, and has been funded by the Central Government. This wetland was also declared a wildlife sanctuary by the State Government. The sanctuary area was enlarged in 1992 to 86 sq.

km. From 1980 – 1985, the Bombay Natural History Society carried out research and a bird-ringing programme.

Disturbance and threats: A major part of Harike Lake is infested by the water

hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to eradicate this rapidly spreading, introduced aquatic plant. The lake is also becoming contaminated with chemicals and insecticides used in the surrounding areas. Due to

deforestation in the catchment area, the lake is getting heavily silted and the pond area is gradually decreasing. Fishing continues throughout the year, both day and night, and causes some disturbance to wildlife. The use of gill nets has also caused waterbird mortality. A large crow (Corvidae) roost, attracted to the site by a nearby carcass

dump, may be adversely affecting numbers of other breeding birds

Socio-economic values: The entire lake is leased on an annual basis for commercial fishery operations.

Research and facilities: The Bombay Natural History Society is engaged in a detailed research and bird ringing programme at Harike Lake. A major ornithological field laboratory is being established, and large numbers of birds have already been

ringed (2,199 individuals of 73 species during the winter of 1981/82). The problems and prospects of Harike Lake were detailed in a seminar convened at the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, in 1983. Attempts are currently being made to monitor a variety of complex hydrobiological problems including the eradication of

Eichhornia.

Reference: http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website); WWF India (1993); Devare (2002).

JANUARI RESERVOIR

Januari reservoir is situated (31° 5’ N, 77° E) in the 27 km away from Hoshiarpur town, Punjab.Dholbaha dam is a irrigation and flood control project, constructed in the year 1986 on Dholbaha choe in Hoshiarpur district for irrigation and flood control

with the aid from World Bank under Kandi Watershed and Area Development Programme. The dam is located sownstream of confluence of Kukanet and Buhera khads. Dholbaha dam is an earth fill dam consisting of a central impervious core,

protected by previous shell zones on its upstream. A principle spillway consisting of 2 barrel of 200 x 2575 mm at an elevation 417.0 m, combined with an overflow auxiliary spillway with its creast fixed at elevation 424.0 m to cater for design flood of 16,000 cusecs have been provided. The Reservoir has a total catchment area of

56/14 km2 with a gross storage capacity of 1091 ha. The reservoir has a maximum

depth of 18.5 m. The total area of the dam is 18 ha. Dholbaha reservoir is mainly rainfed with a catchment area of 56.14 sq. km. The average annual precipitation is

reported to be 97.9 cm. The normal reservoir level is 417.0 m at FRL and the dead storage level is 405 m. The average water fluctuation in the reservoir is 6.33 m.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The water temperature varies from 13 to

30°C and pH values from 6.2 to 7.0.

Macrophytes: Ipomea



Tabellaria Eunotica

Mastoglioa Calonies

Fragilara Gyrosigma

Coconies Planktospharia

Naviculla Troschia

Melosira Rhizoclonium

Neidium Psdiastrum

Nitzshia Characium

Amphora Planktosphaeria

Gomphonema Cystodinium

Cymbella Nostoc

Synedra Oscillatora

Diatoma

Zooplankton: Actinosphaerium, Notholca, Daphina, Cyclops, Diaptomus, Nauplii.

Fishes: Cyprinus carpio, Labeo rohita, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cirrhinus

mrigala.


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation purpose

Socio-economic values: Observations on the fish spectrum of the reservoir showed

absence of natural fishery. The fish catch is totally composed of culturable fishes which are stocked by the Department of Fisheries, Punjab.

Reference: Kaushal and Sharma (2004).

KANJLI

The Kanjli wetland is located (31° 25’ N, 75° 22’ E) about 20 kms North-East of Harike. Kanjli wetland came into formation in 1870 with the construction of Head

Regulator near village Kanjli on the Kali Bein rivulet in Kapurthala district. It supports diversity of aquatic, mesophytic and terrestrial flora and fauna including some important species of plants and animals. It has a total water spread area of about

183 ha. It is a permanent stream converted into a small reservoir at Kanjli for the purpose of storage for irrigation supplies.

Abiotic factors: The average annual rainfall in the region is around 700 mm extending from July to mid October. The temperature ranges from an average minimum of 6ºC, occasionally dropping below the freezing point of water, in winter to a maximum of 45ºC in summer (Verma et al. 1994). Hence, water temperature and

water depth also vary according to season.

Trees: A total of 12 species of trees were recorded. These are follows;



Acacia arabica Mangifera indica

Albizzia lebbeck Melia azedarach Azadirachta indica Morus alba Dalbergia sissoo Prosopis juliflora

Eucalyptus hybrid Syzygium cumini

Ficus bengalensis Ziziphus mauritiana

Shrubs: Calotropis procera, Ipomoea crassicaulis and Tamarix dioca

Herbs: Saccharum munja, S. spontaneum, Scirpus sp. and and other common herbs.

Aquatic flora:


Chara sp. Potamogeton sp. Cyperus sp. Trapa sp. Eichhornia crassipes Typha angustata Hydrilla sp. T. elephantine

Nelumbo sp. Vallesnaria sp.

Nymphea sp.

Zooplankton: A total of 34 species were recorded. These are follows;


Protozoa Namatoda

Amoeba sp. Monochulus sp.

Centrophxis sp. Monochus sp.

Coleps hirtus Rhabdolaimus sp.

Difflugia sp. Ostracoda Vorticella sp. Cypris sp.

Rotifera Copepoda Anuroeposis sp. Chiromomus larvae

Brachionus sp. Cyclops sp.

Cephalodella sp. Mesocyclops

leuckartii

Epiphanes sp. Oligochaeta Filinia longiseta Chaetogaster sp.

Keratella valga Diaphanosoma sp.

Lecane sp. Diplogaster sp.

Lepadella sp. Cladocera

Monostyla sp. Alona sp.

Platyias sp. Bosmina sp.

Ploesoma sp. Ceriodaphnia sp.

Testudinella sp. Chydorus sp.

Trichotria sp. Pleuroxus sp.

Macrothrix sp.

Macro invertebrate species: A total of 15 species were recorded. These are follows;


Insecta Oligochaeta Baetis sp. Aelosoma

bengalensis

Chironomus

tendipediformis

Branchiura

sawerbytii

C. tentans Chaetogaser sp.

Hexagenia limbata Mollusca Hydropsyche sp. Indoplanorbis

exustus

Limnephilus sp. Lamellidan

marginalis

Palpomya sp. Lymnaea lutiola

Tanypus sp. Melanoides sp.

Fishes: About 15 fish species have been reported in the District Gazetteer. National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) (Handa, 1993) has reported 17 fish species as listed in table given below. The common fish species are Catla

catla, Channa marulius, C. striatus, Cirrhinus mrigala, Labeo calbasu, L. rohita.

List of fish species in Bein and Kanjli lake


Ambassis bacalus L. calabasu

Catla catla L. rohita

Channa maurulius Mystus seenghala

C. punctatus M. tengara

C. striatus Notopterus chitala

Clarius batrachus N. notopterus

Ctenopharyngodon

idella

Puntius sophori

Cyprinus carpio Wallago attu

Labeo bata

Reptiles: As reported in the District Gazetteer (Sharma, 1984), tortoise is commonly found in the area. Certain other reptiles have also been reported.

Birds: Kanjli Wetland supports a large number of resident and migratory birds. It attracts almost the same type of avifauna as that of Harike. It, infact, acts as an important refuelling base for long distant migratory birds. Some of the common

resident and migratory birds are listed below;

Common Resident Birds of Kanjli Wetland Area

(Based on Deptt. of Wildlife, GOP 1993; PSCST1999)

Crow Cormorant Red munia

Little cormorant Indian darter or snake bird Koel

Parakeets Shikra Sparrow vulture

Sparrow-hawk Blue rock Weaver bird

Pigeon Turtle dove Indian robbin

Ring dove Spotted dove Field king fisher

Peafowl Bush quail Black-winged kite

Indian button quail Common quail

Partridge Grey partridge

Common coot Purple moorhen

Lapwing

Common Migratory Birds of Kanjli Wetland Area

Various species of goose White eyed pochard

Wigeon Tufted pochard

Common teal Large whistling teal

Pintail Mallard

Shoveller

Mammals: The mammilion fauna includes Indian Civet, Mongoose, Indian porcupine squirrel and common Indian hare.

Land tenure: The stream itself and surrounding marsh, orchard and forest areas are

under provincial ownership. Areas surrounding the site are privately owned.

Land use: The main land use in the area is agriculture which predominates on the surrounding fertile plain.

Conservation measures taken: The Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India (MoEF, GOI) selected Harike Wetland and Kanjli Wetlands for conservation and management. Subsequently, a State Level Steering Committee was constituted in

1987 to identify the problems of the area and initiate remedial measures. This Committee designated the Environment Division of Punjab State Council for Science & Technology for coordinating and implementing the Wetland Projects. The

conservation and management measures so far taken at Kanjli Wetland with the assistance of MoEF, GOI are described as under:-

1. Survey, Mapping and Notification: A detailed survey of Kanjli Wetland has been carried out and draft map as well as draft notification have been prepared by the Town and Country Planning Department. Draft notification has been submitted to the MoEF, GOI for issuing notification of this wetland as it is important that the Kanjli Wetland be notified as protected area under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.

2. Weed Control: Water hyacinth is a major problem at Kanjli Wetlands and control of this weed needs to be taken up on priority basis. Excess of weed is seen to cover the entire water surface thus depriving the avian fauna of the very fact, which attracts

them to these wetlands – a plentiful water availability. Besides, excessive transpiration by the plant also leads to enhanced water losses. However, this plant is also recognized as a water purifier due to its ability to absorb heavy metals from the

water bodies. At the same time, its death and decay within the wetland can lead to re-entry of these chemicals in water further leading to eutrophication.

Excessive growth of water hyacinth in the West Bein and surrounding ponds thus

pose a major ecological problem. Since the chemical method of weed removal is not desirable, manual method of weed control has been adopted. The experience of manual removal of this weed has, however, shown that plants reappear after every 3 to 4 months. Hence, weed clearance is required about 3 times in a year. Physical

stoppage of this weed upstream of the main lake area has also not helped in bringing this weed under control. Efforts to gainfully utilise this weed for biogas generation also could not provide encouraging outcome. The weed control measures have been

carried out by the Irrigation Department and district administration. District Police has also helped for cleaning the lake of this weed at times. During 2000-2001, Army cleared some part of the lake. Now it is planned to use conveyor belt system as a mechanical way to clear this weed.

3. Afforestation: The wetlands of Punjab are perhaps not the perfect avian paradise though they attract large species of birds. There are perhaps not too many trees for birds to operate from. A good tree cover not only provides adequate space for nesting

and roosting and food for some bird species but it also acts as lungs of the ecosystem.

Further, it promotes understorey vegetation and helps in preventing siltation since roots of plants act as effective soil binders. Trees need to be grown not only around the ponded area but also on the small islands. Till date about 26 hec. area in Kanjli

Wetland has been afforested with mixed indigenous species by the Forest Department. Work needs to be continued for plantation in both wetland zone as well as catchment areas to increase the tree cover.

4. Fencing: The wetlands need to be protected from excessive grazing by cattle and encroachment by public for the preservation of important pockets providing habitat to wading birds. Encroachments need to be checked by the District Administration and

unauthorised occupations removed. Till date 10880 Ln.Ft. fence has been erected around the Kanjli Wetland area by the Deptt. of Forests & Wildlife. It may be pointed out that the purpose of this fencing is not only to protect young plants but also to demarcate habitat for wading birds.

5. Monitoring of Pollution: The external loading of nutrients is a decisive factor for determining the productivity of lake water. Overloading of lakes by nutrients can lead to eutrophication. For the restoration of wetland quality, preventive and curative steps

are required to be undertaken. Hence, monitoring of water quality is an important activity because polluted water from some towns and industries enters into the Kali Bein. Besides, non-point pollution of farm chemicals from the catchment areas is

another problem. The Punjab Pollution Control Board has already undertaken monitoring of water quality of Kanjli Wetland during 1991–92, 1992–93 and 1996–97 which shows that the water of this wetland generally conforms to class "B" as per designated best use. It however deteriorates to Class 'D' during December.

PPCB has recommended the following measures:

1) Intensive afforestation activity is required to prevent the seepage and runoffs from the nearby field. A rich tree cover besides, acting as lungs of the

ecosystem will provide adequate space for nesting of some birds species too.

2) Weed clearing, manually or by dredging, is frequently required.

3) Steps should be taken to prevent the people from making the lake a dumping site. i) proper level of water must be maintained in the reservoir to save the biotic life of the lake in acute summers. ii) Deforestation should be strictly prohibited (in catchment along the Kali Bein).

4) The villages along Kali Bein feeding Kanjli lake must not discharge their sullage into the Kali Bein.

5) The Village Panchayats may use Karnal Technology for use of sullage for

irrigation purposes.

6) The farmers be educated to use least amounts of fertilizers and pesticides and as far as possible switch over to bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides.

The extent of water hyacinth in the lake is an indicator that eutrophication has increased over the years especially due to use of farm chemicals in the nearby fields. What is needed now in view of recommendations of the Board is to

continue the detailed study of the cause and extent of pollution in the river water feeding the lakes and plugging the factors responsible for deterioration of water quality.

6. Public Awareness: The Council has been carrying out public awareness activity by

involving NGOs and other departments. Posters, pamphlets and other information material have been published and distributed and educational hoardings have been installed at site. Seminars and meetings are organised from time to time.

Conservation measures proposed: The values of wetlands in landscape and their benefits for human kind are increasingly recognized yet economic development continues to destroy or degrade wetland systems. It is accepted that wetlands are

functioning in a larger ecological entity. Their management and conservation programmes must, therefore, address to the entire system processes functioning in the landscape as a whole to ensure maintaining the sustainability. Various factors has to

be taken into account for both short and long term measures to prevent any further loss and improve their ecological character. A truly holistic approach needs to be implemented after optimising all the system qualities. Efforts to conserve Kanjli Wetland, which is one of national wetlands, have been continuing for the last few

years. It is, however, observed that intensive efforts need to be made to restore the ecological character of this wetland. PSCST, therefore, proposes to continue conservation measures at Kanjli Wetland in coordination with various executing

departments in the State. Details of all the activities are given below:

1. Afforestation: Tree cover in wetland area provides suitable microhabitats for diversity of fauna. Besides, the spawning of fish takes place preferably under the

shade of trees in aquatic ecosystem. However, the status of tree cover in wetland area is dwindling. Thus efforts are needed to balance the ecosystem by providing more greenery by way of planting diverse kinds of native trees like species of Acacia,

Terminalia, Syzygium, Salix, Pongamia, Morus, Azadirachta, Casuarina, Delonix,

etc. To extend the area under green cover around the Kanjli Wetland, the Deptt. of Forest and Wildlife, Punjab plans to take up plantation in another 10 hecatare area during next five years at a cost of Rs. 7.00 lac.

2. Wildlife Conservation: Wetlands are the important repositories of the diversity of wild genetic resource extremely important from long-term ecological point of view. But as the wetlands are shrinking the biological resource are also under stress. The

wildlife at Kanjli Wetland is also suffering loss due to one reason or the other. To conserve wildlife resource the Wildlife Deptt., Punjab proposes to take up conservation measures like protection of the area by repairing damaged fence already erected around the wetland and by erecting barriers. Besides, the Deptt. plans to put

up some wooden nests to facilitate the multiplication of birds. To avoid disturbance to the wildlife it is also planned to put up wooden hideouts for the explorers of nature/wetland. These activities shall require an assistance to the tune of Rs. 6.35 lac.

Recent experiments in some western countries shows that landing of some important birds in wetlands also depends upon the clues and signatures supporting the occurrence of some related birds in that habitat. Since the birds are important ecological components of any ecosystem the results of such experiments may help in

artificially encouraging the landing of birds. Punjab State Council for Science & Technology, therefore, proposes to install suitable number of plastic birds initially at Ropar and Kanjli Wetland marshes. For this purpose Rs. 1,00,000/- will be required.

3. Control and Management of Water Hyacinth: Kanjli Wetland is infested with the worlds worst weed i.e. water hyacinth. So far the manual operations have been adopted to bring this weed under control. However, the lake get reinfested with this

weed within no time. To safeguard the ecological character of this ecosystem it is planned to take up integrated measures of both physical removal by using conveyor

belt mechanical system and control through biological means. The aim of this activity is to establish sustainable long term capacity for maintaining control of water hyacinth. The control programme would rely on manual method for rapid short term

control in restricted areas, and biological agents for long term control. The biological control programme would initially rely on release of two weevil species that have been found effective world wide and have already been imported, reared and released

in Harike Ecosystem. These species of weevils are Neochetina bruchi and N.

eichorniae which are complimentary in their action. The possibility would also be explored for supplementing the weevils later by releases of moth Sameodes

albiguittalis if found appropriate. At present no funding estimates are indicated under

this project separately as the Comprehensive Proposal for control of water hyacinth from catchment drains of Harike Wetland have already been included under Harike Wetland project. However, to take up physical removal of weed from Kanjli

ecosystem area an amount of Rs. 9.50 lacs shall be required for five years.

4. Water Quality Monitoring: Punjab Pollution Control Board has studied the water and sludge quality of Kanjli Wetland area and has reported that water of this late

generally conforms to Class 'B'. But the quality degrades even to Class 'D' sometimes. Recommendation of the studies have been included in previous pages. One of the important recommendations is to keep vigil on the level of pollution for which the regular monitoring of the lake water must be continued. This shall help to elucidate

the nature and dynamics of the lake ecosystem on long term basis. PPCB proposes to continue the water quality monitoring programme during the next five years for which an estimated amount of Rs. 16.00 lacs shall be required.

5. Conservation of Fisheries: The importance of wetlands has also been linked to the productivity of fish species. Besides, the diversity of fish available in particular ecosystem determines the ecological status and functional values of that particular

ecosystem. While the reports shows that their are 17 species of fish existing in the lake water of Kanjli but the degrading water quality may exterminate most or even all of these species in the times to come if curative measures are not initiated. Therefore, a programme aiming at restoring and sustaining the survival of all the species

available in this lake has been planned. The programme would address the continuing pressure by introducing more fish species in the lake but would do so by avoiding the unforeseen effects of exotic introductions. With this view the Deptt. of Fisheries

would take up necessary steps at Kanjli Wetland for which estimated amount of Rs. 24.95 lacs shall be required.

6. Research Studies: This programme aims to provide information on the ecology of

the lake and its catchment, the biology of its flora and fauna, the impact of environmental factors on the lake system and socio-economic implications of the use of lakes resource. Research programmes oriented in this direction shall contribute towards improved ecological efficiency, greater biodiversity, and ecological balance

in the lake system. To analyse the biotic components, foodchain sequence in our wetlands and potential threats to these places and their components, and to make long-term conservation strategies, the research studies on aquatic ecosystems of Punjab are

being promoted by the State Science & Technology Department. Certain future programmes for wetland conservation will definitely depend upon the research database. Studies on biodiversity of this wetland and limnological parameters besides

habitat characteristics and economic valuation of Kanjli Wetland resource are priority areas of research as are described hereunder:-

a) Hydrology and productivity: Detailed studies need to be carried out to study the impact of this wetland on hydrogeology of the area. Economic productivity linked with this issue needs to be evaluated and projected.

b) Fisheries and sustainable use of wild life Population: Due to heavy pressure on the wetland areas on account of various factors like encroachment for agriculture, pollution, etc. the impact on faunal populations is catastrophic. It is clear that

unless solid argument based on hard scientific data is presented for maintenance of these sites, this effort is likely to continue. Hence the need of investigation in this area. The fisheries research programme would have five sub-programmes:

Studies of fish biology and biodiversity conservation, aquaculture, socio-economics, database establishment and fish stock assessment.

c) Traditional human use: Wetland conservation practices can be successful only if

its social impact is conducive to its use by the people inhabitating around that ecosystem. It is, therefore, important that social impact analysis of developmental versus conservation projects be carried out alongwith environmental impact analysis of various human activities initiated in the wetland area.

d) Flora and Fauna: Detailed taxonomic studies of plant and animal species of this wetland need to be carried out. This will also help to identify the endemic species, if any, of this region which will invite particular attention for

conservation.

A corpus amount of Rs. 10.00 lac for five years will be required for conducting these studies. The research projects can be initiated depending upon the

availability of funds.

7. Economic Valuation of Wetland Resource: Wetlands are as yet least understood or even misunderstood ecosystems from the productivity values and functional points

of view in the State. These are being quickly reclaimed under the name of reformation. Both manmade and natural wetland places in Punjab are under severe threats. Although Harike Wetland has been listed as one of the six Indian Ramsar sites of international significance and Kanjli and Ropar Wetlands are of national

significance and PSCST has also recognized five more wetlands of state importance, still environmental deterioration of wetlands is on the peak. This has been despite all concerted efforts of the state and union government for their conservation and

management to ensure their sustainability so that the Society can derive wide-range benefits from them. Since the environment is simply incomplete without wetlands which provide livelihood on diverse counts, it is extremely essential to understand the role of wetlands in general and each of its components in particular, their ecological

functions and values not wetlands as units but in respect of their contributions to agriculture, forestry, recreation, etc. for effective integration of such understanding into the overall planning process.

A three-stage wetland valuation approach may be generally applied to completely understand the exact role and values of any wetland. These three steps for evaluation of wetland resource and sustainable development may be described as 'General,

Ecological and Economic Analysis', 'Detailed Parameter Analysis' and 'Specialised Issue Analysis' of each wetland ecosystem. Functional values of wetland ecosystems shall involve assessment of 'Life Support Functions' with respect to their critical/vital position and status, 'Social/cultural functions' with respect to recreational, asthetic

heritage, educational values, etc., productivity functions with respect to subsistence

and commercial outputs and other functions like future roles/values in long range aspects.

Various management aspects shall directly be related to the wetland values/functions and the anthropogenic threats to such ecosystems. So a comprehensive analysis of the systems and environmental impacts is required to be undertaken for planning suitable measures including involvement of general public.

Under General Analysis, the following aspects will be covered:

• Biological components with respect to importance of wetland wildlife including waterfowl, plant species rarity/scarcity, etc. and its rating.

• Hydrological components including water status, erosion and its control, flood impact, etc.

• Productivity potential with respect to direct value products.

• Social aspects like local or state heritage.

• Overall rating of wetland significance.

Under Detailed Parameter Analysis, each of the life support, socio cultural and

production values will further be critically fractionated and evaluated in terms of their exact values and potential with respect to future needs of the system. Different steps adopted by international organisations will be adopted and followed for this purpose.

As regards specialised analysis, specific working matrices will be followed as recommended by North Americal Wetland Conservation Council to evaluate use and non-use values, option values, existence values, etc.

For undertaking the economic valuation of resource of Kanjli and Ropar Wetlands and five State level wetlands of Punjab, intensive studies shall be conducted for which an estimated expenditure of Rs. 15.00 lac shall be required

8. Public awareness: Conservation and Management of wetland ecosystem can best be ensured if the public participates in these programes. It is possible if the public is aware about the importance of such eco-systems. Awareness can be created through

mass-media, educational material, camps, etc. Voluntary Organizations can play an important role in translating scientific ideas to public opinion. The informed general public can then become a potent force in developing sound wetland management policies. The public awareness activities would require funds amounting to Rs. 13.75

lac during next five years.

Scientific research and facilities: There are three Universities in the State mainly Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana Punjabi University, Patiala and Guru Nanak

Dev University, Amritsar, where necessary scientific infrastructural facilities are available for undertaking studies on this wetlands. Sludge and Water Quality Monitoring has been done during the year 1991–92, 1992–93 and 1996–97. A project

on Management and Control of Aquatic Weed in Kanjli Wetland was taken up by NEERI, Nagpur 1993.

Disturbance and threats: Excessive growth of water hyacinth poses a major problem for the site. Some other weeds such as Parthenium are also considered problematic. Other threats are reduced inflow of water, increasing pollution levels, deforestation in the catchment area, and excessive grazing and soil erosion.

Socio-economic values: Kali Bein is a permanent rivulet. It acts both as a ground

water discharging and recharging rivulet. Excess water during rainy seasons from the adjoining agricultural crops get discharged into the Kali Bein. It also serves as an important source of water for agriculture. At the same time it also help in flood

management. Since the ground water table in adjoining areas is stable as compared to rest of the State, the Bein is playing a vital role in hydrology.

The Kanjli Lake is an important water sponge performing the functions of recharging

ground water. The ground water is in fact fast receding in some districts of Punjab but the observations around this wetland shows that it is playing a tremendous role in enriching the ground water thereby helping the nearby population, which is dependent

on ground water for irrigation, industries and drinking supplies, for easy abstraction of water.

Pressure on underground water is also somewhat relieved as a number of farmers do

direct abstraction of water from the Kali Bein as it is economical to some extent.

This wetland is in fact very important source of water in the Kapurthala district as such. The Kali Bein which passes almost mid-way through district has much more rewarding potential than ever estimated. Throughout its length, the Kali Bein is

recharging the ground water and also it acts as a discharging drain by taking away excessive rainwater from sensitive crops like wheat, potato, etc.

Importance: Kanjli Wetland is an extremely important ecosystem in the region. It

support a diverse kinds of food chains and food webs, help in water recharging and discharging, improve water quality, reduce flooding, etc. It is an important component of socio-religious aspects of the society.

Various species of important plants like Phragmites, Ipomoea, Potemogetom,

Vallisneria, Utricularia and variety of tree species improve the habitat. Good number of birds, fishes, Zooplanktons and Benthic Invertebrates have been reported in the

area. However, no endemic species have been reported in the area.

Management authority: Principal Secretary, Department of Science, Technology & Environment, Government of Punjab and Executive Director, Punjab State Council

for Science & Technology.

Past and present status: The general problems associated with Kanjli wetland are excessive weed growth (mainly, water hyacinth), reducing inflow of water, increasing pollution levels, deforestation in catchment areas, excessive grazing and soil erosion,

etc (PSCST 1992, PSCST 1998, PSCST 2000).

Reference: Deptt. of Wildlife, Govt. of Punjab 1993; Hand, B.K. (1993); Ladhar S.S. (1995); Punjab Pollution Control Board, (1993); Punjab State Council for Science &

Technology (1992); Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (1998); Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (2000); Sharma, B.R. (1984); Verma, et al. (1994); http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website); Kler (2002).

DHOLBAHA RESERVOIR

Dholbaha reservoir is situated (31° 5’ N, 77° E) in the 30 km away from Hoshiarpur town, Punjab. Dholbaha dam is a irrigation and flood control project, constructed in

the year 1986 on Dholbaha choe in Hoshiarpur district for irrigation and flood control with the aid from World Bank under Kandi Watershed and Area Development Programme. The dam is located downstream of confluence of Kukanet and Buhera

khads. Dholbaha dam is an earth fill dam consisting of a central impervious core,

protected by previous shell zones on its upstream. A principle spillway consisting of 2 barrel of 200 x 2575 mm at an elevation 417.0 m, combined with an overflow auxiliary spillway with its creast fixed at elevation 424.0 m to cater for design flood

of 16,000 cusecs have been provided. The Reservoir has a total catchment area of 56/14 km2 with a gross storage capacity of 1091 ha m. The reservoir has a maximum depth of 18.5 m. The total area of the dam is 57 ha. Dholbaha reservoir is mainly

rainfed with a catchment area of 56.14 sq. km. The average annual precipitation is reported to be 97.9 cm. The normal reservoir level is 417.0 m at FRL and the dead storage level is 405 m. The average water fluctuation is 6.33 m.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The water temperature varies from 13 to 30°C and pH values from 6.2 to 7.0.

Macrophytes: Ipomea



Amphora Melosira

Calonies Naviculla

Characium Neidium

Coconies Nitzshia

Cymbella Nostoc

Cystodinium Oscillatora

Diatoma Planktosphaeria

Eunotica Psdiastrum

Fragilara Synedra

Gomphonema Tabellaria

Gyrosigma Troschia

Rhizoclonium

Mastoglioa

Zooplankton: Actinosphaerium, Notholca, Daphina, Cyclops, Diaptomus, Nauplii.

Fishes: Cyprinus carpio, Labeo rohita, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cirrhinus mrigala.




Socio-economic values: Observations on the fish spectrum of the reservoir showed absence of natural fishery. The fish catch is totally composed of culturable fishes which are stocked by the Department of Fisheries, Punjab.

Reference: Kaushal and Sharma (2004).

SAMBHAR LAKE

Sambhar Lake (27° 00’ N, 75° 00’ E) is the largest saline wetlands of Rajasthan. The

lake receives run-off from a catchment area of about 552,000 ha and has no outlet. Sambhar is fed by four main streams: Roopnagar, Mendha, Kharian, and Khandel. Phulera (4 km south of Sambhar) and Didwana (60 km to the northwest) are considerably smaller. It is a shallow wetland, the depth if which ranges between 0.5

and 2.0 metres. Sarnbhar is surrounded by low hills and fossil dunes, with Sambhar town being located on one such dune. About 7800 ha of the eastern part of Sambhar Lake, north and west of Sambhar town, is devoted to salt production by Sambhar Salts

Ltd, a Government of India company. About 200,000–250,000 metric tonnes of salt are produced annually. Sambhar Lake is skirted by the main Jaipur–Jodhpur railway. A 5.16 km long dam (Gudha Jhapog Dam), supporting a railway line used by the salt

company, has been constructed through the lake, dividing it into two sections: the reservoir and salt-works, and the main lake. The area of flooding at each of the saline lakes depends upon the volume of monsoon rains, and the depth varies seasonally and from year to year from a few centimetres to a maximum of two metres. Sambhar Lake

often dries out completely in early summer (March to June). Following the heavy monsoon rains of 1974, 1975, 1977, and 1980, the Lake retained water throughout the year, but in 1987, following four years of drought, it was completely dry by

December.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about 500 mm. Summer temperatures range from 24.4°C to 36.7°C, winter temperatures from 11.7°C to 31.7°C.

Macrophytes: The vegetation present in the catchment area is mostly xerophytic type. Shoreline vegetation includes the halophytes Suaeda fruticosa, Salsola

baryosma and Cressa cretica. The most dominant algae in Sambhar Lake and the salt

pans are Dunaliella salina, Chlamydomonas sp., Anabaena sp., and Aphanothece

halophytica. Most of the permanent vegetation around the Lake is xerophytic in nature. The main tree species growing in the catchment are Acacia senegal (kumbhet),

A.nilotica (babul), Salvadora oleoides, Capparis decidua, Prosopis cineraria,


Maytenus emarginata, Azadirachta indica, Tecomella undulata, etc. Prosopis

cinererea (Khejari) is the dominant tree in the sandy area. Anogeissus pendula,

Euphorbia royleana, and Boswellia serrata are found growing on the nearby hills.

The main shrub species are Tamarix dioica, Mimosa hamata, Acacia jacquemontii,

Leptadenia pyrotechnica, and Calotropis procera. Other vegetation includes Saccharum bengalensis, S.spontaneum, Sericostema pauciflora, Crotolaria burhia,

Tephrosia purpurea, Aerva persica, Tephrosia spp., and Portulaca oleracea. The main grasses are Cenchrus pennisetiformis, C.ciliaris, Chloris dolichostachya,

Dactyloctenium aegyptium. Sporobolus sp., Aleuropus lagopoides, and Chloris

virgata. The common ephemerals, which make their appearance after the first

showers, are Farsetia hamiltonii, lndigofera cordifolia, Corchorus trilocularis,

Portulaca oleracea, Trianthema portulacastrum, etc.

Special floral values: The green alga Dunaliella salina is an ecologically and

economically interesting saline species.

Birds: The site is important for wintering waterbirds, including Pelecanus

onocrotalus, P. philippensis (1,000 Pelecanus spp.), Phoenicopterus ruber, P. minor

(500,000 Phoenicopterus spp.), Anser indicus (max. 170), Anas clypeata and Recurvirostra avosetta. A large number of ducks and shorebirds occur on passage and in winter. Thirteen species of ducks and 32 species of shorebirds have been recorded.

A mixed flock (totalling approximately 15,000) of the following avifauna were observed at Sambhar Lake in January 1993: lesser flamingo, greater flamingo, tufted duck, pochard, white pelican, brown-headed gull, black-headed gull, herring gull, redshank, greenshank, common sandpiper, blackwinged stilt, pintail, shoveler,

dabchick, purple moorhen, demoiselle crane, large Indian pratincole, and avocet. In addition, an estimated 4000 Phoenicopterus ruber and P.minor were observed at the reservoir adjoining the salt pans of Sambhar Lake.

Land tenure: The site is State owned, but part is leased to the Salt Department of the Government of India.

Land use: Extraction of salt is the only major activity. Domestic livestock graze in

the areas, and marble is mined in the nearby hills. About 20 villages are located around Sambhar lake. Extraction of salt from brine by private individuals is undertaken and some cultivation too.

Conservation measures taken: Hunting is prohibited, and there is a proposal to designate the area as a Bird Sanctuary. The wetland has been identified as one of the sites for conservation action under the Indian Wetland Conservation Programme, and a detailed management plan is in preparation. Sambhar Lake was declared a Ramsar

Site in 1990. No habitat protection, but shooting is prohibited. The wetland has been accorded international importance by its designation as a Ramsar Site in 23.03.1990.

Disturbance and threats: Increasing siltation of the lake has resulted from

desertification of the surrounding land, caused mainly through over-grazing by domestic livestock. Domestic sewage is discharged into the site from the town of Sambhar.

Socioeconomic values: An area of about 7,800 ha in the eastern part of the lake is used for salt production, and is one of the largest of such areas in India.

Importance: Sambhar Lake is famous for harbouring flamingos in large numbers,

next only to Rann of Kutch in the country. The waders congregate here in appreciable numbers besides migratory ducks; especially pochards, coots and other aquatic birds.

The terrestrial fauna confined to the catchment area includes rare/threatened species like Uromastix, saw-scaled viper, desert cat, desert fox, etc.

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Alam (1982); Ali and Ripley (1968); de Block (1981); WWF INDIA (1987); Gole (1984b); Karpowicz (1985); Om Prakash Dayama (1988); Sharma (1988); Ramsar website.

PHULERA, AND DIDWANA SALT LAKES

Phulera (27° 12’ N, 74° 34’ E) and Didwana (26° 52’ N, 75° 11’ E) situated approximately 60 km northwest of Jaipur, Rajasthan. The lakes receives run-off from

a catchment area of about 552,000 ha and has no outlet. A number of small, shallow, brackish water marshes are scattered around these saline lakes. Approximately 20% of Didwana Lake is given over to salt pans. The area of flooding at each of the saline lakes depends upon the volume of monsoon rains, and the depth varies seasonally and

from year to year from a few centimetres to a maximum of two metres. The total area of the Phulera lake is 600 ha. and Didwana lake is 200 ha. Intense evaporation creates an extremely saline environment. The two lakes are surrounded by sandflats

and dry thorn scrub.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about 500 mm. Summer temperatures range from 24.4°C to 36.7°C, winter temperatures

from 11.7°C to 31.7°C.

Macrophytes: Most of the permanent vegetation around the Lake is xerophytic in nature. The main tree species growing in the catchment are Acacia senegal (kumbhet), A. nilotica (babul), Salvadora oleoides, Capparis decidua, Prosopis cineraria,

Maytenus emarginata, Azadirachta indica, Tecomella undulata, etc. Prosopis

cinererea (Khejari) is the dominant tree in the sandy area. Anogeissus pendula,

Euphorbia royleana, and Boswellia serrata are found growing on the nearby hills.

The main shrub species are Tamarix dioica, Mimosa hamata, Acacia jacquemontii,

Leptadenia pyrotechnica, and Calotropis procera. Other vegetation includes Saccharum bengalensis, S.spontaneum, Sericostema pauciflora, Crotolaria burhia,

Tephrosia purpurea, Aerva persica, Tephrosia spp., and Portulaca oleracea. The main grasses are Cenchrus pennisetiformis, C. ciliaris, Chloris dolichostachya,

Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Sporobolus sp., Aleuropus lagopoides, and Chloris

virgata. The common ephemerals, which make their appearance after the first

showers, are Farsetia hamiltonii, lndigofera cordifolia, Corchorus trilocularis,

Portulaca oleracea, Trianthema portulacastrum, etc.

Special floral values: The green alga Dunaliella salina is an ecologically and

economically interesting saline species.

Birds: A large number of ducks and shorebirds occur on passage and in winter. Thirteen species of ducks and 32 species of shorebirds have been recorded, the lakes

being particularly important for Anas clypeata and Recurvirostra avosetta. Anser

indicus is regularly present in winter in small flocks of up to 170 birds, and up to 150 A. anser have been observed at Phulera and Didwana.

Phulera Salt Lake is the wintering area for a variety of waterfowl, prominent among them (as recorded in January 1993) being Anser anser (15), Ciconia nigra (37), and several ducks and waders such as Tringa totanus (12). The species identified at Mudia talab adjoining Phulera Lake in January 1993 were coot, pintail, pochard, gadwall,

common teal, dabchick, redshank, and brahminy duck.

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding areas are partly state-owned and partly privately owned.

Land use: Extraction of salt from brine by private individuals is undertaken and some cultivation too.

Conservation measures taken: No habitat protection, but shooting is prohibited.

Disturbances and threats: Grazing pressure by cattle, sheep, goats, and camels in the catchment appears to be intense. Hunting of waterfowl by local communities is reported.

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Alam (1982); Ali and Ripley (1968); de Block (1981); WWF India (1987; 1993); Gole (1984b); Karpowicz (1985); Om Prakash Dayama (1988); Sharma (1988); Sangha (2002).

JAISAMAND LAKE

Jaisamand is the oldest man-made lake, situated on Lat. 24° 14’ N and Long. 73° 57’ E, in the 54 km southeast of Udaipur, Rajasthan. The lake was constructed about 250

years ago. The catchment area is about 1127 sq.km, almost all of which extends towards northwest and northeast. Its source of water is from five rivers, the principal being river Gomati and others are small and seasonal. The maximum length and breadth of the lake are 13.68 and 8.05 km respectively. Shore-line length is 89.4 km

whereas shoreline development index (DL) is 3.75. The total area of the lake is 7160 ha. The greatest depth point (32 m) is neat the centre of lake and the average depth is 15 m. The lake surroundings receive an average annual rainfall of 62.67 cm with a

maximum precipitation during southwest monsoon i.e. June to September.


Fishes: A total of 22 species were recorded. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Catla catla 12 L. qonius

JAISAMAND LAKE

•


2 Channa marulius 13 L. rohita 3 C. punctatus 14 Mastacembelus armatus

4 C. striatus 15 Mystus aor

5 Cirrhina mrigala 16 M. cavasius 6 C. reba 17 M. seenghala 7 Heteropneustes fossilis 18 Notopterus notopterus

8 Labeo bata 19 Ompok pabda

9 L. boqut 20 Puntius sarana 10 L. calbasu 21 Tor tor 11 L. fimbriatus 22 Wallago attu

Reptiles: The marsh crocodile or mugger (Crocodyluspalustris) is present.

Birds: The lake is possibly of considerable importance for migratory waterfowl and the greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) is known to occur. Gole recorded small numbers of herons, ducks, gulls, and terns in January /February 1984, but no other details are available.

Land tenure: At least partly State-owned

Land use: The lake provides irrigation water to neighbouring agricultural land and supports an important fishery

Conservation measures taken: Part of the water catchment area and at least one shore of the lake are included in the Jaisamand Wildlife Sanctuary (7000 ha), established in 1957 and administered by the Forest Department of the Government of

Rajasthan. The lake has been stocked with fish.

Disturbances and threats: The amount of fishing might exceed the capacity of the lake, but regular restocking obscures the actual situation.

Socio-economic values: An important fishery; the lake is regularly stocked with large species of carp such as catla, rohu and mrigal. The fishing rights are leased out to a contractor for over 50,000 rupees per annum.

Research and facilities: Limnological studies have been undertaken in the past.

Reference: Gole (1984b); Luther and Rzoska (1971); Sambasiva Rao and Durve (1989); WWF India (1993); Sharma and Sarang (2004).

KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK

Keoladeo National Park situated (27° 07’–27° 12’ N, 77° 29’–77° 33’ E) in eastern Rajasthan, the park is 2 km south-east of Bharatpur and 50 km west of Agra. The site

comprises a freshwater swamp which is part of the Indogangetic Great Plains. For much of the year, however, the wetland area is only some 1,000 ha. The area is flooded in the monsoon (July–September) to an average depth of 1–2 m. From

October to January the water level gradually falls, and from February the land begins to dry out. By June only some water remains. The environment is partly man-made with dykes dividing the area into 10 units, each with a system of sluice gates to

control water level. It is unlikely that the site would support such numbers of waterfowl as it does without the addition of water from Ajan Bund, a man-made impoundment. Soils are predominantly alluvial - some clay has formed as a result of the periodic inundations.

Keoladeo Ghana, or Bharatpur as it is often known, is the most famous wetland in India. It is situated in a shallow, natural depression at the western edge of the Gangetic plain, some 50 km west of the Yamuna river. The well documented avian

diversity of Bharatpur, which has in fact been artificially induced, began in the 1850s when the Maharajah of Bharatpur and his state engineers created at least ten extensive, but only seasonally inundated, lagoons divided by a system of earthen

dykes (bunds). Sluice gates in the bunds facilitated control of the water level in each compartment, attracting various species of waterfowl, especially ducks, which were periodically shot in vast numbers during the winter season. The water is obtained largely from the Ajan bund. A canal flows through the park, and up to 14 million

cubic metres of water are taken annually from the irrigation reservoir located a kilometre outside the park. In years of inadequate rainfall, the inundated area of the park has seldom exceeded 850 ha, and the water in the lagoon has rarely achieved the

maximum depth of two metres. During the 1980s particularly, the existence of flooded areas became increasingly dependent upon pumped water, since natural inflow from the monsoon rains was far short of requirements. In a year of sufficient

rains, the lagoons flood during the monsoon to average depths of between one and two metres. After October, the level in each lagoon begins to fall; by February, the lagoons start to dry out, and in June little water remains. The soils at Keoladeo are predominantly alluvial, over-lying kanker pan and some clay formations resulting

from the periodic inundation. Situated in one of the most densely populated regions of India, the park is surrounded by 17 villages, and the city of Bharatpur (population 50,000) is only two kilometres to the north-west. A metalled road, which is now

closed to traffic, passes directly through the Park. Collateral roads along the bunds branch off this main artery and facilitate observation of the lagoons, which vary in size from a few tens of hectares to well over 100 ha. Keoladeo is well-wooded and supports several groves of mature trees, in contrast to the surrounding areas which are

now intensively cultivated. In several of the compartments, there are many artificial islands which have been planted with trees to encourage colonial nesting waterbirds.


Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varied from 17.3 to 32.6°C in atmosphere and 15.6 to 28.7°C in water. The pH values range from 6.6 to 7.3.

Macrophytes: The aquatic vegetation is rich and provides a valuable food source for waterfowl. Species include water lilies Nymphea nouchatia, N. stellata and N.

cristata, the true lotus Nilumbium sp., duckweeds Lemna sp. water fern Azolla sp.,

Vallisneria sp., Hydrilla sp., Naga sp., Chara sp., Ipoma sp., sedges Cyperus sp. and lesser reedmace Typha angustata. There is also wild rice. Other vegetation is characteristic of a semi arid zone dominated by babul Acacia nilotica, ber Zizyphus

mauritiana, khejri Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oleoides, S. persica and Capparis aphylla.

Protozoans: A total of 117 species of protozoans belonging to 78 genera have been

identified by Mahajan, Arora et al. (1982). Most species were seriously affected by the drought of 1979.

Molluscs: Various molluscs have been recorded, notably species of Lymnaea and Gryllus.

Fishes: A total of 43 species of fish has been recorded, including Puntius sophore,

Cirrhinus reba, Heteropneustes fossilis, Channa punctatus, C. striatus, and Colisa

fasciatus. An estimated 65 million fish fry entered the Park in 1985.

Reptiles: Reptiles known to occur include the cobra (Naja naja), Python molurus

(120), Bungurus fasciatus, and Zaocys nigromarginatus, monitor lizard (Varanus sp.) and seven species of freshwater turtle of which two species, namely, the spotted black

terrapin and peacock soft shell are additions to the Rajasthan fauna.

Birds: At least 332 species of birds have been recorded in the Park. In years with an adequate monsoon, many thousands of large waterbirds settle down to breed on the

wooded islets in July, and tens of thousands of migratory waterfowl arrive in October and November to spend the winter in the Park. Keoladeo is particularly famous for its wintering flock of Siberian white cranes (Grusleucogeranus). This flock has,

however, decreased by more than 50% during the past 15 years.

According to the BNHS study report, changes in the habitat of the Park, for instance, non-availability of water and thick overgrowth of grass in the feeding habitat, are reasons for the decline in the number of Siberian cranes which generally arrive by the

beginning of December and depart by early March. In recent years they have been less predictable, no doubt partly because of the deteriorating conditions in the Park. Perhaps more significantly from an Indian perspective, the population of Sarus cranes

(Grus antigone) breeding at Keoladeo is steadily declining; almost 20 pairs are thought to have bred in 1980, but in 1984, only 11 pairs could be located in the same area. However, in late April 1984, 657 Sarus cranes were counted in the Bharatpur

areas, as compared with only 258 at the same time of year in 1983. But in 1992, the numbers declined drastically to 40. Both Pelecanus philippensis and P. crispus occur in small numbers when water levels are suitable, and P.onocrotalus is frequently recorded in large numbers. P. philippensis has bred, and Ephippirohynchus asiaticus

does so annually, with maximum of seven pairs.

Peak counts in recent years have included hundreds of Phalacrocorax carbo, P. fuscicollis, and P. niger and the following; 100 Anhinga melanogaster, 100

Nycticorax nycticorax, 150 Ardeola grayii, hundreds of Egretta garzetta, 100 E. intermedia, 240 E. alba, 45 Ardea purpurea, 120 A. cinerea, 20 Anastomus oscitans,

hundreds of Mycteria leucocephala, 35 Ciconia episcopus, 16 Ephippiorhynchus

asiaticus, 50 Threskiornis melanocephalus, 300 Platalea leucorodia, 250 Anser

anser, 400 A. indicus, 150 Tadorna ferruginea, 30 Sarkidiornis melanotos, 80

Nettapus coromandelianus and 5000-10,000 other ducks, mainly Anas penelope, A.

strepera, A. crecca, A. acuta, and A. clypeata with smaller numbers of Anas

poecilorhyncha, A. querquedula, Netta rufina, and Aythya ferina; Anas falcata is an

occasional winter visitor in very small numbers. Other common waterfowl in winter include Tachybaptus ruficollis, Porphyrio porphyrio, Fulica atra (often several thousands), Hydrophasianus chirurgus, and Metopidius indicus.

A survey of breeding waterfowl in 1984 recorded the following numbers of nests:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Amaurornis phoenicurus 64 11 Mycteria leucocephala 1749

2 Anas poecilorhyncha 10 12 Nettapus coromandelianus 5

3 Anastomus oscitans 5181 13 Nycticorax nycticorax 76 4 Anhinga melanogaster 225 14 Phalacrocorax carbo 97

5 Ardea cinerea 32 15 P. fuscicollis 1554 6 A. purpurea 14 16 P. niger 569 7 Dendrocygna javanica 5 17 Platalea leucorodia 282

8 Egretta alba 70 18 Porphyrio porphyrio 24

9 E. garzetta 390 19 Threskiornis

melanocephalus 389

10 E. intermedia 410

Among the shorebirds, Charadrius alexandrinus, Limosa limosa, Tringa stagnatilis,

T. glareola, Gallinago gallinago, Calidris temminckii, and Philomachus pugnax are

particularly common. Rostratula benghalensis, Vanellus leucurus, and V. cinereus

occur in significant numbers, the last two as winter visitors, and the rare V. gregarius

has also been recorded as a winter visitor. Keoladeo is famous for a number of birds of prey, particularly during the winter months. Haliaeetus leucoryphus breeds,

frequently nesting close to the administrative centre; Aquila clanga, A. rapax,

A.heliaca, and A. nipalensis are fairly common. Falco peregrinus, Pandion haliaetus,

Circaetus gallius, Spilornis cheela and Circus aeruginosus are regularly observed.

The Park is also host to a diversity of owl species; several breeding pairs of Bubo

coromandus are particularly noteworthy.

An avifauna survey in 1992 recorded the following:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Anas acuta (3226) 12 A. fuligula (34)

2 A. clypeata (187) 13 A. nyroca (51)

3 A. crecca (1284) 14 Dendrocygna javanica (332) 4 A. penelope (822) 15 Fulica atra (4372) 5 A. platyrhynchos (11) 16 Grus antigone (40 in

February 1992, and 79 in April 1992)

6 A. poecilorhyncha (112) 17 Grus grus (230) 7 A. querquedula (226) 18 Netta rufina (15)

8 A. strepera (669) 19 Nettapus coromandelianus

(9)

9 Anser anser (69) 20 Sarkidiornis melanotos (5) 10 A. indicus (1553) 21 Tachybaptus ruficollis (92)

11 Aythya ferina (268) 22 Tadorna ferruginea (52)

Mammals: A wide variety of mammals occur, though given the limited area of the

park and the inhospitability of the surrounding densely settled countryside, No information of the species occurs in particularly large numbers. Ungulates include blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chital (Axis axis), sambar (Cervus unicolor), hog

deer (C. porcinus), and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus). Indian wild boar (Sus

scrofa) and Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica) are frequently observed. Cats include jungle cat (Felis chaus), leopard cat (F. benghalensis) and the marsh-dwelling fishing cat (F. viverrina). A lone leopard was sighted for a few months (1987–88) during the

BNHS study. The smooth-coated otter (Lutra perspicillata) is often seen in the lagoons: The common mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) and common Indian mongoose (H. auropunctatus) are present in large numbers, as is the hare (Lepus

nigricollis), Indian fox (Vulpes bengalensis), jackal (Canis aureus), and Hyaena

hyaena are present, along with the small Indian civet (Viverricula indica) and common palm civet / toddy cat (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus). Primates are represented by the Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and common langur (Presbytis

entellus).

Land tenure: State owned. The area was declared a national park on 10 March 1982, and accepted as a World Heritage Site in December 1985. Previously the private duck

shooting preserve of the Maharaja of Bharatpur since the 1850s, the area was designated as a bird sanctuary on 13 March 1956 and a Ramsar site in October 1981. The last big shoot was held in 1964, but the Maharajah retained shooting rights until

1972.

Land use: Formerly local villagers had grazing rights within the Park; these were rescinded in 1982. Current land use is designed to enhance the, long-term value of the

site for scientific study, recreation, and wildlife- oriented tourism. Some deleterious forms of land use continue, such as collection of firewood. Khus grass (Vetiveria

zizanoides) is regularly harvested. Permits to cut grass from April to July every year are now given to the villagers.

Conservation measure taken: Keoladeo Ghana was established as a National Park in March 1982, having been designated as a Bird Sanctuary in March 1956. It was designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in

October 1981, and was nominated as a World Heritage Site in 1985. The last great duck shoot at Bharatpur was held in 1964, but the Maharajah retained shooting rights until 1972. The Park is managed by the Forest Department of the State Government of

Rajasthan. The boundary is clearly marked by a two-metre high stone wall, about 32 km in length, which encircles the park and was built with financial assistance from the Central Government. This wall prevents the entry of domestic livestock, some 5000 of which were herded daily into the park before completion of the wall in 1982. Grazing

by domestic cattle and water buffalo within the park has now almost ceased. The density of human settlements surrounding the park precludes the creation of a buffer zone. The whole wetland is increasingly dependent on water from the reservoir

outside the park boundary. As far as possible, water levels are maintained to benefit the bird life, but the supply of water is in great demand for agriculture. If the park is in danger of drying out completely, water may be pumped from deep wells to ensure the

survival of a core area of aquatic life until the next significant rains. The major road which once passed through the park has been re-routed outside. Grazing is prohibited, but in recent years Park authorities have allowed regulated harvesting of grasses

(Paspalum distichum). Harvesting of some grass species and the grazing of water buffalo are now seen as essential components of any future integrated management plan for the park. Attempts to control the spread of invasive grasses such as Vetiveria

zizanoides and Paspalum distichum by mechanical means, such as bulldozing, have been unsuccessful. After a short period during which the other components of the aquatic flora recover, the grasses recolonize the cleared areas with renewed vigour. Efforts to manage the aquatic and terrestrial habitats (including grasslands) so as to

maintain the ecological seral stage of the aquatic ecosystem, continue. Attempts are being made to arrest the process of plant succession at a stage suited for avifauna. Water supply required for flooding the area has been ensured every year on a priority

basis by the State Government. The Forest Department employs a Divisional Forest Officer, a Deputy Wildlife Warden, a Research Officer, a forester, three rangers, 20 game guards, some clerks, and an accountant responsible to the Chief Wildlife

Warden and Park Manager.

Conservation measures proposed: In view of the recent extensive ecological changes, mostly detrimental to the value of the park for water birds, the Bombay Natural History Society has made four important recommendations:

1. A herd of at least 200 water buffalo should be introduced to test the assumption that they are an essential part of the Keoladeo wetland ecosystem, keeping the grass Paspalum distichum and other species such as Cyperus alopecuroides, Eleocharis

plantagenia, Typha angustata and Vetiveria zizanoides at lower densities.

2. Steps should be taken to ensure that at critical times adequate supplies of water are available, particularly at the end of July, to promote breeding in the colonial nesting

species, and later to provide at least some areas for wintering waterfowl and the Siberian White Cranes Grus leucogeranus.

3. The traditional harvesting of khus grass Vetiveria zizanoides, which is used for

thatch and to produce scented oils, should be permitted to prevent the grass spreading into new areas.

4. The calves of the remaining feral cattle in the dry sections of the park should be

removed to prevent a population increase, which might seriously affect wild ungulate populations.

The Rajasthan Forest Department has been vehemently opposed to renewed grazing at

Keoladeo because it would be extremely difficult to enforce a limit on the number of animals which should be admitted.

Disturbance and threats: Leopard Panthera pardus has not been seen since its

extermination from the area in 1964. Previous threats from fishing and cattle grazing have now been eliminated. The high level of pollutants in Arjan Bundh is believed to be responsible for the increasing number of piscivorous birds seen in a dazed state and unable to fly. Notably fewer birds were recorded in 1984 than in previous years.

Disturbance from visitors can be cause for concern. The ban on grazing (November 1982) has caused local resentment, and aquatic plant growth is no longer kept in check. Also livestock dung provided nutrients and supported insects. The Ramsar

Monitoring Procedure was applied in November 1988 because of concern that the lack of grazing was leading to weed infestation and loss of wetland.

Socio-economic values: The site supports some 364 bird species and is considered to be one of the world's best and richest bird areas. It is the major wintering ground of the western population of the endangered Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus. A total

of 41, including eight young, were recorded in December 1984, the highest number for many years (ICBP, 1985) but there were only 19 in 1988–89. Other species include gadwall Anas strepera, shoveler A. clypeata, common teal A. crecca, cotton

teal Nettapus coromandelianus, tufted duck Aythya fuligula, comb duck Sarkidiornis

melanotos, white spoonbill Platalea leucorodia, little cormorant Phalacrocorax niger, cormorant P. carbo, Indian shag P. fuscicollis, painted stork Ibis

leucocepalus, Asian open-billed stork Anastomus oscitans, oriental ibis Threskiornis

melanocephalus, ruff Philomachus pugnax (probably the most abundant wader), darter Anhinga melanogaster, spot-billed pelican Pelecanus philippensis, common sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos, wood sandpiper Tringa glareola, green sandpiper T.

ochropus and Sarus crane Grus antigone. There are many birds of prey including osprey Pandion haliaetus, peregrine Falco peregrinus, Pallas' fish eagle Haliaeetus

leucoryphus, short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus, tawny eagle Aquila rapax, imperial

eagle A. heliaca, spotted eagle A. clanga and crestedserpent eagle Spilornis cheela.

Management Practices: Water levels are regulated to benefit waterfowl. If the wetland is in danger of drying out completely there are arrangements to pump water from deep wells to ensure the survival of aquatic flora and fauna until the next

monsoon. The boundaries are clearly delineated by a 32 km long, 2 m high stone wall, which totally encloses the park to prevent humans and domestic livestock from trespassing. Due to the dense human settlement surrounding the park, there is no

possibility of creating a buffer zone. The road from Bharatpur town, which bisected the park, has been closed and relocated outside the boundaries. This has considerably reduced the level of disturbance by visitors from the town. Grazing and the collection

of firewood and khus grass Vetiveria zizenoides were phased out in 1983. The absence of grazing, which is now believed to keep waterways open, is causing management problems as vegetation blocks up the channels. Remedial measures taken to control plant growth include manual removal of weeds and bulldozing. Burning and

introduction of ungulates is under consideration.

Research and Facilities: The Bombay Natural History Society has carried out bird ringing in the area for the past 20 years. Limnological studies are carried out by the

Zoology Department of the University of Rajasthan, Jaipur. Monitoring of the population dynamics of birds has been undertaken by the park management. Under the Deputy Chief Wildlife Warden are a research officer, forester, three rangers, 20

wildlife guards, clerks and an accountant.

Reference: Pallavi and Rana (2002); Abdulali and Panday (1978); Ali (1953); Ali and Hussain(1982); Breeden and Breeden (1982); Breeden and Breeden (1982–1983); Grimwood (1981); Jackson (1983); Saxena (1975); Ali and Hussain (1982,1984); Ali

and Vijayan (1986); Anon (1984); WWF INDIA (1987); Gole (1987a); Jackson (1983); Karpowicz (1985); Luther and Rzoska (1971); Mahajan, Arora et al. (1982); Mahajan, Sharma, S.D. et al. (1982); Mahajan, Sharma, S.P. et al. (1982);

Ramachandran and Vijayan (1987); Sauey (1987); Sauey et al. (1987); Saxena (1975); Singh et al. (1987); Vijayan and Vijayan (1987); Vijayan (1991); http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website); Ajith Kumar and Mittal (1993); Bhupathy

and Vijayan (1994); Ramachandran and Vijayan (1997); Bhupathy et al. (1998); Gargi and Randheera Singh (2000); Gargi and Vibhu Prakash (2002); Gargi (2002); Gargi and Vibhu Prakash (2003); Ashok Verma (2003)

JAWAI RESERVOIR

Jawai reservoir is situated (25° 6’ N, 73° 9’ E) in the Pali district, Rajasthan. The

impoundment is located across the river Jawai which originates from the eastern slopes of Aravali ranges. It was constructed in the year 1957 mainly for drinking purposes to fed peoples of Jodhpur town. The reservoir is surrounded by hills of Aravali ranges and has a total catchment area of 787 km2. In order to supplement the

available storage, water is added through a canal from near by Sei reservoir. The C/A ratio of 30 indicate low inputs of allochthonous nutrients through the catchment compared to other reservoir investigated during the survey. The mean depth of the

reservoir is 7.7 m and water spread area is about 2590.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum water temperature of 26.5°C and minimum of 22°C.

Phytoplankton:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Anabaena 14 Navicula

2 Botryococcus 15 Oscilatoria 3 Characiopsis 16 Pediastrum

4 Characium 17 Peridinium

5 Coccoenis 18 Phormedium 6 Cosmarium 19 Rhizoclonium

7 Frustulia 20 Scenedesmus

8 Gomphonema 21 Spirogyra

9 Gyrosigma 22 Synedra

10 Lyngbya 23 Tabellaria

11 Meridion 24 Trachiscia

12 Merismopedia 25 Zygnema

13 Microcystis

JAWAI RESERVOIR

•


Periphyton: Bacillariophyceae (67.1%), myxophyceae (15.2%), chlorophyceae (14.0%) and animalcules (3.7%). Bacillariophyceae thus was rich both quantitatively and qualitatively and was represented by Gyrosigma, Frustulia, Navicula, Nitzschia,

Tabellaria, Epithemia, Mastogloia, Caloneis, Syendra, Fragilaria and Hantzschia. Characium, Cladophora represented chlorophyceae.

Zooplankton: Arcella, Keratella, Colurella, Brachionus, Trichocerca, Notholca,

Bosmina, Monostyla, Diaphanosoma, Moina, Diaptomus, Daphnia and Cyclops.

Macrobenthos: The bottom fauna were dominated chironomids (38%). Chaoborus constituted 14.3% while tubificids formed 9.7%.

Fishes: Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigala, Labeo calbasu, Notopterus

notopterus, O. bimaculatus, T. tor, Mystus seenghala, W. attu, L. gonius, L. bata, B.

bola and P. sarana.

Land tenure: Sate-owned

Land use: Irrigation purpose



Reference: Sharma and Kaushal (2004).

GAMBHIRI RESERVOIR

Gambhiri situated (24° 42’ N, 74° 43’ E) around 35 km from Chittorgarh town, Chittorgarh district, Rajasthan., It is an old impoundment across the river Gambhiri a

tributary of the river Banas. The earth-fill dam was constructed mainly for flood control and irrigation purposes in the year 1967. The upper reaches of reservoir surrounds by hills of Aravali range. The reservoir has a catchment area of 1036 km2 and water spread area is 2,336 ha. It falls under the medium reservoir category. The

low mean depth of 3.2 m indicate shallow character. The ratio of catchment/area (considered to be an index of allochthonous inputs) is moderate (44) reflecting inputs of nutrients through the catchment.

GAMBHIRI RESERVOIR

•


Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum water temperature of 25°C and minimum of 19°C.

Phytoplankton:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Characiopsis 9 Pediastrum

2 Cosmarium 10 Peridinium 3 Cyctodinium 11 Rhizoclonium 4 Cymbella 12 Scenedesmus

5 Meridion 13 Synedra

6 Microcystis 14 Tabellaria

7 Mougeotia 15 Zygnema 8 Oscilatoria

Periphyton: Frustulia, Diatoma, Tabellaria, Navicula, Achnanthes, Melosira,

Amphora, Stauroneis, Synedra and Fragilaria.

Zooplankton: Filinia, Keratella, Colurella, Brachionus, Trichocerca, Notholca,

Haxarthra, Moina, Bosmina, Daphnia, Diaphanosoma, Cyclops and Diaptomus.

Macrobenthos: Chironomids dominated the fauna forming 68.65 of the population

followed by Chaoborus (13.4%), tubificids (10.0%) and molluscs (10.0%).

Fishes:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Catla catla 7 L. rohita 2 Channa marulius 8 Mastacembelus armatus

3 Cirrhinus mrigala 9 Mystus seenghala 4 Labeo bata 10 Ompok bimaculatus 5 L. calbasu 11 Wallago attu 6 L. gonius


Land use: Flood control and irrigation.

Socio-economic values: In addition to its importance for water supply, the reservoir supports a small fishery supplying local markets.


SARDAR SAMAND RESERVOIR

Sardar Samand is a freshwater reservoir, situated (25° 09’ N, 73° 05’ E) in 55 km

south of Jodhpur, Pali district, Rajasthan. The reservoir is semicircular in shape, 9.45 km long and 3.85 km wide. The total area of this reservoir is 3641 ha. and maximum depth is 5.79 m.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The pH of the reservoir is 7.9–9.3.

Macrophytes: Important macrophytes are Potamogeton indicus and Ceratophyllum

demersum

Phytoplankton: Important phytoplankton species includes, Merismopedia, Nostoc,

and Oscillatoria.

Fishes:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Ichthyofauna 10 P. sophore

1 Channa marulius 11 Wallago attu

2 Cirrhinus mrigala Zooplankton

3 C. reba 12 Asplanchna

4 Labeo angra 13 Brachionus

5 L. dero 14 Cyclops

6 L. rohita 15 Cypris

7 Mastacembelus armatus 16 Daphnia

8 Mystus bleekeri 17 Diaptomus

9 Puntius sarana

Other faunal species are the shrimp (Caridina weberi), frog (Rana cyanophlyctis), and turtle (Lissemys punctata).


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation and drinking purpose.

Socio-economic values: Provides water for drinking and irrigation.

Reference: Saxena (1982), Saxena and Bhargava (1984), Saxena and Bhargava

(1985), Saxena and Bhargava (1987).

KOTHARI RESERVOIR

Kothari reservoir is situated (25° 18’ N, 75° 0’ E) near Trivani town, Bhilwara district, Rajasthan. It lies across the river in the year 1990. It has catchment area of 2176 km2 and water spread area 785 ha. It is a shallow reservoir having a mean depth of 3.3 m.


Phytoplankton:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Anabaena 15 Nitzschia

2 Botryococcus 16 Nostoc 3 Characium 17 Oedogonium 4 Coccoenis 18 Oscilatoria

5 Cosmarium 19 Pediastrum

6 Cyclotella 20 Peridinium 7 Cyctodinium 21 Phormedium 8 Cymbella 22 Rhizoclonium

9 Gomphonema 23 Scenedesmus 10 Gyrosigma 24 Spirulina 11 Melosira 25 Synedra

12 Meridion 26 Tabellaria

13 Microcystis 27 Trachiscia

14 Navicula

Macro-vegetation: The dominant forms were Hydrilla, Vallisneria and Potamogeton. Marsilea occurred rarely.

Periphyton: Periphytic communities were dominated by bacillariophyceae. Diatoms

were represented by Synedra, Navicula, Cymbella, Tabellaria, Caloneis, Gyrosigma,

Nitzschia, Melosira and Amphora. Chlorophyceae (13.6%) was comprised of Characium and Cladophora. Protozoans were represented by Difflugia.


Diaphanosoma, Asplanchna, Diaptomus, Moina, Daphnia and Cyclops.

Macrobenthos: Chironomids constituted 56% of the total fauna followed by

tubificids (18.6%), molluscs (13.5%) and chaoborus (11.9%).

Fishes: Major crops dominated by Catla catla formed 50% of the catch. Cat fishes (Mystus seenghala, Wallago atta, Notopterus notopterus) constituted 32% of the

catch. Other fishes in the catch were Channa reba, Labeo bata, L. gonius and Channa sp.


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation.



NANDSAMAND RESERVOIR

Nandsamand reservoir is situated (25° 50’ N, 75° 47’ E) near Nathwara, Rajsamand district, Rajasthan. Nandsamand, an impoundment across the river Banas. It is around five decade old reservoir having been formed in 1957 mainly for irrigation purposes and is surrounded by hills of Aravali ranges. It has a total catchment area 839 km2 and

water spread area 407 ha. The catchment/area ratio is quite high (209) indicates inputs of good amount of nutrients through the catchment. The mean depth of 5.2 m reveals shallow character of the reservoir.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum water temperature of 26.5°C and minimum of 20°C.

Phytoplankton:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Anabaena 11 Pediastrum

2 Cosmarium 12 Peridinium

3 Crucigenia 13 Phormedium 4 Cyctodinium 14 Rhizoclonium

5 Diatoma 15 Scenedesmus

6 Frustulia 16 Spirulina 7 Meridion 17 Synedra

8 Microcystis 18 Tabellaria

9 Navicula 19 Trachiscia

10 Oscilatori 20 Zygnema

Periphyton: Synedra, Daitoma, Merodion, Fragilaria, Navicula, Tabellaria,

Frustulia and Cocconeis.

Macrovegetation: The common forms were Hydrilla, Potamogeton and Vallisneria.


Haxarthra, Daphnia, Bosmina, Cyclops and Diaptomus.

Macrobenthos: The bottom fauna of the reservoir was dominated by chironomids (58%). Chaoborus formed 17.4% of the total benthos followed by molluscs (15.9%).

Fishes:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Catla catla 7 Mystus seenghala 2 Cirrhinus mrigala 8 Notopterus notopterus

3 C. reba 9 Puntius sarana 4 Labeo gonius 10 Tor tor 5 L. rohita 11 Wallago attu 6 Mastaccembelus aramtus





KHARI RESERVOIR

Khari reservoir is situated (20° 42’ N, 74° 17’ E) in Khari Dantra village, Bhilwara

district, Rajasthan. Khari, an impoundment across the river Khari a tributary of the river Banas. It is a four decades old reservoir constructed for irrigation in the year 1956. The upper reaches of the reservoir surrounds by hills of Aravali range. The low

mean depth of 5.0 m indicate shallow character. The ratio of catchment/area (considered to be an index of allochthonous inputs) is high (92) and indicates inputs of nutrients through the catchment. It has water spread area of 773 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum water temperature of 30°C and minimum of 15.5°C.

Phytoplankton:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name


2 Ankistrodesmus 17 Oedogonium

3 Characiopsis 18 Oscilatoria 4 Characium 19 Pediastrum

5 Chlarococcum 20 Phormedium

6 Cocchochloris 21 Protococcus 7 Coccoenis 22 Rhizoclonium

8 Crucigenia 23 Rhoicosphenia

9 Cyclotella 24 Scenedesmus 10 Cymbella 25 Spirogyra

11 Diatoma 26 Synedra

12 Melosira 27 Tabellaria

13 Meridion 28 Volvox

14 Microcystis 29 Zygnema 15 Mougeotia

Macrophytes: The dominant form were Hydrilla, Vallisneria and Potamogeton.

Zooplankton: Arcella, Keratella, Filinia, Brachionus, Bosmina, Notholca,

Diaphanosoma, Asplanchna, Diaptomus, Moina, Daphnia, Chydrous and Cyclops.

Macrobenthos: Chironomids constituted 61.6% of the total fauna followed by Chaoborus (19.2%) and molluscs (19.2%).

Fish: Mystus seenghala, Wallago attu, Labeo gonius, L. bata, Barilius bola and

Puntius sarana.





SOM KAMLA AMBA RESERVOIR

Som Kamla Amba reservoir is situated (23° 56’ N, 74° 02’ E) near Amba, Dungarpur district, Rajasthan. The reservoir has a catchment area of 5376 km2. It has a mean

depth of 4.8 m and is shallow in nature. The total area of the reservoir is about 3618 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Water temperature ranged from 17°C to

28°C.

Phytoplankton:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Ahanochaete 16 Mougeotia

2 Amphora 17 Navicula

3 Ankistrodesmus 18 Nostoc 4 Characiopsis 19 Pachycladon

5 Chlarococcum 20 Pediastrum

6 Closterium 21 Phormedium

7 Cocchochloris 22 Pleurogaster

8 Coccoenis 23 Rhizoclonium

9 Cosmarium 24 Scenedesmus

10 Crucigenia 25 Schizodictyon

11 Diatoma 26 Spirogyra 12 Fragilaria 27 Spirulina 13 Frustulia 28 Synedra

14 Merismopedia 29 Tabellaria

15 Microcystis 30 Zygnema

Macrovegetation: The common forms of aquatic weeds occurred were

Potamogeton, Hydrilla and Vallisneria.

Periphyton: Cymbella, Gyrosigma, Synedra, Navicula, Notzschia, Amphipleura, Achnanthes, Meridion and Caloneis. Characium and Cladophora represented

chlorophyceae (13.8%). Protozoans (4.1%) were represented by Difflugia.

Zooplankton: Arcella, Keratella, Filinia, Brachionus, Bosmina, Monostyla,

Diaphanosoma, Moina, Diaptomus, Daphnia, Chydrous, Cyclops

Macrobenthos: Chironomids dominated the fauna (42.7%) followed by molluscs (34.9%), Chaoborus (16.9%) and tubificids (5.5%).

Fishes: Mystus seenghala, Wallago attu, Labeo rohita, L. gonius, L. bata, Barilius

bola, Puntius sarana, Catla catla, and Cirrhinus mrigala.





ORAI RESERVOIR

Orai reservoir is situated (25° 2’ N, 74° 4’ E) around 3.5 km away from Chittorgarh

town, Chittorgarh district, Rajasthan. It is surrounded by hills of Aravali ranges. It was constructed by blocking the river Orai in the year 1972–73 mainly for irrigation. It lies in the Banas river system. Total catchment area of 220 km2 and water spread

area 640 ha. The mean depth (5.5 m) shows shallow nature of the water body.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum water temperature of 28C and minimum of 16°C.

Phytoplankton:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Achnanthes 18 Nostoc

2 Amphipleura 19 Oscilatoria 3 Ankistrodesmus 20 Pachycladon

4 Botryococcus 21 Peridinium

5 Cerasterias 22 Phormedium 6 Characiopsis 23 Pleurogaster

7 Characium 24 Protococcus

8 Chlarococcum 25 Rhizoclonium

9 Coccoenis 26 Rhoicosphenia

10 Crucigenia 27 Scenedesmus 11 Cyctodinium 28 Spirulina

12 Diatoma 29 Synedra

13 Frustulia 30 Tabellaria

14 Meridion 31 Tetraedron

15 Microcystis 32 Trachiscia

16 Mougeotia 33 Ulothrix 17 Navicula 34 Zygnema

Periphyton: Synedra, Stauroneis, Diatoma, Caloneis Fragilaria, Amphora,

Gyrosigma, Melosira and Cymbella.

Macrovegetation: Aquatic weeds such as Hydrilla, Vallisneria, Potamegton, Elodea

occurred only in winter season.

Zooplankton: Polyarthra, Keratella, Filinia, Brachionus, Trichocerca, Notholca,

Bosmina, Asplanchna, Diaphanosoma, Moina, Diaptomus, Daphnia, Chydrous,

Cyclops

Macrobenthos: The bottom fauna of the reservoir was dominated by Chironomods (52.4%). Molluscs formed 18.5% of the total benthos. Tubificids constituted 16.9%

while Chaoborus formed 9.2%.

Fishes:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Channa reba 7 N. notopterus 2 E. vacha 8 Osteobrama cotio

3 Labeo gonius 9 Puntius sarana

4 Mastacembelus armatus 10 Tor tor 5 Mystus seenghala 11 Wallago attu 6 Notopterus chitala





UDAISAGAR RESERVOIR

Udaisagar reservoir is situated (24° 33’ N, 73° 47’ E) near Udaipur town, Udaipur

district, Rajasthan. Udaisagar, an impoundment across the river Bedach a tributary of river Banas. It is an oldest impoundment having been formed in 1965. The catchment of the reservoir is surrounded by hills of Aravali ranges. It has a catchment area of 31.1 km2 and total water spread area 440 ha. The low depth of 7.0 m indicate shallow

character. The ratio of catchment/area is high (109) indicating inputs of nutrient through the catchment.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum water temperature of

25.5°C and minimum of 16°C.

Phytoplankton:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Achnanthes 17 Melosira

2 Amphora 18 Meridion

3 Botryococcus 19 Microcystis

4 Caloneis 20 Mougeotia

5 Characiopsis 21 Navicula

6 Characium 22 Oedogonium

7 Chlarococcum 23 Oscilatoria

8 Cocchochloris 24 Phormedium

9 Coccoenis 25 Rhizoclonium

10 Cosmarium 26 Scenedesmus

11 Crucigenia 27 Spirogyra

12 Cyclindrospermum 28 Synedra

13 Fragilaria 29 Tabellaria

14 Frustulia 30 Wollea

15 Gomphonema 31 Zygnema

16 Hydrocoleum

Zooplankton: Arcella, Keratella, Filinia, Brachionus, Diaphanosoma, Notholca,

Diaptomus, Asplanchna, Moina, Chydrous, Daphnia and Cyclops.

Periphyton: Bacillariophyceae (69.0%) dominated over myxophyceae (19.1%) and

chlorophyceae (13.5%). Diatoms were represented by Cymbella, Tabellaria,

Calonoeis, Synedra, Gyrosigma, Diatoma, Melosira, Navicula, Stauroneis and Cocconeis. Chlorophyceae were represented by Characium and Cladophora.

Protozoans were represented by Difflugia.

Macrobenthos: Chironomids constituted 83.8% of the total fauna followed by Chaoborus (9.5%) and molluscs (4.8%).


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation




WEST BANAS RESERVOIR

West Banas reservoir is situated (24° 41’ N, 72° 57’ E) in the Sirohi district, Rajasthan It lies across the main river West Banas, around 35 km away from Sirohi town. It has a total catchment area of 508 km2 and water spread area is 940 ha. The

reservoir is mainly constructed for irrigation in the year 1965–66 and is surrounded by hills of Aravali ranges. The out flow from Jawai reservoir joins the river West Banas. The mean depth of 4.2 m suggest shallow character of the reservoir. The C/A ratio of

54 indicates more inputs of allochthonous nutrient through the catchment.


Macrophytes: The dominant forms were Hydrilla, Vallisneria and Potamogeton.

Periphyton: Synedra, Gyrosigma, Cymbella, Navicula, Fragilaria, Tabellaria and

Stauroneis.

Phytoplankton:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name


2 Botryococcus 15 Oedogonium 3 Characiopsis 16 Pediastrum 4 Characium 17 Peridinium

5 Coccoenis 18 Phormedium 6 Cyctodinium 19 Rhizoclonium 7 Diatoma 20 Rhoicosphenia

8 Frustulia 21 Scenedesmus

9 Gomphonema 22 Synedra

10 Gyrosigma 23 Tabellaria

11 Meridion 24 Trachiscia

12 Microcystis 25 Zygnema 13 Mougeotia

Zooplankton: Arcella, Keratella, Polyarthra, Brachionus, Colurella, Notholca,

Trichocerca, Daphnia, Haxarthra, Cyclops, Diaphanosoma and Diaptomus.

Macrobenthos: Chironomids dominated the fauna (83.8) followed by Chaoborus

(8.1%) and molluscs (8.1%). Maximum concentration of benthos were in winter season.

Fishes: Catla catla, Labeo rohita, L. gonius, Mystus seenghala, Wallago attu,

Mastacembelus armatus, Ompok bimaculatus, Channa marulius and Puntius sarana.



Socio-economic values: In addition to its importance for water supply, the reservoir supports a small fishery supplying local markets.


LAKES OF CENTRAL RAJASTHAN

Lakes in the vicinity of (24° 30’–27° 05’ N, 73° 35’–76° 20’ E) Udaipur, Bhilwara,

Bundi, Kota, Ajmer and Jaipur, central Rajasthan. Numerous large and small water storage reservoirs (tanks) scattered throughout a region of about 40,000 sq.km in central Rajasthan. At least 300 of the tanks exceed 100 ha in extent and about 25 exceed 1,000 ha, but few if any are larger than 5,000 ha All are fresh to brackish. The

tanks were constructed at various times during the last 600 years by bunding the numerous predominantly intermittent or seasonal water courses which drain the monsoon run-off from the eastern flank of the Aravalli Range into the Banganga

Nadi, Dhund Nadi, Banas, Kural Nadi and Chambal Rivers (tributaries of the Ganges). The water level in the tanks is wholly dependent upon the monsoon rainfall; in recent periods of drought, many of the lakes have dried up for the first time in hundreds of years. Others dry up annually in summer or are reduced to shallow

puddles. As water levels fall, muddy fringes and small islands are exposed. The maximum depth tends to be 5–6 m in the rainy season, and 2 m in the dry season. The largest and most important tanks are as follows: Galaisagar, Kandhar and Mansarovar

near Udaipur; Uniara and Begimpura near Bhilwara; Chandlai and Bhimlat near Kota; Phoolsagar, Dhamna, Bharda, Rustomganj, Sarauli, Mansagar, Hindoli and Ramsagar near Bundi; New Barol, Bhaniyan, Ramsar, Sardarsamand and Anasagar near Ajmer;

and Aakera, Chhaparwada, Jalsagar, Mahlan and Morel near Jaipur. In addition to these relatively large water storage reservoirs, there are innumerable smaller tanks, particularly to the southeast of Nasirabad (28° 00’ N, 74° 45’ E) and west of

Indargarh (25° 43’ N, 76° 11’ E). The entire area forms a transitional belt between the Great Indian Desert to the west and the Vindhya Range to the southeast. The region is one of sandy plains sloping gently to the northeast, relieved by stoney uplands

between the river systems. In the southern part, the tanks are surrounded by cultivation, whilst to the north and west, scrub and thorn forest predominate. The total area of wetlands are unknown, however about 300 lakes of 100 to 5,000 ha in area

and many smaller lakes and ponds in a total region of about 4,000,000 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an annual rainfall of about 490–640 mm. The rainy season is from July to September. Temperatures rise to 40–45°C in

summer and fall to 8–10°C in winter.

Macrophytes: Several of the reservoirs support marginal emergent vegetation, particularly sedges (Carex spp.) and rushes (Typha spp.). Surrounding areas are either

degraded thorn forest and scrub dominated by Anogeissus pendula trees or agricultural land with scattered Prosopis cinereria and Acacia nilotica trees. The principal crops are cereals, cotton and groundnuts.

Birds: At least 25 of the tanks attract sizeable numbers of migratory ducks, coots and

shorebirds during the winter months, and the region as a whole is extremely important for a wide variety of waterfowl, notably Pelecanus onocrolalus, storks,

Phoenicopterus ruber, Phoeniconaias minor, Anser indicus and cranes. Large

numbers of ducks and coots occur at some sites; for example, over 11,000 ducks and 4,800 Fulica atra were recorded by Gole during a survey of seventeen lakes in November 1982. The ducks included: 260 Tadorna ferruginea; 290 Nettapus

coromandelianus; 16 Sarkidiornis melanotos; 740 Anas Penelope; 760 A. crecca; 160

A. poecilorhyncha; 1,400 A. acuta; 640 A. querquedula; 2,100 A. clypeata; 390 Netta

rufina; 2,500 Aythya ferina; 630 A. nyroca; 770 A. fuligula. As many as 500 Pelecanus onocrotalus have been recorded at Sarauli Tank. Anastomus oscitans and

Ciconia episcopus are common throughout the region, and Grus antigone occurs quite commonly in the central and eastern parts. Anthropoides virgo passes through the region in very large flocks in November; over 1,000 were recorded at Mahlan Tank in

November 1982. The region is especially important as a wintering area for the vulnerable Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus. Some 80,000 A. indicus were reputed to winter in Rajasthan in the past, and there may still have been as many as 20,000 in the early 1980s. Flocks of over 500 have been reported at Sarauli and Bharda Tanks, and

smaller flocks, generally of 40–150 birds, at Chhaparwada, Ramsar, Dhamna, Uniara, Begimpura, Mansarovar, Galaisagar, Aakera and Morel. Anser anser also occurs in winter, but in much smaller numbers. Many species of migratory shorebirds occur in

large numbers, the commonest being Limosa limosa and Philomachus pugnax. In February 1986, Wells observed 2,000 Himantopus himantopus and 3,500 Philomachus pugnax together with smaller numbers of Tringa totanus, T. stagnatilis,

T. glareola, Actitis hypoleucos and Calidris minuta at one tank near Jaipur.

Rhynchops albicollis has been recorded at Chandlai Tank.

Land tenure: The tanks are state owned (Government Irrigation Department); surrounding areas are partly state owned and partly private.

Land use: Water supply for irrigation and domestic consumption, and some fishing and reed-cutting; livestock grazing and cultivation in surrounding areas. During the dry season, the beds of some of the tanks are cultivated by private land holders.

Conservation measures taken: No habitat protection, but all hunting and shooting is prohibited throughout the State of Rajasthan.

Conservation measures proposed: Nine of the larger tanks, namely Galaisagar, Begimpura, Bharda, Ramsagar, Ramsar, Sardarsamand, Chhaparwada, Mahian and Morel, are particularly rich in wildlife and have been identified a sites worthy of special protection.

Disturbances and threats: Illegal waterfowl hunting is common at some of the tanks, especially near Jaipur. Pollution poses a potential threat at many of the tanks, particularly those in the vicinity of Kota, Udaipur and Ajmer, where industrial

development projects have recently been initiated. Excessive grazing in the water catchment areas and destruction of the deciduous and thorn forests are resulting in increased rates of siltation and affecting water quality. The inflow of domestic sewage

in lakes around Udaipur (e.g. Pichola Lake) is resulting in eutrophication and the proliferation of aquatic weeds.

Socio-economic values: Some of the tanks have important religious significance to the local inhabitants and are places of pilgrimage.

Research and facilities: Waterfowl censuses have been carried out at some of the larger tanks.


SACRED KHECHOPALRI LAKE

Sacred Khechopalri lake is situated on Lat. 27° 22’ 24” N and Long. 88° 12’ 30”

E in the Sikkim Himalaya. The total area of this lake is 12 km2.The depth of the

lake is 3.2 m to 11.2 m and open water area is 37900 m2.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 24°C and minimum of 4°C. The pH values ranged between 6.8 and 8.5.

Macrophytes: Aponogeton monostachyon, Ceratophyllum sp., Monocharia

vaginalis, Scirpus sp.

Phytoplankton: Phytoplankton species composition belonging to different families showed Chlorophyceae (18) to be the most dominanat group, followed by Chrysophyceae (15), Cyanophyceae (11), and one species each of Charophyceae, Euglenophyceae, Dinophyceae and Cryptophyceae.

Zooplankton: Among the zooplankton, it comprised of 7 rotifers, 5 protozoans, 2 each of copepods and cladocerans, and 1 each of ostracods and isopods.

Fishes: Cyprinus carpio, Danio aequipinnatus, Garra sp., Schistura sp. and

Schziothorax sp.


Land use: The lake is not used for any other purpose expect for rites and rituals.

Socio-economic values: Sacred Khecheopalri lake is a famous lake “With fulfilling lake”.

Reference: Alka Jain et al. (2005).

MUTHUPET MANGROVE

The mangrove wetland is located (10° 46’ N and 79° 51’ E) in the southernmost end

of the Cauvery delta in the districts of Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur and Thanjavur. It is part of a large coastal wetland complex called the Great Vedaranyam swamp. The mangrove wetland comprises different categories of wetland such as healthy mangroves, degraded mangroves, lagoons, tidal creeks and man-made fishing canals.

Many drainage arteries of the Cauvery basin namely, Paminiyar, Karayar, Kilaithangi, Marakakorayar flow through the Muthupet and adjacent villages and create a lagoon before they entry into the Palk Strait. The northern as well as the western to border of

the lagoon are occupied by a dense mangrove community. The southern portion of the lagoon is formed by a sand sprit which is devoid of mangroves. The total area of the wetland is about 6803 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varied from 26 to 35°C

in atmosphere and 25 to 35°C in water. The salinity values ranged from 0 to 38‰, and pH values from 7 to 8.9.

Mangroves: The Muthupet mangrove wetland is characterized by the presence of the following extrusive mangrove species were Acanthus ilicifolius, Aegiceras

corniculatum, Avicennia marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora mucronata,

Lumnitzera racemosa and associated species were Suaeda maritima, Suaeda monica,

and Salicorina brachiata.

Phytoplankton: Seventy six species of Phytoplankton and 90 species of zooplankton have been reported (Kalidasan, 1991). Diatoms are dominant group of Phytoplankton followed by dinoflagellates, chlorophyceans.

Cyanobacteria:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Aphanocapsa littoralis A. bullosa Aphanocapsa koordersi

Gloeocapsa sp.

Johannesbaptistia pellucida

Microcystis robusta Oscillatoria curviceps Oscillatoria claricentrosa

Oscillatoria tenuis Oscillatoria calcuttensis Oscillatoria vizagaptensis

Phormidium sp. Porphyrosiphon natarsii Schizothrix telephorides

Spirulina major Synechocystis sp.

Zooplankton: Among the zooplankton, copepods dominate and the rotifers.

Molluscs: Among molluscs, bivalves such as, Meretrix meretrix, Perna viridis,

Crosso sensis, Anadora rhombea, Placenta placenta, Crassostrea madrasensis,

Martesia sp., Meretrix casta, Perna indica and Gastropods such as, Cerithidea

fluviatilis, Littorina scabra, Nassarius stolatus, Neritina violacea, Telescopium

telescopium, Pythia plicata, Melampus ceylonicus and Balanus spp. are found. The edible oyster Crassostrea madrasensis (> 9 cm) and their spats are abundant on the

microdeltas and on the emerged land pockets.

Shell fishes: Penaeus indicus. P. monodon, Metapenaeus dobsoni, M.ensis,

Macrobrachium rude, mud crab Scylla serrata, field crab Portunus puber, hermit crab Eupagurus bernhardus, dobi crabs Uca lactea, U. dussumieri, mud lobster Thalasima

anomola, Sesarma fascinata and the woodlouse Cyathura sp. Seeds of crustaceans such as P. indicus (July–September), P. monodon (October–December), M. dobsoni (January–March), M. monoceros (January–March) are commonly

available at Muthupet (Oswin, 1997). During May the post-larvae of the crustaceans are found to approach the coast in large numbers.

Fin fishes: Muthupet mangrove harbors 73 species of finfish (Cecilia Pandian, 1996).

Seeds of Mugil spp., Chanos chanos are more during April to June. From January to March the seeds of Sillago sihama are abundant

Insects: A total of 107 species were recorded. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Acisoma panorpoides 55 Loccotrephes sp.

2 Aedes sp. 56 Loxostege similalis

3 Aeschnid sp. 57 Lygus linecolaris

4 Alabama aggillaceae 58 Macrodactylus subspinosus

5 Amarygmus caparium 59 Mantis religious

6 Ammophila levigata 60 Megachile latimanus

7 Anaphelus sp. 61 Melanoplus differentialis

8 Andren wilkella 62 M. femurrubrum

9 Anteas florilla 63 Melanotus fossilis

10 Apis dorsata 64 Mesonsemia croesas

11 A. florida 65 Microcentrum rhombifolium

12 Aris vivida 66 Moobia quadridens

13 Brachynus americanus 67 Murgantia luptescens

14 Brochymena araborea 68 Mutilla sexmaculata

15 Calosoma scrutafor 69 Mylabris postulate

16 Camnula pellucidae 70 Necrophorus marginetus

17 Canthom virida 71 Necrosia pholidofus

18 Carpocopsa pomonella 72 Neoconocephalus

exilisconorus

19 Catopsila horella 73 Oecophylla sp.

20 Ceratine sp. 74 Oedemerid sp.

21 Chaetochema continis 75 Onthophagus longicornis

22 C. pulicaria 76 Orthetrum brunneum

23 Challa crule 77 Oryctes rhinoceros

24 Chilocorus biralnerous 78 Papilio polytes

25 Chion cinctus 79 Paralobesis viteana

26 Chlaenus circumdatus 80 Paratettix cuculatus

27 Chrysocoris stolli 81 Perillus bioculatus

28 Cicindilla ocdonota 82 Pherasophus lineforms

29 Coccinella septempuncata 83 Photinus pyralis

30 Componotus sp. 84 Phyllophaga crassima

31 Crambus mutabilis 85 Planthypena scabra

32 Crocothemis erytbraea 86 Polidours aristolochiae

33 Culex sp. 87 P. hector

34 Danae fab 88 P. polyxenes

35 Danais chrysippus 89 Polistes annularis

36 D. eucharis 90 Precis lemonias

37 D. limance 91 Promachus sp.

38 D. mellisa 92 Recticulitermus flavipes

39 D. plexipus 93 Rhyothenus varigata

40 Dryinius trifascians 94 Saperda calcarata

41 Easarcories ventralis 95 Sceliphram

mandrospatatnam

42 Elaster sp. 96 Sclenopsis sp.

43 Ergolis aradine 97 Stizus prismaticus

44 Estigmena acrae 98 Systena balanda

45 Gorocephelum hotnanseggi 99 Tabanus striatus

46 Gryllotalpha hexadactyla 100 Telechinae violae

47 Gryllus assimilus 101 Tenebroides mauritanicus

48 Haematobia tritans 102 Terlas hacabe

49 Halisodota caryace 103 Triatoma sanguisuga

50 Hemicocephalis basalis 104 Trichobaris trinotata

51 Heptosia nina 105 Xylocopa aestuans

52 Irdomyrmex humilis 106 Zezura viridule

53 Leptocorisa varisuga 107 Zyorotypus lubbari

54 Libellula luctuosa

Amphibians: Rana hexadactyle, Bufo melanostictus and Rhacophorus maculatus.

Reptiles: Veranus salvator, Naja naja, Bungarus coerulas, Enhydrina schistosa, Helonia mydas, Sternotherus sp. and Testudo elegans.

Birds: A total of 160 species were recorded. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Accipiter badius 81 Hirundo daurica

2 Acridotheres tristis 82 Hydrophasianus chirurgus

3 Acrocephalus dumetorum 83 Jynx torquilla

4 Actitis hypoleucos 84 Lanius cristatus

5 Aegithina tiphia 85 L. schach

6 Alauda gulgula 86 L. vittatus

7 Alcedo atthis 87 Larus brunnicephalus

8 Amaurornis phoenicurus 88 L. cachinnans

9 Anas acuta 89 L. fuscus

10 A. clypeata 90 L. ichthyaetus

11 A. crecca 91 L. ridibundus

12 A. poecilorhyncha 92 Limosa lapponica

13 A. querquedula 93 L. limosa

14 A. affinis 94 Lonchura Malacca

15 A. strepera 95 L. punctulata

16 Anastomus oscitans 96 Merops orientalis

17 Anhinga melanogaster 97 M. philippinus

18 Anser indicus 98 Mesophoyx intermedia

19 Anthus rufulus 99 Milvus migrans

20 A. similis 100 Mirafra assamica

21 Ardea cinerea 101 Motacilla cinerea

22 A. purpurea 102 M. flava

23 Ardeola grayii 103 Muscicapa dauurica

24 Arenaria interpres 104 Mycteria leucocephala

25 Artamus fuscus 105 Nectarinia asiatica

26 Athene brama 106 N. zeylonica

27 A. noctua 107 Nenus cinereus

28 Aythya ferina 108 Nettapus coromandelianus

29 Bubulcus ibis 109 Numenius arquata

30 Burhinus oedicnemus 110 N. phaeopus

31 Cacomantis passerinus 111 Nycticorax nycticorax

32 Calidris minuta 112 Oriolus oriolus

33 Caprimulgus asiaticus 113 Orthotomus sutorius

34 Carpodacus erythrinus 114 Pandion haliaetus

35 Casmerodius albus 115 Passer domesticus

36 Centropus sinensis 116 Pavo cristatus

37 Ceryle rudis 117 Pelecanus philippensis

38 Charadrius alexandrinus 118 Peridicula asiastica

39 C. dubius 119 Phaenicophaeus viridirostris

40 C. hiaticula 120 Phalacrocorax carbo

41 C. leschenaultii 121 P. niger

42 Chlidonias hybridus 122 Philomachus pugnax

43 Circus aeruginosus 123 Phoenicopterus minor

44 C. macrourus 124 P. ruber

45 Cisticola juncidis 125 Pitta brachyura

46 Clamator jacobinus 126 Platalea leucorodia

47 Columba livia 127 Ploceus philippinus

48 Copsychus saularis 128 Pluvialis fulva

49 Coracias benghalensis 129 Porphyrio porphyrio

50 Corvus macrorhynchos 130 Psittacula krameri

51 C. splendens 131 Pycnonotus cafer

52 Cyornis tickelliae 132 P. leucogenys

53 Cypsiurus balasiensis 133 Recurvirostra avosetta

54 Dendrocitta vagabunda 134 Rostratula benghalensis

55 Dicaeum erthrorhynchos 135 Saxicola caprata

56 Dicrurus macrocercus 136 Saxicoloides fulicata

57 Dinopium benghalense 137 Sterna albifrons

58 Dromas ardeola 138 S. aurantia

59 Egretta garzetta 139 S. caspia

60 E. gularis 140 S. hirundo

61 Elenus caeruleus 141 Streptopelia chinensis

62 Eremopterix grisea 142 S. decaocto

63 Eudynamys scolopacea 143 Sturnus malabaricus

64 Falco tinnunculus 144 S. pagodarum

65 Ficedula parva 145 Sylvia curruca

66 Francolinus pondicerianus 146 Tachybaptus ruficollis

67 Fulica atra 147 Tephrodornis pondicerianus

68 Galerida cristata 148 Terpsiphone paradisi

69 Gallicrex cinerea 149 Threskiornis melanocephalus

70 Gallinago gallinago 150 Tringa glareola

71 G. stenura 151 T. nebularia

72 Gallinula chloropus 152 T. stagnatilis

73 Gelochelidon nilotica 153 T. tetanus

74 Glareola lacteal 154 Turdoides affinis

75 Halcyon pileata 155 Tyto alba

76 H. smyrnensis 156 Upupa epops

77 Haliastur Indus 157 Vanellus indicus

78 Hierococccyx sparverioides 158 V. malabaricus

79 H. varius 159 Zoothera citrine

80 Himantopus himantopus 160 Z. wardii

Mammals: Cannis aureus, Lepus nigricolis, Lutra lutra, Paradoxurus

hermaphroditus¸ Vivericula indica, Herpestes edwardsi, Mus booduga, Rattus rattus,

Pteropus gigantus, Rhinolophus rouxi, and Cynopterus sphinx.


Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns and crabs surrounding areas are mainly under cultivation for coconut and paddy. Large-scale extraction of “Industrial Grade Salt” is being carried out. Fishing is also done. The women engaged in collecting firewood in the mangroves for their livelihood, do it regularly since there

is a good demand from the local tea shop owners and illicit arrack distillers.

Conservation measures taken: The mangrove wetland is managed by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department under the supervision of the Wildlife Warden,

Nagapattinam. At the field land, a Rage Officer Overseas the Protection and other management activities.

Disturbances and threats: The principal threats to the area are reclamation for

agriculture; uncontrolled grazing by domestic livestock, and over-exploitation of the forest resource. Pollution from domestic sewage and agricultural run-off has also been reported. There is a considerable among of general disturbance throughout the area,

partly caused by tourism. Trees are being cut and vegetation removed for construction work.


coastal erosion. The area has considerable potential for wildlife tourism; if this could

be shown to provide an alternative source of income for the local people, further destruction of the natural resource might be averted.

Reference: Kannan et al. (2002); Jayapaul et al. (1992); Oswin (1998); Oswin (1999); Selvakumar and Sundararaman (2001); Selvam et al. (2002).

KOONTHAKULAM AND NEARBY TANKS

A group of small village tanks (water storage reservoirs) and ponds within a 10 km radius of Koonthakulam (8° 28’ N, 77° 44’ E), including Koonthakulam village tank and an unnamed seasonal pool one km to the east-southeast. Koonthakulam Tank has

a raised bund with masonry revetment. The tanks and pools are set in an area of relatively low human population density, with arid scrub and plantations of mesquite Prosopis juliflora and Acacia nilotica. The largest Acacia plantation is to the west of Koonthakulam Tank and the largest area of Prosopis is to the northeast. The tanks are

usually full from October to March; they generally dry out in the hot season, but some water enters when the nearby irrigation canal overflows. The total area of the Koonthakulam tank is 77 ha and area of other tanks are unknown.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with most of the rainfall occurring during the Northeast Monsoon in October and November.

Macrophytes: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. There are large

plantations of Prosopis juliflora and Acacia nilotica and patches of arid scrub in surrounding areas.

Special floral values: The region exhibits good examples of native scrub

communities. The relative abundance of Palmyra sp is especially interesting.

Birds: One of the most important breeding areas for cormorants, herons, egrets, storks, ibises and spoonbills in Tamil Nadu. There are many small breeding colonies

of cormorants and egrets with a few Anhinga melanogaster and Ardea cinerea in the Tirunelveli area, usually in large trees inside villages. The breeding colony at Koonthakulam is particularly large and includes significant numbers of Pelecanus

philippensis and Mycteria leucocephala. Most of the cormorants, herons and egrets

nest in old neem trees inside the village, but the pelicans and storks favour less disturbed sites on the periphery of the village. The surrounding scrubby areas are an important roosting refuge for some storks and ibises. The tanks provide rich feeding

areas for the breeding birds, and also support large numbers of migratory waterfowl, particularly ducks and shorebirds, during the northern winter (December–February). Phoenicopterus ruber is a regular winter visitor in flocks of 50–60, Anser indicus is an occasional winter visitor in flocks of up to 50, and Ciconia ciconia is a regular

passage migrant, also in flocks of up to 50. The surrounding rather open scrub supports a distinctive and increasingly threatened avifauna as yet unprotected by existing reserves.

Land tenure: At least some of the wetlands are state owned (State Forest Department).

Land use: Water supply for irrigation; livestock grazing and collection of firewood in

surrounding areas.

Conservation measures taken: The nesting birds are protected by the sentiments of local inhabitants. The State Forest Department has taken an interest in protecting the

breeding water birds even though the present colonies are not all on State land.

Conservation measures proposed: It has been proposed that a Water bird Sanctuary be established and that attempts be made to move the main breeding colony of water birds to a new area where it can be afforded better protection. This could perhaps be

achieved by planting trees suitable for long-term use by the birds. Protection of neighbouring water bodies would be essential for the viability of the whole area. The scrub along the roadsides should also be given some protection.

Disturbances and threats: The main threats are destruction of trees for firewood and excessive grazing by cattle in the area around the tanks. Many birds are now forced to nest in trees on the periphery of the village and in mesquite scrub, often in vegetation

unable to bear the weight of their nests.

Socio-economic values: The nesting birds have an important socio-historical value to the local inhabitants, who are especially proud of their recently acquired breeding

pelicans. As in most parts of Tamil Nadu, the main colony site is in old neem trees within the village.


PULICAT LAKE

An extensive brackish to saline lagoon with associated marshes and a massive fresh to brackish swamp to the north. Pulicat is the second largest salt-water lagoon in India,

situated (Lat. 13° 25’–13° 55’ N and Long. 80° 03’–80° 19’ E) 45 km north of Madras, in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh and a part extending into the Chengalpettu district of Tamil Nadu; approximately 84% of the lagoon lies in the state of Andhra Pradesh and the rest in Tamil Nadu. The total area of the lake is about

350 sq.km. It is fed by two rivers, one at the southern tip (Arani river), and the other from the northwest (Kalangi river) which is also more significant. The eastern boundary of the lagoon is formed by the spindle-shaped Sriharikotta Island, which

separates the lagoon from the Bay of Bengal. A navigation channel, the Buckingham Canal, runs through the lagoon on the western side of this island. The lagoon is shallow, with large areas of mudflats and sandflats. There are two connections with

the sea; in general, sea water enters the lagoon through the channel at the north end of Sriharikotta Island, and flows back into the Bay of Bengal through the channel at the south end. There are two large islands, Irrukam and Venadu, and several smaller islands in the northern part of the lagoon.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The air temperature varied from 15 to

45°C. The salinity values range from 34 to 36‰. The water is alkaline in nature (8.5–8.6)

Algae: The lagoon supports a rich growth of algae, particularly filamentous algae.

Some 59 species, including eight Cyanophyceae, seven Chlorphyceae, two Rhodophyceae, and 42 Bacillariophyceae have been recorded. Sriharikotta island has some very significant patches of residual, dry, evergreen forest and large areas of littoral scrub. There are small patches of woodland around fishing villages on the edge

of the lagoon. Large areas of the surrounding plains have been invaded by Prosopis

juliflora. Spirulina major, Oscillatoria spp., Anabaena spp., Rhizosolenia

castracanei, Eucampia cornuta, and Climacodium fravenfeldianum are the common

phytoplankton.

Fishes: At least 65 species of fish have been recorded. Some of the fishes commonly found here are Mugil cunnesius, M. jerdoni, M. dussumieri, M. cephalus,

M. bornensis, Tetradon nigropunctatus, T. leopardus, Barbus dorsalis, Macrones

vittatus, Sardinella fimbriata, and Chanos chanos.

Birds: An extremely important area for a wide variety of resident and migratory

waterfowl, notably pelicans, herons and egrets, storks, flamingos, ducks, shorebirds, gulls, and terns. Pulicat is the third-most important wetland for migratory shorebirds on the eastern sea- board of India, and is especially important during the spring and autumn migration seasons. The lagoon supports significant populations of

Tachybaptus ruficollis, Pelecanus philippensis, Phalacrocorax fuscicollis, P. niger,

seven species of herons and egrets, Mycteria leucocephala, Anastomus oscitans,

Threskiornis melanocephalus, Platalea leucorodia, Dendrocygna javanica, and Anas

poecilorhyncha. P. phlippensis and M. leucocephala visit the lagoon in large numbers from breeding colonies at neighbouring sites. Common passage migrants and winter visitors include Phoenicopterus ruber (up to 3000), Anser indicus, Tadorna

PULICAT LAKE

•


ferruginea, Anas penelope, A. strepera, A. crecca, A. acuta, A. querquedula, A.

clypeata, Aythya ferina, about 20 species of shorebirds, Larus brunnicephalus, L. ridibundus, Chlidonias hydridus, Gelochelidon nilotica, and Hydroprogne caspia.

The largest concentrations of greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) occur in the Andhra Pradesh part of the sanctuary, around the islands of Vendadu and Irukkam. Esacus recurvirostris and Burhinus oedicnemus are common residents of the scrub-

fringed shores. The area is rich in birds of prey; Haliaeetus leucogaster breeds, and Pandion haliaetus, Circus spp., and Falco peregrinus appear in winter.


Land use: Fishing for finfish and prawns; many small fishing villages dot the shores of the lagoon and on the large islands in the Andhra Pradesh section. The Buckingham Canal is a navigation route for cargo and passenger vessels. There is a

SHAR Space Research Centre on Sriharikotta Island.

Conservation measures taken: Some 17,250 ha of the Andhra Pradesh portion of the lagoon lies within the Andhra Pradesh Pulicat Lake Sanctuary (58,000 ha), established in September 1976 and managed by the Divisional Forest Officer, Nellore.

The entire portion within Tamil Nadu (6000 ha) was declared a Sanctuary in October 1980.

Conservation measures proposed: A Wildlife Action Plan has been drawn up by the

Expert Group on the Pulicat Lake Sanctuary. This recommends the following: (a) the setting up of a hydro biological research station; (b) establishment of a visitor centre; (c) provision of shallow-bottomed boats to enable sanctuary staff to patrol the lagoon;

(d) preparation of a management plan and conservation strategy for the entire area.

Possible changes in land use: Industrial interests have expressed a desire to develop refinery complexes alongside the lagoon.

Disturbances and threats: The principal disturbances are caused by fishing activities and the fishing villages and fish factories bordering the lagoon. The proposed construction of salt pans within the Tamil Nadu Pulicat Lake Sanctuary, and

industrial development on the shores of the lagoon, could pose serious threats in the future. The Andhra Pradesh Government is planning to release some 4780 ha of the Andhra Pradesh Pulicat Lake Sanctuary for the setting up of a marine chemicals and salt-manufacturing industry.

Socio-economic values: The lagoon supports an important fishery, especially for prawns. These, and other, fishing operations are concentrated in the northern and northeastern sectors of the lagoon, in Andhra Pradesh. An average of 1200 tonnes of

fish and crustaceans are harvested of which prawns constitute 60/ followed by mullets

Research and facilities: The Bombay Natural History Society carried out an ornithological survey in November–December 1983, and the Zoological Survey of

India has compiled species lists for many groups of flora and fauna. This work has been based at the Madras Marine Biological Station.

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (970); Jhingran (1991); Expert Group Committee

(1984); WWF India (1987; 1993); Hussain (1987a); Karpowicz (1985); Krishnan (1984); Neelakantan (1980); Government of India (1990). Nanda Kumar et al. (2001).

PICHAVARAM MANGROVE

Pichavaram mangrove situated (11° 27’ N and 79° 47’ E) near Killai and Chidambaram, Cuddalore district, and about 200 km South of Chennai City, Tamil Nadu. The forest occurs on 51 islets and the total area of the Vellar-Pichavaram

Coleroon estuarine complex is 2335.5 ha. of which only 241 ha. is occupied by dense mangrove vegetation. Nearly 593 ha. of this wetland is occupied by halophytic vegetation like Suaeda, 262.5 ha. Barren mud flats and 1238.5 ha. Basren high

saline soil (Krishnamoorthy et al., 1994) out of the 2335.5 ha. of this mangrove wetland only 1100 ha. The southern part near the Coleroon estuary is predominantly, mangrove vegetation, while the northern part near the Vellar estuary is dominated by mud-flats. It is one of the typical mangrove swamps of India, with a high productivity

of about 8 tons of organic plant detritus ha/ year. The tides are semi-diurnal and vary in amplitude from about 15 to 100 cm in different regions during different seasons, reaching a maximum during monsoon and post-monsoon and minimum during

summer. The depth of the water-ways ranges from about 0.3 to 3 m (Muniyandi, 1986). It is an estuarine type of mangrove wetland. Fishing villages, croplands and aquaculture pond surrounds the area. Comprising the entire mangrove vegetation

located in the middle portion of the Vellar-Pichavaram-Coleroon wetland has been declared as a reserved forest.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varied from 28 to 33°C in atmosphere and 26 to 30°C in water. The salinity values range from 10 to 34‰.

Annual rainfall was 1463.0 ± 329.9 mm during 1990–1998, and the number of rainy days was 53 ± 87. About 75.90% of total rainfall is recorded during north-east monsoon (October – December) accompanied by frequent depressions in the Bay of Bengal, while low rainfall is registered during north-east monsoon (April-June)

(Kathiresan et al., 1996).

Seaweed and seagrass:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Bostrychia radicans 11 H. pinifolia

2 Caloglossa leprieurii 12 Halophila beccarii

3 Chaetomorpha aerea 13 H. beccarii

4 C. crassa 14 H. ovalis 5 C. linum 15 Hypnea cornuta 6 Cladophora glomerata 16 H. musciformis

7 C. tuberosus 17 Padina gymnospora 8 Enteromorpha clathrata 18 Polysiphonia platycarpa

9 E. compressa 19 Rosenvingea intricata

10 Halodule pinifolia 20 Spyridia fusiformis

Mangroves:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Acanthus ilicifolius 8 Lumnitzera racemosa 2 Aegiceras corniculatum 9 Rhizophora annamalayana

3 Avicennia marina 10 R. apiculata 4 A. officinalis 11 R. mucronata

5 Bruguiera cylindrica 12 Sonneratia apetala

6 Ceriops decandra 13 Xylocarpus mekongensis

7 Excoecaria agallocha

Suaeda maritima, Suaeda monica and Salicornia brachiata are the important

associated species of this wetland.

Bacteria:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Aeromonas 8 Methanococcoides

methyluteus

2 Azotobacter beijerinckii 9 Micrococcus 3 A. chroococcum 10 Phormidium sp. 4 A. vinelandi 11 Pseudomonas caryophyllus

5 Bacillus cereus 12 P. mesophilica 6 Chromatium sp. 13 Rhodopseudomonas sp. 7 Flavobacterium 14 Vibrio

Fungus: Aspergillus, Penicillium and Streptomyces sp.

Phytoplankton: Natural phytoplankton communities are dominated by diatoms. A total of 63 species were recorded. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Achnanthes brevipes

Ampniprora gigantean

Asterionella japonica

Bacteriastrum comosum

Bellarochea malleus

Biddulphia dubia

Biddulphia sp.

Cerataulina bergonii

Ceratium furca

Chaetoceros affinis

Climacosphaenia moniligera

Cocconeis disculoides

Coscinodiscus centralis

Dinophysis caudate

Diploneis bombus Ditylum brightwellii

Eucampia cornuta

Fragilaria intermedia

Frustulia rhomboides

Guinardia flaccid

Gyrosigma balticum

Gyrosigma sp.

Hemiaulus sinensis

Hemidiscus hardmannianus

Lauderia annulata

Leptocylindrus danicus

Lithodesmium undulatum

Melosira sulcata

Navicula longa

Nitzschia closterium

Peridinium depressum

Provocentrum micans

Rhizosolenia alata

Schroedrella delicatula

Skeletonema costatum

Stephanophxis palmeriana

Surirella ovalis

Synedra ulna

Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii

Triceratium favus

Bacteriastrum delicatulum

Biddulphia mobiliensis

Biddulphia sinensis

Bacteriastrum varians

Ditylum sol

Rhizosolenia setigera

B. heteroceros

C. compressus

C. indicus

C. lorenzianus

C. peruvianus

C. socialis

C. thorii

C. tripos

E. zodiacus

F. gracillima

G. hippocampus

N. pygmaea

N. rostellata

N. salinarum

R. styliformis

R.. stolterforthii

T. reticulum

Benthic diatoms:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Amphora coffeaeformis A. holsatica

Diploneis ovalis A. marina Fragilaria pinnata D. suborbicularis

Fragilaria sp. D. subovalis Gyrosigma balticum G. scalproides

Navicula digito-radiata N. commutata Navicula sp. N. gracilis

Nitzschia angustata N. granulata

Nitzschia sp. N. obtusa Pinnularia ambigua N. palea

Plagiogramma staurophorum N. punctata Pleurosigma angulatum N. vermicularis Surirella striatula P. interrupta

P. normanii

P. reana

Zooplankton: The following zooplankton species have been recorded;

Protozoa:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Amphorellopsis acuta 8 T. cylindrical

2 Epipocylis undello 9 T. directa 3 Eutintinnus tenuis 10 T. glans 4 Favella ehrenpergii 11 T. minuta

5 F. philippinesis 12 T. stenosomella

6 Tintinnopsis amphora 13 T. tubulosa 7 T. beroidea

Rotifera:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Anuraeopsis fissa Platyias patulus P. quadricorunis

Brachionus angularis

B. bidentata

B. calyciflorus

B. caudatus

B. falcatus

B. quadridentatus

B. forficula

B. rubens

B. urceolaris

Trichotria tetractis

Tripleuchlanis plicata

Lecane curvicornis

L. leontina

L. luna

L. papuana

L. ungulate

Dipleuchlanis propatula

Monostyla bulla

M. closterocerca

Euchlanis dilatata

M. quadridentata

M. stenroosi

M. unguitata

E. oropha

Keratella cochlearis

K. procurva

Cephalodella gibba

K. quadrata

Ploesoma lenticularia

K. tropica

Pilina longiseta

Mytilina ventralis

Foraminifera: Globigerina rubescens and Robulus stepheni.

Metazoan: Bivalve veliger, Cirripede nauplii and Copepod nauplii.

Copepoda:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Acartia danae Centropages furcatus Acrocalanus gibber

Centropages gracilis

Acartia gracilis

Paracalanus parvus

Eucalanus elongates

Corycaus danae

Labidocera acuta

Euterpina acutifrons

Oithona plumifera

Macrosetella rosea

Acartia erythraea

Microsetella gracilis

Acrocalanus chilkaensis

Oithona brevicornis

Eucalanus attenuatus

Oithona similes

Acartia spinicauda

Oithona rigida

Decapoda: Lucifer hanseni

Chaetognatha: Sagitta enflata and Sagitta bipunctata

Larval forms: Prawn nauplii, Mysis, Fish larva, Megalopa, Crab zoea, Fish egg.

Polychaeta: Heteromastus similis, Euclymene annandale, Perinereis sp. and

Mercierella enigmatica.

Bivalvia: Crassostrea madrasensis

Gastropoda: Dostia (Neritina) crepidularia, Telescopium telescopium, Cerithidea

fluviatilis, Cerithidea obtusa, Littorina scabra, Assiminea nitida, Pythia plicata, Melampus ceylonicus, Cassidula nucleus.

Cirripeida: Balanus amphitrite

Tanaidacea: Tanais sp., Apseudes gymnophobia, Halmyrapseudes killaiyensis.

Isopoda: Ligia exotica, Cirolana fluviatilus, Sphaeroma terebrans, S. annandalei

Amphipoda: Paracalliope sp., Grandidierella sp., Corophium triaenonyx and

Talorchestia sp.

Free-living marine nematodes: A total of 39 species were recorded. These are

follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Adoncholaimus fuscus

Anoplostoma blanchardi

Araeolaimus longicauda Axonolaimu typicus

Daptonema conicum

D. oxycerca

Desmodora

(Pseudochromadora) luticola

Diplolaimella ocellata

Dorylaimopsis timmi

Eleutherolaimus

obtusicaudatus

Halalaimus (H.) gracilis

H. (Halalaimus) filum

Halichoanolaimus dolichurus

Metachromadora (M.) remanei

Metalinhomoeus longiseta

Neochromadora izhorica

Oxystomina elongate

O. unquiculata

Paracanthonchus elongates

Paracomesoma longispiculum

Paralinhomoeus brevibucca

Parodontophora brevamophida

P. breviseta

Polygastrophora septembulba

Prochromadorella brachyuran

Sabatieria falcifera

Sphaerolaimus maeoticus

S. pacificus

Spilophorella papillata

Spirinia (Perspiria)

straiaticaudata

S. (Spirinia) parasitifera

Steineria pilosa

Terschellingia longicaudata

Theristus (Penzancia) calx

T. (Theristus) pertenuis

Tripyloides gracilis

Trissonchulus oceanus

Viscosia carnleyensis

V. macramphida

V. viscose

Insects: A total of 79 species were recorded. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Acisoma panorpoides 41 Lamprophorus sp.

2 Acridiuma calanacorne 42 Leptocorisa varicornis

3 A. peregidium 43 Leptosia nina

4 A. sucinutum 44 Lethe europa

5 Aeschinid sp. 45 Manido histero

6 Alphitobius piceus 46 Melantis leda

7 Amarygmus cuparius 47 Mesomorpha villiger

8 Ammophila levigata 48 Murgantia luptescens

9 Appias albino 49 Mutilla sexmaculata

10 Aschishus breviconis 50 Mylabris pustulata

11 Asoudiniroga sanctaecrussis 51 Myllocerus viridanus

12 Atella phalantha 52 Myrmeleonid sp.

13 Batocera rufomaculata 53 Necroscia pholidotus

14 Bembex sulphurescens 54 Nezuura vurudula

15 Calandra sculpturata 55 Onthophagus longicornis

16 Catcopsilia florella 56 O. onitis

17 Chrysocoris stolli 57 Oryctes rhinoceros

18 Cicindella octonata 58 Otheries masterina

19 Coccinella septempunctata 59 Oxytonisia versicolor

20 Colotis etrida 60 Paplio polytes

21 Cossyphus depressus 61 Phersophus lineiforms

22 Danais chrysippus 62 Platerious sp.

23 D. meliss 63 Polidours arisotolchae

24 D. nilgiriensis 64 Polidours hector

25 D. pixippus 65 Precis almanac

26 Delias eucharis 66 P. iphita

27 Dicrononcus amabilis 67 P. lemonias

28 Dysderus cingulatus 68 Pyrops sp.

29 Ergolis aradina 69 Rhyncophorus feruginus

30 Euploeca core 70 Rhyotherns varigata

31 Eusarcoris ventralis 71 Salda dixoni

32 Gonocephalum hfomanseggi 72 Scliphron madraspatunam

33 Gryllotalfa africana 73 Sphnoptera arachnid

34 Haltica sp. 74 Stizus prismaticus

35 Heliocopris bucephalus 75 Telchinia violae

36 Henicocephalis basalis 76 Terisas hecabe

37 Herse sonluvuli 77 Tribolium castaneum

38 Hierodula coarclata 78 T. confusum

39 Hieroglyphus farcifer 79 Yphtima baldus

40 Ileus cincta

Shell-fishes:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Penaeus indicus

P. monodon Macrophthalmus depressus

M. erato

P. semisulcatus

Dotilla myctiroides

P. merguiensis

Grapsus strigosus

Metapenaeus monoceros

G. tenuicrustatus

M. affinis

Metapograpsus maculatus

M. dobsoni

M. messor

M. brevicornis

Ptychognathus altimanus

M. lysianassa

Pseudograpsus intermedius

Scylla serrata

Nanosesarma (Nanosesarma)

minutum

Scylla tranquebarica

N. patavicum

Portunus (Portunus)

sanguinolentus

Sesarma andersoni

P. pelagicus

S. brockii

Charybdis (Charybdis) lucifera

S. plicatum

Charybdis helleri

S. bidens

Thalamita crenata

Neoepisesarma (Muradium)

tetragonum

T. chaptali

N. mederi

Galene bispinosa

Plagusia dentipes

Heteropanope indica

P. depressa

Ocypode platytarsis

Metaplex elegans

O. macrocera

M. distincta

Uca (Celuca) lactea annulipes

Cardisoma carnifex

U. triangularis Bengali

Fin-fishes:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Ambassys gymnocephalus

Lates calcarifer A. commersoni

Lutjanus argentimaculatus

Arius subrostratus

Mugil cephalus

Chanos chanos

Osteomugil cunnesius

Etroplus suratensis

Pomadasys kaakan

Gerres filamentosus

Plotosus canius

G.abbreviatus

Scatophagus argus

Liza parsia

Siganus javus

L.macrolepis

S.canaliculatus

L.subviridis

Terapon jarbua

Birds: A total of 177 species were recorded. The reported species are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Accipiter badius 90 Lanius cristatus

2 A. nisus 91 L. schach

3 A. virgatus 92 L. vittatus

4 Acridotheres tristis 93 Larus argentatus

5 Acrocephalus aedon 94 L. brunnicephalus

6 A. dumetorum 95 L. ichthyaetus

7 Aegithina tiphia 96 L. ridibundus

8 Alauda gulgula 97 Limicola falcinellus

9 Alcedo atthis 98 Limnodromus

semipalmatus

10 Amaurornis phoenicurus 99 Limosa lapponica

11 Anas acuta 100 L. limosa

12 A. clypeata 101 Lonchura punctulata

13 A. crecca 102 Megalaima haemacephala

14 A. penelope 103 Merops leschenaulti

15 A. poecilorhyncha 104 M. orientalis

16 A. querquedula 105 M. philippinus

17 A. strepera 106 Milvus migrans

18 Anastomus oscitans 107 Mirafra assamica

19 Anhinga rufa 108 M. erythroptera

20 Anthus novaeseelandiae 109 Motacilla alba

21 Anus affinis 110 M. cinerea 22 A. platyrhynchos 111 M. flava

23 Ardea alba 112 M. indica

24 A. cinerea 113 M. maderaspatensis 25 A. purpurea 114 Muscicapa latirostris

26 Ardeola grayii 115 M. muttui

27 A. striatus 116 Mycteria leucocephala

28 Arenaria interpres 117 Nectarinia asiatica 29 Artamus fuscus 118 N. zeylonica

30 Athene brama 119 Neophron percnopterus

31 Bubulcus ibis 120 Nettapus coromandelianus

32 Burhinus oedicnemus 121 Numenius arquata

33 Calidris alpina 122 N. phaeopus

34 C. minuta 123 Nycticorax nycticorax

35 C. temminckii 124 Oriolus oriolus

36 C. testacea 125 Orthotomus sutorius

37 Centropus sinensis 126 Pandion haliaetus

38 Ceryle rudis 127 Passer domesticus

39 Charadrius alexandrinus 128 Perdicula asiatica

40 C. dubius 129 Petronia xanthocollis

41 C. hiaticula 130 Phalacrocorax carbo

42 C. leschenaultii 131 P. fuscicollis

43 C. mongolus 132 P. niger

44 Chlidonias hybridus 133 Philomachus pugnax

45 Ciconia ciconia 134 Phoenicopterus roseus,

46 Circus aeruginosus 135 Phylloscopus magnirostris

47 C. macrorus 136 Pitta brachyura

48 C. melanoleucos 137 Platalea leucorodia

49 C. pygargus 138 Plegadis falcinellus

50 Clamator jacobinus 139 Pluvialis dominica

51 Columba livia 140 P. squatarola

52 Copsychus saularis 141 Podiceps ruficollis

53 Coracias benghalensis 142 Prinia subflava

54 Corvus macrorhynchos 143 Psittacula krameri

55 C. splendens 144 Pycnonotus cafer

56 Cuculus varius 145 P. luteolus

57 Cypsiurus parvus 146 Rallina eurizonoides

58 Dendrocitta vagabunda 147 Rallus striatus

59 Dicaeum erythrorhynchos 148 Recurvirostra avosetta

60 Dicrurus adsimilis 149 Saxicoloides fulicata

61 Dinopium benghalense 150 Sterna albifrons

62 Egretta garzetta 151 S. aurantia

63 E. gularis 152 S. benghalensis

64 E. intermedia 153 S. bergii

65 Elanus caeruleus 154 S. hirundo

66 Eremopterix grisea 155 Streptopelia chinensis

67 Esacus magnirostris 156 S. decaocto

68 Eudynamys scolopacea 157 S. senegalensis

69 Falco chicquera 158 Sturnus pagodarum

70 F. peregrinus 159 S. roseus

71 F. tinnunculus 160 Sylvia curruca

72 Francolinus pondicerianus 161

Tephrodornis pondicerianus

73 Galerida cristata 162 Terpsiphone paradisi

74 Gallicrex cinerea 163 Threskiornis aethiopica

75 Gallinago gallinago 164 Tringa erythropus

76 Gelochelidon nilotica 165 T. glareola

77 Glareola lactea 166 T. hypoleucos

78 Haematopus ostralegus 167 T. nebularia

79 Halcyon pileata 168 T. ochropus

80 H. smyrnensis 169 T. stagnatilis

81 Haliaeetus leucogaster 170 T. terek

82 Haliastur Indus 171 T. tetanus

83 Himantopus himantopus 172 Turdoides caudatus

84 Hirundo daurica 173 Turnix suscitator

85 H. fluvicola 174 Tyto alba

86 H. rustica 175 Upupa epops

87 Hydroprogne caspia 176 Vanellus indicus

88 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus 177 V. malabaricus

89 I. flavicollis

Seasnakes: Enhydrina schistose and Acrocordus granulatus


Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns, and crabs. The more robust mangrove species have been selectively felled. There are several human settlements within the mangrove forest, and villagers from outside enter the forest to collect wood. The human population density has been calculated at 12 persons per

hectare. Surrounding areas are mainly under cultivation for rice and pulses. Large-scale extraction of “Industrial Grade Salt” is being carried out. Fishing is also done.

Conservation measures taken: Department of Forest, Government of Tamil Nadu,

declare the Pichavaram mangrove wetland as a Reserved Forest. This mangrove wetland is attracting large number of tourists. A limited amount of fishing is permitted, but shooting is prohibited. The Tamil Nadu Forest Department launched a

crocodile rehabilitation project at Pichavaram, and by 1984, had released 12 crocodiles provided by the Orissa State Forest Department.

Conservation measures proposed: in his National Wildlife Action Plan Survey, M. Krishnan made extensive proposals for the conservation of the area. He suggested that the development of tourism would be a sensible alternative to uncontrolled

exploitation, and could benefit the local inhabitants. The establishment of a good interpretation centre would be an essential first step.

Disturbances and threats: The principal threats to the area are reclamation for

agriculture; uncontrolled grazing by domestic livestock, and over-exploitation of the forest resource. A part of the area has already been reclaimed for agriculture. The existing level of exploitation far exceeds sustainable levels, and the habitat is rapidly

being degraded by the removal of all Sonneratia apetala and Xylocarpus granatum. The collection of firewood has reduced large areas to pure coppice of Avicennia

marina. Extensive tree felling for fuelwood has resulted in the extinction of a mangrove species Kanelia. Two other mangrove species, Sonneratia and Xylocarpus,

are on the brink of extinction. The back-mangals are heavily grazed by domestic livestock, the fishery resources are being over-exploited, and there is heavy hunting pressure on marine turtles. The oyster beds, which support numerous denizens, are

being indiscriminately harvested for the shells which are used in the production of lime and are also very lucrative financially. Pollution from domestic sewage and agricultural run-off has also been reported. There is a considerable among of general disturbance throughout the area, partly caused by tourism. The construction of the

road along the east coast, which is to eventually link Calcutta with Kanyakumari, is a serious threat to this mangrove forest. Trees are being cut and vegetation removed for construction work.

Socio-economic values: The mangroves are an important breeding and nursery area for many fishes and crustaceans of economic importance, and act as a barrier to coastal erosion. The area has considerable potential for wildlife tourism; if this could

be shown to provide an alternative source of income for the local people, further destruction of the natural resource might be averted.

Research and facilities: Research on the mangrove ecosystem has been carried out

by biologists from the Marine Biological Centre at Parangipettai, 10 km from Pitchavaram, and from Annamalai University. A 10 hectare plot has been handed over to a local tourism initiative of the Tamil Nadu Tourism Development Corporation. A tourist centre has been created, with a lodge, a canteen and accommodation for a

small numbers of visitors; when further facilities are required, they will be located on the mainland.

Reference: Anantharaman and Kannan (1997); Chandrasekaran (2000);

Govindasamy and Kannan (1991). Karuppasamy and Perumal (2000); Kathiresan (Eds.) (2000); Kathiresan et al. (1996); Ravichandran and Kannupandi (2004); Sampath and Krishnamurthy (1993); Senthil and Varadharajan (1995); Subramanian

and Sethuraman (1998). Kathiresan et al., 1996; Kathiresan, 2000); Chinnadurai and Fernando (2003, 2007).

POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE AND BIRD SANCTUARY

The Point Calimere (10° 19’ N, 79° 38’ E) region was first identified as an area of high significance in conservation of birds by the late Dr. Salim Ali in 1962. The proposed Sanctuary may be divided into three divisions: The Point Calimere Forest,

The Great Vedaranyam Swamp (GVS), which includes the mangrove forests at Muthupet; and the mangroves of Talaignayar Reserve Forest (TRF).

(i) Point Calimere Forest:

Geology: As Point Calimere is the seaward apex of the Cauvery river delta, the soil deposits are essentially of fluvial origin, besides sand dunes. The pedologic horizons

are inseparable. The only well individualised horizon is at the surface. It has little organic matter, and is usually clayey sand, with pebbles, gravel or concretions. The average depth of this horizon is 30 to 40 cm. Below 40 cm, the layers are

permanently humid, richer in clay, but poorer in organic matter. Below 60 cm, the soil is pale grey, very rich in clay, which is penetrated only by some big roots. The soils are halomorphic with a muddy structure in a moistened state and a compact structure in dry state. A saline efflorescence is often formed at the surface due to the capillary

rise of salt (mainly sodium chloride), favoured by the proximity to the sea and the length of the dry season. The sand on the dunes is fine yellowish-white, and is continuously altered by aeolian erosion whenever exposed (Blasco and Legris 1973).

Location and Topography: The northern boundary of the Point Calimere forest starts ca 6 km south of Vedaranyam and extends further south for about 4 km till the Palk Strait. It is bounded on the east by the Bay of Bengal and to the west by the Great

Vedaranyam Swamp. The forest (17 km2) is not continuous but interrupted by

many tidal inlets and creeks of varying lengths and widths, which get flooded during the monsoon.

(ii) Great Vedaranyam Swamp (GVS)

Geology and Evolution: GVS comes under the category of bar-built estuaries under the four primary subdivisions of estuaries (Pritchard 1967). Geomorphologically, the GVS is a resultant formation of the interaction between the tidal forces of the sea and

the mainland river water currents in the estuarine areas. As this area exists in a low energy zone (due to the presence of the shallow Palk Strait), extensive sand bars reaching a distance of 30–40 km are formed. These sand bars protect the inner lagoon

formations from direct sea action, and due to fluvial processes, very large amounts of clayey silt are deposited behind the sand bars. Tissot (1987), from palynological studies at Muthupet region, estimated the mangrove forest and sediments to be about

2000 years old. He cited the existence of ancient sand bars or dunes much further north-west of the present beaches all along the Cauvery delta. Blasco (1975) found


that the warping rate of the Muthupet (Mullipallam) Lagoon was very rapid and that over a period of 25 years, an area of nearly 400 ha had been gained.

Location and Topography: The GVS (350 km2) lies parallel to the Palk Strait for

about 45 km, and is separated from it by a sand bank, breached at a few places. The GVS is flanked on the northern boundary by a number of villages. The GVS can be broadly divided into two parts, which are connected to each other only during the

rainy season by a small breach.

The western part has mangrove forests (120.2 km2) and a lagoon (17 km2), called the Mullipalam Lagoon. The River Korayar is the main source of freshwater.

This region is regularly influenced by tidal action due to an opening (1.5 km2

long) into the Palk Strait. The depth of the lagoon varies seasonally and does not exceed 2 m. Salinity of the lagoon varies from 5–15 ppt (gm/litre) during the monsoon to about

45 ppt during summer.

During very dry periods, there is water only in the Seruthalaikkadu Creek. The Seruthalaikkadu Creek is connected to the sea by an opening, called the Chellakanni Aaru. The freshwater input into this area is confined to the rainy season, largely from

the small drainage canals connected to the River Cauvery that empty into the swamp. There are several islets in this area, which are formed due to aeolian and fluvial deposition. The depth of water in the Seruthalaikkadu Creek varies seasonally from

about 60 to 120 cm. Salinity in the Creek varies from ca 10 ppt (monsoon) to 50 ppt (summer), while in the northern areas prone to drying, salinity goes up to 100 ppt just prior to drying.

(iii) Talaignayar Reserve Forest (TRF)

Geology: The soil in Talaignayar is clayey due to the estuarine nature of the area and consequent successive deposits of alluvial silt brought down by the River Adappar.

These alluvial deposits have risen to the ground level, thereby exposing the soil to inundation only during high tide.

Location and Topography: TRF, which is not contiguous with the Point Calimere

forests and the GVS is approximately 18 km north of Point Calimere. It is situated near the estuary of the River Adappar, which flows into the Bay of Bengal near Kallimedu, and is thus covered by extensive lagoons and streams.

Abiotic factors: The climate is monsoonal, but is not typical of monsoonal climates

due to its asymmetrical rainfall regime. The main contribution to the rainfall is from the North-East Monsoon (October–December), and to a considerably lesser degree, the South-West Monsoon (June–September). There is much variation in the quantum

of rainfall from year to year, as the area is vulnerable to cyclonic storms that influence the distribution and quantum of rainfall considerably. The average rainfall ranges from 1000–1500 mm (Meher-Homji 1984). The highest temperatures (34°C) are

recorded in May, and the minimum (25°C) in January and February. Humidity remains relatively high and constant throughout the year. A marked feature of the climate of this region is the strong southwesterly winds during May and June.

Macrophytes: During the monsoon, aquatics such as Aponogeton natans, Bergia

capensis, Najas graminea and Sphenoclea zeylanica occur. Pentatropis microphylla is a common twiner on many plants.

Trees: The dominant trees of the forest are Manilkara hexandra (locally called Palai,

is the most important dry evergreen species) and Salvadora persica in the open areas.

Insectivorous plants such as Drosera burmanii and D. indica are also present in the grassland habitat. Dominated by Halophytes such as Arthrocnemum indicum,

Salicornia brachiata and Sessuvium portulacastrum are common along the marshy

areas of the shore. Patches of Prosopis chilensis, Calotropis gigantea, Clerodendrum

inerme and Pandanus tectorius occur in elevated areas. Ipomoea pes-caprae, Spinifex

littoreus and Zoysia matrella are common on the sand dunes.

Mangroves: Avicennia marina is the dominant mangrove species in the area. The shrub layer is made up of Suaeda maritima and S. monoica. Excoecaria agallocha

occurs on the river banks, and Aegiceras corniculatum and Acanthus ilicifolius at the

edges, where the tidal influence is pronounced. Suaeda maritima and Excoecharia

agallocha dominate in the back-mangrove areas. According to Tissot (1987), the mangroves of Muthupet are of recent origin, and some important species such as Rhizophora and Sonneratia have disappeared in the recent past due to changes in the

salinity regimes. At Talaignayar, the vegetation is characteristic salt-marsh vegetation with extensive growth of Suaeda monoica and S. nudiflora. Acanthus ilicifolius, Aegiceras corniculatum, and Rhizophora candelaria are dominant on either side of

the river Adappar and its tributaries that form the estuary.

Fishes: GVS is the spawning and / or nursing ground for commercially important prawns (mainly White Prawn Penaeus indicus and Tiger Prawn P. monodon), crabs

(Marsh Crab Scylla serrata) and fishes. Eastern part of the GVS harbours 23 fish species, mainly mullets, where as the Mullipalam Lagoon at Muthupet has a more direct influence of the sea and harbours more marine species of fish, some 20 species.

Reptiles: Twenty nine species of reptiles and eight species of amphibians have been reported from the Sanctuary, the Starred Tortoise Geochelone elegans, the Olive Ridley Turtle Lepidochelys olivacea, Hawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata and the Green Turtle Chelonia mydas.

Birds: Both the species of flamingos that inhabit the Old World viz., the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus and Lesser Flamingo P. minor inhabit the GVS). The origin of flamingo species of the GVS is uncertain. The earlier general

presumption that they originate from Kutch is belied by the recovery of Iranian and Russian ringed Greater Flamingos from the GVS. The Lesser Flamingo is presumed to be of African origin since little breeding has been recorded in India. The Greater

Flamingo appears to be largely a monsoon visitor to the GVS. The movements of Lesser Flamingo in the GVS are erratic, it is sedentary for some months and then moves to other haunts. Flamingos inhabit highly alkaline and saline lakes and are considered to be partial to saltworks. The Greater Flamingo is attracted to reservoirs

and low salinity condensers of industrial salt works in the GVS during the monsoon, due to increase in food supplies. The Lesser Flamingo avoids salt works all through the year. The main reason for this difference is that the Greater Flamingo is a

generalist feeder (plant and animal) and can shift to feeding on different species of food, where and when abundant, while the Lesser Flamingo is a specialist feeder (blue green algae) and cannot shift to such opportunistic feeding.

The Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra of Point Calimere represents one of the three isolated populations of Blackbuck existing in Tamil Nadu, with the other populations in the Guindy National Park (Chennai) and near Satyamangalam (Erode district). The Blackbuck of Point Calimere are unique in that males do not attain the black

colouration of adults, as in parts of central and northern India, and remain a dark tan throughout their lives. Locally known as Velimaan (open country deer), the

Blackbuck inhabits the open stretch of grazing lands (700 ha), south and west of the forest of Point Calimere. This isolated population of Blackbuck at Point Calimere probably survived unmolested throughout the centuries due to the locals’ now

declining belief that eating its meat causes leprosy. The predators of the Blackbuck at Point Calimere are Jackals, and sometimes village dogs. Competition for food is from domestic and feral cattle. The population estimate of the Blackbuck at Point Calimere

over the years carried out by different individuals or organisations are as follows:

Source Year Population Estimate

Daniel (1967) 1967 750–800

Johnson (1975) 1971 970

Nair (1976) 1974 340

Natarajan et al. (1978) 1977 506

Forest Department 1981 1546

Forest Department 1985 1623

490

843

280 Natarajan (1994) 1989

538

Forest Department 1993-94 1725



Asian waterfowl count of Point Calimere Wildlife sanctuary.

Species 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 2000

Little Grebe - - - - - 6

Spotbilled Pelican 74 127 127 124 5 431

Little Cormorant - - - - - 2

Little Egret 274 518 1239 899 647 1

Indian Reef Heron 6 3 44 126 22 19

Grey Heron 6 3 44 126 22 19

Large Egret 125 146 325 163 83 304

Median Egret 25 5 - - 2 1

Cattle Egret 37 - - 4 165 1

Pond Heron 25 25 61 31 20 5

Night Heon - - - - - 2

Painted Stok 237 253 138 169 3 79

Spoonbill 402 135 148 465 60 509

Greater Flamingo 27953 3595 949 1082 100 10133

Lesser Flamingo 150 - 210 400 - 355

Bar-headed Goose 61 - 36 16 - 9

Gadwall 500 - - - - -

Wigeon - - - - 400

Mallard 150 - - - - -

Spotbill Duck 160 - - - - -

Shoveller 4054 600 513 - 154 300

Pintail 14210 4864 1514 3620 6795 24910

Garganey 1060 200 500 - - 530

Common Teal 1690 460 100 - - -

White-breasted Waterhen

- - - - - 6

Fantail Snipe - - - - - 1

Black-tailed Godwit - 700 1279 651 622 1265

Bar-tailed Godwit - - - - 2

Whimbrel - - - 6 - -

Curlew 12 4 12 5 22 16

Spotted Redshank - - 3 - - -

Redshank 97 91 290 129 19 29

Marsh Sandpiper 235 548 480 887 14757 695

Greenshank 102 8 61 169 495 225

Green Sandpiper 34 10 - - - 3

Wood Sandpiper 20 - - - 11 1

Terek Sandpiper 2 530 - - 1 -

Common Sandpiper - - - 2 13 2

Turnstone - - 1 - 17 21

Eastern Knot - - - - - 9

Red Knot - - - - - 2

Little Stint 15530 4701 13511 12791 27917 3910

Temminck’s Stint - - 1 - 2 -

Dunlin 650 - - - - 1

Curlew Sandpiper 3485 777 1672 1960 6902 20

Broad-billed Sandpiper

- - - - - 20

Ruff - 60 528 485 839 15

Red-necked

Phalarope

- - - - - 8

Blackwinged Stilt 3 7 2096 865 - 4

Avocet - - 90 3000 - -

Grey Plover - 11 3 19 9 -

Pacific Golden Plover

26 - - - 159 100

Little Ringed Plover 51 20 77 145 443 343

Kentish Plover 11 30 12 50 2570 700

Lesser Sand Plover 187 69 821 150 5551 3877

Redwattled Lapwing - - - - 2 2

Yellow-legged Gull 34 - 508 1220 594 267

Black-headed Gull - - - - - 53

Brownheaded Gull 354 702 816 190 437 268

Whiskered Tern 165 82 192 272 157 268

Black Tern - - 3 - - 29

Gullbilled Tern 3 23 28 80 43 76

Caspian Tern 9 18 63 121 510 10

Lesser Crested Tern - - - 25 - -

Large Crested Tern - - - 9 - 7

Common Tern 137 53 31 23 14 17

Little Tern 230 31 170 536 103 19

Unidentified Ducks - 197 - 790 550 -

Unidentified Waders - - 3250 - - -

Unidentified Gulls and Terns

- - 10 196 - -

Mammals: Fourteen species of mammals have been reported from the Sanctuary. The larger mammals are the Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra, Spotted Deer Axis axis,

Wild Boar Sus scrofa and Jackal Canis aureus. The Flying Fox Pteropus

giganteusroosts in large flocks on trees in the Point Calimere forest and the mangrove forest at Muthupet. The Common Dolphin Delphinus delphis is seen near the shore

during the monsoon.

Land tenure: The entire forest of Point Calimere was notified as reserve forest in two stages, in 1892 (Kodikkadu Reserve Forests) and in 1938 (Kodikkadu Extension

Reserve Forest). It was declared as Point Calimere Sanctuary in June 1967. The Surrounding areas of the Muthupet Reserve Forest (mangroves) starts about 40 km to the west of Point Calimere. From 1853 to 1912, the Muthupet forest was under the ‘Chatram Department’, (rest houses for pilgrims and travellers constructed by the

Raja of Tanjore) a branch of the then District Board of Tanjore. After that, the charge of the forests was shared by the Revenue Department and the Chatram Department. In 1937, the forests were declared as a reserve forest, and taken over by the Forest

Department. The Talaignayar Reserve Forest (mangroves) is situated about 25 km to the north of Vedaranyam and was notified as a reserve forest in 1931. In 1988, a proposal was sent to the Tamil Nadu Government to extend the area of the Sanctuary to include GVS and TRF. The new Sanctuary, with a total area of ca 385.3 km2, will

bear the name Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary. The promulgation of this new sanctuary is still in process.

Land use: The Sanctuary is bordered in many areas by villages and an estimated

35,000 fishermen and agriculturists live at the borders of the Sanctuary (Varatharaj 1988). The Great Vedaranyam Swamp (GVS) has a long history of salt production. A number of domestic and industrial salt works operate in the GVS. Depending on the

time of the year, between 500 to 900 cattle (domestic, abandoned and semi-feral) graze in the open areas of the Sanctuary inhabited by the Blackbuck at Point Calimere. Surrounding areas of the wetland is used for a number of villages dot the northern bank of the Swamp, and fishing is an important occupation of many

villagers. It goes on throughout the year without any restrictions on the fishing gear, resulting in fishes of small size and non-target species being caught. It is estimated that around 35,000 fishermen and agriculturalists live around the borders of the

Sanctuary.

Conservation measures taken: Situated at the southern end of Nagappattinam district, Tamil Nadu, the Point Calimere region was first identified as an area of high

significance in conservation of birds by the late Dr. Salim Ali in 1962. Through several stages, the forest areas were declared as the Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary (22.5 km2).

• Management practices: In the absence of the management plan (one plan submitted for approval) few practices that are being followed are:

• To conserve the black buck and other wild animals an innovative freshwater Source, has been created. In the watchtower over head tanks have been constructed, to supply water (fresh) during the drought period (April, May, June) and under ground pipline is laid up to 3 kms. to connect the overhead tank for the

supply of water. The water source is from the bore-well equipped with motor.

• Along the coast olive ridely turtles are come to the shore for egg laying. During 1999-2000, an attempt had been made to collect the eggs, about 1500 eggs were collected and the eggs hatched in the artificial hatchery. (14 clutches about 85-90

eggs/ clutch). 80 to 82% succeed in the attempt to prevent the predation by the jackals, the hatchery was fenced with Bamboo racks, and the fishing nets was used to prevent the predation by raptors.

Conservation measures proposed: In 1988, a proposal was sent to the Tamil Nadu Government to extend the area of the Sanctuary to include the Great Vedaranyam Swamp and the Talaignayar Reserve Forest, and rename the sanctuary as the Point

Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary. The promulgation of this new sanctuary is still in process. The potential for designation of the sanctuary as a Ramsar Site is largely on account of the Great Vedaranyam Swamp (350 km2), which is one of the largest wetlands of southern India and is a major wintering refuge for a multitude of

migratory waterbirds. The earlier management plan expired in 1997. And a new one is submitted for the approval. In this the removal of the weed prosopis is recommended (inside the sanctuary), under eco-development.

Disturbance and threats: The climate is monsoonal, but is not typical of monsoonal climates due to its asymmetrical rainfall regime. The main contribution to the rainfall is from the North-East Monsoon (October–December), and to a considerably lesser

degree, the South-West Monsoon (June–September). There is much variation in the quantum of rainfall from year to year, as the area is vulnerable to cyclonic storms that influence the distribution and quantum of rainfall considerably. The average rainfall ranges from 1000–1500 mm (Meher-Homji 1984). The highest temperatures (34°C)

are recorded in May, and the minimum (25°C) in January and February. Humidity remains relatively high and constant throughout the year. A marked feature of the climate of this region is the strong southwesterly winds during May and June.

Socio-economic values: Territorial jurisdiction resides with the Indian State of Tamil Nadu; functional jurisdiction with the Tamil Nadu Forest Department, State Governemnt of Tamil Nadu. The wetlands are used for agriculture, fishery (also in the

salt works reservoirs), salt production (domestic and industrial salt works), firewood collection, forestry (timber), and grazing lands for livestock. The site is also used for scientific research (fauna monitoring, postgraduate studies and evaluation of the ecosystem resource benefiting to locals), recreation and pilgrimage (January-April).

The surroundings are mainly used for agriculture and fishery.

The site supports the IUCN red-listed birds Pelecanus philippensis, Phoenicopterus

minor, Limnodromus semipalmatus, and Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus, the mammal

Antilope cervicapra and the reptiles Chelonia mydas, Lepidochelys olivacea, Eretmochelys imbricata. It regularly supports about 30,000 flamingos and tens of thousands of other waterbirds. It also regularly supports over 1% of the individuals in

the south Asia population of Pelecanus philippensis (200–300 individuals).

Research and facilities: The Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary was identified as an area of high significance in conservation of birds from the time the late Dr. Salim Ali made an exploratory visit to the area in 1962. From 1980 for nearly a decade, the

Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) had been monitoring the avifauna and other wildlife (and their habitats) of the forests of Point Calimere and GVS, under two U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service sponsored projects. However, the TRF, which is part of the

proposed Sanctuary, has largely been overlooked as it is at some distance from Point Calimere, the headquarters of the Sanctuary. Besides the BNHS, the AVC College Mayiladuthurai, which offers a wildlife biology course, has used the Point Calimere

Wildlife Sanctuary as a field base for many postgraduate students. Students of the Centre for Advanced Studies in Marine Biology, Parangipettai (Porto Novo) have also undertaken a few research projects in the GVS. The M.S. Swaminathan

Foundation, Chennai has recently (1997) established a station at Muthupet to evaluate the resource of the Muthupet ecosystem, with special source to the benefits to the locals.

Past and Present: The estuarine ecosystem is regarded as one of the most productive of all ecosystems. Inspite of its multiple values and the fact that it is a self-sustaining unit, needing no fertilizers, pesticides or maintenance, the estuarine ecosystem has been largely regarded as a wasteland to be put to other uses (Maltby

1986, Odum 1971). The situation is the same in Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary. The Sanctuary is bordered in many areas by villages and an estimated 35,000 fishermen and agriculturists live at the borders of the Sanctuary (Varatharaj 1988),

thereby exerting tremendous pressures on the Sanctuary’s resource. Inspite of the multiple benefits accruing to the locals from the Sanctuary, little thought is given to judicious or sustainable use of the resource. Thus, the tranquil exterior of the Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary is deceptive − it is beset by problems as follows:

Site:

• Forest Destruction: A significant portion of the firewood requirements of Kodikkarai and Kodikkadu is being illegally obtained from the forest (Daniel and Rao 1994). Legally, only the tribals are allowed to collect dry wood from the

forest for their use. The tribals, known as the Cheendi Valayars, now number around 450 individuals (Source: Village Panchayat), an increase from a population of 151 in 1961 (Sarma 1976). With the increasing demand for

firewood, the tribals have started to cut green wood for their own use and for sale to the villagers. The demand for firewood (and timber) further increases during the fishing season (December to February), when there is an influx of around 5,000 fishermen from other areas. Tree cutting also occurs in the islets in the

GVS. When most parts of the GVS dry up during the dry season, people go in bullock-carts to cut the trees in the islets. In Muthupet, Selvam et al. (1994) reported that only 15% of the mangroves is ‘healthy’, and a total of 103 families

depend on the forests for their livelihood. The wood is mainly sold as firewood to tea shops. Each bundle of wood fetches approximately 40 to 50 rupees, and is preferred over Prosopis, the other most common alternative, as it fetches a higher price. According to recent Forest Department Source (A.D. Barua, Wildlife

Warden), there has been concerted efforts in the past few years both at Point Calimere and Muthupet to check tree cutting, and the situation is much better now.

• Collection of Non-Timber Forest Produce: Besides firewood and timber, there is illegal collection of forest produce, such as fruits of Manilkara hexandra, Zizyphus oenoplia, Carissa carandus, Syzigium cumini, Sapindus emarginatus, and rhizomes of Gloriosa superba from the Point Calimere forests. Trees are destroyed during collection of Manilkara fruits, as branches are chopped off to

collect the fruits. Large scale collection of leaf litter from the forest is carried out yearly for use as manure for the tobacco crop, this practice has a long history and

dates back to 1938. According to the Forest Department (A.D. Barua, Wildlife Warden, pers. comm.), the collection of fruits, such as M. hexandra and S. cumini

was legally permitted in the past, but has now been stopped, and similar is the

case with forest litter collection. A recent problem is that fruiting of trees in the forest is poor, which is attributed to the ‘increasing pollution’ of the ground water (A.D. Barua, Wildlife Warden, pers. comm.). Ali and Sugathan (1985) had earlier

pointed out instances of withering of Palmyra trees Borassus flabelifer in Kodikkarai and Kodikkadu villages.

• Spread of Prosopis: Prosopis chilensis was planted in Point Calimere Sanctuary during the 1950s near Muniappan Eri and some areas bordering the GVS, to serve as wind barriers (Natarajan et al. 1984). Since then, the species has spread to

many areas in the forest. Natarajan (1994) found cattle to be one of the main dispersal agents of the species by consuming its pods. The spread of Prosopis is restricted to the open areas (e.g., Peralam and Periyanandu Pallam), grazing lands,

or where the forest has been heavily disturbed, such as near villages and in the islets in the GVS. However, the species has a positive role in that it reduces by 40–50% the demand for firewood and fence material from the forest (Daniel and Rao 1994). The Forest Department had made some efforts to check the spread of

Prosopis in the blackbuck area by uprooting and burning in the past, but this is presently being carried out.

• Salt Works: GVS has a long history of salt production. A number of domestic and industrial salt works operate in the GVS. There have been demands from

certain quarters to establish more salt works, including a huge (24,000 ha) salt complex. Environmentalists and locals have opposed the proposal, recognising the importance of the Swamp for waterbirds, and concern about the groundwater being affected. Kodikkarai has scarcity of good drinking water, and an increasing

number of wells turn brackish every few years, attributed to the presence of salt works by the villagers. The overall impact of a salt complex of such a magnitude will definitely alter the ecosystem, affecting the biodiversity of the GVS, besides

having probable repercussions on the fisheries on the coast (Manakadan 1994). Additionally, as discussed earlier, there is poor fruiting of trees in recent years, suspected to be due to the increasing salinity of the ground water.

• Grazing: Depending on the time of the year, between 500 to 900 cattle (domestic, abandoned and semi-feral) graze in the open areas of the Sanctuary, inhabited by

the Blackbuck at Point Calimere. The Forest Department’s efforts to ban grazing by stopping the issue of grazing permits have met with stiff resistance from the locals. However, the role of cattle in the control of spread of shrubs and trees and

maintaining the grassland through grazing and browsing needs to be studied in detail, before a decision can be taken on stoppage or control of grazing for the benefit of blackbuck (Daniel and Rao 1994), though cattle have also been

identified as major dispersal agents for seed of Prosopis (Natarajan 1994). It is also suggested that the grasslands have been maintained ‘naturally’, due to periodic submergence by water as the grassland stretches occur in low lying areas (A.D. Barua, Wildlife Warden, pers. comm.). At Muthupet, about 150–200

abandoned aged or dry cattle graze in the reserve forest (Selvam et al. 1988). According to the Forest Department’s records, around 5,000 head of cattle graze in the Sanctuary (Varatharaj 1988).

Surroundings:

• Decreased Freshwater Inflow: The River Cauvery, the source of the freshwater inflow into the GVS, has its origins in the Western Ghats ranges of Karnataka state. It traverses nearly 850 km, draining an area of ca 89,600 km2

en route. The Cauvery is considered to be the best utilised river system in southern India. There

are seven major dams and a number of smaller dams all along its length. These seven dams can store in total, 232 tmc ft (35%) of the estimated 671 tmc ft of water available in the Cauvery (Jayaraman et al. 1982, 'The Hindu', Madras: 28-07-1991 and 7-12-1991). Though the Cauvery receives water during both the

monsoons, freshwater inflow into the central and eastern part of the GVS is only during the North-East Monsoon period due to the impoundments on its course. This factor accounts for extensive drying of the GVS during certain months.

Though the Mullipallam Lagoon receives water throughout the year from the River Korayar, the inflow has declined over the years. Tissot (1987) attributes this reason for the natural replacement of true mangrove species with more salt

tolerant forms at Muthupet. Thus the GVS is now estuarine in character mainly during the monsoon period. Old people recall the days when the northern parts of the Swamp had extensive reed beds, instead of the present bare saline mudflats. The reduced freshwater inflow (and the presence of salt works) must have altered

the water chemistry, affecting the biodiversity.

• Pollution: Anbazhgan (1988) found the waters of the GVS to have high concentrations of calcium, magnesium (attributed to salt works) and faecal coliform (attributed to waterbirds). He also found a high concentration of heavy

metals, nickel, lead and zinc in the sediments. As the GVS is downstream from cities and crop lands, it faces the threats of domestic, industrial and farm pollutants brought by the Cauvery. The belt between Mettur-Bhavani-Erode, through which the Cauvery flows, is highly industrialised, with large and small

scale chemical, distillery, textile and tannery units (Frontline magazine: 27/4/1991).

• Oil/Gas Exploration: In 1982, the Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC), surveyed the area for oil/gas exploration. The results of the survey and future

plans of the ONGC in this area are unknown. It is reported that the Cauvery basin has a reserve of 370 million tonnes of oil and oil equivalent gas (both on-and-offshore) - 'The Hindu', Madras: 5/10/1990.

• Over-Fishing: A number of villages dot the northern bank of the Swamp, and fishing is an important occupation of many villagers. It goes on throughout the

year without any restrictions on the fishing gear, resulting in fishes of small size and non-target species being caught. It is estimated that around 35,000 fishermen and agriculturalists live around the borders of the Sanctuary.

• Poaching of Waterbirds: A study by the Salim Ali Wild Wings Trust (Daniel et

al. 1999) found that certain families in the villages that border the GVS depend on bird trapping for their livelihood and the number of birds being trapped is significant.

Management authority: The Range Officer, Kodiakari Wildlife Range Kodiakari,

Nagapattinam (Dt.) and Wildlife Warden, Nagapattinam.

Reference: Alagarrajan, S. 1990; Alagarrajan, 1996; Natarajan, 1997; Selvam, et al., 1998; Selvarn, et al., 1999; http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website).

CHEMBARAMBAKAM TANK

Chembarambakam lake is situated (13° 00’ N and 80° 05’ E) near Poonthamal,

Kanchipuram district, Tamil Nadu. It is one of the largest tanks in Tamil Nadu. The total area of the lake is about 1700 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall occurring

during the northeast monsoon in October and November.

Birds: Apparently, one of the most important wintering areas for migratory waterfowl, particularly Anatidae, in southern Tamil Nadu. On the basis of a partial

count, it was estimated that at least 15,000–20,000 waterfowl appeared in January 1987. Much the most abundant species was Anas querquedula; other birds included: 15 Ciconia ciconia, at least 75 Tachybaptus ruficollis, 820 Nettapus

coromandelianus, 420 Fulica atra, 60 Hydrophasianus chirurgus, 80 Larus

brunnicephalus, 130 Chlidonias hybrida and a large number of Anas penelope and A. clypeata.


Land use: The tank water is used for drinking purpose.



Research and facilities: A waterfowl census was carried out in January 1987.


KALIVELI TANK

Kaliveli tank is situated (12° 05’–12° 15’ N, 79° 47’–79° 59’ E) near Marakkanam

east coast in Tamil Nadu. It lies parallel to the east coast and is linked with the sea

CHAMBHAL RIVER

•


through a narrow channel via Yadayanthittu estuary. Kaliveli is a seasonal wetland and can dry out completely during the summer months preceding the Southwest monsoon. The water level in the wetland varies with the amount of precipitation it

receives. The lake fills up to its maximum extent by the end of the Northeast monsoon, and in years of low rainfall, dries out completely for a few months during the hot season. The total area of this tank is 13,200 ha. The average depth of water at

the end of the monsoon is about one meter, and the maximum after heavy rainfall, about two meters. By the end of the monsoon, the lagoon is normally full of Freshwater having received copious run-off from neighbouring farmlands and other parts of its watershed. Subsequently, as the inflow of Freshwater diminishes, there is

some inflow of sea-water from the estuary, and the lagoon becomes brackish, particularly at its Northern end. The lake is occasionally flooded by sea-water during cyclonic disturbances.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with average annual rainfall is about 1,200 mm. The temperature varied between 28°C–39°C. The salinity range of 4.27–35.5‰, pH from 6.95 to 10.11 and chloride from 0.18 to 1.87 mgl-1.

Mangroves: Oldtimers swear that as recently as thirty years ago Kaliveli supported a large and lush mangrove forest. It was gradually cleared to make way for agricultural land. Now only a few mangrove bushes remain as relics of the glorious past.

Algae: Enteromorpha intestinalis

Birds: During a survey in the late 1980s, some 78 species of waterfowl recorded in Kaliveli including 13 species of Antidae and 30 species of shorebirds. The area regularly hodls over 30,000 ducks in winter, and 20,000–40,000 shorebirds and

20,000–50,000 terns during the migration seasons. These are follows;

S. Species Name S. Species Name

KALIVELI TANK •


No No

1 Accipter badius 61 Gelochelidon nilotica

2 Acridotheres tristis 62 Halcyon smyrnensis

3 Aegithina tiphia 63 Haliaeetus leucogaster

4 Alauda gularis 64 Haliastur indus

5 Alcedo atthis 65 Himantopus himantopus

6 Ammomanes phoenicurus 66 Hirundo rustica

7 Anas acuta 67 Hydroprogne caspia

8 A. clypeata 68 Larus brunnicephalus

9 A. Penelope 69 L. ichthyaetus

10 A. querquedula 70 L. ridibundus

11 Anas spp. 71 Limosa limosa

12 Anastomus oscitans 72 Merops orientalis

13 A. oscitans 73 M. phillipinus

14 Ardea alba 74 Milvus migrans

15 A. alba 75 Mirafra erythroptera

16 A. cinerea 76 Mycteria leucocephala

17 Ardeola grail 77 M. leucocephala

18 Arenaria interpres 78 Neophron percnopterus

19 Artamus fuscus 79 Netta rufina

20 Athene brama 80 Numenius arquata

21 Burhinus oedicnemus 81 N. arquata

22 Calidris alpine 82 N. phaeopus

23 C. ferruginea 83 Nycticorax nycticorax

24 C. minuta 84 Pandion haliaetus

25 C. submimuta 85 Pelecanus philippensis

26 C. temminckii 86 P. philippensis

27 C. testacea 87 Philomachus pugnax

28 Ceryle rudis 88 Phoenicopterus monor

29 Charadrius alexandrinus 89 P. roseus

30 C. dubius 90 P. ruber

31 C. leschenaultia 91 Platalea leucorodea

32 C. mongolus 92 P. leucorodia

33 Chlidonias hybridus 93 Plegadis falcinellus

34 C. leucopterus 94 Pluvialis dominica

35 Ciconia ciconia 95 P. squatarola

36 C. ciconia 96 Pseudibis papillosa

37 Circus aeruginosus 97 Psittacula krameri

38 C. macrourus 98 Pycnonotus cafer

39 C. melanoleucos 99 Recurvirostra avobetta

40 C. pygargus 100 Riparia riparia

41 Columba livia 101 Satreptopelia chinensis

42 Coracias benghalensis 102 Sterna albifrons

43 Corvus macrorhynchos 103 S. bergii

44 C. splendens 104 S. hirundo

45 Cuculus varius 105 Tadorna ferruginea

46 Cursorius coromandelicus 106 Tephrodornis pondicerianus

47 Cypsiurus parvus 107 Threskiornis aethiopica

48 Dendrocitta vagabunda 108 T. melanocepphalus

49 Dicrurus adsimilis 109 Tringa hypoleucos

50 Dinopium benghalense 110 T. erythropus

51 Egretta garzeeta 111 T. glareola

52 E. gularia 112 T. nebularia

53 E. intermedia 113 T. ochropus

54 Egretta spp. 114 T. stagnatilis

55 Eremopterix grisea 115 T. terek

56 Falco peregrines 116 T. tetanus

57 F. tinnunculus 117 Turdoides affinis

58 Francolinus pondicerianus 118 Vanellus cinereus

59 Gallinago gallinago 119 V. indicus

60 G. stenura

Land tenure: The lake and the estuary are state-owned; adjacent land is partly

private and partly owned by the state. There are some areas of legalized encroachment around the lagoon.

Land use: Salt pans

Conservation measures proposed: A number of individuals and organizations have recommended that the area be made into a Bird Sanctuary, and reafforestation with mangrove species has been considered. The School of Ecology at the University of

Pondicherry has requested the District Collector for permission to use the tank exclusively for research purposes. The wetlands and the entire watershed have been recommended for designation as a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and

the Biosphere Programme. Davis (1985) has made a number of recommendations including the following: (a) the development of an educational programme to demonstrate to the local people that management of Kaliveli Tank will be in their long-term best interest; (b) the completion of a detailed study on the vegetation

structure and dynamics of the tank; (c) the planting of trees to provide nesting habitat for water birds; (d) the development of a tourist industry focusing on a bird sanctuary. Davis also suggested that the Kaliveli Watershed would be an excellent site for a

model study of integrated watershed development.

Disturbances and threats: The water-spread area of Kaliveli is shrinking, mainly due to encroachment by paddy fields. This intensification of agriculture along with

overgrazing and the increased use of fertilizers/pesticides in the vicinity of the lake are rapidly becoming serious threats. Although bird shooting is prohibited, significant poaching takes place all the time. Apart from the birds killed, considerable harm is also caused by the disturbance created the hunters. A single gun shot can force the

entire bird population (up to 40,000) of Kaliveli to stop all their activities and fly away. All large species of waterbirds, including pelicans, storks and flamingos, are shot for eating or selling as meat.

A caustic soda plant released toxic effluents into the sea near Kaliveli which might be getting backwashed into the lake. Some effluents are also let in to a tributary stream and this might soon affect the entire area. There are also plans for the development of

a sugar refinery within the watershed.

Socio-economic values: Kaliveli is remunerative to the people living around it, so also to some industrialists, particularly those interested in salt production. But the utilization of the lake thus far has been on an entirely ad-hoc basis with no regards

whatsoever for the sustainability of the produce or the health of the lake. Till recent times the human interaction with Kaliveli was confined to the villagers living around

the lake who drew their requirements of food (fishes), fodder, and fuelwood from it. This interaction has been mild and sustainable.

Now Kaliveli is being increasingly used for teleost and prawn fishing. There are interest groups who have been pressing for the bunding of the brackish portion of the lake so that is the converted to a saline pond for year-round cultivation of shrimp. Thankfully such plans haven’t taken off as yet.

On the Northeastern side of Kaliveli there is a large, and increasing, expanse of salt pans. At present this is the only sizable and organized industry directly supported by Kaliveli. During the dry seasons people from 22 villages around Kaliveli collect

grasses and reeds for the use as building material, firewood, and fodder. The greenery is used to let livestock graze upon it. In many ways Kaliveli would appear an attractive prospect for any development-conscious executive. It is readily accessible,

with a highway running along its Eastern shore. There is availability of ample freshwater. All the infrastructure of an upbeat town-Pondicherry-is close at hand. It is no surprise that off-and-on proposals are floated to exploit Kaliveli as a tourist spot and encourage such bioresource-oriented industries for which Kaliveli may supply

raw material. So far no such proposal has fructified; when it does it may well spell the doom for the wetland.

Research and facilities: A number of individuals have studied the site, chiefly from

an ornithological point of view, and several waterfowl censuses have been carried out in recent years. UNESCO Consultant Dr C.B. Davis carried out a study of the tank and its watershed in December 1984, and made recommendations on the

management of the tank and general development in the region. Studies are currently being conducted by Centre Field, Auroville, and the French Institute at Pondicherry, with assistance from the Bombay Natural History Society.

Past and Present status: There is evidence that in ancient times Kaliveli was

totally navigable and the Buckingham Canel connected it to Pulicat lake 42 km North of Madras. Now the waterways are sited down making navigation impossible.

Reference: WWF India (1993); Balachandran (1994); Gopi Sundar (2000).

SATHANUR RESERVOIR

Sathanur reservoir situated (12° 20’ N, 78° 54’ E) in the Tiruvannamali district, Tamil

Nadu. The reservoir scaled in November 1957. Maximum depth is 30.2 m. It is situated 30 km west of Tiruvannamalai. The catchment area covering 10835 ha extends into the neighbouring Dharmapuri district. Water depth fluctuates widely, the maximum being 39 m. The reservoir is perennial and total area is about 1255 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 38.6°C and minimum temperature of 24°C. The pH values range from 7.4 to 8.8.

Phytoplankton: The plankton was dominated by diatoms – Nitzschia, Cyclotella,

Synedra, Navicula, etc and to a less extent by Chlorophyceae-Pediastrum,

Cosmarium, Tertastrum, staurastrum, Chlorella, Pandorina, etc. Bluegreens were least dominant and the species represented were Merismopedia, Oscillatoria,

Microcystis and Tertapedia.

Zooplankton: Zooplanktons were represented by rotifers like Brachionus, Keratella and Syncheta. Daphnia and Cyclops occurred rarely.

Fishes: Sathanur reservoir is a very productive major carp-dominated one. About 13 species were recorded. These are follows; Labeo fimbriatus, L. calbasu, L. kontius,

Puntius sarana, Wallago attu, Mystus aor, M. vittatus, Notopterus notopterus, Tilapia

mossambica, Etroplus suratensis, Cirrhina reba, C. cirrhosa and Rhinomugil corsula.

Birds: The reservoir attracts several bird species. A census conducted in 1991–92 recorded Phalacrocorax niger (1,200), Anhinga rufa (40), Ardeola grayii (180),

Bubulcus ibis (160), Egretta garzetta (300), E.intermedia (225), E. alba (45), Ardea

purpurea (18), A. cinerea (80), and shorebirds (about 7000), including, blackwinged stilt, red-wattled lapwing, little-ringed plover, lesser sand plover, Kentish plover, and

common sandpiper. The fish species include Labeo fimbriatus, L. calbasu,

Wallago attu, and several catfishes. In the surrounding forests, spotted deer (Axis

axis) and wild boar (Sus scrota) are found in considerable numbers.


Land use: The dam is used for irrigation and fishing

Disturbances and threats: Owing to the high rate of deforestation and

mismanagement of lands in the catchment area, the rate of siltation is high. It has been estimated that 779 million cubic feet of silt has been deposited in the last 30 years and siltation is still continuing. Impounding of water in six minor reservoirs constructed across the river Ponnaiyar, upstream of Sathanur, is reportedly restricting the inflow

of water to the reservoir.

Socio-economic values: The reservoir irrigates 18212 ha of agricultural lands in Tiruvannamalai, Sambuvarayar, and Cuddalore districts. It is also the main source of

drinking water for the inhabitants of the region. The State Forest Department has established a crocodile farm at the reservoir with the introduction of 1200 marsh crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris). The farm attracts tourists in large numbers which is

a source of income. Fishery operations are being carried out by the Tamil Nadu Fisheries Development Corporation. Fingerlings of three fish species, Catla catla,

Labeo rohita, and Cirrhinus mrigala, obtained by induced breeding, have been stocked in the reservoir. The annual catch of these fishes is an important source of

income.

Reference: Sreenivasan (2006).

BHAVANISAGAR RESERVOIR

Bhavanisagar (Lat. 11° 28’ N and Long. 77° 06’ E) is a large water-storage reservoir of relatively recent construction, fed by the Bhavani and Moyar rivers flowing out of

the Niligiri Hills. The lake is eutrophic, with a maximum depth of 40 m, an average depth of 11.4 m and total area is 3695 ha.


Principal vegetation: No information.

Birds: An important wintering area for migratory ducks, notably Anas acuta. The reservoir also supports small numbers of Pelecanus philippensis and a wide variety of herons, egrets, storks, ibises, shorebirds, and terns. About 4000 waterfowl were recorded during a census in January 1987, including: 4 Pelecanus philippensis, 160

herons and egrets of six species, 65 Mycteria leucocephala, 113 Anastomus oscitans,

40 Sterna melanogaster, 110 Anas poecilorhyncha, 10 Ciconia episcopus and 3400 Anas acuta.


Land use: Water supply for irrigation, fishing, and fish culture.

Conservation measures taken: Some protection is afforded to the fauna of the lake.

Fishing is prohibited for a distance of five miles (eight kilometres) below the dam, and the mesh size of nets is regulated.

Disturbances and threats: None known.

Socio-economic values: The reservoir supports a small fishery, and is an important source of water for irrigation.

Reference: Luther and Rzoska (1971).

ADYAR ESTUARY

The Adyar Estuary situated near (13° 00’ N; 80° 04’ E) Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

The estuary is comprises shallow, brackish water on a mud and sand bed with several sandy islands supporting a growth of grasses and light scrub. For most of the year, its exit to the sea is blocked by a sand bar. This is opened, either by man or by storms, at irregular intervals, thus allowing an incursion of seawater. The northern shore

comprises planted gardens and the Adyar plain, which has heavily-grazed grass flats with thin, thorn scrub. The southern shore includes limited, remnant mangrove stands and the grounds of the Theosophical Society. These grounds are heavily planted with

casuarina, coconut palms, and a wide variety of trees and shrubs. There are some

BHAVANISAGAR RESERVOIR

•


areas of wild scrubland. The wetland is mainly storm-fed. Water is brackish, and its depth varies from 1.5 m to 3 m, according to the tide. The total area of this estuary is about 200 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical, with about 1000 mm rain annually, particularly during the northeast monsoon season (October–January) when the river is often flooded, and the sand bar is demolished, increasing the tidal impact.

Macrophytes: Vegetation is rather poor. Some of the tree species commonly found near the estuary include Prosopis spp., Pongamia pinnata, Ficus glomerata, Cocos

nucifera, Acacia farresiana, Azadirachta indica, Tamarindus indica, Phoenix

sylvestris, Cassia marginata, Bambusa spp., Anacardium occidentale, Borassus

flabellifer, among others.

Amphibian: Amphibian fauna include paddy frog, bull frog, painted frog, narrow-

mouthed frog, baloon frog, green frog, tree frog, common toad, and Ferguson’s toad. The brackishwater fauna of the estuary include coelenterates, sponges, arthropods, crustaceans, etc.

Reptiles: Among the reptiles are cobra, coral snake, rat snake, bronze-back tree snake, checkered keelback, olive keelback, dog-faced watersnake, cat snake, wolf snake, common sand boa, vine snake, saw-scaled viper, common skink, Adyar gecko, and common monitor chameleon. The beaches adjacent to the river mouth are the

nesting grounds of the olive ridley turtle.

Birds: An important area for hundreds of migratory birds. Among the breeding species, white-bellied sea eagle, stone curlew, and Kentish plover are of special

interest. The following bird species have been recorded from the estuary: lesser golden plover, little ringed plover, Kentish plover, black-tailed godwit, common sandpiper, little stint, brown-headed gull, paddy bird, and little egret.

Mammals: Mammals include: jackal, palm civet, small civet, common mongoose, black-naped hare, striped palm squirrel, flying fox, bandicoot, musk shrew, etc.


Conservation measures taken: The estuary and its surrounding area has been declared a protected area where shooting and trapping of birds is prohibited.

Conservation measures proposed: Efforts are being made by WWF INDIA

Madras State Office to declare it as a bird sanctuary with facilities for viewing birds from hides. A proposal and plan for the sanctuary have been submitted to the State authorities.

Land use: Along the estuary are planted gardens, and grassflats which are used for grazing, mangrove stands, and the premises of the Theosophical Society of India. The estuary is used for fishing especially for prawns.

Possible changes in land use and proposed development projects: Plans to develop the area is proposed to be developed into a tourist resort are is being opposed by environmentalists and several NGOs. The Madras Metropolitan Development Authority (MMDA) proposes to develop an arm of the estuary into a shopping

complex.

Socio-economic values: Grazing and fishing are the two major activities. Gardens and grounds of the Theosophical Society are used for leisure by the residents of

Madras city who are allowed in during specified hours.

Research facilities: The Zoological Society of India and the Madras Naturalist’s Society are monitoring the area.


SIRUTHAVUR TANK

Siruthavur is an irrigation tank, situated (13° 00’ N, 80° 10’ E) in the Chengelpettu

district, Tamil Nadu, which is rain-fed. The average depth is 3.7 m and total area is 7772 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical climate. Temperature ranges from a maximum of 33°C to a minimum of 21°C. Average annual rainfall is 1200 mm.

Macrophytes Acacia nilotica is the main species growing around the tank.

Birds: A recent waterfowl census recorded the following: Anas penelope (348), A.

querquedula (6), Aythya fuligula (22), Nettapus coromandelianus (2), Chlidonias

hybrida (6), Gelochelidon nilotica (4).


Land use: The waters of the tank are used for irrigation and fishing.

Conservation measures proposed: Deepening of the tank is proposed.

Disturbances and threats: Shooting of birds has been reported. The tank is getting silted up.

Socio-economic values: The tank is a major source of water for irrigation of surrounding areas.


GULF OF MANNAR MARINE NATIONAL PARK

Two large, shallow, sea bays, Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar (8° 48’ N, 78° 10’ E to 9° 20’ N, 79° 15’ E), and a chain of twenty small offshore islands in the Gulf

of Mannar Marine National Park. The islands stretch for about 120 km parallel to the

SIRUTHAVUR TANK

•


coast, from Rameshwaram Peninsula in the east to Tuticorin (8° 50’ N, 78° 10’ E) in the west. The relatively calm and silt-free waters between the coastline and offshore coral reefs offer ideal conditions for the growth of luxuriant meadows of sea-grass.

These meadows support a dwindling population of the dugong (Dugong dugon), the conservation of which is one of the principal aims of the National Park. The Park contains impressive fringing reefs and the best coral formations on the east coast of

India. There is only one reef in Palk Bay, which lies in an east-west direction along the mainland at Mandapam and Rameshwaram island, extending from 79° 08’ E to 79° 20’ E along latitude 9° 17’ N. The reef is discontinuous at Pamban Pass and is divided on the western side, into two parts by a narrow navigational channel. The reef

formation in the Gulf of Mannar is of fringing type, developed around a chain of 20 islands from Tuticorin (8° 48’ N, 78° 09’ E) to Shingle island (9° 14’ N, 79° 14’ E),lying at an average distance of about 8 km from the mainland. In addition, a 2 km

shore reef, the only one known so far in the Gulf of Mannar, exists at Kilakkarai. The area of National Park unknown; area of islands 618.32 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of about

900 mm. Average temperatures range from 25°C to 31°C.

Macrophytes: There are extensive beds of sea-grasses (Hydrocharitaceae and Potamogetonaceae) in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. More than 100 species of

algae and angiosperms belonging to the genera Sargassum, Turbinana, Gelidium,

Gracilaria, Ulva, Ceramium, Valonia, Enhalus, Acanthophora, Cymodacea,

Halimeda, and Polysiphonia have been recorded from the sea around Krusadai Island. Much of the northern shore of Krusadai Island is covered with mangrove vegetation,

mainly Pemphis acidula and Avicennia officinalis. Most of the islands have now been deforested, and several of the inshore islands have been colonised by the aliens Prosopis juliflora and Casuarina spp.

Special floral values: The Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay contain some of the most extensive beds of sea-grasses (Hydrocheritaceae and Potamogetonaceae) on the east coast of India.

Mammals: A very important area for the dugong (Dugong dugon), the most endangered species of mammal on the east coast of India. Several species of cetaceans also occur in the Park.

Reptiles: Marine turtles breed in small numbers, and there is a rich marine fauna associated with the fringing reefs.

Birds: Rameshwaram Island (Dhanuskodi lagoon), Manauli, and Hare islands in the

Gulf of Mannar and a lagoon adjoining the Palk Bay near Mandapam are the major coastal habitats available for migratory and resident waterfowl. Altogether, 86 species of waterfowl have been estimated from Mandapam, Palk Bay, during censuses conducted between 1986 and 1988:

Birds/Years 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88

Herons, egrets, and bitterns 858 698 660

Plovers, sandpipers, and snipes 40,398 22,364 32,261

Ducks 2578 1515 1905

Gulls and terns 18269 4232 6063

Thousands of waterfowl use the Gulf as a wintering and staging area during migration. Hundreds of migratory waders of 12 species summer in Manali and Hare

islands. Among the waders, Charadrius mongolus (9000 estimated in January 1988), Calidris ferruginea, and Calidris minuta (5600 in February 1988) are the most abundant species. Commonly seen in hundreds are the sand-flat preferring waders

Calidris alba (710 in 1987-88), Calidris minuta (215), C. tenuirostris (305), Limosa

lapponica (225), Numenius arquata (320), N. phaeopus (140), Arenaria interpres

(620), Charadrius leschenaultii (340), and Pluvialis squatarola (625). Other

interesting wader species recorded in the intertidal habitats at Manali and Hare islands are Dromas ardeola (400) and Haemotopus ostralegus (21). Among the terns, Sterna

benghalensis (3800) and S. sandvicensis (400) are predominant. The greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) regularly winters in Dhanuskodi and Pillaimadam lagoons.

About 7000 of the species were recorded in January 1988, which was just 50% of the number recorded in January 1986. The interesting bird records include pelagic species such as noddy tern, white tropic bird (Phaethon lepturus) and skua. The lesser-crested

tern breeds in the islets of Adam’s Bridge. The other breeding species are great stone plover, Kentish plover, and little tern. Ecological investigations of the hermatypic corals of Palk Bay indicate the presence of 63 species belonging to 22 genera. The

species diversity of this reef, however, is lesser than that recorded in other Indian Ocean reefs. The dominant genera are Favia, Acropora, Leptastera, Porites,

Pocillopora, and Goniastrea. The genera Acropora and Montipora of the family Acroporidae are the most diverse with 25 species, whereas Porites is the most

important genus in terms of abundance and reef-building. Preliminary underwater surveys of the extent and state of reefs in 19 islands of the Gulf of Mannar show that the eastern side of all these reefs supports active coral growth, whereas the western

and northern shores are quarried for coral blocks. Collections made in some northern islands (Shingle, Krusadai, Pullivasal, Pulli, Manauli, New and Hare) record 88 species, and, together with those of the Palk Bay reef, the total number of species recorded for the Mandapam area is 117 distributed among 32 genera, of which 110

species belonging to 25 genera are hermatypic. Acropora is the most diverse genus (24 species), followed by Montipora (20 species) and Porites (12 species). New to science are five species under three genera; 25 species under four genera are new

records.


Land use: The area is managed as a nature reserve.

Conservation measures taken: Protected in the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, established in 1983 to conserve and restore the ecosystems of Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar. A ban has been imposed on the destruction of mangrove remnants in

the Manauli and Kurusadai islands, and on the quarrying of coral, and steps have been taken to eradicate Prosopis juliflora on some of the islands. Under the National Coral Reefs Programme of the Ministry of Environment & Forests, a comprehensive management plan is being developed for the Gulf of Mannar coral reefs. The Central

Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin (Kerala), has been identified as the nodal research institution.

Conservation measures proposed: A proposal has been made to replant some of

the islands with native trees, such as Threesia populnea and Calophyllum inophyllum,

in order to limit erosion by high winds and cyclones.

Possible changes in land use and proposed developmental projects: The proposed

Sethu canal project is expected to raise the sea level by one metre. This may result in

the submergence of a few islands, leading to the loss of some of the important wintering and staging sites of migratory and other waterfowl.

Disturbances and threats: Indiscriminate destruction of the marine fauna and flora continues despite efforts to prevent it by the Fisheries Department. Populations of sea turtles and dugongs are declining as a result of direct persecution and destruction of the sea-grass beds. Birds are being caught by professional bird catchers from nearby

towns, Rameshwaram and Ramanathapuram. The alien Prosopis juliflora has been flourishing on some of the islands nearer the coast at the expense of the native vegetation, and there have been proposals to plant other exotic tree species on some of

the islands. The quarrying of coral for industrial use has now been banned, but several areas of reef have already been destroyed. Mangrove forests are being cut for firewood in the Kurusadai and Manauli islands. This, in turn, is seriously affecting the nursing grounds of several species of fish, prawn, and shrimp.

Research and facilities: A marine biological station was established by the Fisheries Department on Kurusadai Island in 1928. The Bombay Natural History Society has been monitoring the islands for the movement of migratory birds by conducting bird-

ringing experiments since 1985. The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) and the Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI) are two other research organisations involved with research work on the Gulf of Mannar. The

CMFRI has been carrying out seaweed, prawn, and fish culture experiments in the region. Ecological investigations and surveys of the distribution of corals in the Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar have been carried out by C.S.G. Pillai and others.

Reference: Silas et al. (1985); Balachandran (1990, 1991, 1992); Wafar (1986); WWF India (1993)

WETLANDS OF NILGIRI DISTRICT

The wetland includes three freshwater lakes, namely, Ooty lake (15 ha.), Pykara dam reservoir, and Tr. Bazaar (3 ha.). Ooty lake and Pykara dam are man-made. The maximum depth of Ooty lake is 10 m, average depth is 3 m.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 25ºC and minimum of 5ºC.

Biotic factors: Biodiversity status

Principal vegetation: The lake are surrounded by tea plantation, grasses and exotics.

Birds: A waterfowl census conducted in 1993 revealed the following species:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Alcedo atthis (10) 7 Motacilla cinerea (42) 2 Amaurornis phoenicurus (50) 8 M. maderaspatensis (4)

3 Bubulcus ibis (l) 9 Phalacrocorax niger (72) 4 Egretta garzetta (64) 10 Tringa hypoleucos (47) 5 Gallinula chloropus (19) 11 Vanellus indicus (13)

6 Halcyon symrnensis (7)

Other fauna include sambar, barking deer, panther, and jackal.

Land tenure: Ooty lake is owned by Tourism Development Corporation, Ooty Municipality. Pykara dam and Tr. Bazaar are under the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board. The area surrounding Pykara dam is under the ownership of the Forest Department,

whereas the land around Tr.Bazaar is a private tea estate.

Land use: The lake is used for recreational purposes and hydroelectric power generation.

Disturbances and threats: Silt and domestic wastes from Ooty Municipality are polluting Ooty lake. Pykara dam is facing pollution from industrial effluents.

Socio-economic values: A substantial amount is earned from boating in Ooty lake,

which is a major tourist attraction.

Reference: Nilgiri Wildlife and Environment Association, Nilgiris; WWF India (1993); Rao, et al. (1994).

VEDANTHANGAL AND KARIKILI TANKS

Two small tanks (old water-storage reservoirs which supply irrigation water to

villages) in the Chengleput plains, especially important as breeding sites for large waterbirds. These tanks situated on Lat. 12° 32’ N and Long. 79° 52’ E. There are several much larger tanks, e.g. the 350 ha Madurantakam Tank, on the surrounding plains, but these are generally less important for wildlife. Vedanthangal

Tank which is linked to Madurantakam Tank by a channel receives some water from the latter, but Karikili is wholly rain-fed. Vedanthangal has been developed and managed for wildlife; a number of elevated mud islands have been created and

planted with trees to provide ideal nesting sites for herons, egrets, and other colonial nesting birds. By contrast, Karikili Tank is undeveloped and remains in much the same conditions as Vedanthangal was during the 1950s. It is situated about eight

kilometres from Vedanthangal, and is in fact two small tanks with a combined area of about 50 ha. Both tanks fill during the northeast monsoon in October-November. The immediate vicinity of the tanks consists of barren flats, paddy fields, and scrub. During the rainy season, shallow pools form in many places and provide additional

foraging areas for the waterbirds.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of about 1000 mm, the majority of which falls during the northeast monsoon (October–

November).

Macrophytes: Common herbaceous plants in the marshy areas include

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Aeschynomene aspera 9 Heliotropium indicum

2 Chrozophora rotleri 10 Lemna perpusiIla

3 Cldenia procumbers 11 Limnophyton obtusifolium

4 Cleome chelidomii 12 Marsilea minuta

5 Echinochla colonum 13 Nechamandra alternifolia

6 Eclipta alba 14 Ottelia alismoides

7 Euphorbia serpens 15 Panicum repens

8 Glirius oppositifolius 16 Phyla nodif1ora

The principal vegetation along the bunds consists of trees such as Barringtonia

acutangula, Acacia nilotica, Alangium salvifolium, Albizzia lebbek, Antidesm

ghaesembilla, Borassus flabeIlifer, Cassia fistula, Derris indica, Polyalthia suberosa,

and Streblus asper, together with a dense growth of Calamus rotang, Derris

scandens, and Solanum trilobatum. In the late 1970s, the islands in Vedanthangal

were replanted to replenish the dead and dying Barringtomia acutangula trees, which are favoured by the nesting birds.

Birds: Both tanks are very important breeding areas for colonial nesting waterbirds,

and support unusually large numbers of Phalacrocorax spp., and Ardea cinerea. An estimated 30000 birds appear at Vendanthangal Tank at the beginning of the breeding season. The main species at both tanks are Phalacrocorax fuscicollis, P. niger,

Anhinga melanogaster, Nycticorax nycticorax, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta garzetta, E. intermedia, Ardea cinerea, Anastomus oscitans, Threskiornis melanocephalus,

Platalea leucorodia and, later in the season, Ardeola grayii. A few pairs of Egretta

alba breed at both sites, and Phalacrocorax carbo breeds at Vedanthangal. Small

numbers of Pelecanus philippensis visit both tanks, and a few pairs may still breed. Other breeding waterbirds include Tachybaptus ruficollis and Gallinula chloropus: The tanks are also important as roosting sites for many of the breeding birds,

especially Phalacrocorax niger, outside the breeding season. Large numbers of migratory waterfowl occur on passage and in winter, particularly Anas acuta, A.

querquedula, A. clypeata, Himantopus himantopus, other shorebirds, and Chlidonias

hybrida, but no recent survey of their numbers appears to have been made.

Land tenure: State-owned (Tamil Nadu Forest Department)

Land use: Water supply for irrigation, bird-watching, and 9ther nature-oriented

outdoor recreation.

Conservation measures taken: Vedanthangal Tank is protected in the Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary (30 ha), established by the Government of Madras in 1925. It is one of the oldest sanctuaries in India, and has been reorganized several times. For many

centuries, public sentiment has protected the colony of waterbirds nesting in the Barringtonia trees in the tank. In the late l8th century, British soldiers regularly held shoots at the tanks. However, in 1790; after repeated attempts, the local villagers

finally obtained a “cowle” (document of rights) from the first Collector of the East India Company for Chengelput in order to prevent the hunting of birds. The sanctuary continues to be managed for its waterbirds, but irrigation requirements have priority

over all other interests. Karikili Tank has no legal protection, but its breeding colony of waterbirds had been protected for many years not only by local sentiment but also by the State Forest Department.

Conservation measures proposed: Krishnan has recommended that Karikili Tank be

given formal recognition as a sanctuary, and that the natural character of the tank be preserved. Some planting of Barringtonia trees is required to replace natural die-off. A variety of proposals have been made for further management at Vedanthangal

Sanctuary, including the protection of an adequate area of thorn scrub in the vicinity of the nesting colony to provide a ready supply of nesting material for the birds, and the implementation of stricter controls on the large numbers of visitors.

Disturbances and threats: Thousands of visitors who come to Vedanthangal, during the nesting season disturb the breeding birds. Recent viewing developments have not been managed as well as they might. The State Tourism Department’s proposal to a establish a hotel at the tank is being opposed by WWF INDIA and other

environmental groups.

Socio-economic values: An important source of interest and recreation, for people from Madras and beyond; thousands of people visit Vedanthangal Tank each year to observe the breeding birds.

Research and facilities: There is a forest resthouse at Vedanthangal, which can accommodate some visitors. A road has recently been built onto the main bund where there are extensive facilities for picnicing.

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Karpowicz (1985); Savage and Abdulali (1970); WWF India (1993).

VETTANGUDI TANKS

Three small village tanks, Vettangudi (18.4 ha), Peria Kollukudi Patti (13.7 ha), and Chinna Kollukudi Patti (6.3 ha) situated (10° 07’ N, 78° 35’ E) in a low-lying region of agricultural land and sparse scrub. They fill up during the northeast

monsoon, and dry out completely during the dry season. The surrounding agricultural land is studded with innumerable pools which provide important feeding habitat for nesting waterbirds. The average water depth of the tanks is 5 m.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Most of the rain falls during the northeast monsoon in October and November. The average annual rainfall is 600 m. Temperatures vary from 34°C in summer to 20°C in winter.

Macrophytes: Acacia nilotica trees have been planted in the tanks during the past few decades. Trees of tamarind, Ficus spp., palmyra, and Prosopis grow on the bund.

Birds: The tanks support sizeable breeding colonies of waterbirds, mainly

cormorants, herons, and egrets. It appears that the birds colonised the area around 1970, when suitable nesting trees became available: Migratory birds include white spoonbill, black ibis, white ibis, painted stork, openbill stork, and little grebe.

Land tenure: The tanks are state-owned, under the control of the State Public Works Department.

Land use: The tanks provide water for irrigation of surrounding paddy fields;

grazing by domestic livestock, removal of silt for application in paddy fields, and some fishing are other uses.

Conservation measures taken: Vettangudi tank alone was declared a Bird

Sanctuary in 1977 and put under the control of a Forest Ranger stationed at Madurai. Supervisory control is now vested with the Forest Range officer at Triuppathur. The nesting waterbirds have since been protected by the State Forest Department and by public sentiment.

Disturbances and threats: The principal threat is intensification of agriculture in surrounding areas and resultant loss of feeding habitat for the birds. In particular, the increased application of pesticides to crops is polluting the surrounding water bodies.

Erratic rainfall has resulted in several species of birds abandoning this area. During periods of low rainfall, farmers pump out water, depriving the resident bird population. Since the control of the tanks is under the Public Works Department, it

has not been possible for the Forest Department to undertake habitat improvement measures.

Socio-economic values: The tank is used as a fodder ground for livestock, for irrigation and, to some extent, for fishing. Local farmers believe that the birds help in

natural manuring of their cropped lands and cooperate with the authorities in protecting them.


VETTAKUDI-KARAVETTI RESERVOIR

Vettakudi-Karavetti (10° 30’ N, 78° 30’ E) is a large water-storage reservoir on the

plains south of the Kaveri river; one of the largest freshwater lakes in southern Tamil Nadu. It is one of three interconnected reservoirs and is fed by the Pullambadi canal, from the Kaveri. It is subject to wide fluctuations in water level, and occasionally

dries out completely during the summer months. The total area of the reservoir is about 8630 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall occurring during the northeast monsoon in October and November.

Macrophytes: The aquatic vegetation includes: Ipomoea spp., Cyperus sp., Typha

and Hydrilla. Other vegetation includes Acacia nilotica, Aadiracta indica, Pongamia

sp., and Casuarina sp.

Birds: One of the most important wetlands for migratory waterfowl in southern Tamil Nadu. Over 5100 waterfowl of 37 species were recorded during a waterfowl census in January 1987. These included Pelecanus philippensis (18), Phalacrocorax

niger (150), 630 herons and egrets of seven species, Anastomus oscitans (32), Threskiornis melanocephalus (28), about 4000 ducks (mainly cotton teal, common teal, spotbill, pintail, common pochard, garganey, and shoveler), 60 black-winged

stilts (Himantopus himantopus), and 120 wood sandpiper (Tringa glareola). Very large numbers of ducks were present in late February 1988, mainly wigeon, spotbill, pintail, garganey, shoveler, and pochard. Also present were painted storks, and abput 25 white storks (Ciconia ciconia).

Land tenure: State-owned (under the control of the Public Works Department (PWD), Agriculture Department, and Fisheries Department). Cultivated areas around the reservoir are privately owned.

Land use: Water supply for irrigation and domestic use. Fishing is carried out on lease basis. Grazing by domestic livestock. Paddy fields surround the reservoir.

Conservation measures taken: No habitat protection. The Social Forestry

Department has planted Cassia trees along the northern and western shores of the reservoir.

Conservation measures proposed: The Tamil Nadu Forest Department is examining

the possibility of declaring Vettakudi-Karavetti as a Bird Sanctuary. The Tiruchi Wildlife Conservation Society has made a variety of recommendations concerning the management of the reservoir for its wildlife. These include the establishment of a

single coordinating committee to oversee the development of a sanctuary, the raising and widening of the bund and removal of silt to ensure that water is retained throughout the year, and the provision of observation facilities for the general public.

Disturbances and threats: Local villagers do not molest the waterfowl, but there are reports of illegal hunting by outsiders on a commerical scale. Siltation is a problem.

Socio-economic values: The water of the tank is used for irrigation and fishing. The wetland has potential for nature education.

Research and facilities: The Tiruchi Wildlife Conservation Society has been gathering information on the birds of the reservoir. Mid-winter waterfowl censuses were carried out in 1986/87 and 1987/88.

Reference: Wesley, (1990); WWF India (1993).

WETLAND IN MADURAI AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE

CAMPUS

The wetland (9° 54’ N, 78° 54’ E) area extends over 57.40 ha, with a semi-permanent water tank, Chittankulam, occupying 6.7 ha. The tank receives water from the Periyar

feeder canal. On the northeastern side of the wetland is a hillock of granite rock, Yanamalai, which has a large number of lain inscriptions and rock carvings.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of 881.6 mm, received during the northeast and southwest monsoon seasons. Maximum

temperature is around 33.7°C and minimum around 23.8°C. Water is alkaline with a pH ranging from 7.5 to 7.7.

Macrophytes Rice is the principal crop occupying most of the area. The dominant

wetland weeds are: horse purselane (Trianthema protulacastrum), sticky cleome (Cleome viscosa), nut grass (Cyperus rotundus), and barnyard grass (Echinochloa

crusgalli). The principal shrubs are madar (Calotropis gigantea) and mesquite

(Prosopis chilensis). Important tree species include neem (Azadirachta indica), rain-tree (Samanea saman), copper pod (Peltophorum pterocarpum), Manila tamarind (Pithecelobium dulce), and a few banyan trees (Ficus benghalensis). The lesser Indian reed mace (Typha angustata) grows extensively in the water tank, and the banks are

blanketed by para grass (Brachiaria mutica).

Birds: An important area for about 14 species of waterfowl (both resident and migratory) in large numbers. Notable species are little grebe, pond heron, and coots.

There is also a large resident population of peacocks.

Land tenure: The wetland is owned by the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (established in 1965) and its constituent college, Madurai Agricultural College and

Research Institute.

Land use: Of the total area of 82.22 ha of land, including the wetland and surrounding areas, wetlands occupy 57.40 ha (single crop wetland 5.99 ha; double

crop wetland 51.41 ha); garden land covers nearly 13.66 ha and orchard spreads over 11.16 ha.

Conservation measures taken: Poaching of birds and quarrying of stones has been

discontinued since the inception of the college. Desilting the tank and restrictions on fishing are also proposed.

Disturbances and threats: Quarrying on the western side of Yanamalai rock and

infrequent poaching of waterbirds and peacocks.

Socio-economic values: Nearly 200 people depend on this wetland for fisheries and cultivation.

Reference: Ranjit Daniels (1983); K. Gunathilagaraj, M.S. Venugopal, S.Suresh and R.Mohan (1990).

KARUNGULAM AND SENGULAM TANKS

Karungulam and Sengulam are two large tanks (water-storage reservoirs) separated by the village of Karungulam, in flat arid scrubland on the plains of southern Tamil Nadu (8° 38’ N, 77° 51’ E). The tanks are fed by rainfall during the northeast monsoon

(October and November), but also receive some river water at other times of the year. At maximum flooding, the average depth of Karungulam Tank is three metres; Sengulam is somewhat shallower. The total area of tanks is 240 ha. The tanks usually

dry out in March or April and remain dry for about six months of the year.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of 600 mm. Temperatures range from 25°C to 40°C.

Macrophytes: Karungulam has a lush growth of Cyperus sp., and other sedges, primarily along the shallow western and southwestern shores, and there are some patches of Lemna sp., and water lilies. Ottelia alismoides and Potamogeton sp., are

thought to be present.

Birds: In the vast assemblage of tanks that stud the entire southern plain of Tamil Nadu, Karungulam and Sengulam appear to shelter the most birds, both in terms of number of species and number of individuals. The two tanks support a wide variety of

cormorants, herons, egrets, storks, and ibises, along with other resident species such as Gallinula chloropus, Porphyrio porphyrio, Hydrophasianus chirurgus, and Sterna

aurantia. The tanks are also important for wintering waterfowl, notably

Phoenicopterus ruber, Anser indicus, and migratory ducks, mainly Anas actua, A.

querquedula, and A. clypeata. The site is particularly interesting for its wintering flock of bar-headed geese (Anser indicus), an unusual species this far south in India.

Many thousands of waterfowl appeared in January 1987, including: 6 Pelecanus

philippensis, 500 Phalacrocorax niger, 1200 herons and egrets, 230 Mycteria

leucocephala, 150 Anastomus oscitans, 100 Phoenicopterus ruber, 500 Anser indicus,

220 Fulica atra, 100 Chlidonias hybridus and many thousands of ducks and several

hundred shorebirds.


Land use: The tank is used for water supply for irrigation

Conservation measures taken: None.

Conservation measures proposed: A proposal has been made for the establishment of a Waterbird Sanctuary.

Disturbances and threats: Local villagers report that poaching is a problem. Illegal hunters who come from nearby towns have been observed to shooting Anser indicus

and Phoenicopterus ruber. The bird communities are of great value to the local

inhabitants from a socio-aesthetic point of view.

Socio-economic values: The tanks provide water for irrigation and domestic use.

Research and facilities: Krishnan has made a preliminary survey of the area, and

waterfowl censuses were carried out in January 1987.


PUTHUPALLI ALAM SWAMP

The swamp is located (10° 36’ N, 79° 48’ E) 40 km north of the famous Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary and the Great Vedaranyam Salt Swamp and 7 km south

of the notable tourist spot, Vailankanni (church) on the Bay of Bengal coast. It is a

brackishwater swamp, fed by monsoon rains as well as seawater flowing through inlets. During the monsoons, the swamp is particularly useful as it acts as a spill basin for water from the surrounding areas. Mean water depth is 0.5 m. and total area is

590 ha. The swamp remains parched from April until the northeast monsoon sets in.

Abiotic factors: Tropical climate, with narrow temperature fluctuations. The temperature ranges from a minimum of 22°C in December-January to a maximum of

38°C in May-June. Salinity ranges from 38 ppt to 60 ppt. The area receives annual rainfall of about 1300 mm from the northeast monsoon which sets in during October. The southwest monsoon (May–July) also brings some rain.

Macrophytes: Vegetation is scanty. The bund supports some scattered Suaeda

maritima.

Birds: About 59 bird species have been recorded. Species enumerated during a

census conducted in February 1992 include:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Anastomus oscitans (65) 9 Numenius arquata (34)

2 Chlidonias hybridus (215) 10 N. phaeopus (8) 3 Gelochelidon nilotica (160) 11 Philomachus pugnax (48) 4 Hydroprogne caspia (41) 12 Platalea leucorodia (36)

5 Ibis leucocephalus (18) 13 Pluvialis dominica (180) 6 Limicola falcinellus (35) 14 P. squatrola (70) 7 Limosa lapponica (19) 15 Recurvirostra avosetta

(27)

8 L. limosa (85) 16 Vanellus indicus (45)

Land tenure: The wetland is under the control of the Panchayat. It is auctioned every

year for fishing.

Land use: Shell fish are caught on a large scale. Finfish are also harvested to some extent.

Disturbances and threats: Reclamation of land for agriculture is one of the major threats faced by the swamp. Other threats are drainage of agricultural pollutants from the surrounding paddy fields, inflow of silt from irrigation canals and overfishing.

People living in the vicinity of the swamp illegally hunt birds.

Socio-economic values: Leasing of the swamp for fishing fetches the panchayat considerable revenue.

Reference: Sampath and Krishnamurthy (1990); WWF India (1993).

KULLUR SANDAI AND VEMBAKOTTAI TANKS

Kullur Sandai and Vembakottai tanks situated on 9° 20’ N, 77° 46’ E, near about 45–70 km southwest of Madurai, Tamil Nadu. It is a small village tanks (water storage reservoirs) on the plains southwest of Madurai.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with most of the rainfall occurring during

the Northeast Monsoon in October and November.

Flora: No information.

Birds: Known to be important wetlands for both resident and migratory waterfowl, but little information is available. Fifty-four Pelecanus philippensis were present in January 1987 along with: 43 Anhinga melanogaster; 80 Mycteria leucocephala; 37

Anastonus oscitans; 37 Threskiornis melanocephalus; 50 Anas poecilorhyncha and small numbers of many other species.





Economic and social values: No information.

Special floral values: No information.

Research and facilities: Waterfowl censuses were carried out in January 1987.


CHITRANGUDI AND KANJIRANGULAM TANKS

The Tanks situated (9° 20’ N, 78° 30’ E) near Mudukulathur, Ramanathapuram District, 70 km NNE of Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu. Two large village tanks (water storage reservoirs) near Mudukulathur, on the plains north of the Gulf of Mannar. The tanks

are mainly rain-fed, but also receive some water from a nearby irrigation canal. The total area of the Chitrangudi is 60 ha and Kanjirangulam tank is 62.2 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall occurring during

the Northeast Monsoon in October and November.

Macrophytes: Acacia nilotica trees have been planted in the tanks by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department.






Birds: Both tanks are known to support very large mixed breeding colonies of herons, egrets and other large water birds including Pelecanus philippensis, but no details are available.


PALLIKARANAI SWAMP

RUDRASAGAR LAKE

Rudrasagar Lake is situated (Lat. 23° 29’ N and Long. 90°

01’ E) in the Melaghar

Block under Soamura Sub-Division in the West Tripura District and at a distance of about 50 km from the state capital of Tripura. The lake is a natural sedimentation reservoir, which receives flow from three perennial streams namely, Oacherra, Durlavnaraya cherra and Kemtalicherra. After settling the sediment from the received

flow, clear water discharges into the river Gomti through a connective channel namely Kachigang. The lake bed has been formed by silt deposition on seabed. As such no rock formation is found with 50 m is silt (Clay loam) and below formation is

sandy. Surrounding hillocks are of soft sedimentary formation. The lake is naturally formed. The total area of this wetland is 240 ha. Annual rainfall is of the order of 2500 mm. Spread over the months of June to September with 4/5 flood peaks.

Substantial base flow in streams rounds the year. The soil in lake area is silty clay loam to clay loam. Lake water is fresh with insignificant pollution with a depth varies from 2 m to 9 m. Fluctuation in water level varies from EL 9 m to 16 m.

Abiotic factors: The downstream area of the lake is 750 ha with a temperature

variation from 37°C to 5°C and rainfall during May 15 to October 15. Geologically the area has been formed by silt deposition on seabed and soil in the catchment area is silty clay loam to clay loam.

Macrophytes: The important species are

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Azolla pinnata 8 Pistia stratiotes

2 Eichhornia crassipes 9 Salvania natans

3 Hydrilla verticillata 10 Trapa natans

4 Ipomoea aquatica 11 Typha angustifolia

5 Lemna minor 12 Utricularia striatula

6 Najas graminea 13 Vallisneria spiralis

7 Nelumbo nucifera

Fishes: The lake is an ideal habitat for some unique species of fish like

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Amblypheryngodon spp. 15 Mastacembetus spp.

2 Chanda spp. 16 Notopterus Chitala

3 Cirrhinus spp. 17 Oxygstus spp. 4 Esomus spp. 18 Palemon spp.

5 Labeo spp. Endangered Species

6 Ompok spp. 19 Channa marulius

7 Otopterus spp. 20 Cirrhinus reba

Rare species 21 Labeo bata

8 Botia sp. 22 Macrobrachium

rosenbergii

9 Cylonia sp. 23 M. rude

10 Gudusia spp. 24 Mystus aor

11 Kachuga sp. 25 M. gulio

12 Macrobrachium sp. 26 Notopterus chitala

13 Macrognathus sp. 27 Ompak paba

Endangered species (IUCN Red list): Three-striped Roof Turtle (Kachuga

dhongka).

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding areas are Private owned.

Land use: The lake is used for fishing, partly silted land used for seasonal paddy cultivation with uncertain fate due to flood and tourism. Surrounding plains are used

for paddy cultivation. Uplands in catchment are used for horticulture and agro-forestry and habitation.

Conservation measures taken: This is unprotected area. Nature is playing role for

changes. In surrounding area, plains and uplands the Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation and Horticulture are working for scientific cultivation, soil stabilization, etc. Department of Forests is working with projects for afforestation of the catchment.

Conservation measures proposed: A project about the conservation aspects of the wetland has been prepared and submitted to Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India alongwith Management Action Plan (MAP) and awaiting

funding for implementation.

Disturbance and threats: Commercial scale forest exploitation; Development/ expansion of settlements; Agricultural development impacts; Forest management measures leading to adverse change; Inappropriate farming practices

Sedimentation/siltation; Habitat loss/destruction/fragmentation and Vegetational succession

Socioeconomic values: (i) Present fish production: 26.449 MT (1999–2000). This

may be improved by arranging appropriate project for maintaining permanent water area. (ii) Forestry: No forestry in the lake area. Forestry in upper catchment may be improved by afforestation project. (iii) Archaeological site: There is one heritage

building of earlier kings of Tripura naming “Nirmahal”.

Research and facilities: Scientific research facilities are not well organized for the lake. Tripura University is working with some thesis work on this lake related issues.

This lake is used for recreation and tourism. Every year on “Nirmahal” festival is celebrated with participation from various states of India. Local people organise swimming competition, boat race, mela on the auspicious occasion of “Vijaya Dashami”. Many people do sport fishing. Approximately 50,000 tourists from state

and foreign state are visiting Rudrasagar every year. It has a rising trend.

Management authority: Department of Fisheries, Government of Tripura, Agartala

Importance: The wetland supports IUCN Red listed endangered Three-striped Roof

Turtle (Kachuga dhongka).

Aquatic plant species include rare Lemna sp., Azolla sp., Salvania sp., Pistia sp., Otellia sp., Najas sp., Typha spp. and endangered Azolla sp., Nelumbo sp., Utricularia

sp., Ipmea sp.

Fish species include

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Rare species 8 Cirrhinus reba

1 Botia sp. 9 Labeo bata

2 Cylonia sp. 10 Macrobrachium rosenbergii

3 Kachuga sp. 11 M. rude

4 Macrobrachium sp. 12 Mystus aor

5 Notopterus chitala 13 M. gulio

6 Oxygstus spp. 14 Notopterus chitala

Endangered Species 15 Ompak paba

7 Channa marulius

The site is important for supporting the biological diversity in the area which include the floral species:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Azolla pinnata 8 Pistia stratiotes

2 Eichhornia crassipes 9 Salvania natans

3 Hydrilla verticillata 10 Trapa natans

4 Ipomoea aquatica 11 Typha angustifolia

5 Lemna minor 12 Utricularia striatula

6 Najas graminea 13 Vallisneria spiralis

7 Nelumbo nucifera

Important crustaceans: Macrobrachium rosenbergii, Palemon serratus,

Macrobrachium rude.

The lake has the perennial connection with one of the major rivers of the state facilitating the natural safe breeding ground of majority of the indigenous valuable

species of fishes of the state. The progressive prominent species of fishes are Mystus

aor, Ompok pabda, Wallago attu, Heterophneutes fossilis, including freshwater turtle and tortoise.

Past and Present status: Continuous siltation is causing loss of lake area and increased use for habitation, deforestation, increased agricultural use of land has caused higher rate of siltation.

Reference: Ministry of Environment and Forests (1990); WWF India’s Handbook of Wetland Management, published by Avenash Datta for WWF India, New Delhi, August, 1995; Mitch and Gosselink. “Wetlands” Second Edition, published by Van

Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1993; http://www.wetlands.org/ (Ramsar website)

MANJHIRA IMPOUNDMENT AT GIRIJA BARRAGE

A water reservoir at Girija Barrage (Lat. 28° 18’ N and Long. 81° 04’ E) on the

Ghaghara river about 20 km downstream from Nepalese border, 12 km from Katerniaghat and 150 km north of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. The maximum depth does not exceed 4 m. The total area of this wetland is about 1200 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about 1000 mm.

Macrophytes: Mainly submergent vegetation, predominantly species of Chara,

Vallisneria, and Hydrilla.

Birds: An important wintering area for migratory waterfowl, particularly Anatidae. During a brief survey in December 1986, some 50 Podiceps cristatus, over 12,000 ducks, and a wide variety of other waterfowl were observed from a road which flanks the lake. The lake is particularly rich in Aythya species, and Netta rufina is very

common.


Land use: The reservoir is used for water supply and fishing

Conservation measures taken: No habitat protection. Shooting has been prohibited and fishing operations are under government control.

Disturbances and threats: Fishing activities cause a considerable amount of

disturbance to waterfowl, and in years when the Government does not permit fishing, for example in 1986–87, larger numbers of waterfowl are present.

Socio-economic values: The impoundment supports a valuable fishery.

Research and facilities: A preliminary survey has been carried out by the Bombay Natural History Society.

MANJHIRA IMPOUNDMENT AT

GIRIJA BARRAGE

•



PYAGPUR AND SITADWAR JHEELS

Pyagpur and Sitadwar Jheels situated (Lat. 27° 25’ N and Long. 81° 48’ E) in Bahraich district, 100 km northeast of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. The lakes are shallow, freshwater (jheels) with associated marshes, situated some 20 km apart

on the plains between the Rapti and Ghaghara rivers. Pyagpur is described as an excellent permanent jheel, 1-3 m in depth; the much smaller Sitadwar Jheel is somewhat shallower and prone to drying out in the dry season. The total area of the Pyagpur lake is 2800 ha and Sitadwar lake is 150 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the Gangetic plain.

Macrophytes: Virtually the whole of Pyagpur is covered with Eichhornia crassipes.

Wherever the surface is open, there is a rich growth of submergents such as Chara sp.

and Hydrilla sp. No information is available on the vegetation of Sitadwar.

Birds: Both sites are important for migratory and resident waterfowl. Salim Ali recorded Crus leucogeranus at Pyagpur in the 1930s. A waterfowl survey of Sitadwar

Jheel in January 1987 recorded; 28 Pelecanus onocrotalus, 51 Ardea cinerea, 230 Platalea leucorodia, 250 Dendrocygna javanica, 300 Anthropoides virgo, 100 Hydrophasianus chirurgus together with smaller numbers of many other species.

Land tenure: Both jheels are state owned; the surrounding area is privately owned agricultural land.

Land use: Fishing in Pyagpur Jheel, and waterfowl hunting at both sites.

Conservation measures taken: No conservation measures have been taken at Pyagpur, but further agricultural encroachment and shooting have been prohibited at Sitadwar.

Conservation measures proposed: The Uttar Pradesh Forest Department has plans to develop Sitadwar as a Bird Sanctuary.

Disturbances and threats: The major threat to both wetlands is the gradual

encroachment of agricultural land. Intensive fishing causes excessive disturbance at Pyagpur, and there is considerable disturbance at Sitadwar during religious festivals. Illegal trapping and shooting of waterfowl still take place at Pyagpur, and there is

some illegal shooting at Sitadwar.

Socio-economic values: Pyagpur Jheel supports a very important fishery, and Sitadwar is a site of religious pilgrimage and festivals.

Research and facilities: Preliminary surveys and waterfowl censuses have been carried out by the Bombay Natural History Society.


NAWABGANI PRIYADARSHANI BIRD SANCTUARY

Nawabgani Priyadarshani Bird Sanctuary situated (26° 50’ N, 81° 10’ E) on south and east of the Kanpur Lucknow highway, 45 km east of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. It is a

permanent, shallow, freshwater lake and associated marshes with some adjacent riparian forest, on the upper Gangetic plain. The lake is fed by monsoon run-off, and has an average depth of 1.0–1.5 m at maximum water levels. The water level

fluctuates considerably, and much of the lake dries out in early summer.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the upper Gangetic plain. The pH varies between 7.6 and 7.9.

Macrophytes: The lake supports a variety of aquatic plants typical of the upper Ganges system, including Eichhornia crassipes, Lemna minor, Azolla pinnata, Pistia

stratiotes, Spirodela polyrhiza, Ipomoea aquatica, Enhydra fluctuans, and Nymphaea

sp. Emergents include species of Cyperus, Scirpus, and Oryza sativa. There are

several stands of riparian forest planted in the 1970s around the periphery of the lake.

Birds: This region is important for both resident and migratory waterfowl. Large waterbirds started to nest at the lake in about 1980, and there is now a mixed breeding

colony of night heron, two or three species of egret and spoonbill. Other resident species include purple moorhen and bronze-winged jacana. The lake is also important for wintering waterfowl, chiefly Anatidae (swans, geese and ducks) and Fulica atra.

An avifauna count held in 1991 recorded the following:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Anas acuta 300–400 11 Fulica atra 1000+

2 A. crecca 100+ 12 Gallicrex cinerea 40+

3 A. platyrhynchos 10+ 13 Hydrophasianus chirnrgus

(50–100)

4 A. poecilorhyncha 40+ 14 Marmaronetta

angustirostris 1000+

5 A. strepera 1000+ 15 Metopidius indicus 30–50

6 Anhinga melanogaster 4 16 Nettapus coromandelianus

400+

7 Ardea cinerea 6 17 Phalacrocorax carbo 300+

8 A. purpurea 3 18 P. niger 200

9 Bubulcus ibis 17 19 Tachybaptus ruficollis 3

10 Dendrocygna javanica 100+

The raptors identified included shikra, pariah kite, and marsh harrier. In 1985- 86 several open billed storks were seen nesting, which was not observed in 1991.

Land tenure: The lake is state-owned; surrounding areas are privately owned.

Land use: Outdoor recreation, including some boating on the lake.

Conservation measures taken: The lake and adjacent riparian forests are protected in the Bird Sanctuary. Trees have been planted around the Sanctuary head-quarters,

and various facilities have been provided for visitors, though boating is not allowed. The Forest Department removes Eichhornia crassipes periodically. The Sanctuary adjoins a deer park at its southwestern corner.

Disturbances and threats: There has been a considerable amount of hunting of

ducks and shorebirds in the past, but since 1972 the local bird market has become illegal. Eichhornia crassipes infestation is a problem as at most other wetlands in Uttar Pradesh. Visitors to the Sanctuary cause some disturbance, and this can be

particularly damaging when the birds are nesting.

Socio-economic values: A popular recreatioal area for the inhabitants of Lucknow and Kanpur, as well as tourists from further afield. If managed properly, the Sanctuary

could evolve into an important educational and recreational centre for the people of neighbouring towns and cities.

Research and facilities: Some waterfowl censuses have been carried out. Observation facilities include a watch tower and a permanent hide. The Tourist Department has built a Guest House, and there is a restaurant and picnic area by the

lake.

Pollution status: Some pollution reaches the lake in waterways from a nearby town. Automobile pollution from a highway in the vicinity is a long-term threat.

Reference: Anon (1982); WWF India (1993).

DAHAR AND SAUJ (SOJ) JHEELS

The Ganga (Ganges) and Ramganga rivers converge at 27° 10’ N, 79° 55’ E. Within 100 km of this confluence, there are many shallow freshwater lakes (jheels) which flood during the summer monsoon and generally retain water throughout the winter and into early spring. Some of the main jheels ate Dahar Jheel (27° 19’ N, 79°

59’ E), Sauj Jheel (27° 01’ N, 79° 11’ E), Sheoja and Gaundial Jheels (27° 05’ N, 79° 11’ E), and Mohri-Sothna Jheel (26° 56’ N, 79° 17’ E). The jheels range in size from a few hectares to about 600 ha, but fewer than 20% are larger than 400 ha. They

are fed by monsoon rains flowing through natural water courses known as nadis.

Some 52% of the jheels are shallower than 1.5 m and 77% have suffered at least moderate drainage. Jheels were once an abundant feature of the rich patchwork of

forests, lakes, and cultivated areas which formerly extended throughout the western Ganges Basin. The inexorable increase in the region's human population has resulted in the conversion of virtually the whole area into agricultural land. The few scattered lakes which remain are the remnants of a very rich wetland environment that existed

until the beginning of the 20th century.

Abiotic factors: Rather dry tropical monsoon climate typical of the Upper Ganges Plain.

Macrophytes: The dominant aquatic vegetation at 29 jheels surveyed by Singh et al.

in 1982-83 was as follows: (a) free floating: Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes,

Lemna minor, Spirodela polyrhiza, and Azolla pinnata; (b) rooted floating: Ipomoea

aquatica, I. rubens, Enhydra fluctuans, Eclipta prostata, ]ussiea repans, Nymphaea

sp., and Euryale ferox; (c) submerged: Potamogeton crispus, Hydrilla verticillata,

Ceratophyllum demersum, Vallisneria spiralis, and Najas graminea; (d) emergent: Cyperus sp., C. rotundus, Hygroryzea sp., Oryza sativa, Scitpus articulosus, S.

littoralis, and Paspalidium geminatum.

Birds: The region was once an extremely important area for both resident and migratory waterfowl, including the endangered Siberian white crane (Grus

leucogeranus). However, in a recent survey only 23% of the jheels investigated held appreciable numbers of waterfowl, and 42% had no waterfowl at all. At two jheels, the local people gave good descriptions of G.leucogeranus and it would seem that the

area still supports this species at least during years of drought when the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary (site 38) may be virtually dry. Four of the jheels surveyed in January 1983, namely, Dahar, Mohri-Sothna, Sauj, and Sheoja-Gaundial, held large concentrations of waterfowl and were considered to be worthy of special attention.


Conservation measures proposed: Of the many jheels surveyed in the winter of

1982–83, four were considered to merit special attention from conservationists. These were Dahar (Saudi), Mohri-Sothna, Sauj (Soj), and Sheoja Gaundial. Dahar Jheel, in

particular, was thought to require urgent attention if this excellent condition were to be maintained.

Land use: Water supply for agriculture and domestic use, fishing, hunting, the gathering of fodder and fuel, and the harvesting of certain aquatic plants for human consumption (notably the sedge, Cyperus rotundus, which forms large tubers relished by people and livestock alike).

Disturbances and threats: The principal threats to the wetlands are drainage for conversion to agricultural land, excessive hunting and fishing, and general over-exploitation of all the wetland resource. Human activities such as shooting, trapping,

fishing, washing, swimming and the watering of domestic animals cause a considerable amount of disturbance at most of the jheels. Of 48 jheels surveyed in January 1983, 440% were considered to be suffering from heavy disturbance, and a

further 42% from moderate disturbance. Shooting was reported at over 80% of the sites, and at only 14% was disturbance described as light. The sedge Cyperus

rotundus was obviously being heavily over-exploited; it was found to be abundant at only 14% of the wetlands investigated, and was completely absent at 67%.

Socio-economic values: The jheels constitute a highly productive ecosystem capable of supporting large sustainable harvests of fish, waterfowl, edible plants, firewood, and fodder. However, unless the conversion of these wetlands into agricultural land is

stopped and the present high levels of exploitation are reduced, the great economic value of the system will be lost.

Research and facilities: Sauey et al. (1987) surveyed a total of 48 jheels in two

regions of Uttar Pradesh in January 1983 during the course of a search for Grus

leucogeranus, while Singh et al. (1987) investigated 29 jheels in the districts of Hardoi, Unnao, Kanpur and Itawa in the same Winter

Reference: Sauey et al. (1987); Singh et al. (1987); WWF India (1993).

CHHATA LAKES

A group of at least three discrete lakes, Kamai, Nari, and Sankhi, surrounded by

agricultural land. The lakes situated on (Lat. 27° 45’ N and Long. 77° 40’ E) east of Chhata town, about 100 km SSE of Delhi along the Uttar Pradesh-Rajasthan border. Kamai is a small water storage reservoir (tank), whereas Nari and Sankhi are natural

lakes; all are fed by monsoon run-off and irrigation canals. Sankhi Lake is saline and the shallowest of the three, with a maximum depth of only 30 cm; the other two lakes are slightly brackish and some 60–80 cm deep. The total area of these wetlands are about 3000 ha. All three are usually dry by May but, in years of good monsoon,

provide important habitat for waterfowl during the northern winter. The Jamuna river flows southwards through the eastern part of the area.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate

Birds: When first surveyed in January 1987, the lakes were suffering from the monsoon failure of 1986; water levels were very low and few birds were present. Nevertheless, some 3170 waterfowl of about 75 species were present, including three

Pelecanus crispus, 200 herons and egrets of ten species, 10 Ciconia episcopus, two pairs of Ephippiorhynch asiaticus, 100 ibises and spoonbills (Threskiornithidae), 350 flamingos (Phoenicopteridae), 422 Anser indicus, over 600 ducks of 15 species, 42

Grus antigone, 230 Fulica atra, and over 950 shorebirds of about 25 species.


Land use: The reservoir is used for fishing.

Socio-economic values: The jheels constitute a highly productive ecosystem capable of supporting large sustainable harvests of fish, waterfowl, edible plants, firewood, and fodder.

Research and facilities: A poorly known area, first surveyed in detail in January 1987.


JHEELS IN THE VICINITY OF HAIDERGARH

A group of shallow, freshwater lakes and meandering water courses with associated marshes, subject to monsoon flooding and often dry by the end of the dry season. The

Jheels are situated (Lat. 26° 35’ N and Long. 81° 15’ E) near the town of Haidergarh (Hydergarh) in Barabanki district, 50 km southeast of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. These jheels are typical of the jheels of the Gangetic plain of Uttar Pradesh and are

representative of the wetlands of the entire Oudh region to the southeast. The total area of the Haidergarh Jheel is 100 ha and Madha-ki-jheel is 1600 ha. Virtually all of the surrounding areas are cultivated in small holdings, and many of the jheels have already been drained and converted into agricultural land. Most of the jheels are

residual oxbow lakes, for the most part overgrown with emergent vegetation and often utilized as village ponds by the local human population.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the Gangetic plain.

Macrophytes: The jheels support a profuse growth of free-floating, rooted-floating,

submerged, and emergent aquatic vegetation, typical of the region. Unfortunately, Eichhornia crassipes has invaded the area and is already dominant at many sites.

Birds: Taken collectively, the jheels around Haidergarh are of great importance for

many resident and migratory species of waterfowl.

Land tenure: Probably privately owned throughout.

•

JHEELS IN THE VICINITY OF

HAIDERGARH



Conservation measures taken: No information except at Haidergarh Jheel where

shooting has been prohibited. Unfortunately, enforcement is insufficient to prevent shooting taking place.

Possible changes in land use: Wetlands throughout the region are being drained for conversion to agricultural land.

Disturbances and threats: The jheels are rapidly being converted to agricultural use. Most are already partly drained; over 50% of Haidergarh Jheel has been drained, and agricultural land now extends to the edge of the open water. Other threats include

illegal shooting and trapping of waterfowl, and pollution with domestic and agricultural effluents. The spread of Eichhornia crassipes is a major problem at many of the jheels.

Socio-economic values: Several of the jheels are important regulators of the local water table.

Research and facilities: Preliminary surveys have been carried out by the Bombay

Natural History Society.

Pollution status: Pollution caused by domestic and agricultural effluents.


NAINITAL LAKE

It is a crescent shaped natural water body of central Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh. Nainital

lake (Lat. 29° 24’ N and Long. 79° 28’ E) is one of the most picturesque lakes in the Kumaum Himalaya of Uttar Pradesh. The length of the lake is 1432 m and breadth is 42 m. The maximum depth is 27.3 m. and total area of the wetland is about 48.2 m2. The lake is surrounded on the north west side by the high and steep Naina peak, on

the south west side by Tiffin Top, and on the north by peaks such as snow view. These hill tops are covered by coniferous forest trees. The lake receives water carrying the household refuge, garbage, silt and unmeasured amount of sewage

through 24 open drains, out of which 2 are perennial and the rest 22 become active only during rainy season.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 24.6°C

and minimum of 0.5°C. The water is alkaline in nature (8.4–9.3).

Fauna: No information.


Land use: Drinking, Fishing and boating.

Socio-economic values: The lake is multipurpose in character, far aside from its use as source of drinking water and fishing, boating, etc., it has a great bearing upon the

economy of the region as a major tourist attraction.

Pollution status: Nainital lake water is much more polluted by (a) human settlement on catchment leading to the construction of house, buildings and roads and

addition of domestic sewage, (b) tourism leading to boating, rowing and other recreational activities and (c) removal of natural vegetation from shore line area which facilities addition of eroded materials.

Reference: Rai and Rathore (1993).

BAGHLA RESERVOIR

The Baghla reservoir situated near Barica and about 55 km southwest of the city of Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh. The reservoir was constructed in 1952 on a small rivulet, the Barica situated about 5 km away from the Baghla lake. The reservoir enclosed an

area of 250 ha at FRL (119 m) with a water retention capacity of about 9.58 mm3

which is minimized to 0.141 mm3 at DSL. Water level in reservoir fluctuated between 6.86 to 7.83 meters. The maximum discharge of water from reservoir takes place in December–January to irrigate the winter crop covering an area of about 2020 ha.

Bundh length of the reservoir is 2.05 km and average depth is 3.89 m.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 31.5°C and minimum of 20°C. The pH values ranged from 7.1–8.15.

Phytoplankton: Most important flora encountered were: Microcystis aeroginosa,

Aphanocapsa sp., Anabaena spp. among myxophyceae; Eudorina, Pediastrum,

Pandorina, Scenedesmus, Ankistrodesmus and Spirogyra of chlorophyceae; Melosira,

Synedra, Gyrosigma, Asterionella, Cymbella, Cyclotella and Navicula of bacillariophyceae. Ceratium sp. was the sole representative of dinophyceae.

Periphyton: Cymbella, Navicula, Synedra, Melosira, Meridion, Ankistrodesmus,

Protococcus, Oedogonium, Ulothrix, Oscillatoria, Merismopeida, Aphanocapsa,

Cylindrospermum, Cosmarium, Cirrhina mrigala and Labeo calbasu.

Zooplankton: The bulk of the zooplankton was constituted by rotifera (Brachionus

spp., Keratella spp. and Fillnia sp.) followed by Cyclops sp., Diaptomus sp. and Mesocyclops (copepoda) and cladocera (Diaphanosoma spp., Bosmina sp. and Ceriodaphnis sp.)

Macrobenthos: Main fauna encountered were: Chironomid spp.; Phylopotamus sp., among insects; and Pisidium, Corbicula sp., Gyraulus sp., Lymnaea sp. Indoplanorbis

sp. and Viviparus bengalensis comprised molluscan fauna.

Fishes: Labeo bata, Puntius sarana, Notopterus notopterus, Wallago attu and Mystus

spp.


Land use: Irrigation and fishing.

Socio-economic values: Its importance for water supply, the reservoir supports a small fishery supplying local markets, and could, if appropriately managed, evolve into a readily accessible and important centre for conservation education.

Reference: Khan et al. (1996).

SURHA WETLAND

Surha wetland (Lat. 25° 48’–25° 52’ N and Long. 84° 8’–84° 15’ E) is a large ox-box shape perennial, freshwater lake in the middle Gangetic plain, Uttar Pradesh. Marginal exposed area is used for the cultivation of traditional varieties of ‘floating’

or deep-water rice. At the time of harvest, farmers chop off the awns only and rest of the portion was left to decompose. The lake is connected with river Ganga by a narrow and zig-zag seasonal stream named Kateher Nala. It brings floodwater from

the Ganga to the lake or carries off the overflow from the lake into the river Ganga. The total area of the lake is about 3500 ha during rainy season.


Macrophytes: Dominant macrophytic species present in the wetlands are

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Ceratophyllum demersum 7 Oryza rufipogan

2 Cyperus plantystylis 8 O. sativa

3 Eichhornia crassipes 9 Polygonum amphibium

4 Eleocharis plantaginea 10 Potamogeton crispes

5 Hydrilla verticillata 11 P. pectinatus

6 Ipomea aquatica




Reference: Siddharth Singh and Ambasht (2001).

MATATILLA RESERVOIR

The reservoir situated (25° 15’ N, 78° 23’ E) on the river Betwa (a tributary of Chambal), Uttar Pradesh. It has gross capacity 964.72cm. The maximum depth of the reservoir is 27.5 m and depth at dead storage is 18.18 m. The volume development

0.66, shore development 1.65, shore line 73.6 km and average rainfall 76.3 mm per annum. The total area of this lake is about 13,893 ha.


and minimum of 19.4°C. The pH values ranged from 7.4–8.2.



MATATILLA RESERVOIR

•


Land use: Irrigation for agriculture


valuable source of water for irrigation and domestic use

Reference: Sherry and Jain (1992).

WETLANDS OF EASTERN UTTAR PRADESH

Numerous small lakes, ponds, marshes, and water courses in a vast low-lying region between the Ghaghara and Ganges rivers in eastern Uttar Pradesh. The region, formerly known as the “Oudh” (meaning between the two rivers), stretches for about

370 km from east to west and up to 120 km from north to south. It contains more than 500 freshwater wetlands of over 100 ha in area and a great wealth of smaller water bodies. A few of the wetlands exceed 500 ha, and most of the significant lakes are about 200–300 ha. Detailed information is lacking on this area, but it is likely that the

wetlands are similar in many respects to those of northern Uttar Pradesh to the west and those of Bihar to the east. The cities of Kanpur, Allahabad, and Varanasi are situated on the Ganges on the southern edge of the region. The whole area is densely

populated and under intensive cultivation.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the Ganges plain, with an average annual rainfall of about 1000 mm and a temperature range of 5°–45°C.

Birds: Known to be an extremely important area for migratory waterfowl, especially Anatidae. Abdulali and Savage (1970) reported that “millions” of ducks used the area in winter, but no recent information is available. Some of the less disturbed wetlands

probably support significant densities of breeding waterfowl as well.

Land tenure: Largely under private ownership

Land use: Fishing and water supply for irrigation and domestic use. The wetlands

are also utilised by local people as a source of fodder for domestic livestock and fuel for cooking.

Disturbances and threats: The principal threats are over-exploitation of all the

wetland resources by the ever-increasing human population of the region, drainage for conversion to agricultural land, infestation with Eichhornia crassipes, and pollution from domestic wastes.

Socio-economic values: The wetlands act as natural water storage reservoirs for irrigation and domestic supply, and provide a wealth of natural foods, fuel, and fodder for the local people and their livestock.

Research and facilities: Meagre research seems to have been carried out in this

important region, and no recent information is available on the wetlands or their wildlife.

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); WWF India (1993).

UPPER GANGA RIVER (BRIJGHAT TO NARORA STRETCH)

The Ganga rises at 7,010 meters in Gangotri, Uttar Kashi District, Uttar Pradesh, on

the Southern slopes of the Himalayan range. It flows through three different States - Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal covering a distance of 2,525 km before it joins the Bay of Bengal. The entire river stretch from Brijghat to Narora is shallow with only intermittent small stretches of deep-water pools and reservoirs upstream

barrages. The bank of the entire river stretch up to Narora is sandy and muddy, but with significantly rich biodiversity and religious importance. Between Brijghat and Narora, both the banks are embanked with boulders to check erosion.

The depth varies between 300–362 cm. and transparency ranges between 3–5 cm during monsoon season. During dry season the stretch has low quantity of water with a depth ranging from 50 cm to 150 cm. Irregular water flow from the reservoirs in the

upper reaches and inconsistent rainfall in the area are responsible for the irregular flow of the Ganga River. The discharge record from the barrages shows a regular fluctuation in the water level causing disturbance to the natural habitat of different

aquatic animals. It has a total water spread area of about 26,590 ha.

Abiotic factors: During the major part of the year the climate of the total river stretch is influenced largely by the prevalence of dry air, extreme temperatures in summer and

winter. It is only during the monsoon months that air of oceanic origin reaches, bringing with it increased humidity, cloudiness and rain. Climatologically, the year may be divided into three seasons. The cold season, from about the end of November to the beginning of March, followed by the hot season, which continues till about the

end of June where the south-west monsoon arrives. The monsoon season lass until September and the next two months forming the transitional period.

Plants: The dominating plants along the river stretch are Shesham (Dalbergia

sissoo), Ashoka (Saraca indica), Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus Globulus), Banyan (Ficus

bengalensis), Bamboo (Dendrocalamus Strictus), Teak (Tectona grandis) and Neem (Azadirachta indica), etc. Beside this, bamboo grasses and some aquatic flora like

Eichhorina common.

Phytoplankton: The density of Phytoplanktons varies from 36 to 2116 µ / l. A total of 15 species of molluscs belonging to 10 families was also recorded.

Zooplankton: Zooplanktons species are dominated by four main taxonomic groups Protozoa, Rotifera, Cladocera and Copepoda. A total of 40 forms of zooplanktons are


identified in the stretch with 10 species of Protozoans, 16 Rotifers, 4 Cladocerans and 5 Copepods.

Fishes: In addition to the red listed species, these are endemic to the area, such as fishes - Tor tor, T. pitutora. Fish forms the largest group of living natural resources in this river stretch. Fishes like Wallago attu, Chela laubuca, Colisa fasciatus, Chanda

ranga, Glossogobius giuris, Nangra punctata, Puntius sp. and P. sophore are

common in the river. According to the survey conducted by WWF India, a total of 73 species of fishes were identified. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Ailia colia 38 Mastacembelus armatus

2 Amblypharyngodon melettinus 39 M. puncalus

3 A. mola 40 Mystus bleekeri

4 Badis badis 41 M. cavasius

5 Bagarius bagarius 42 M. oar

6 Barilus barila 43 M. seenghala

7 B. bola 44 M. tangara

8 B. modestus 45 M. vittatus

9 B. vagra 46 Nandus nandus

10 Botia Dario 47 Nangra nangra

11 Catla catla 48 Nemochilus bevasni

12 Chaca chaca 49 N. botia

13 Chanda nama 50 N. corica

14 C. ranga 51 N. montanus

15 Channa gachua 52 N. multifasciatus

16 C. marulius 53 N. savena

17 C. punctatus 54 N. scaturingina

18 C. slewartii 55 N. zonatus

19 C. striatus 56 Notopterus chitala

20 Chela laobuca 57 N. notopterus

21 Cirrhinus mrigala 58 Ompok bimaculotus

22 C. reba 59 O. pabda

23 Clarias batrachus 60 Osteobrama cotio

24 C. magur 61 Oxygaster bacaila

25 Clupisoma garua 62 O. boopis

26 Crossocheilus latius 63 Pungasium pungasius

27 Danio dangila 64 Puntius chola

28 D. devario 65 P. sarana

29 Eutropiichthys vacha 66 P. sophore

30 Glossogobius giuris 67 P. ticto

31 Gudusia chapra 68 Rasbora daniconius

32 Heteropneustes fossilis 69 Rita rita

33 Labeo gonius 70 Tor putitora

34 L. pangusia 71 T. tor

35 Laubuca atper 72 Wallago attu

36 Lepidocephalichthys guntea 73 Xenentodon cancila

37 Mastacembelus acculatus

Reptiles: Two species of crocodiles i.e. endangered Gavialis gangeticus and vulnerable Crocodylus palustris. Under the national legislation these species are also protected as Schedule I of Wildlife protection Act 1972. Besides, out of 12 species of

turtles identified from this stretch, 6 species are considered as endangered including Indian Softshell turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus). The following species of turtles (freshwater) are recorded in this wetland, i.e.

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Aspideretes gangeticus 7 K. kachuga

2 A. hurum 8 K. smithii

3 Chitra indica 9 K. tecta

4 Geoclemys hamiltonii 10 K. tentoria

5 Hardella thurjii 11 Lissemys punctata

6 Kachuga dhongoka 12 Melanochelys trijuga

Birds: The numerous water birds use the shallow water pools for roosting and

breeding. More than 100 species of birds belonging to 34 families both aquatic and terrestrial avifauna were identified along with there population. More than 20,000 birds are reported in the stretch which includes Pintails (Anas acuta) (1148), Brahmini Duck (Tadorna ferruginea) (1136), Coot (Fulica atra) (8000), Cormorant

(Phalacrocorax fuscicollis) (3500), Purple moorhen (Porphyrio porphyrio) (2000), Spoonbill (Platalea leucordia) (1500), Openbills (Anastomus oscitans) (500), Bar-headed geese (Anser indicus) (600), Gulls (Larus ridibundus) (800) according to 2002

survey conducted by WWF India. List of Birds is provided in Appendix 1. (Total yearly estimate is available in the annual dolphin survey reports of the Upper Ganga River - WWF-India 1997 – 2004). During the dolphin survey in the river stretch in winter, estimation of aquatic birds was collected. These are followes;

Family Common Name Scientific Name

Podicipitidae Little grabe Tachybaptus ruficollis

Great crested grabe Podiceps cristatus Pelecanidae Grey pelican Pelecanus philippensis

Phalacrocoracidae Indian Shag Phalacrocorax

fuscicollis Large cormorant P. carbo

Little cormorant P. niger Darter Anhinga rufa Ardeidae Grey Heron Ardea cinerea Pond Heron Ardeola grayii

Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Little Egret Egretta garzetta Large Egret E. alba

Intermediate Egret E. intermedia Ciconiidae White necked Stork Ciconia episcopus Black Stork C. nigra Black necked Stork Zzenorhynchus asiaticus

Open billed Anastomus oscitans

Threskiornithidae Spoon bill Platalea ieucorodia Anatidae Bar headed goose Anser indicus

Grey leg goose A. anser Brahmini Duck Tadorna ferruginea Tufted duck Aythya fuligula

Common pochard A. ferina Pintail Anas acuta Common Teal A. crecca Shoveller A. clypeata

Gad wall A. strepera Garganey A. querguedula Wigeon A. penelope

Spotbill Duck A. poecilorhyncha Cotton Teal Nettapus

coromandelianus

Red crested pochard Netta rufina Comb Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos Accipitridae Blackwinged kite Elanus caeruleus Pariah kite Milvus migrans

Brahminy kite Haliastur indus Shikra Accipiter badius Indian white backed

vulture

Gyps bengalensis

Scavenger vulture Neophron percnopterus Ringed tailed

fishingeagle

Halioeetus leucoryphus

Phasianidae Common peafowl Pavo cristatus Gruidae Sarus Crane Grus antigone

Common Crane G. grus Rallidae Whitebreasted

Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus

Moorhen Gallinula chloropus

Coot Fulica atra Recurvirostridae Black winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus Pied Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta

Burhinidae Stone curlew Burhinus oedicnemus Great stone Plover Esacus magnirostris Small Indian

Pratincole

Glareola lactea

Charadiidae Red wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus Spur Winged Plover V. spinosus Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius

Kentish Plover C. alexandrinus Western curlew Numenius arquata Red shank Tringa totanus

Common Sandpiper T. hypoleucos Laridae Brown headed gull Larus brunnicephalus Black headed gull L. ridibundus Indian River Tern Sterna aurantia

Black bellied Tern S. acuticauda Little Tern S. albifrons

Columbidae Blue Rock Pigeon Columba livia Indian Ring Dove Strerptopelia decaocto Red Turtle Dove S. tranquebarica

Psittacidae Rose ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri Cuculidae Crow-Pheasant Centropus sinensis Strigidae Brown Fish Owl Bubo zeylonensis Apodidae House swift Apus affinis

Alcedinidae White breasted Kingfisher

Halcyon smyrnensis

Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis

Meropidae Blue tailed Bee-eater Merops philippinus Green Bee-eater M. orientalis Coraciidae Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis

Upupidae Hoopoe Upupa epops Alaudidae Red winged Bush Lark Mirafra erythroptera Rufous tailed Finch

Lark Ammomanes

phoenicurus

Hirundinidae Swallow Hirundo rustica Red rumped Swallow H. daurica Laniidae Brown shrike Lanius cristatus

Grey shrike L. excubitor Rufous backed Shrike L. schach Dicruridae Black Drongo Dicrurs adsimilis Sturnidae Black headed Myna Sturnus pagodarum

Pied Myna S. contra Common Indian Myna Acridotheres oristis Bank Myna A. ginginianus

Corvidae Indian Tree Pie Dendrocitta vagabunda House crow Corvus splendens Jungle Crow C. macrorhynchos Pycnonotidae Red vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer

Muscicapidae Common Babbler Turdoides caudatus Large Grey Babbler T. malcolmi Magpie robin Copsychus saularis

Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata Motacillidae Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea Large pied wagtail M. maderaspatensis

Ploceidae House Sparrow Passer domesticus

Mammals: Upper Ganga River supports mammalian species like Ganges river dolphins (Platanista gangetica) listed in CITES, IUCN Redbook as Endangered,

common-otters (Lutra lutra).

Endangered species: Ganges river dolphins (Platanista gangetica) listed in CITES, IUCN Redbook as Endangered, common-otters (Lutra lutra), two species of

crocodiles i.e. endangered Gavialis gangeticus and vulnerable Crocodylus palustris.

Besides, out of 12 species of turtles identified from this stretch, 6 species are considered as endangered including Indian Softshell turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus).

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding areas are Government and Private owned.

Land use: The wetland is used for irrigation, fishing, pilgrimage, mass religious bathing and post cremation activity and surrounding areas are used for agriculture and grazing, nesting and basking ground for turtles and crocodiles.

Conservation measures taken: List national category and legal status of protected areas, including boundary relationships with the Ramsar site; management practices; whether an officially approved management plan exists and whether it is being

implemented.

There is no protected area created in the stretch from Brijghat to Narora to save the endangered species. To save the dolphins and other animals including endangered

species, the Government of India have included these species in the Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. The Act prohibits killing/trapping of the species. The Ganges dolphin was also listed in Appendix II of the Convention of International

Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES).

Major threats identified in the river stretch includes: Pollution, Soil erosion and Fishing. WWF-India is carrying out the following activities to address the threats:

1. Lobby with the Government to install Sewage treatment Plant at Anupsahar to reduce the domestic sewage. Motivating the villagers to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the fields to control the Agricultural pollution. (It should be noted that significant reduction of agricultural pollutant

has been recorded in this stretch).

2. Plantation activities are carried out regularly along the bank of the river to minimize the soil erosion. (Last year we planted 3000 plants and this year 10,000

plants is to be planted along the bank in village Farida to check the soil erosion).

3. Lobbying with the Government to ban leasing of commercial fishing in this area. Out of six districts in this area (both bank of the river stretch) three districts has

already issued notice to ban leasing on commercial of fishing.

Conservation measures proposed: Already proposed for a status of wildlife sanctuary but yet not declared.

Disturbance and threats: Domestic sewage pollution; Unspecified agricultural runoff; Over-fishing; Industrial waste pollution; Urban development; Development/ xpansion of settlements; Pesticide/herbicide pollution; Fertilizer pollution; Erosion

and Fluctuation in water-level as a result of practice

Socio-economic values: All the ways from Brijghat to Narora most of the ghats have religious importance and also importance for tourism, unspecified fishing, agriculture,

water supply, hydro-electricity, livestock grazing and current scientific research. Large number of pilgrims use the river water for holy bath, cremation and post cremation activities.

Pollution status: Overpopulation in the area in the recent years and subsequent

population pressure for ritual activities has caused major pollution in the river.

Research and facilities: WWF-India has involved in regular monitoring of the stretch since 1997. Before that 1991 to 1995 Jiwaji University, Gwalior has conducted

the research on Bio-monitoring of the stretch Under the Ganges River Dolphin project. WWF-India is conducting annual surveys to monitor the dolphin population of the stretch. Beside river dolphins, data are also collected on the status of other

aquatic biodiversity present in the stretch such as crocodiles, turtles and aquatic birds.

Data related to the hydrology and other biology of the river stretch is also recorded regularly. These data are regularly been updated in the satellite imagery (GIS maps). Along with this Education and Awareness Programme is conducted to address

different target groups like students, villagers and fishermen communities. Education materials were prepared and awareness created by giving regular, lectures, slide shows, presentation and through street play. Measures have been taken to mitigate the

identified threats in this habitat with the help of local NGO’s, State Forest Department and other relevant Government Departments.

WWF-India has established a field office to carry out day to day research work and

related activities in the river stretch and coordinating the work with NGO’s, villagers and various Government departments.

Importance: Upper Ganga River supports mammalian species like Ganges river

dolphins (Platanista gangetica) listed in CITES, IUCN Redbook as Endangered, common-otters (Lutra lutra), two species of crocodiles i.e. endangered Gavialis

gangeticus and vulnerable Crocodylus palustris. Under the national legislation these species are also protected as Schedule I of Wildlife protection Act 1972. Besides, out

of 12 species of turtles identified from this stretch, 6 species are considered as endangered including Indian Softshell turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus).

The Upper Ganga River supports a rich biodiversity. Besides, dominating plants along

the river stretch are Shesham (Dalbergia sissoo), Ashoka (Saraca indica), Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus Globulus), Banyan (Ficus bengalensis), Bamboo (Dendrocalamus

Strictus), Teak (Tectona grandis) and Neem (Azadirachta indica), etc. Beside this,

bamboo grasses and some aquatic flora like Eichhorina common.

Zooplanktons species are dominated by four main taxonomic groups Protozoa, Rotifera, Cladocera and Copepoda. A total of 40 forms of zooplanktons are identified in the stretch with 10 species of Protozoans, 16 Rotifers, 4 Cladocerans and 5

Copepods.

The density of Phytoplanktons varies from 36 to 2116 µ / l. A total of 15 species of molluscs belonging to 10 families was also recorded.

In addition to the red listed species, these are endemic to the area, such as fishes - Tor

tor, T. pitutora. The stretch is reported to be critical in their life cycle. The numerous water birds use the shallow water pools for roosting and breeding.

More than 100 species of birds belonging to 34 families both aquatic and terrestrial avifauna were identified along with there population. More than 20,000 birds are reported in the stretch which includes Pintails (Anas acuta) (1148), Brahmini Duck

(Tadorna ferruginea) (1136), Coot (Fulica atra) (8000), Cormorant (Phalacrocorax

fuscicollis) (3500), Purple moorhen (Porphyrio porphyrio) (2000), Spoonbill (Platalea leucordia) (1500), Openbills (Anastomus oscitans) (500), Bar-headed geese

(Anser indicus) (600), Gulls (Larus ridibundus) (800) according to 2002 survey conducted by WWF India.

Fish forms the largest group of living natural resources in this river stretch. According to the survey conducted by WWF India, a total of 82 species of fishes were identified.

Fishes like Wallago attu, Chela laubuca, Colisa fasciatus, Chanda ranga,

Glossogobius giuris, Nangra punctata, Puntius sp. and Puntius sophore are common in the river.

Management authority: Provide the name and address of the local office(s) of the agency (ies) or organisation(s) directly responsible for managing the wetland. Wherever possible provide also the title and/or name of the person or persons in this

office with responsibility for the wetland. Chief Engineer, U.P. State Irrigation Department, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Past and Present status

Site: Sewage discharge between Anupsahar and Narora; Pesticides and fertilizers were also leached into the river through agriculture runoff from the bank-side agricultural fields; Mass bathing by Pilgrims during various festivals; Post cremation

rituals; Washing of cloths at various sites were also recorded; Large scale fishing activities

Surrounding area: Agricultural activities on the river bank side.

Reference: Anderson, J. 1878; Behera, S.K. 1995; Jones, S. 1982; Murtiet et al., 1991; Rao, R.J. 1995; http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website).

WETLANDS IN CORBETT NATIONAL PARK

Corbett National Park situated (29° 25’–29° 40’ N, 78° 45’–79° 05’ E) in Ramnagar District, Kumaon Foothills, 80 km north of Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh. The Ramganga River flows from east to west through Corbett National Park into the Ramganga water

storage reservoir behind the Kalagarh Dam. The construction of the Kalagarh Dam resulted in inundation of the lower riverine forested tracts together with important grasslands, known as "chaurs". This has been partially compensated by an extensive

muddy margin around the reservoir which increases in width during the winter months as the water level falls. The river is a fast-flowing torrent for much of its course through the Park, but there are numerous backwaters, oxbow creeks and small ponds within the flood plain, particularly near to Dhikala, the visitor centre in the

middle of the Park. Area of wetlands unknown; National Park 52,082 ha including a core zone of 31,998 ha and a buffer zone of 20,084 ha.


Macrophytes: The emergent vegetation along sluggish backwaters and in ponds consists of species of Phragmites, Typha and Scirpus.

Fishes: Several fish species occur including Barbus tor, B. chilinoides, Labeo

calbasu, Oxygaster bacaila and Bagarius bagarius.

Reptiles: The Marsh Crocodile or Mugger Crocodylus palustris is fairly common, and the Gharial Gavialis gangeticus was re-introduced into the Park in the early

1980’s.

Birds: Many species of waterfowl have been recorded, but mostly in small numbers. Ephippiorhynclius asiaticus probably breeds; Ciconia nigra is regular in spring (up to

60 in March), and Ciconia episcopus occurs in small numbers. Winter visitors include Phalacrocorax carbo (up to 130), Mergellus merganser (common along the river) and Ibidorhyncha struthersii (scarce). Birds of prey are common; Pandion haliaetus is a

common visitor, Ichthyophaga nana and Haliaeetus leucoryphus breed, and Aquila

clanga occurs in winter. The two fish-owls Ketupa zeylonica and K. flavipes occur in the riverine forest.

Mammals: Mammals closely associated with the wetlands include the Common Otter Lutra lutra and Fishing Cat Felisviverrina.


Land use: The area is a managed nature reserve and important tourist centre. Sport fishing with rod and line is permitted at certain points along the river.

Conservation measures taken: Corbett National Park (52,082 ha) was first established in 1936. Most of the wetland habitat is situated in the central part of the Park and is well protected. The Gharial Gavialis gangeticus is the subject of a re-introduction programme; by January 1987, 27 young Gharials had been released in

the Park.

Disturbances and threats: The most serious threat to the wetland ecosystems is deforestation in the upper reaches of the river outside the Park and consequent

increased silt load in the river. Tourists are a source of some disturbance at Dhikala, and there may be a small amount of pollution in the Ramganga River.

Socio-economic values: The Ramganga is a fine scenic river flowing through

relatively undisturbed forests with great wildlife interest. The area is very attractive to tourists, making Corbett one of the most visited National Parks in India (20,000 visitors in 1983/84).

Research and facilities: Corbett National Park has been part of Project Tiger since 1974. Numerous studies have been undertaken on the wildlife in collaboration with the Zoological Survey of India.


WETLANDS IN KISHANPUR PASHU VIHAR SANCTUARY

Kishanpur Pashu Vihar Sanctuary is situated (28° 21’–28° 40’ N, 80° 20’–80° 24’

E) near the Nepalese border, 80 km NNE of Shah jahanpur, Uttar Pradesh. Wetland is a permanent and seasonal freshwater ponds, marshes and areas of seasonally inundated terai grassland in the Kishanpur Pashu Vihar Sanctuary. The wetlands are

fed by monsoon run-off and a tributary of the Ghaghara River rising in the foothills of western Nepal, The water table is high; there are many artesian wells, and much of the area is prone to water logging.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about 1,000 mm.

Macrophytes: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. The main forest type is North Indian tropical moist deciduous forest.

Fishes: Fish species include Rohu.

Birds: The rich avifauna probably includes Francolinus gularis and Houbaropsis

bengalensis.

Mammals: The Sanctuary supports a small population of the Swamp Deer Cervus

duvaucelli.


Land use: A managed nature reserve.

Conservation measures taken: The area was declared a Sanctuary in 1972 to conserve a population of the Swamp Deer Cervus duvaucelli.

Disturbances and threats: Grazing by domestic livestock and forestry operations are the main problems in the Sanctuary.



WETLANDS IN DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK

Dudhwa National Park is sitaued on (28° 21’–28° 41’ N, 80° 30’– 80° 55’E)

the Nepalese border about 180 km NNW of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. The wetland is a large National Park on a vast alluvial plain near the foothills of the Himalayas, with a fine selection of terai ecosystems. Much of the Park is a mosaic of tropical semi-

evergreen forest, tropical moist deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, riparian forest and swamp forest. The wooded areas are fragmented by extensive areas of mesophyllous grassland known as phantas. Wetland habitats include a number of small perennial rivers, ponds, lakes (known as tals) and marshes. The most important

lakes are Banki Tal and Kukra Tal. Together with Royal Sukla Phanta and Royal Bardia National Parks in Nepal, Dudhwa is an example of the often marshy, undulating alluvial lands between the Bhabar and the Gangetic Plain, an area that has

been largely converted to agricultural use elsewhere in the sub-continent west of Assam. Area of wetland is unknown, however the National Park is 49,029 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the northern Indo-Gangetic

plain, with an average annual rainfall of about 1,000 mm. The monsoon rains occur from June to October.

Macrophytes: The phanta grasslands are composed of

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Apluda nuitica 8 Hygroryza aristata

2 Bendosorghum sp. 9 Narenga porphyrocoma

3 Cymbopogon flexuosus 10 Panicum paludosum

4 Demostachya bipinata 11 Saccharum benghalensis

5 Dichanthium annulatum 12 S. spontaneum

6 D. glabrum 13 Themeda arundinacea

7 Echinochloa spp. 14 Vetiveria zizanoides

The riparian forest is principally composed of Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo,

Trewia nudiflora, Mallotus philippensis, occasional Syzygium cuminii and Barringtonia acutangula. The small lakes (tals) are eutrophic, with extensive submerged and emergent vegetation; stands of Phragmites sp. and Typha sp. fringe

the lakes and Nymphaea spp. are abundant on the surface of the water.

Special floral values: Some exceptionally fine stands of sal Shorea robusta growing in Dudhwa are often considered to be the best examples of this forest type in the

Indian sub-continent.

Fishes: Fishes include the Rohu.

Birds: The wetlands support important wintering populations of waterfowl including

Ciconia episcopus, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Threskiornis melanocephalus,

Sarkidiornis melanotos and Grus antigone. A waterfowl census at Banki Tal in January 1987 recorded: 700 Anser anser; 1,500 Dendrocygna javanica; 200 Netta

rufina; 200 Sarkidiornis melanotos; 500 Porphyrio porphyrio; 300 Pulica aira; 60

Hydrophasianus chirurgus together with smaller numbers of many other species. Ciconia episcopus and Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus are both thought to breed in the Park. Aythya baeri is an occasional winter visitor; four birds were present at Kukra

Tal in 1982. Other noteworthy wetland species recorded in recent years include Pandion haliaetus, Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus, Aquila clanga, Circus melanoleucos,

Francolinus gularis, Saxicola leucura and Turdoides earlei. Phylloscopus fulgiventer

is a common winter visitor to the tals. The endangered Bengal Florican Houbaropsis

bengalensis is resident in the phanta grassland.

Mammals: The Sanctuary supports an internationally significant population of the nominate race of the Swamp Deer Cervus duvaucelli, and there is a large population

of the Common Otter Lutra lutra. Healthy populations of Panthera tigris, Cervus

unicolor, Axis axis and Felis viverrina occur peripherally to the wetland areas, and there is a small population of Asian Elephants Elephas maximus in the park (not more

than 20 individuals in 1987). The endangered Hispid Hare Caprolagus hispidus may occur in the grassland areas.


Land use: A managed nature reserve.

Conservation measures taken: A first working plan was developed in 1886. Sonaripur Sanctuary was established in 1958, and then in 1963, the sanctuary was

extended to its present size of about 61,000 ha and declared the Dudhwa Sanctuary. In February 1977, the Government of Uttar Pradesh notified an area of 49,029 ha as Dudhwa National Park under the Wildlife Protection Act (1972).

Conservation measures proposed: An area of 9,000 ha has been selected for the re-introduction of the rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis. It is predicted that this area could eventually accommodate 100 individuals. A buffer zone around much of the Park should absorb the majority of grazing incursions, but radical proposals are required to

reduce conflicts along the southern boundary.

Disturbances and threats: The major problems are poaching, illegal burning, grazing by domestic livestock and a railway line which runs through the Park. The Dudhwa

forests are threatened by rising anti-tiger sentiments stirred by local politicians keen to exploit the potential gains should the Park be reduced in area. Serious encroachment has taken place in the past two decades resulting in increased confrontations between

tigers and people. Several people have been killed, and at least 15 tigers were illegally shot or poisoned between December 1986 and December 1987. In order to reduce conflicts, the buffer zone may be increased, but public sentiment peripheral to the Park might prevent or even reverse any attempts to expand the area of the Park .

Socio-economic values: Potentially an important site for tourism. Re-introduction of the Indian One-horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis has stimulated an interest in the Sanctuary, and the number of visitors is likely to increase. The site is almost

contiguous with Royal Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve in Nepal.

Research and facilities: Rhinoceros research is being funded by the Department of the Environment. A PhD student from Lucknow is studying the ecology of Cervus

duvaucelli.


WETLANDS IN KATERNIAGHAT PASHU VIHAR SANCTUARY

The Sanctuary is situated on 28° 07’–28° 20’ N, 81° 03’–8l° 20’ E, near the Nepalese border, 150 km north of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. Katerniaghat Pashu Vihar Sanctuary includes a stretch of the Ghaghara (Girwa) River, below its confluence with

the Kauriala River near the Nepalese frontier. The Ghaghara is a fast-flowing terai river with seasonal sand banks, gravel bars and stoney islands. The Sanctuary also includes several oxbow lakes (jheels), low-lying terai swamp lands along old watercourses and in hollows, and areas of seasonally flooded grassland. The area of

the wetlands is unknown, however the Sanctuary is 40,000 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about 1,000 mm.

Macrophytes: No information is available on the wetland vegetation. The Ghaghara River flows through an area of moist deciduous Bhabar forest, Terminalia forest, eastern seasonal swamp forest and low alluvial savanna woodland. The dominant tree

species are Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentosa, Adina cordifolia, Diospyros

tomentosa, Cassia fistula, Dalbergia sissoo and Bombax malabaricum.

Fishes: Fishes include Barbus tor, Rohu, Bam and Bhakur.

Reptiles: An important refuge for Gharials Gavialis gangeticus, which are restricted to a five km stretch of the river near the Nepalese border. In 1975, there were two males, seven females, two near-adults, four sub-adults, 11 juveniles and two young,

i.e. 28 individuals, in the Sanctuary. This population increased in 1976 as animals moved out of the Nepalese section of the river as a result of disturbance there. A large number of captive-reared individuals (about eighteen months old and approximately 1.2 m in length) have subsequently been released in the Sanctuary (129 by January

1987). The Marsh Crocodile or Mugger Crocodylus palustris also occurs in the Sanctuary.

Birds: No information is available on the waterfowl.

Mammals: Large mammals known to occur in the Sanctuary include Panthera tigris,

P. pardus, Melursus ursinus, Cervus unicolor, C. porcinus, Axis axis, Boselaphus

tragocamelus, Muntiacus muntjak, Sus scrofa and Hyaena hyaena.


Land use: The Sanctuary is a managed nature reserve.

Conservation measures taken: The Sanctuary was established in May 1976 under

the FAO/UNDP Crocodile Project, primarily to conserve a population of the endangered Gharial Gavialis gangeticus. A captive-rearing project was established, and by January 1987, some 129 Gharials had been released in the Sanctuary. The

Ghaghara River section of the Sanctuary is maintained as a core area where disturbance is kept to an absolute minimum.

Disturbances and threats: Grazing by domestic livestock, poaching and illegal

burning are causing problems in the Sanctuary.

Socio-economic values: Nature-oriented tourism and scientific research.

Research and facilities: A Gharial breeding centre has been established and this includes a research laboratory. A PhD student sponsored by the State Forest Department is working on the ecology and management of the crocodilians.


NAINITAL LAKE

It is a crescent shaped natural water body of central Himalaya, Uttaranchal. Nainital

lake (Lat. 29° 24’ N and Long. 79° 28’ E) is one of the most picturesque lakes in the Kumaum Himalaya of Uttar Pradesh. The length of the lake is 1432 m and breadth is 42 m. The maximum depth is 27.3 m. and total area of the wetland is about 48.2 m2. The lake is surrounded on the north west side by the high and steep Naina peak, on

the south west side by Tiffin Top, and on the north by peaks such as snow view. These hill tops are covered by coniferous forest trees. The lake receives water carrying the household refuge, garbage, silt and unmeasured amount of sewage

through 24 open drains, out of which 2 are perennial and the rest 22 become active only during rainy season.


and minimum of 0.5°C. The water is alkaline in nature (8.4–9.3).

Fauna: No information.


Land use: Drinking, Fishing and boating.

Socio-economic values: The lake is multipurpose in character, far aside from its use as source of drinking water and fishing, boating, etc., it has a great bearing upon the

economy of the region as a major tourist attraction.

Pollution status: Nainital lake water is much more polluted by (a) human settlement on catchment leading to the construction of house, buildings and roads and

addition of domestic sewage, (b) tourism leading to boating, rowing and other recreational activities and (c) removal of natural vegetation from shore line area which facilities addition of eroded materials.

Reference: Rai and Rathore (1993).

SUNDARBANS MANGROVE

Sundarbans mangrove (Lat. 21° 32’–22° 40’ N and Long. 88° 85’– 89° 00’ E)

covering the major portions of the north and south 24 parganas districts. The region is bounded by Bangladsh in the east, the Hugli river in the west, Dampier and Hodges line in the north and the Bay of Bengal in the south. With a considerable degree of marine characteristics in major portion of the ecosystem, the important morphotypes

of deltaic Sundarbans are beaches, mudflats, coastal dunes, sand-flats, estuaries, creeks, inlets and mangrove swamps. The mangrove forests of the Indian Sundarbans have been variously estimated to cover 4,18,888 hectares, 2,00,000 – 3,00,000

hectares and 4,26,300 hectares. It has further been estimated that approximately 1,78,100 hectares are water areas. The discrepancy in the figures for forest cover possibly arises from the fact that some denote areas designated as forest land which includes both the water bodies and degraded forest, while others represent an

assessment of the area covered with vegetations only.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an annual rainfall of 1500–2500 mm. January is the coolest month with a mean temperature of 20°C and minimum

temperature of 10°C. There is a pronounced dry season from December to April.


S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Bacillaria paradoxa

Bacteriastrum comosum

B. hyalinum

B. hyalinum var. princeps

B. varians

Biddulphia sinensis

Ceratium extensum

C. extensum f. strictum

C. furca

C. horridum

C. trichoceros

C. trichoceros var. contrarium

C. tripos

SUNDARBANS MANGROVE


Chaetoceros curvisetus

C. eibenii

C. lorenzianus

C. peruvianus

Coscinodiscus asteromphalus

C. concinnus

C. eccentricus

C. jonesianus

C. oculus-iridis

C. perforatus var. pavillardi

Diatoma vulgare var. lineare

Ditylum brightwellii

D. sol

Eucampia sp.

Hemidiscus cuneiformis

Lauderia annulata

Merismopedia glauca

Nitzschia seriata

Oscillatoria limosa

Peridinium depressum

Planktoniella sol

Pleurosigma elongatum

P. normanii

Protoperidinium depressum

Rhizosolenia alata

R. robusta

R. setigera

R. stolterfothii

Skeletonema costatum

Thalassionema nitzschioides

Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii

Triceratium favus

Trichodesmium thiebautii

C. indicus

Bluegreen algae: A total of 67 species were recorded. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Anabaena iyengarii A. fertilissima

Aphanocapsa thermalis A. oryzae

Arthrospira gomontiana A. roeseana

Aulosira aenigmatica C. castellii

Calothrix contarenii G. membranacea

Chamaesiphon curvatus G. montana

Crinalium magnum G. pleurocapsoides

Dermocarpa hemisphaerica G. raciborskii var. kashiense

Gloeocapsa calcarea H. meneghinianum

Gloeotrichia raciborskii L. ceylanica

Gloethece samoensis var. major L. martensiana

Hydrocoleum lyngbyaceum L. rubida

Johannesbaptistia pellucida M. pulverea var. incerta

Lyngbya hieronymusii N. piscinale

Merismopedia tenuissima O. chalybea

Microchaete tenera O. jasorvensis

Microcoleus chthonoplastes O. margaritifera

Microcystis litoralis P. retzii

Myxosarcina spectabilis

Nostoc punctiforme

Oscillatoria formosa

Phormidium fragile

Polychlamydum isigne

Raphidiopsis indica

Schizothrix penicillata

Spirulina princes

Stichosiphon sansibaricus

Stigonema hormoides

Trichodesmium thiebautii

Xenococcus chaetomorphae

Spirulina major

Anabaena anomala

Anabaena gelatinicola

Aphanocapsa pulchra

Gloeocapsa kuetzingiana

Gloeocapsa rupestris

Lyngbya lutea

Lyngbya majuscula

Lyngbya semiplena

Lyngbya confervoides

Oscillatoria limosa

Microcystis bengalensis

Nostoc linckia

Oscillatoria curviceps

Oscillatoria subbrevis

Oscillatoria princes

Phormidium stagnina

Schizothrix lamyi

Xenococcus cladophorae

Mangroves: A total of 58 species were recorded. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Acanthus ilicifolius 30 Dodonaea viscose

2 A. volubilis 31 Exoecaria agallocha

3 Acrostichum aureum 32 Heliotrophium curassavicum

4 Aegialitis rotundifolia 33 Heritiera fomes

5 Aegiceras corniculatum 34 Kandelia candel

6 Aglaia cucullata 35 Lumnitzera racemosa

7 Atalantia correa 36 Myriostachya wightiana

8 Avicennia alba 37 Nypa fruticans

9 A. marina 38 Pandanus tectorius

10 A. officinalis 39 Pentatropis capensis

11 Brownlowia lanceolata 40 Phoenix paludosa

12 Bruguiera cylindrical 41 Porteresia coarctata

13 B. gymnorhiza 42 Rhizophora apiculata

14 B. parviflora 43 R. mucronata

15 B. sexangula 44 Ruppia maritima

16 Caesalpinia bonduc 45 Salicornia brachiata

17 C. crista 46 Sarcolobus carinatus

18 Cerbera odollam 47 S. globosus

19 Ceriops decandra 48 Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea

20 C. tagal 49 Sesuvium portulacastrum

21 Clerodendrum inerme 50 Sonneratia apetala

22 C. neriifolium 51 S. caseolaris

23 Crinum defixum 52 S. griffithii

24 Cryptocoryne ciliate 53 Suaeda maritima

25 Cynometra ramiflora 54 S. nudiflora

26 Dalbergia spinosa 55 Tamarix dioica

27 Derris indica 56 T. gallica

28 D. scandens 57 Xylocarpus granatum

29 D. trifoliata 58 X. mekongensis

Rare, Threatened and Endangered mangrove forest of the Indian Sundarbans:

Species Status in Sundarbans

Acanthus volubilis Very Rare

Aglaia cucullata Rare Atalantia correa Very Rare Brownlowia lanceolata Occasional Bruguiera parviflora Occasional

Ceriops decandra Occasional Cynometra ramiflora Rare Dalbergia spinosa Rare

Heritiera fomes Threatened Hydrophyllax maritima Very Rare Kandelia candel Occasional Manikara hexandra Rare

Nypa fruticans Occasional Rhizophora apiculata Occasional Scyphiphora hydrphyllacea Very Rare

Xylocarpus granatum Threatened X. mekongensis Threatened

Algae: A total of 39 species of algae are recorded. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Chlorophyta

1 Boodleopsis sundarbanensis 21 Pediastrum boryanum

2 Chaetomorpha aerea 22 P. duplex

3 C. brachygona 23 P. tetras

4 C. gracilis 24 Radiococcus sp.

5 Chara zeylanica 25 Rhizoclonium grande

6 Chlorella vulgaris 26 R. hookeri

7 Cladophora echinus 27 R. riparium

8 Cladophorella

sundarbanensis

28 Scenedesmus bijuga

9 Closterium acutum 29 S. quadricauda

10 Cosmarium depressum 30 Spirogyra dubia

11 C. striolatum 31 S. setiformis

12 Enteromorpha clathrata 32 S. ternate

13 E. compressa 33 Triplastrum abbreviatum

14 E. intestinalis 34 T. simplex

15 E. prolifera 35 Ulva fasciata

16 Lola capillaries 36 U. lactuca

17 L. implexa 37 U. patengensis

18 L. tortuosa 38 Uronema confervicola

19 Oedogonium undulatum 39 Volvox sp. 20 Pandorina morum

Chrysophyta

1 Achnanthes microcephala 23 Cymbella ehrenbergii

2 A. minutissima 24 Diatoma vulgare

3 Amphora veneta 25 Fragilaria vaucheriae

4 Anomoeoneis exilis 26 Gomphonema

sphaerophorun

5 Asterionella japonica 27 Gyrosigma acuminatum

6 Bacteriastrum cosmosum 28 Hemidiscus cuneiformis

7 B. delicatulum 29 Melosira moniliformis

8 B. varians 30 M. sol

9 Biddulphia mobiliensis 31 Navicula cryptocephala

10 B. sinensis 32 N. radiosa

11 Chaetoceros curvisetus 33 Nitzschia acicularis

12 C. flexuosus 34 N. obtusa

13 C. laciniosus 35 N. sublinearis

14 C. subsecundus 36 Pinnularia viridis

15 C. tenuissimus 37 Pleurosigma angulatum

16 Climacodium

frauenfeldianum

38 Rhizosolenia imbricata

17 Cocconeis placentula 39 R. setigera

18 Corethron hystrix 40 Stauroneis phoenicenteron

19 Coscinodiscus excentricus 41 Stephanopyxis palmeriana

20 C. gigas 42 Synedra ulna

21 C. granii 43 Vaucheria prescotti

22 Cyclotella glomerata 44 Vaucheria sp.

Phaeophyta

1 Colpomenia sinuosa 2 Dictyota ceylanica

Cyanophyta

1 Anabaena anomala 25 L. majuscule

2 A. doliolum 26 L. semiplena

3 A. gelatinicola 27 Mastigocoleus testarum

4 A. iyengarii 28 Microcoleus chthonoplastes

5 Anabaenopsis arnoldii 29 Microcystis bengalensis

6 Aphanocapsa littoralis 30 Nostoc linckia

7 A. pulchra 31 Oscillatoria chlorine

8 A. stagnina 32 O. curviceps

9 Arthrospira platensis 33 O. limosa

10 Calothrix contarenii 34 O. nigroviridis

11 Chamaesiphon curvatus 35 O. princeps

12 Dermocarpa hemisphaerica 36 O. subbrevis

13 D. leibleiniae 37 O. tenuis

14 Gleocapsa aeruginosa 38 Phormidium fragile

15 G. decorticans 39 P. stagnina

16 G. kuetzingiana 40 Raphidiopsis curvata

17 G. punctata 41 R. indica

18 G. rupestris 42 Schitzothrix lamyii

19 Hydrocoleum lyngbyaceum 43 Scytonema hofmanni

20 Johannesbaptistia pellucida 44 Spirulina major

21 Lyngbya birgei 45 S. princes

22 L. confervoides 46 Stichosiphon sansibaricus

23 L. hieronymusii 47 Xenococcus chaetomorphae

24 L. lutea 48 X. cladophorae

Rhodophyta

1 Bostrychia tenella 8 Gelidiella acerosa

2 Caloglossa adnata 9 Gelidium pusillum

3 C. leprieurii 10 Herposiphonia dendroidea

4 Catenella impudica 11 Heterosiphonia sp. 5 C. nipae 12 Plerosiphonia pinnata

6 C. repens 13 Polysiphonia denudata

7 Compsopogon coeruleus 14 P. mollis

Amphibian: Rana cyanophlyctis, Rana tigarina, Rana limnocharis, Rana

hexadactyla, Microhyla ornata, Bufo malanostictus, Rhacophorus maculatus.

Lichen species

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Arthonia antillarum 17 Lecidea caliginosa

2 Arthopyrenia alboatra 18 Opegrapha laeta

3 A. cinefaciens 19 O. martii

4 Bacidia convexula 20 O. stironi

5 B. medialis 21 Phaeographina grisea

6 Bombyliospora leprolyta 22 Phaeographis leprosulans

7 Buellia agrediens 23 Physcia aegialite

8 Caloplaca aurantica 24 Pyrenula aspistea

9 Chiodecton micrographum 25 P. nitida

10 Collema pulcellum 26 P. nitidella

11 Dirinaria confluens 27 Pyxine cocoes

12 Graphina obtecta 28 Ramalina calicaris

13 Graphis scripta 29 Rinodina intrusa

14 Lecanactis salicina 30 Sarcographa labyrinthica

15 Lecania pertenera 31 Trypethelium luteum

16 Lecanora distans 32 T. tropicum

Fishes

Fin-fish species

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Chondrichthyes

1 Aetobatus narinari 8 D. zugei

2 Carcharhinus limbatus 9 Eusphyra blochii

3 Chiloscyllium griseum 10 Glyphis gangeticus

4 Dasyatis bleekeri 11 Pristis microdon

5 D. marginata 12 Rhinobatos anandalei

6 D. sephen 13 Stegostoma fasciatus

7 D. uranak

Osteichthyes

1 Acrichthys aor 64 L. johni

2 Ambassis baculis 65 Megalaspis cordyla

3 A. commersoni 66 Megalops cyprinoides

4 A. nama 67 Mugil cephalus

5 A. ranga 68 M. oligolepis

6 Amphipnous cuchia 69 Mystus cavasius

7 Anguilla bengalensis 70 M. gulio

8 Anodonstoma chaeunda 71 M. vittatus

9 Apocryptes bato 72 Nandus nundus

10 Arius arius 73 Nematolosa nasus

11 A. gagora 74 Nibea soldado

12 A. jella 75 Odontamblyopus

rubicundus

13 A. sagor 76 Oesteogeniosus militaris

14 A. sona 77 Oryzias melastigma

15 A. sona 78 Otolithoides biauritus

16 Awaonichthys menoni 79 Pama pama

17 Bathygobins orbicularis 80 Pampus argenteus

18 Batrachocephalus mino 81 P. chinensis

19 Batrichthys grunnieus 82 Pangasius pangasius

20 Boarius boarius 83 Pelona ditchela

21 Boleophthalmus boddarti 84 Periophthalmodon

schloserrri

22 Brachygobius nunus 85 Periophthalmus

chrysospiles

23 Caranx carangus 86 P. koelreuteri

24 Chanos chanos 87 P. malaccensis

25 Chysocentrus dorab 88 P. vulgaris

26 Coilia dussumierii 89 P. weberi

27 C. neglecta 90 Platicephalus indicus

28 C. ramearati 91 Plotosus canius

29 C. reynaldi 92 Polydactylus indicus

30 Colea bleekeri 93 Polynemus paradiseus

31 Corcia sabomia 94 Pseudapocrytes lanceolatus

32 C. saborna 95 Psiodonopsis boro

33 Cynoglossus cynoglossus 96 Raconda russeliana

34 C. lingua 97 Rhinomugil corsula

35 Daysciaena albida 98 Rita rita

36 Drepane panculatus 99 Scartelaos histophorus

37 Eleutheronema tetradactylum 100 Scatophagus argus

38 Elops saurus 101 Scomberomorus

commersoni

39 Etroplus suratensis 102 Setipinnia phasa

40 Eupleurogrammus muticus 103 S. taty

41 Gazza minuta 104 Silago sihama

42 Gerras oyena 105 Sillaginopsis panijus

43 Gerreomorpha setifer 106 Stigamatogobius

sadanundio

44 Glossogobius giuris 107 Stolephorus indicus

45 Gobiopterus chuno 108 Streinateus sinensis

46 Gudusia chapra 109 Strongylura leiura

47 Harpodon nehereus 110 S. strongylura

48 H. tumbil 111 Tenualosa ilisha

49 Ilisha elongata 112 T. toil

50 Johnius belangerri 113 Terapon jarbua

51 J. coitor 114 Thryssa hamiltonii

52 Kurtus indicus 115 T. purava

53 Lates calcarifer 116 Thycenophrya indicus

54 Leiognathus blochi 117 Triacanthus brevirostris

55 L. equulus 118 Trichiurus lepturus

56 L. fasciatus 119 Trissocles hamiltonii

57 Lepturacanthus gangeticus 120 T. purava

58 L. pantuli 121 Tryoauchen vagina

59 L. savala 122 Valamugil cunnesius

60 Liza macrolepis 123 V. speigleri

61 L. parsia 124 Xenentodon cancila

62 L. tade 125 Zenarchopterus dispar

63 Lutjanus argentimaculatus

Shell fish:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Crustacea

1 Acetes erythraeus 12 M. brevicornis

2 A. indicus 13 M. dobsonii

3 Carydina gracilipes 14 M. monoceros

4 Macrobrachium malcomsonii 15 Palaemon styliferus

5 M. ruda 16 P. tenuipes

6 M. scrobiculum 17 Parapenaeopsis sculptilis

7 M. rosenburgi 18 P. stylifera

8 M. lamarrei 19 Penaeus indicus

9 M. mirabilis 20 P. semisulcatus

10 M. javanicum 21 P. monodon

11 Metapenaeus affinis

Decapod

1 Calappa lophos 25 M. messor

2 Charybdis marguiensis 26 Ocypoda macrocera

3 C. orientalis 27 Paratelphusa hydrodromus

4 C. ornate 28 P. jacquemontii

5 C. rostata 29 P. spinigera

6 Doclea canalifera 30 Philyra globulosa

7 D. japonica 31 Portunus pelagicus

8 Dorippa facchino 32 P. sanguinolentus

9 Dotillopsis brevitarsis 33 Scopimera globosa

10 Dottila blanfordi 34 Scylla serata

11 Ethusa indica 35 Sesarma bidens

12 Hymenicus inachoides 36 S. edwadrsi

13 H. masoni 37 S. impressa

14 Illyoplas gangeticus 38 S. longipes

15 Leucosia craniolaris 39 S. quadrata

16 Macropthalmus pectinipes 40 S. smithii

17 Matuta victor 41 S. taeniolatum

18 M. lunaris 42 S. tetragona

19 M. plauipes 43 Uca acutus

20 Metaplax crenulata 44 U. dussumieri

21 M. dentipes 45 U. lactea annulipes

22 M. distincta 46 U. triangularis

23 M. intermedia 47 Varuna litterata

24 Metapograpsus maculatus

Reptiles

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Batagur baska 8 Lepidochelys olivacea

2 Chitra indica 9 Lissemys punctata

3 Eretmochetys imbricate 10 Morenia ocellata

4 Geoclemys hamiltoni 11 Pelochelys bibroni

5 Geomyda tricarinata 12 Trionyx gangeticus

6 Kachuga kachuga 13 T. hurum

7 K. tecta

Mammals

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Cetacea

1 Neophocaena phocaenoides 4 Sotalia plumbea

2 Orcella brevirostris 5 Stanella malayana

3 Platinista gangetica

Carnivora

1 Canis aureus 6 H. edwardsir

2 Felis bengalensis 7 Panthera tigris tigris

3 F. chaus 8 Paraodoxurus

hermaphroditus

4 F. viverrina 9 Vivericula indica

5 Herpestes auropunctatus 10 Vulpes bengalensis

Mustelidae

1 Lutra lutra 2 Lutra perpicillata

Insectivore

1 Suncus murinus

Rodentia

1 Bandicota bengalensis 5 Hystrix indica

2 B. indica 6 Mus musculus

3 Cervus axis 7 Rattus rattus

4 Funambulus pennanti 8 Sus scrofa

Chiroptera

1 Cynopterus sphinx 9 Pteropus gqiganteus

2 Hipposideros bicolor 10 Rhinolophus lepidus

3 H. lankadiva 11 Rhinopoma hardwickii

4 Megadarma spasma 12 Scotophilus kuhli

5 M. lyra 13 Taphozous longimanus

6 Pipistrellus mimus

7 Primate

8 Macaca mulatta

Pholidota

1 Manis pentadactyla

Extinct, endangered and threatened fauna of Sundarbans mangals

Species Status in Sundarbans

Ardea goliath Threatened

Batagur baska Threatened Bos gaurus Extinct Bubalus bubalis Extinct

Cervus porcinus Extinct C. unicolor Extinct C. duvaucelli Extinct

Crocodylus porosus Threatened Felis bengalensis Threatened F. viverrina Threatened Kachuga tecta Threatened

Lepidochelys olivacea Threatened Leptotilos dubius Threatened Lissemys punctata Threatened

Manis pentadactyla Threatened Muntjanus muntjack Endangered Neophocaena phocaenoides Threatened Orcaella brevirostris Threatened

Panthera tigris tigris Threatened Pelecanus phillippensis Threatened Platinista gangetica Threatened

Python morulus Threatened Rhinoceros sondaicus Extinct R. unicornis Extinct

Trionyx gangeticus Threatened Varanus bengalensis Threatened

V. flavescens Threatened V. salvator Threatened


Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns, and crabs. The more robust mangrove species have been selectively felled. There are several human

settlements within the mangrove forest, and villagers from outside enter the forest to collect wood.

Conservation measures taken: Some 258,477 ha of the Indian Sunderbans,

including almost all of the mangrove forest, were declared a Tiger Reserve in 1973 under Project Tiger. The core area was declared a National Park in 1982. This region adjoins the Sunderbans Wildlife Sanctuary of Bangladesh. Management to date has included the provision of freshwater ponds for herbivores, and excavation of at least

eleven ponds, 3.5 m deep and monsoon fed, to accustom tigers to a permanent source of fresh water. Various measures have been taken to minimize the number of people attacked by tigers. These include electrification of dummy wood-cutters, removal of

settlements from the core area, and rationalization of wood-cutting. Men must work in groups of six and obtain a license from the Forestry Department. The cutting of Phoenix paludosa has been discouraged. Diversionary baiting with pigs and goats has been partially successful in drawing tigers away from the more densely populated

areas. The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus, now much reduced in numbers through over-hunting, is the subject of re-introduction programme by the State Forest Department; the first release, of 40 individuals, was made in May 1979.

Conservation measures proposed: All major surveys conducted during the last thirty years have indicated the urgent need for additional land-based studies combined with remote sensing techniques to determine more precisely the area of mangrove forest

remaining, and to assess the magnitude of human interference in the region.

Possible changes in land use: Approximately 50% of the Sunderbans mangrove forests have been cleared by man during the last two or three centuries, and about

150,000 ha have been cleared since 1880. In addition, some 3,400 km of bunds have been built to prevent the ingress of salt water. In the past, gradual polderization has been considered to be the most satisfactory approach to the development of the Sunderbans. However, in recent years various engineering concerns have proposed

major reclamation schemes involving closure dams across the main estuaries interconnected by reinforced dikes and encircling the entire Western Sunderbans. The preparation of a regional master plan for the large-scale development of the

Sunderbans has been considered.



Major problems in the Indian Sundarbans

Following major problems were identified during field studies in the Indian Sundarbans, these are:

1. Large scale destruction of forest land, deforestation of mangroves for human settlements and rapid growing needs.

2. Management problems: Protection vs. loss of Bio-diversity in the Sundarbans is acute.

3. Self engagement of vast rural people in the large scale netting out of shrimp seeds vs. exploitation and damage of other fish, prawn and crab species and damage of

river dykes and mangrove forest areas have created lot of problems and degradation of aquatic fauna.

4. Large scale operation of fine mesh nylon nets and exploitation of estuarine fish

juveniles indiscriminately, create problems towards loss of aquatic species diversity.

5. Siltation on the river bed is alarming, which also cause frequent flood and over

flow of the estuarine rivers and frequent saline water ingress in the human settlement areas and on the agricultural fields.

6. Transport facilities is not developed, only the country boats are common means of transport.

7. Uncontrolled population growth and very marginal socio-economic status of the rural people of Sundarbans is the main cause for all these aforesaid problems.

8. Agriculture is not much developed in this areas due to lack of irrigation facilities,

though these zones are very much potential. 9. As such, pressure on the natural mangrove forest is enormous and protection of

forest resource is not manageable.

10. Last nut most common problem is that the Sundarbans is a frequent and severe cyclone prone area.

In this context, mention may be made that these cyclones and the other natural calamities are inevitable and the mangrove forests cannot altogether stop these natural

phenomenon, but can protect as buffer and minimize the devastating effects of these natural calamities in this deltaic region.

As such, prior to undertaking any developmental activities in this coastal region, due

considerations should be taken for proper planning and strict conservation or management practices for this important but threatened mangrove ecosystem.

Research and facilities: There has been a relatively large amount of research

conducted in the Sunderbans partly because of the valuable fish stocks, partly with a view to reclaiming the land, and partly because of the problems created by interactions between Tigers and men in the forest. Few facilities are, however,

available for tourists, and the only mode of access is by chartering a boat through the Sunderbans Launch Association based in Calcutta.

Reference: Nandi et al. (1993); Abhijit Mitra and Bhattacharryya (2001);

Kumudranjan Naskar, et al. (2004).

EAST CALCUTTA WETLANDS

The wetlands to the east of Calcutta are well known over the world for their multiple

uses. The wetland situated on Lat. 22° 27’ N and Long. 88° 27’ E, 5 km from the eastern edge of Calcutta, in the West Bengal. The resource recovery systems developed by the local people through ages using wastewater from the city is the

largest in the world. In the process it treats the wastewater and has saved the city of Calcutta from constructing and maintaining a wastewater treatment plant. It also is the

only metropolitan city in the world where the Government has introduced development controls to conserve the water-bodies. These wetlands, however, are under an intense encroachment stress of urban expansion. The total area of this

wetland is about 12500 ha.

Abiotic factors: The climate shows features of a tropical region, with ample sunshine and vast water regime. There is a cold season (mid-November-end of February) with

average temperatures of 20.2–20.6°C and precipitations amounting 76 mm. The hot season lasts from March to mid-June with average temperatures of 30.4–31.1°C. The rainy season starts in mid-June and ends in mid-September/October. The frequent rains are associated with thunderstorms and northwestern winds. The average

temperature remains relatively high. Rainfall consists of hailing from the southwest monsoon and is associated with cyclonic disturbances from the Bay of Bengal. Total rainfall during the monsoon varies between 1,200–1,300 mm.

Macrophytes: Floristic diversity of the wetland is mediocre particularly in the core area while the diversity of plants is rather high in the surrounding mesotrophic wetlands. Vegetation cover of the wetland areas is significantly low. Eichhornia

crassipes and rarely Alternanthera philoxeroides are the only acceptable flora of these wetlands. In addition to significantly rich population of planktonic algae. Sagittaria

sagittifolia, Rumex dentatus, Panicum spp., Brachiaria mutica and Colocasia

esculenta are the dominant flora of the waste water canals. Cryptocoryne ciliata and

several species of sedges are predominant in waste water canals receiving tidal flush. Eichhornia crassipes and S. sagittifolia may be considered as the indicator species of these wetlands.

In the core area where netting is done regularly, Eichhornia crassipes, Sagittaria

sagittifolia, Monochoria hastata, Alternanthera philoxeroides Polygonum barbatum,

Lemna aequinoctialis, Spirodela polyrhiza are among the dominating flora of the core

area in hydrophase, while Alternanthera paranichioides, Marsilea minuta are common in limosal ecophase.

Amphibians: Among the amphibians Rana hexadactyla, Rana cyanophlyctis, Rana


tigenna and Rana limnocharis are significant.

Reptiles: Threatened reptiles like, Indian mud turtle Lissemys punctuta (locally

threatened) is also reported occasionally from the adjacent locality. Among the reptiles significant species are Xenochorphis sp., Enhydrus enhydrus, Varamus

salvator and Cerberus rhynchops are significant.

Birds: Presently more than 40 bird species comprising of both local and migratory

types are reported to visit these clusture of wetlands. Among these grebe, coot, darter, shag, cormorant, teals, egrets, jacanas, snipes tern, eagle, sand piper, gulls, rails kingfishers, etc. are significant.

Mammals: About 20 mammals are reported from this region. Amongst the rare mammals Marsh mongoose (Herpestes palustris), small Indian mongoose (Herpestes

auropunctatus), Palm civet (Paradocurus hermaphroditus) and Small Indian civet

(Viverricula indica) are significant in and around East Calcutta Wetland area.

Endangered species: The site supports the IUCN red-listed species of mammal Herpestes palustris.

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding lands belong to private owners.

Land use: The wetland is used for waste water fisheries and surrounding areas is used for vegetable farming on garbage substrate and effluent irrigated paddy

cultivation.

Conservation measures taken: The conservation area boundary for the east Calcutta wetlands and waste-recycling region was mapped in 1985 by the State Planning

Board, Government of West Bengal.

This wetland area is protected by order of the Calcutta High Court in 1992, which prohibits change in land use. High Court directed the State government to take

recourse to statutory cover, if required, to prevent any private alienation of land. Recently the Director of land and Land Records, Govt. of West Bengal has issued a fresh order informing the prohibition of any conversion of land use within the conservation area boundary and all such conversions, if any such has taken place

since 1992, as void. Filling up of water bodies in this area is not permissible under West Bengal Town and Country (Planning and Development) Act, 1979 as well as under the West Bengal Inland Fisheries Act, 1984 (with amendment in 1993).

Conservation measures suggested: The development of environment of the government of West Bengal is well versed with the problems and potential of the east Calcutta wetlands. According to the understanding of this department these wetlands

should be ‘basically conserved as an urban facility and demonstrated a rare example of using wetland functions subsidizing the life of one of the biggest cities in the world’. No other wetlands, the department has observed further ‘has any record of such organised practice of successively using the waste water from one land use to the

other spread over 12500 hectares, comprising vegetable farms (150 tonnes per day), fish ponds (11,000 tonnes per year) and paddy fields (15,000 tonnes of additional paddy per year)’.

The most significant function performed by this wetland area, according to this department, ‘is its capability to treat the entire city sewage of about 800 million litters per day’.

While suggesting conservation measures for the east Calcutta wetlands, the

department observed that: ‘Form the standpoint of ecosystem stability as well as of social and economic significance the central water area of about 4000 hectares covering the fishponds deserves a priority attention. For the purpose of conservation,

therefore, out of this total patch of land the area of about 4000 hectares comprising most of the bheris or water areas need most vigorous land use protection and is described as the Core Area (Zone A). No other economic activities can be introduced

to disturb the core area. The area may however allow scientific study and work plans to reduce the risk or enhance the economic viability of the existing practices’.

‘Accordingly the remainder of about 8000 hectares can be designated as Buffer Area

for the interest of conservation and rational accommodation of marginal changes in the existing land use. This buffer Area can be further sub-divided into Inner Buffer Area (Zone-B) and Outer Buffer Area (Zone-C) depending upon the extent of waterbodies such designated area include. Permissible changes in land use will

depend upon the category of Buffer Area within which a proposed activity is intended’.

Disturbance and threats: The main adverse factor threatening the site is the

significant change of waste water quality flowing out from the city. This has been on account of a large number of industries which make unauthorized connection of their waste water effluent without treatment to the recently laid storm sewers emptying into

the city outfall channels flowing eastwards. This has caused substantial amount of heavy metal deposition in the canal sludge and rendered waste water incapable of ensuring the edible quality of the fish and vegetables grown in the wetlands. The surrounding areas are threatened by encroachment and urban expansion. Another

advesre factor is the disappearing of know-how heritage. Because of institutional indifference, the traditional mix of cultural practices and wonders of ecological wisdom provided by the local people is slowly dying.

Socio-economic values: The wetland provides food (150 t of fresh vegetables, per day; 10,500 t of fish, per year), sanitation (1,000 million l of city sewage can be treated, with at least 30 days retention time) and livelihood (to 50,000 persons,

directly). The core area consists of fish ponds (4,000 ha), where waste water is treated and fishing activities take place. The garbage farm lands are used for cultivating different types of seasonal vegetables. They are irrigated with water from the intermittent ponds where the waste waters are settled for purification. The

downstream area is mostly paddy growing (in regular course), with occasional patches of settlements. On the eastern boundary of the designated conservation area, there is an upcoming tannery complex. Significant amount of scientific study has been carried

out on the site (e.g. State Planning Board, Department of Environment, Institute of Wetland Management and Ecological Design, Calcutta University). Conservation education occurs in the form of students and schoolchildren visiting the site. The site is frequently visited by birdwatchers during the winter. The surrounding area is used

for vegetable farming on garbage substrate, effluent irrigated paddy cultivation, and aquatic sports. Recreational centres are coming up along the edge of the city.

Scientific research and facilities: Significant amount of research and investigations

has been carried out on the east Calcutta wetlands area. 1980 which marks the beginning of such initiatives triggered by a study conducted by the State Planning Board to search for the feasibility of using the wastewater of Calcutta. This study led

to the identification of the world’s largest wetland area using wastewater to grow fish, vegetables and paddy in successive resource recovery practices developed by the

wisdom of local people. Initial task of research was to decipher the oral tradition and understand the local practice. This was difficult because it needed the researcher to gain the faith and confidence of the advanced and knowledgeable farmers who are

most reluctant to pass on their know-how to anyone. This was followed by sufficient amount of studies in water quality and bacterial contamination in fishes. In both these set of studies nothing was found to be of any cause of concern. However, since the

beginning of 90’s the water quality started deteriorating because of unauthorized introduction of untreated effluent from a number of small-scale industries. Extent and cause of damage has been fairly studied since last few years and it should be possible to take remedial action.

Lately extensive study was carried out to understand the existing management system strictly using the Ramsar guidelines and a reliable primary data on this system is now available. Subsequently a detailed study instituated by the Department of

Environment, of the hydraulic regime covering about 60 km of drainage network (most of which is constructed by the local people and is not in the record of the State Irrigation Department) has also been completed. Most of these studies have been

taken up by the Institute of wetland management and ecological design, various departments of Calcutta University and the Creative Research Group engaged by the department of Environment of the Government of West Bengal. A list of major studies carried out so far is included in the Bibliographical resource that follows.

Management authority: Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority

Past and Present status

Site Industrial effluent: A significant change has taken place in the wastewater quality flowing out from the city. This has been on account of a large number of industries making unauthorised connection of their waste water effluent without treatment to the recently laid storm sewers emptying into the city outfall channels

flowing eastwards. This has caused substantial amount of metal deposition in the canal sludge and rendered the waste water incapable of ensuring the edible quality of the fish and vegetables grown in East Calcutta Wetlands. Available results form the

ongoing studies indicate that the situation which is definitely worrisome, is still manageable and other than Pb remaining depositions can still be reduced and restrained well below permissible limits.

Surrounding area

Encroachment: The Department of Environment, Government of West Bengal constituted a high power committee to submit a report on Calcuttas’ Canals and

Wetlands under the Chairmanship of Mr. C.D. Seshashri, Retired Engineer in Chief as ex-officio Secretary to the Government. It has marked the year 1956 as the beginning to losing stability in these vast wetlands. There had been instances of forcible attempts to take over the right of land by small farmers. Such actions were

long overdue. For more than fifty years owners of small parcels of land were systematically and heinously forced to give up their property rights in favour of a few large landowners who clubbed and converted the land into large fisheries. The

unfortunate fall-out of that was that after some years when conditions favoured the landless farmers, they retaliated. Fisheries were drained and cultivation of paddy was attempted. Fishery is the most efficient ecosystem for the local farmers who are natural growers of fish rather than paddy, apart from the multiplied benefit that the

fishery provided. At present this realization is a growing trend amongst the village

people and forcible takeover has been largely on the wane. However and much more aggressively, the wetlands are under intense stress of urban expansion. There is an active ‘promoter-real-estate-developer’ lobby waiting to grab this vital open space.

Disappearing heritage: The compiler of this form has been visiting the East Calcutta Wetlands since 1980 without any break. Even during the earliest years of going there and although the institutional indifference had already been pronounced

by that time, the entire area provided a rich mix of brilliant interventions and wonders of ecological wisdom. A closer look would have always brought out a remarkable assortment of recycling practices and facinating use of local appurtenances. Today,

after decades of sustained apathy for such basic matters like providing wastewater to the fish ponds or allowing hopes of real estate conversion to thrive, it seems that the aggregate effect of this uncertainty has flattened all the diverse crease of creativity and innovation in the East Calcutta Wetlands. The heritage, which we have failed to

recognise, is now dying. The situation indeed is in need of a truly enabling governance. A governance that will bring back the confidence of the local people on their own wisdom and cultural practices that they have inherited from their

forefathers, who were by all means the world’s foremost connoisseurs of wastewater wise use and conservation.

Reference: Basic Manual (1995); Biswas (1969); Biswas (1927); Dasgupta (1973);

David (1959); De et al. (1989); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1983); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti and Christine Furedy (1984); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1985); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti and Susmita Sen (1987); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1991); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti and Susmita Sen (1992); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1993); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1994); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1996);

Ghosh and Santra (1996); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1997); Mazumdar (1965); Roy Chowdhury (1984); Sen (1941); http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website).

BRACE BRIDGE WETLANDS

The wetlands located on Lat. 22° 31’–22° 33’ N and long. 88° 17’– 88° 18’ E, a 14 km linear stretch in the Garden Reach area in southwestern Calcutta, West Bengal. An area of ponds interconnected by culverts to keep water in constant circulation. The

profile till 1984–85 included, (i) a lake with an island (ii) swampy bed, (iii) transitional mudflat, and (iv) flatland which often becomes a low watery meadow during the monsoons. Land filling for garbage disposal was initiated by the Port Trust,

deteriorating the water quality of the lake. The total area of this wetland is about 494.2 (formerly more than 1235.5 ha (1960’s)).

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall

occurring from May to September.

Macrophytes: About 53 families of plants have been recorded from this wetland.

Birds: The following bird species have been recorded from the Brace Bridge

Wetlands between January 90 and January 91: Podiceps ruficollis, Phalacrocorax

niger, Ardea cinerea, Ardeola grayii, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta garzetta, E.alba, Larus

brunnicephalus, L. ridibundus and Tringa glareola.

Land tenure: The wetland and the adjoining area belongs to the Calcutta Port Trust (CPT). In the mid-50s, the CPT granted fishing rights on about 54 ha of these wetlands and in 1961, the Mudialy Fishermen’s Co-operative Society was formed.

Conservation measures taken: The area under the Mudialy Fishermen’s Co-operative Society has been developed into sewage-fed fisheries. Afforestation programmes have been carried out and a nature park has been developed.

Land use: Principal activity is fishing

Disturbances and threats: The Calcutta Port Trust has started distributing portions of the wetland area back to the dock authorities. Industrial effluents and silt from the

River Bhagirathi enter the wetlands.

Socio-economic values: These wetlands support a major fishery and help in improving water quality before release into the Hooghly. The total production of fish

in 1989-90 was 285 tonnes, with a gross profit of Rs. 29,45,992. The Society also sells processed fish in polythene packs to selected retail stalls. The Wetlands have proved efficient in treating industrial wastewaters (70% of influent flow) as well as

domestic wastewaters (30% of influent flow). Faecal coliform bacteria is reduced by 99.9%

Reference: Ghosh (1991); WWF India (1993).

WETLANDS OF HUGLI DISTRICT

Hugli district (Lat. 22° 39’–23° 01’ N and Long. 87° 30’–88° 30’ E) entirely fall under the physiographic subdivision known as ‘mature delta’ in the lower Ganga

Plain. The vast plain of this district is endowed with fertile alluvial soils, 70 per cent of which is used for cultivation of paddy and kharif crops. Hugli is hemmed in between Hooghly (Bhagirathi) river on the east and Rupnarayan river on the south-

west and interested by Damodar river. These rivers provide a network of waterways, notably the Damodar group with two branches viz., the Kana Damodar or Kausiki and the old Damodar; and the Bhagirathi group with its branch, the Saraswati. Numerous tributaries of the main rivers and creeks, called khals, which run dry or very shallow

in summer months serve as the natural drainage system of the Damodar-Bhagirathi interriverine floodplain and Darakeswar-Damodar inter riverine floodplain areas of this district. The triangular portion west of the Darakeswar comprising of Goghat

Police Station having an area of 378 sq. km. is the only upland region located in the Hugli district. The total area of this wetland is about 179.75 ha. The names of the wetland and nearest village/town are given bellow;

1. Madrasipara jheel situated near Bandel town/village

2. Locopara jheel situated near Bandel town/village

3. Tribeni jheel situated near Tribeni town/village

4. Hatgachha dighi situated near Kalitala town/village

5. Khanyan jola situated near Khanyan town/village

6. Jugihedo pond situated near Pandua town/village

7. Kalipur jheel situated near Arambagh town/village

8. Muktarpur jola situated near Bali-Dewanganj town/village

9. Kaknan jheel situated near Badar town/village

10. Jagatpur beel situated near Garerghat town/village

11. Krishinanagar pond situated near Khanakul town/village

12. Radhanagar pond situated near Khanakul town/village

13. Baligori jheel situated near Tarakeswar town/village

14. Kamarkundu jheel situated near Kamarkundu town/village

15. Dunkuni jola situated near Dunkuni town/village


and minimum of 14°C. The pH value ranged from 6.5 to 8.5.

Macrophytes:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Floating hydrophytes

Azolla Pistia

Eichhornis crassipes Wolffia

Lemna

Suspended hydrophytes

Ceratophyllum Utricularia

Anchored submerged hydrophytes

Hydrilla Ottelia Najas Vallisneria spiralis

Anchored floating hydrophytes

Nelumbo nucifera Nymphoides spp.

Nymphaea spp. Trapa spp. Emergent amphibious

hydrophytes

Aeschynomene spp. Enhydra fluctuans

Alternanthera sessilis Ipomea aquatica

Aponogeton spp. Marsilea quadrifoliata Colocasia esculenta

Reeds

Phragmites karka Typha spp.

Sedge

Cypreus spp.

Weeds

Centenella asiatica

Solitary unicellular algae

Diatoms Microcystis

Euglena

Colony forming algae

Volvox

Filamentons algae

Oscillatoria Spirogyra

Branched coenocytic algae

Chara Nitella


S. Species Name S. Species Name

No No

1 Alona affinis 26 Dunhevedia crassa

2 A. davidi 27 D. serrata

3 A. intermedia 28 Euryalona orientalis

4 A. karua 29 Filinia sp. 5 A. kwangsiensis 30 Ilyocryptus spinifer

6 A. rectangular 31 Indialona globulosa

7 A. verrucosa 32 Keratella sp. 8 Alonella excise 33 K. tropica

9 Asplancha sp. 34 Kurzia longirostris

10 Bosmina longirostris 35 Latonopsis australis

11 Branchionus calcyflorus 36 Macrothrix spinosa

12 B. falcatus 37 M. triserialis

13 Branchionus sp. 38 Mesocyclops hyalinus

14 Camptocercus australis 39 M. leucarti

15 Centrocypris sp. 40 Moina nicrura

16 Ceriodaphnia cornuta 41 M. weismanni

17 Chydorus barroisi 42 Oxyurella singalensis

18 C. eurynotus 43 Paradiaptomus sp. 19 C. ventricosus 44 Scapholeberis kingi

20 Cyclesthera hislopi 45 Simocephalus expinosus

21 Cypris spp. 46 S. latirostris

22 Daphnia lumholtzi 47 S. vetulus

23 Diaphanosoma brachyurum 48 Spicodiaptomus sp.

24 D. excism 49 Stenocypris spp. 25 Diaptomus spp. 50 Thermocyclops sp.

Molluscan:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Assiminea francesiae 9 Lamellidens marginalis

2 Bellamya bengalensis 10 Lymnaea acuminata

3 B. dissimilis 11 L. luteola

4 Digoniostoma ceremeopoma 12 Pila globosa

5 Gabbia orcula 13 Thiara granifera

6 Gyraulus convexiusculus 14 T. scabra

7 G. labiatus 15 T. tuberculata

8 Indoplanorbis exustus

Arachnids: Pardosa, Hippasa, Lycosa and Tetragnatha.

Annelids: Metaphire posthuma, Lampito mauriti, Perionyx excavatus, Glossiphonia

weberi, Helodela nociva and Hemiclepsis marginata.

Coleopteran:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Amphiops spp. 9 Hydrocoptus sp.

2 Berosus sp. 10 Hydrophilus sp.

3 Canthydrus spp. 11 Hydrovatus spp. 4 Clypeodytes spp. 12 Laccobius sp.

5 Cybister spp. 13 Laccophilius spp. 6 Eretes sp. 14 Regimbertia spp. 7 Helochares spp. 15 Sternolophus spp.

8 Hydaticus sp. 16 Uvarus sp.

Hemipteran:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Anisops spp. 8 Limnogonus spp.

2 Corixa spp. 9 Micronecta spp. 3 Diplonychus spp. 10 Naboandelus sp. 4 Gerris spp. 11 Plea spp. 5 Hydrometra spp. 12 Ramatra spp.

6 Laccotrephes spp. 13 Rhagadotarsus spp. 7 Lethocercus sp.

Crustaceans: Macrobrachium rosenbergii, M. lamarrei, M. dayanum, Caridina sp., Varuna litterata, Paratelphusa hydrodromus and Sartoriana spinigera.

Fishes: A total of 48 species were recorded. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Amblypharyngodon mola 25 Lepidocephalus guntea

2 Anabas testudineus 26 Macrognathus aculeatus

3 Aplocheilus panchax 27 Mastacembelus armatus

4 Apocryptes bato 28 M. pancalus

5 Badis badis 29 Monopterus cuchia

6 Catla catla 30 Mystus cavasius

7 Chanda nama 31 M. tengra

8 C. ranga 32 M. vittatus

9 Channa marulius 33 Nandus nandus

10 C. orientalis 34 Notopterus notopterus

11 C. punctatus 35 Oligolepis acutipinnis

12 C. striatus 36 Ompak pabda

13 Cirrhinus mrigala 37 Ophiocara porocephala

14 Clarias batrachus 38 Oreochromis mossambica

15 Colisa fasciatus 39 O. nilotica

16 Ctenopharyngodon idella 40 Puntius gelius

17 Cyprinus carpio 41 P. javanicus

18 Esomus danricus 42 P. sarana

19 Glossogobius giuris 43 P. sophore

20 Heteropneustes fossilis 44 P. ticto

21 Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 45 Rasbora daniconius

22 Labeo bata 46 Salmostoma bacaila

23 L. calbasu 47 Wallago attu

24 L. rohita 48 Xenentodon cancila

Amphibians: Rana cyanophlyctis, R. tigerina, R. limnocharis, R.

hexadactyla, Microhyla ornate and Bufo melanostictus.

Reptiles: Lissemys punctata, Varanus bengalensis, V. flavescens, Enhydris enhydris,

Xenochrophis piscator and Naja naja kaouthia.


S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Acrocephalus aedon 28 Haliastur indus

2 A. dumetorum 29 Himantopus himantopus

3 A. stentoreus 30 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

4 Alcedo atthis 31 I. flavicollis

5 Amaurornis phoenicurus 32 I. sinensis

6 Anas acuta 33 Metopidius indicus

7 A. clypeata 34 Nettapus coromandelianus

8 A. crecca 35 Nycticorax nycticorax

9 A. quequedula 36 Orthotomus sutorius

10 A. strepera 37 Pelargopsis capensis

11 Anastomus oscitans 38 Phalacrocorax niger

12 Anhinga rufa 39 Phylloscopus collybita

13 Ardea purpurea 40 P. fuscatus

14 Ardeola grayii 41 P. inornatus

15 Aythya ferina 42 P. trochiloides

16 A. fuligula 43 Pluvialis dominica

17 A. nyroca 44 Podiceps ruficollis

18 Bubulcus ibis 45 Pycnonotus cafer

19 Ceryle rudis 46 P. jocosus

20 Densrocygna javanica 47 Rostratula benghalensis

21 Egretta alba 48 Tadorna ferruginea

22 E. garzetta 49 Tringa glareola

23 Gallinago gallinago 50 T. hypoleucos

24 G. stenura 51 T. ochropus

25 Gallinula chloropus 52 T. tetanus

26 Halcyon smyrnensis 53 Vanellus indicus

27 Haliaeetus leucoryphus 54 V. malabaricus

Mammals: Bandicota indica, Lutra sp., Lutra perspicillata and Felis viverrinai.

Threatened Animals: Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Lissemys punctata, Varanus

bengalensis, V. flavescens, Xenochrophis piscator, Naja naja, Rana hexadactyla, R.

tigerina.

Land tenure: Some wetlands are State-owned.


Socio economic values: Hugli district are dominated by small and medium sized wetlands. These wetlands, besides day to day domestic use, support fisheries and offer a number of economic activities, namely, irrigation, jute-retting, brick-making,

grazing as well as growing or cultivation of edible and economic species of aquatic plants. A few wetlands are also important in respect of waterfowl habitat. Each and every village and even its small units (paras) have a number of freshwater fish ponds. These fish ponds and floodplain wetlands are important source of sustenance for

thousands of rural fisherfolks. They represent socially, economically and educationally backward communities of West Bengal. Majority of these active

fisherfolks are women who earn their daily bread using a scoop-net (Chhakni jal) or hand net in these wetlands.

The entire Hugli district is a gift of waterways, notably the Damodar group, and the Bhagirathi group. This district is prone to frequent floods at Arambagh subdivision. In the floodplain areas of Khanakul, Arambagh and Goghat Blocks, human settlements are seen on high and raised land which remains above water during the monsoon

floods. During this period, each settlement (para) exposes itself as an isolate island amidst vast expanse of flood water.

However, Hugli district are important in respect to economic activities in and around

the wetlands. In the Hugli district, a commercially important species of wetland plant locally known as paniphal (Trapa bispinosa) is widely grown these days in the hundred of railway jheels along Haora-Tarakeswar rail-link. Fruits of Trapa ispinosa

and Trapa maximowiczii (pahiphal) are eaten as food. It is sold at Rs. 4/- to Rs. 10/- per kg. in the Calcutta market. While in and around Kulgachi-Birshibpur.

Several wetland plants are used for a variety of purposes such as food, vegetables, fodder, (Nelumbium sp.) is cultivated at Kantapukur (near Kulgachia, Haora) and sold

for ritualistic purposes. The seeds of shapla and saluk (Nymphaea sp.) are made into puffed grain by frying them like popcorn. The puffed seeds are eaten as such by the poor people or made into home-made confectionery. The stem and leaves of shapla,

saluk, susni sak (Marsilea quadrifolia); kalmi sak (Ipomoea aquatica), kachu sak (Colocasia esculenta), etc., are used as vegetables. These vegetable plants are collected by the poor womenfolk for domestic consumption or for selling in the local

market. These species are quite common in the derelict and semi-derelict wetlands of this district. The spongy petioles of shapla, saluki and kachu are made into delicious dishes even by the affluents as holiday-dish.

The grasses belonging to the family Cyperaceae and Gramine, etc. are often used as

fodder for the cattle in adition to mat-making. Two species of Cyperceae viz., Cyperus tegetum (Madurkathi) and Juncellus inundatus (Pati) grown in Balarampur (near Bishibpur) and Garbhabanipur (near Amta) respectively are used for mat-

making.

The plants, flowers and seeds of some Nymphaeaceae are used as tonic for fever, piles, skin disease and dysentery. The Brahmi sak (Herpestes monicria, Family

Scrophulariaceae) and Kulekhara (Hygrophila spinosa, Family Acanthaeccae) naturally grown along the water edge of these wetlands are well known for their medicinal value. Some plants like Bera-kalmi (Ipomoea sp.), also grown along the water margin, are sun-dried and used as fuel by the poors. Dhanchi plant Coronitha

(= Sesbania) cannabina is cultivated in floodplain wetlands of Hugli district for fire wood and often for natural manuring by making compost fertilizer. Water hyacinth, Azolla and other free floating species are also used as compose fertilizer or utilized

for the bio-gas plant. These free floating species especially water hyacinth act as water purifers as they are known to treat sewage and polluted water. It is worth-mentioning that Calcutta’s sewage has under gone natural purification in east Calcutta

wetlands through this aquatic plant.

The temporary wetlands and roadside ditches are extensively used as paddy seed bed (Bijtala) for boro (winter rice) cultivation and mostly for jute retting in late monsoon months. During this time the water of these temporary wetlands turn black with a foul

smell due to jute steeping and, with the progress of steeping process, these place

prove to be notorius breeding grounds for mosquitoes. The floodplain wetlands of Khanakul, virtually, left fallow during monsoon since no cultivation could be possible due to flood water run-off. While in dry winter season robi (dry season, October to

March) crops (potato, gourd, mustard, cucumber, etc.) are extensively grown with the supply of water from Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC). The cultivation of boro paddy follows the robi crops in these floodplain wetlands.

Reference: Nandi et al. (1999).

PURBASTHALI LAKE

Purbasthali is a freshwater lake, situated in Kasthashali village, near Chupi of district Burdwan on bandel-Katwa route, West Bengal. The lake, which came into existence in the distant past by getting disjuncted form the main stream of river Bhagirathi-Hugli. Today it has lost much of the depth that it had in past. At present with a

semilunar shape contour, it flows steadily north to south to connect the main stream on both the extremes exposing unyielding bed of weed and marsh vegetation in places. The total area of this wetland is 1600 ha.


Macrophytes: The lake vegetation chiefly consists of Vallisneria natans, a floating leaf-rooted angiosperm, this occurs in abundance and flourishes all through the lake at

varying depths. Common Water Hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes has choked substantial portion at the northernmost side whereas species of freshwater Cholorophycean algae is seen sparsely colonizing alongside the lake margins.

Birds: The lake hosts over 70 spp. of birds (including other water dependent birds) during its peak migratory season and at least-18–20 of these are intercontinental migrants. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Accipiter badius 34 Halcyon smyrnensis

2 Acridotheres fuscus 35 Haliaeetus leucogaster

3 A. ginginiancus 36 H. leucoryphus

4 Aegithina tiphia 37 Himantopus himantopus

5 Alcedo atthis 38 Hirundo rustica

6 Amaurornis phoenicurus 39 Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus

7 Anas acuta 40 Megalaima asiatica

8 A. clypeata 41 Metopidius indicus

9 A. strepera 42 Milvus migrans

10 Anastomus oscitans 43 Motacilla alba

11 Anthus novaeseelandiae 44 Nectarinia asiatica

12 Ardea cinerea 45 N. zeylonica

13 A. purpurea 46 Nettapus coromandelianus

14 Ardeola grayii 47 Oriolus oriolus

15 Aythya nyroca 48 Pandion haliaetus

16 Bubulcus ibis 49 Pelargopsis capensis

17 Calidris minuta 50 Phalacrocorax fuscicollis 18 Ceryle rudis 51 P. niger 19 Charadrius dubius 52 Platalea leucorodia

20 Circus aeruginosus 53 Podiceps ruficollis

21 Copsychus saularis 54 Porphyrio porphyrio

22 Dendrocygna javanica 55 Recurvirostra avosetta

23 Dicrurus adsimillis 56 Sterna aurantia

24 D. caerulescens 57 Sturnus contra

25 Dinopium benghalense 58 S. pagodarum

26 Egretta garzetta 59 Tadorna ferruginea

27 E. intermedia 60 Threskiornis aethiopica 28 Elanus caeruleus 61 Tringa glareola

29 Falco subbuteo 62 T. hypoleucos

30 F. tinnunculus 63 Turdoides earlei

31 Fulica atra 64 Tyto alba

32 Gallinago gallinago 65 Upupa epops

33 Glareola lactea 66 Vanellus indica



Socio-economic values: It is protection of large number of migratory birds.

Reference: Ghosh (2004).

WETLANDS OF HAORA DISTRICT

Haora district (Lat. 22° 13’–22° 47’ N and Long. 87° 51’–88° 22’ E) entirely fall under the physiographic subdivision known as ‘mature delta’ in the lower Ganga

Plain. The vast plain of this two district is endowed with fertile alluvial soils, 70 per cent of which is used for cultivation of paddy and kharif crops. Haora district have a total area of 1467 sq. km. Haora hemmed in between Hooghly (Bhagirathi) river on the east and Rupnarayan river on the south-west and interested by Damodar river.

These rivers provide a network of waterways, notably the Damodar group with two branches viz., the Kana Damodar or Kausiki and the old Damodar; and the Bhagirathi group with its branch, the Saraswati. Numerous tributaries of the main rivers and

creeks, called khals, which run dry or very shallow in summer months serve as the natural drainage system of the Damodar-Bhagirathi interriverine floodplain and Darakeswar-Damodar inter riverine floodplain areas of this district. The total area of the all wetlands are about 125.08 ha. The name of the wetlands and nearest village are

given bellow;

1. Santragachi jheel situated near Haora town/village

2. Paddapukur jola situated near Haora town/village

3. Kulai jheel situated near Ranihati town/village

4. Phuleswar jheel situated near Uluberia town/village

5. Natibpur jheel situated near Uluberia Birshibpur town/village

6. Birshibpur jheel situated near Birshibpur town/village

7. Malanchberia jola situated near Birshibpur town/village

8. Kashipur jola situated near Kashipur town/village

9. Bagnan jheel situated near Bagnan town/village

10. Goalpota pond situated near Garchumuk town/village

11. Sujan Saheber dighi situated near Bara Garchumuk town/village

12. Gadiara pond situated near Gadiara town/village

13. Amta pond situated near Amta town/village

14. Siva daha situated near Amta town/village

15. Dadkhali daha situated near Amta town/village

16. Jhikhira pond situated near Jhikhira town/village

17. Udaynarayanpur pond situated near Udaynarayanpur town/village

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum water temperature of

34°C and minimum of 10°C. The pH range from 6.3–8.5.

Macrophytes:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

Floating hydrophytes

Azolla Pistia

Eichhornis crassipes Wolffia

Lemna

Suspended hydrophytes

Ceratophyllum Utricularia

Anchored submerged hydrophytes

Hydrilla Ottelia

Najas Vallisneria spiralis

Anchored floating hydrophytes

Nelumbo nucifera Nymphoides spp.

Nymphaea spp. Trapa spp. Emergent amphibious

hydrophytes

Aeschynomene spp. Enhydra fluctuans

Alternanthera sessilis Ipomea aquatica

Aponogeton spp. Marsilea quadrifoliata

Colocasia esculenta

Reeds

Phragmites karka Typha spp. Sedge

Cypreus spp.

Weeds

Centenella asiatica

Solitary unicellular algae

Diatoms Microcystis

Euglena

Colony forming algae

Volvox

Filamentons algae

Oscillatoria Spirogyra

Branched coenocytic algae

Chara Nitella


S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Alona affinis 33 Dunhevedia crassa

2 A. castata 34 D. serrata

3 A. davidi 35 Euryalona orientalis

4 A. intermedia 36 Filinia sp. 5 A. karua 37 Graptoleberis testudinaria

6 A. kwangsiensis 38 Grimaldina brazzai

7 A. monacantha 39 Guernella raphalis

8 A. pulchella 40 Ilyocryptus spinifer

9 A. quadrangularis 41 Indialona globulosa

10 A. verrucosa 42 Keratella sp. 11 Alonella excise 43 K. tropica

12 Asplancha sp. 44 Kurzia latissima

13 Bosmina longirostris 45 K. longirostris

14 Bosminopsis deitersi 46 Latonopsis australis

15 Branchionus calcyflorus 47 Leydigia acanthocercoides

16 B. falcatus 48 Macrothrix spinosa

17 Branchionus sp. 49 M. triserialis

18 Camptocercus australis 50 Mesocyclops hyalinus

19 Ceriodaphnia cornuta 51 M. leucarti

20 C. reticulata 52 Moina nicrura

21 Chydorus barroisi 53 Oxyurella singalensis

22 C. eurynotus 54 Paradiaptomus sp. 23 C. faviformis 55 Pleuroxus denticulatus

24 C. pubescens 56 P. similis

25 C. ventricosus 57 Pseudosida bidentata

26 Cyclesthera hislopi 58 Scapholeberis kingi

27 Cypris spp. 59 Simocephalus expinosus

28 Daphnia lumholtzi 60 S. latirostris

29 D. similis 61 S. vetulus

30 Diaphanosoma excism 62 Spicodiaptomus sp. 31 D. sarsi 63 Stenocypris spp. 32 Diaptomus spp. 64 Thermocyclops sp.

Molluscan:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Bellamya bengalensis 9 Lymnaea acuminata

2 B. dissimilis 10 L. luteola

3 Digoniostoma ceremeopoma 11 Neritina violacea

4 Gabbia orcula 12 Pila globosa

5 Gyraulus convexiusculus 13 Thiara granifera

6 G. labiatus 14 T. scabra

7 Indoplanorbis exustus 15 T. tuberculata

8 Lamellidens marginalis

Arachnids: Pardosa, Hippasa, Lycosa and Tetragnatha.

Annelids: Metaphire posthuma, Lampito mauriti, Perionyx excavatus, Glossiphonia

weberi, Helodela nociva and Hemiclepsis marginata.

Coleopteran:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Altica sp. 10 Hydaticus sp.

2 Amphiops spp. 11 Hydrocoptus sp. 3 Berosus sp. 12 Hydrovatus spp.

4 Canthydrus spp. 13 Laccobius sp. 5 Cassida sp. 14 Laccophilius spp. 6 Clypeodytes spp. 15 Lema sp. 7 Cybister spp. 16 Regimbertia spp.

8 Eretes sp. 17 Sternolophus spp. 9 Helochares spp. 18 Uvarus sp.

Hemipteran: Diplonychus spp., Lethocercus sp., Corixa spp., Micronecta spp.,

Gerris spp., Limnogonus spp., Hydrometra spp., Rhagadotarsus spp., Ramatra spp.,

Laccotrephes spp., Plea spp. and Anisops spp.

Crustaceans: Macrobrachium rosenbergii, M. lamarrei, M. dayanum, Caridina sp., Varuna litterata, Paratelphusa hydrodromus and Sartoriana spinigera.

Fishes: A total 46 species were recorded. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Amblypharyngodon mola 24 Lepidocephalus guntea

2 Anabas testudineus 25 Macrognathus aculeatus

3 Aplocheilus panchax 26 Mastacembelus armatus

4 Badis badis 27 M. pancalus

5 Catla catla 28 Monopterus cuchia

6 Chanda nama 29 Mystus cavasius

7 C. ranga 30 M. tengra

8 Channa marulius 31 M. vittatus

9 C. orientalis 32 Nandus nandus

10 C. punctatus 33 Notopterus notopterus

11 C. striatus 34 Oligolepis acutipinnis

12 Cirrhinus mrigala 35 Ompak pabda

13 Clarias batrachus 36 Oreochromis mossambica

14 Colisa fasciatus 37 O. nilotica

15 Ctenopharyngodon idella 38 Puntius gelius

16 Cyprinus carpio 39 P. javanicus

17 Esomus danricus 40 P. sarana

18 Glossogobius giuris 41 P. sophore

19 Heteropneustes fossilis 42 P. ticto

20 Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 43 Rasbora daniconius

21 Labeo bata 44 Salmostoma bacaila

22 L. calbasu 45 Wallago attu

23 L. rohita 46 Xenentodon cancila

Amphibian: Rana cyanophlyctis, R. tigerina, R. limnocharis, R.

hexadactyla, Microhyla ornate and Bufo melanostictus.

Reptiles: Lissemys punctata, Varanus bengalensis, V. flavescens, Enhydris enhydris,

Xenochrophis piscator and Naja naja kaouthia.


S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Acrocephalus aedon 28 Haliastur Indus

2 A. dumetorum 29 Himantopus himantopus

3 A. stentoreus 30 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

4 Alcedo atthis 31 I. flavicollis

5 Amaurornis phoenicurus 32 I. sinensis

6 Anas acuta 33 Metopodius indicus

7 A. clypeata 34 Nettapus coromandelianus

8 A. crecca 35 Nycticorax nycticorax

9 A. quequedula 36 Orthotomus sutorius

10 A. strepera 37 Pelargopsis capensis

11 Anastomus oscitans 38 Phalacrocorax niger

12 Anhinga rufa 39 Phylloscopus collybita

13 Ardea purpurea 40 P. fuscatus

14 Ardeola grayii 41 P. inornatus

15 Aythya ferina 42 P. trochiloides

16 A. fuligula 43 Pluvialis dominica

17 A. nyroca 44 Podiceps ruficollis

18 Bubulcus ibis 45 Pycnonotus cafer

19 Ceryle rudis 46 P. jocosus

20 Densrocygna javanica 47 Rostratula benghalensis

21 Egretta alba 48 Tadorna ferruginea

22 E. garzetta 49 Tringa glareola

23 Gallinago gallinago 50 T. hypoleucos

24 G. stenura 51 T. ochropus

25 Gallinula chloropus 52 T. tetanus

26 Halcyon smyrnensis 53 Vanellus indicus

27 Haliaeetus leucoryphus 54 V. malabaricus

Mammals: Bandicota indica, Lutra sp., L. perspicillata and Felis viverrina.

Threatened animals: Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Lissemys punctata, Varanus

bengalensis, V. flavescens, Xenochrophis piscator, Naja naja, Rana exadactyla, and R. tigerina.

Land tenure: Some wetlands are State-owned.


Socio economic values: Haora district are dominated by small and medium sized wetlands. These wetlands, besides day to day domestic use, support fisheries and offer

a number of economic activities, namely, irrigation, jute-retting, brick-making, grazing as well as growing or cultivation of edible and economic species of aquatic plants. A few wetlands are also important in respect of waterfowl habitat. Each and

every village and even its small units (paras) have a number of freshwater fish ponds. These fish ponds and floodplain wetlands are important source of sustenance for thousands of rural fisherfolks. They represent socially, economically and

educationally backward communities of West Bengal. Majority of these active fisherfolks are women who earn their daily bread using a scoop-net (Chhakni jal) or hand net in these wetlands.

However, Haora district are important in respect to economic activities in and around the wetlands. Haora district Typha (Hogla) species are widely grown in the derelict and semi-derelict wetlands. Typha elephantina is commercially exploited for making

mats and screens. More than 300 bundles of hogla leaves are produced per hectare of wetlands and one bundle of dried leaves of this species costs Rs. 50–60/- in the local hogla shop. A large number of roadside shops are engaged in this trade.

Several wetland plants are used for a variety of purposes such as food, vegetables, fodder, (Nelumbium sp.) is cultivated at Kantapukur (near Kulgachia, Haora) and sold for ritualistic purposes. The seeds of shapla and saluk (Nymphaea sp.) are made into puffed grain by frying them like popcorn. The puffed seeds are eaten as such by the

poor people or made into home-made confectionery. The stem and leaves of shapla, saluk, susni sak (Marsilea quadrifolia); kalmi sak (Ipomoea aquatica), kachu sak (Colocasia esculenta), etc., are used as vegetables. These vegetable plants are

collected by the poor womenfolk for domestic consumption or for selling in the local market. These species are quite common in the derelict and semi-derelict wetlands of this two district. The spongy petioles of shapla, saluki and kachu are made into delicious dishes even by the affluents as holiday-dish.

The grasses belonging to the family Cyperaceae and Gramine, etc. are often used as fodder for the cattle in adition to mat-making. Two species of Cyperceae viz., Cyperus tegetum (Madurkathi) and Juncellus inundatus (Pati) grown in Balarampur

(near Bishibpur) and Garbhabanipur (near Amta) respectively are used for mat-making.

The plants, flowers and seeds of some Nymphaeaceae are used as tonic for fever,

piles, skin disease and dysentery. The Brahmi sak (Herpestes monicria, Family Scrophulariaceae) and Kulekhara (Hygrophila spinosa, Family Acanthaeccae) naturally grown along the water edge of these wetlands are well known for their

medicinal value. Some plants like Bera-kalmi (Ipomoea sp.), also grown along the water margin, are sun-dried and used as fuel by the poors.

The temporary wetlands and roadside ditches are extensively used as paddy seed bed (Bijtala) for boro (winter rice) cultivation and mostly for jute retting in late monsoon

months. During this time the water of these temporary wetlands turn black with a foul smell due to jute steeping and, with the progress of steeping process, these place prove to be notorius breeding grounds for mosquitoes.

Reference: Nandi et al. (1999); Nandi et al. (2001).

WETLANDS IN JALDAPARA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Jaldapara wildlife sanctuary is situeted (Lat. 26° 45’ N and Long. 89° 20’ E) on the Bhutanese border, about six kilometres northeast of Hasimara, Jalpaiguri district, West Bengal. The total area of this sanctuary is about 11,563. The wetland in this sanctuary is a number of small, permanent, and seasonal pools with associated

marshes and areas of seasonally inundated grassland on the alluvial plains of the

Torsa river, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, rising in the mountains of western Bhutan. Over 50% of the area is still forested, the remainder being grassland and meandering water courses, most of which are seasonal. Perennial streams are a feature of the

forest areas.

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate with hot summers and cool winters. Most of the rainfall occurs during the monsoon in June-October.

Macrophytes: Marsh and grassland communities along water courses are dominated by species of Phragmites, Saccharum, and Imperata. The Sanctuary contains a residual area of high, dense forest dominated by Albizzia procera, but this is severely

marred by the invasive exotic Mikania sp.

Special floral values: The Sanctuary contains an important relict of the once widespread climax forests of the terai duars.

Mammals: The Wildlife Sanctuary was established primarily to protect a population of the Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) of which at least 40 members were surviving in 1983. Other large mammals include tiger (Panthera

tigris), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus), swamp deer (Cervus duvaucelli) and possibly the rare pygmy hog (Sus salvanius).

Birds: The rich avifauna includes a variety of uncommon or local marsh and

grassland species such as the storks (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) and (Leptoptilos

javanicus), Bengal florican, swamp francolin, Jerdon’s bush chat and Finn’s baya weaver (Houbaropsis bengalensis, Francolinus gularis, Saxicola jerdoni, and Ploceus

megahynchus). Sixty-five of the latter were recorded in this area in January 1987.


Land use: A managed nature reserve

Conservation measures taken: Protected in the Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary (11,563 ha), established in 1943. Attempts are being made to eradicate the exotic plant Mikania sp.

Disturbances and threats: A nearby military camp causes noticeable disturbance

and disruption within the Sanctuary, and the spread of Mikania is a serious problem. Poaching is reported to be on the increase.

Socio-economic values: The Wildlife Sanctuary plays an important educational role

in promoting regional and local understanding of the ecological value of the remaining forests. The Sanctuary is important for tourism, and provides a readily accessible alternative for tourists unable to visit similar sites in Assam.

Research and facilities: There are good facilities for visitors in the Wildlife Sanctuary, including a forest rest house and a youth hostel. Visitors are encouraged to view wildlife from elephant-back.

Reference: Krishnan (1977); WWF India (1993).

DURGAPUR BARRAGE

Durgapur Barrage is situated on 23° 28’ N, 87° 18’ E in the Burdwan District, about

150 km northwest of Calcutta, West Bengal. In 1955 as part of the development of the Damodar River in West Bengal and Bihar, a barrage was constructed across the Damodar at Durgapur for flood control and irrigation purposes. This created a shallow

lake about 1.5 km wide and four km long. Many islands, some of considerable size,

have been formed in the lake as a result of salutation. The water level is kept almost constant throughout the year, varying by only 50–75 cm. An area of about 13 ha along the south bank has been enclosed for use as a fish farm. The riverbed downstream of

the barrage is similar to that of many of the larger rivers of the North Indian plains. In the dry season, there is very little flow of water and extensive mudflats and sand banks are exposed, but during the monsoon, the entire river becomes a raging torrent.

Sand has been extracted from the northern shore of the river, creating an area of marshy land. The environs of Durgapur Barrage include several large industrial sites, particularly to the northeast. The total area of the barrage is about 600 ha.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall occurring in July-September.

Macrophytes: Extensive reed-beds of Phragmites, Juncus and Carex spp.,

particularly on the islands, and broad fringes of Eichhornia crassipes. Rice paddies, villages and industrial sites in adjacent areas.

Land tenure: The wetland is owned by the Damodar Valley Corporation.

Land use: Primarily flood control and water supply for industrial and domestic consumption. There is some fishing in the lake, and one of the larger islands supports a village of reed-cutters. The reeds are harvested in rotation and are used for thatching purposes. Cattle graze on some of the islands. An area of 13 ha enclosed by the south

bank efflux bund is used as a fish farm by the State Government.

Conservation measures taken: No official protection, but the Damodar Valley Corporation has prohibited bathing, fishing and shooting on the lake, thereby creating,

in effect, a wildlife sanctuary.

Conservation measures proposed: It has been suggested that the site be granted official recognition as a wildlife sanctuary in view of its importance to waterfowl and

accessible location.

Disturbances and threats: The only real disturbance comes from the small number of local people who fish the lake from boats. Periodical draining and dredging of the

lake to restore its original storage capacity result in a temporary loss of breeding habitat for waterbirds but have no serious long-term effects on the wildlife.

Socio-economic values: Water supply, flood control and fisheries production. The

lake provides an easily accessible site for viewing water birds (a National Highway crosses the eastern bund), and thus has considerable potential for nature-oriented outdoor recreation.

Birds: An important area for a wide variety of both resident and migratory waterfowl, particularly during winter. Gauntlett (1972) recorded 76 species of waterfowl in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Common residents included Tachybaptus ruficollis

(maximum 100), Phalacrocorax niger (maximum 150), Ardeola grayii, Bubulcus ibis,

Egretta garzetta (maximum 300), Dendrocygna javanica (maximum 3,000), Nettapus

coromandelianus (maximum 150), Hydrophasianus chirurgus (maximum 200), Metopidius indicus (maximum 60), Vanellus indicus and Chlidonias hybridus. The

lake regularly holds over 10,000 ducks in winter; 13 species were recorded by Gauntlett, the commonest being: Anas strepera (maximum 1,000); A. crecca (1,000); A. acuta (18,000); A. querquedula (500); Aythya fuligula (200); Sarkidiornis

melanotos was also found to be a regular winter visitor, with up to 70 present at one

time. About 25 species of shorebirds were recorded on passage and in winter. Peak

counts included: 50 Pluvialis dominica; 40 Tringa erythropus; 20 T. nebularia; 20 T. ochropus; 100 T. glareola; 100 Calidris minuta and several hundred C. temminckii.

Up to 100 Anastomus oscitans have been recorded as occasional visitors.

Research and facilities: Gauntlett made regular observations on the bird fauna from March 1968 into the early 1970s.


SALT LAKES SWAMP

It is situated on 22° 28’–22° 35’ N, 88° 24’–88° 30’ E immediately southeast of the

Calcutta City boundary, West Bengal. A large area of saline lagoons, ponds and brackish marshes at the head of the Matha waterway on the southeastern periphery of Calcutta. The maximum depth of water is about 60 cm. A large proportion of the wetland has already been reclaimed for urban expansion and agriculture.

Polderization began in 1953, and by 1968, 3,600 ha of the Northern Salt Lakes and 3,400 ha of the Southern Salt Lakes had been reclaimed. Former area of the wetland is approximately 12,000 ha, now believed to have been reduced to 5,000 ha.

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall occurring in May-September.

Macrophytes: No information.

Birds: No recent information is available for the Salt Lakes Swamp, but large numbers of ducks, particularly Dendrocygna javanica, Anas acuta and A.

querquedula, are known to winter at wetlands in and around Calcutta City (e.g.

Calcutta Zoological Gardens and Santragachi Pond), and presumably occur at the Swamp as well.


Land use: The principal activity is fishing. Many of the lagoons and ponds have been stocked with fish, mainly exotic carp and tilapias. The wetlands also act as natural sewage treatment plants, oxidizing effluents from Calcutta. This process is augmented

by Eichhornia crassipes, which absorbs metallic ions.


Possible changes in land use: The whole area is likely to be drained for conversion

to industrial and housing land.

Disturbances and threats: There are plans to reclaim all of the remaining wetlands for urban expansion of the Calcutta metropolis.

Socio-economic values: The wetlands support a major fishery, and serve as a flood control mechanism. One area of 4,000 ha stocked with carp, tilapia and other species provides employment for 20,000 fishermen and produces an annual harvest of 6,000

metric tonnes. The wetlands have also proved to be highly efficient oxidation ponds for the treatment of domestic sewage. Coliform bacteria from human faces are reduced by 99.9% in the well-stocked ponds.

Research and facilities: The West Bengal Department of Fisheries is conducting

research on sewage purification and fish production in the Swamp. The Institute of Wetland Management and Ecological Design has conducted research on public health issues such as fish culture using sewage, and has initiated studies on the ecological

significance and history of wetland conversion around Calcutta.

Reference: Fernandes (1987); Ghosh (1983); Maltby (1986); WWF India (1993).

MANGROVE WETLANDS OF MIDDLE ANDAMAN

Mangrove swamps are mainly located (12° 15’–12° 50’ N, 92° 40’– 93° 50’

E) along various creeks and sheltered areas of middle Andaman forest division, Andaman. Most of the mangroves occur toward eastern side of Middle Andaman Main Island and come under territorial jurisdiction of Bajalungta. Bakultala, Rangat, Betapur and Long Island forest ranges. The total area of the mangrove is about 233.95

sq.km.

Abiotic factors: The temperature range from 23°C–30°C and relative humidity varies from 70%–90%. Mean annual rainfall is 30.0 cm.

Mangroves: Nineteen mangrove species have been recorded. These are follows:

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Acanthus ilicifolius 11 L. racemosa

2 Acrostichum aureum 12 Nypa fruticans

3 Aegiceras corniculatum 13 Phoenix paludosa

4 Avicennia marina 14 Rhizophora apiculata

5 A. officinalis 15 R. mucronata

6 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 16 Sonneratia alba

7 Ceriops tagal 17 S. caseolaris

8 Excoecaria agallocha 18 Xylocarpus granatum

9 Heritiera littoralis 19 X. moluccensis

10 Lumnitzera littorea

Land tenure: Andaman Forest Division

Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns, and crabs.

Conservation measures taken: Andaman Forest Division.



Reference: Sunil Kumar (1998).

WETLANDS IN THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

The 348 islands of the Andaman and Nicobar (7° 00’–15° 00’ N, 92° 00’–94°

00’ E) archipelagos are the peaks of a marine extension of the Arakkan Yomas in Burma and the mountains of Sumatra. Biogeographically, they form a link between the greater Sunda and Indo-Burmese faunas. Until recently, these islands constituted

an almost undamaged and highly diversified natural environment, with luxuriant rain forests extending down from the hills to deserted beaches, fringing reefs and rich coastal waters almost unpolluted by soil erosion or industrial activity. Conditiçns have, however, changed considerably in recent years, with the recent colonization of

the islands by large numbers of immigrants and refugees. Some unique natural environments persist, but the indigenous groups of hunter-gatherers are in immediate danger of cultural and/or physical annihilation. Much the most extensive wetland

habitats in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are mangrove swamps, but there are many small freshwater ponds and marshes throughout the islands of considerable

interest in a regional context. The total area of the wetland is approximately 115,000 ha of mangrove forest (total area of islands 813,600 ha).

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of between 2,750 mm and 4,550 mm. The islands receive precipitation from both the Southwest and Northeast Monsoons which together account for nine to ten months of the year. The dry months are February and March. Temperatures range from 19–

32°C.

Mangroves: There are an estimated 115,000 ha of Mangrove forest in the island, with a zonation greatly resembling that of the Pichavaram and Kaveri systems in southern

India. Rhizophora mucronata is the commonest species and together with R. apiculata

forms a canopy 10m high along the principal watercourses. Tidal mangrove forest is replaced upstream by riverine or lowland evergreen forest. Cerbera manghas,

Heritiera littoralis, Brownlowia lanceolata and Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea are widespread transitional species. Towards the interior of the mangrove forest, Bruguiera parviflora and B. gymnorrhiza are abundant, the trees occasionally exceeding 25 m in height. Commonly there is an undergrowth of Ceriops tagal. The

Rhizophoraceae form a distinct coastal fringe in which Aegiceras corniculatum and Xylocarpus granatum may also be found. This zonation varies in slight detail from one bay to another. These are the only mangrove formations in India where the Nipa

Palm Nypa fruticans is common.

Large areas of primary forest remain on some of the islands, but most of the lowland areas have now been cleared for agriculture. The flora has strong affinities with that

of Southeast Asia. In all, some 3,000 species of plants have been identified, including about 150 species endemic to the islands.

Special floral values: There are about 130 species of ferns and 100 species of orchids in an estimated 700,000 ha of forest (1984).

Birds: The Grey (or Andaman) Teal was once abundant in the Andaman Islands, but numbers have fallen drastically in recent years. The endemic race of the Grey Teal Anas gibberifrons is found in the wetlands. Little is known of the ecology of this bird.

Reptiles: The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and several species of marine turtles.

Mammals: The wetlands support several rare and endangered wildlife species

including the Dugong dugon.

Many endemic species and races of terrestrial vertebrates remain in the unexploited forests of both island groups.


Land use: Formerly subsistence agriculture in small areas and extensive hunter-gatherer utilization of the forested areas. These activities are now yielding to intensive

commercial exploitation. Selective felling is widespread in the mangrove forest, and there is some clear-felling in 40 m strips. Two thirds of the strips are felled and the rest are left for coastal protection and as a source of seed.

Conservation measures taken: Six National Parks and five Wildlife Sanctuaries have been established in the islands. The following reserves include some coastal habitat and mangrove forest:

1. South Butten Island Sanctuary (12° 13’–l2° 19’ N, 93° 01’–93° 52’ E); 300 ha; 0–70 m above sea level.

2. Middle Butten Island National Park: 4,400 ha; 0–70 m above sea level;

established in 1979. 3. Andaman Crocodile Sanctuary: 10,200 ha; 0–l5 m above sea level; established in

1983.

4. North Reef Sanctuary: 13° 04’–13° 06’ N, 92° 36’–92° 38’ E; 348 ha; 0–30 m above sea level.

5. South Sentinel Island Sanctuary (10° 44’–l0° 47’ N, 92° 05’–92° 07’ E); 161 ha; 0-40 m above sea level; established in 1977. The Andaman Forest Department

initiated a project on the conservation of the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus

porosus in 1979, with the assistance of the Government of India.

Possible changes in land use: Increasing external pressure on the islands is likely to

result in further degradation of the remaining terrestrial ecosystems with concomitant damage to the mangrove forest, coral reefs and fisheries. The islands have been designated as a "specially backward" region where industry can claim general

financial concessions in order to establish itself.

Disturbances and threats: Since the 1970s, a vast expansion of the logging operations has clear-felled large areas with devastating ecological repercussions. For

example, Little Andaman is already reported to be 75% deforested. The effects of this massive deforestation on the estuarine, mangrove and coral ecosystems has not been investigated. Some 12,000 ha of mangroves have been clear-felled, mainly for firewood, with detrimental effects on the offshore fisheries. Unrestricted persecution

of Estuarine Crocodiles by local people in the past has greatly reduced their numbers. Choudhury and Bustard (1980) recorded 97% destruction of crocodile nests in the 1977 nesting season, almost entirely as a result of egg-robbing by settlers. Seventeen

per cent of the nest-guarding females were killed in that year alone. The creation of an Andaman Island Free Port has been proposed in order to accelerate the development of the islands; the outcome of meetings in Central Government on this topic are unknown. The immense potential of the forests for renewable resource utilization has

been largely ignored in a rush to exploit the standing timber for powerhouse, matchwood and plywood factories.

Socio-economic values: Under proper management, the terrestrial and mangrove

forests of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands would be capable of supporting a major forestry industry on a sustainable basis. The mangrove forests are breeding and nursery grounds for many commercially important fishes and crustaceans, and are

thus of crucial importance in maintaining the region's fisheries. The mangrove forest also provides valuable coastal protection from cyclonic storms. Many of the islands are of great scenic beauty and have tremendous potential for tourism.

Research and facilities: The Bombay Natural History Society and Zoological Survey of India launched several expeditions to the Andaman Islands during the 1960s and 1970s.

Reference: Chatterjee (1977); Choudhury and Bustard (1980); FAO (1984); Fernandes (1987); Kar (1984); Untawale (1985); Whitaker (1985); WWF India (1993).

JAMUNA RIVER NEAR DELHI

A 35 km stretch of the Jamuna river (28° 30’ N, 77° 22’ E to 28° 46’ N, 77° 13’ E) in

the environs of Delhi, from approximately 10 km south to 10 km north of the city. Although largely contained within bunded embankments, the narrow floodplain along the Jamuna still constitutes a significant wetland environment. Small areas of marsh remain in a mosaic of arable land, pasture, waste ground, and urban development.

Several dams and barrages, such as the Okhla Barrage, provide relatively large areas of open water. At low water levels, extensive mudflats and sand banks are exposed. There are undoubtedly other stretches of the Jamuna river that are as rich in wildlife

as the Delhi section, and probably several other rivers in northern India just as rich as the Jamuna, but no information is available on these other sites.

Abiotic factors: Dry tropical monsoon climate typical of the Upper Ganges Plain,

with an average annual rainfall of 635 mm. Most of the rain falls during the monsoon in June-September, but some 50–100 mm may fall in winter. There is a marked annual range in mean temperatures (19°C), and a daily range of up to 17°C. January is the coldest month (16°C) and May the hottest (32°C).

Macrophytes: There are large areas of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), particularly near the barrages, and reed-beds with species of Typha and Phragmites,

chiefly around the islands in the river. At low water levels, much of the exposed river

bed is cultivated.

Birds: A very important feeding and roosting area for a wide variety of both resident and migratory waterfowl. In winter, many thousands of ducks, chiefly Anas strepera,

A. crecca, A. acuta, and A. clypeata, spend the daylight hours on the river and fly out at night to feed on wet arable land. In March 1980, de Block observed: 300 Anas

penelope, 500 A. strepera, 700 A. acuta, 6500 A. clypeata, 400 Aythya

farina and 2400 A. fuligula on one small dam on the river. The muddy islands provide

secure roosting sites for large numbers of gulls and terns (2700 in January 1986), and there is a very large winter roost of swallows and martins (Hirundinidae) in the reed-beds (e.g. 20,000 in February 1982). Many shorebirds, especially Tringa glareola,

Calidris minuta, C. temminckii, Philomachus pugnax, and Glareola maldivarum,

occur on passage, and to a lesser extent also in winter. Waterfowl counts at several localities along the river and in the nearby Delhi Zoological Gardens in January 1986

and January 1987 recorded: up to

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Anas acuta 1980 12 Gelochelidon nilotica 75

2 A. clypeata 1100 13 Himantopus himantopus 50 3 A. crecca 2090 14 Larus brunnicephalus 300 4 A. poecilorhyncha 220 15 L. ridibundus 2,000

5 A. strepera 200 16 Mycteria leucocephala 125

6 Anhinga melanogaster 40 17 Nycticorax nycticorax 75

7 Aythya farina 100 18 Phalacrocorax niger 200

8 A. fuligula 100 19 Philomachus pugnax 50

9 Calidris temminckii 50 20 Recurvirostra avosetta 75 10 Chlidonias hybridus 200 21 Vanellus spinosus 44 11 Fulica atra 350

along with smaller numbers of six species of herons and egrets, Ephippiorhynchus

asiaticus, Platalea leucorodia, Phoenicopterus ruber, Anser indicus, Tadorna

ferruginea, Sarkidiornis melanotos, Netta rufina, Rostratula benghalensis, and 11

other species of shorebirds. Anas falcata has been recorded, and A. poecilorhyncha

breeds. There is a large breeding colony of cormorants, Anhinga melanogaster,

herons, egrets, and Mycteria leucocephala in trees in the Zoological Gardens, the

birds commuting to the riverine marshes to feed.

Land tenure: A mixture of private and public ownership.

Land use: Primarily agricultural land providing vegetables and dairy products for the

capital city. Water is taken from the river for a variety of industrial and domestic uses.


Possible changes in land use: As the city of Delhi continues to expand, new urban

and industrial developments and an intensification of current land use will continue to erode the few remaining areas of semi-natural marsh.

Disturbances and threats: Pollution from domestic and industrial sources is a

growing problem, and is already at a critical level along some stretches of the river. About 320,000 km of untreated sewage is discharged daily into the river. Factory wastes containing high concentrations of DDT and chloral hydrates, which are

released into the river, have resulted in high toxicity. There is a considerable amount of disturbance from the intense human activity in the area, and some shooting and netting of waterfowl occurs.

Socio-economic values: Important agricultural areas are scattered along the whole

Jamuna river system. As pollution levels increase, the value of the river as a source of water for domestic consumption will undoubtedly diminish. The area is often visited by bird-watchers and, with a little management and the provision of basic facilities,

could easily be developed for this type of outdoor recreation on a large scale.

Research and facilities: Several waterfowl counts have been carried out, but no systematic study seems to have been undertaken, despite the proximity of the site to

Delhi.

Reference: Gole (1982); Karpowicz (1985); van der Yen (1987); Jhingran (1991); WWF India (1993).

OUSTERI LAKE

Ousteri lake is situated (11° 57’ N; 79° 45’ E) near the village Oussudueri, partly in

Tamil Nadu state and partly in Pondicherry Union Territory. Ousteri (derived from Oussudueri-Tamil for Ousudu lake) is the most important freshwater lake of Pondicherry region. It is also one of the most important wetlands of Asia. The total water spread area is about 700 ha. The water in Ousteri lake comes from the following

sources: (i) the run-off from the lake basin and direct interception by the water body; (ii) the water which is diverted by the Suthukenni check dam through the Suthukenni channel to the lake.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The water is alkaline in nature (7.24-8.08).

Macrophytes: Over 60 families with more than 195 species of plants and trees have

been identified with Ousteri. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Abrus praecatorius 99 Ichnocarpus frustescens

2 Abutilon indicum 100 Indigofera hirsute

3 Abutilon sp. 101 Ipomoea carnea

4 Acacia chundra 102 I. pecaprae

5 A. leucophloea 103 I. pestigridis

6 A. nilotica 104 Ixora paverra

7 Acalypha indica 105 Jasmarium spp.

8 Achyranthes aspera 106 Jatropha curcas

9 Aerva lanata 107 Justicia simplex

10 Agave americana 108 Lannea coromandelica

11 Allophyllus serratus 109 Lantana camara

12 Alysicarpus vaginalis 110 Lepidagathis cristata

13 Amaranthus spinosus 111 Lepisanthes tetraphylla

14 Apluda mitica 112 Leptadenia reticulate

15 Asystasis ganetics 113 Leucas aspera

OUSTERI LAKE

•


16 Atalantia monophylla 114 Lindernia sp. 17 Atylosia sp. 115 Madhuca longifolia

18 Azadirachta indica 116 Maerua oblongifolia

19 Barleria buxifolia 117 Mallotus philippinensis

20 Bauhinia racemosa 118

Malvastrum

coromandelianum

21 Benkata malabarica 119 Maytenus emerginata

22 Boerhavia diffusa 120 Melilotus indica

23 Borassus flabellifer 121 Memecylon lushingtonii

24 Borreria sp. 122 M. umbellatum

25 Breynia vitis 123 Merremia emarginata

26 Buchanania axillaries 124 M. tridentate

27 Butea monosperma 125 Micrococca mercurialis

28 Cadaba fruticosa 126 Mollugo disticha

29 Calotropis gigantoa 127 M. pentaphylla

30 Canavallia virosa 128 Morinds coreia

31 Canthium parviflorum 129 Ochna obtusata

32 Capparis brevispina 130 Ocimum tenuifolium

33 C. sepiaria 131 Oldenlandia sp. 34 Capparis spp. 132 Opuntia dillenii

35 Cardiospermum halicacabum 133 Ormocarpum sennoides

36 Carissa spinarum 134 Pandanus odoratissimus

37 Carmona retusa 135 Parkinsonia aculeate

38 Cassia auriculata 136 Passiflora foetida

39 C. fistula 137 Pavetta indica

40 C. kleinii 138 Pergularia daemia

41 C. occidentalis 139 Phaseolus spp.

42 Cassine glauca 140 Phoenix loureirii

43 Cassytha filiformis 141 P. sylvestris

44 Celastrus panicltus 142 Phyla nodiflora

45 Celosia argentea 143 Phyllanthus gardeniarianus

46 Cissampelos pareria 144 P. rotundifolius

47 Cissus quardrangularis 145 Pitecellobium dulce

48 C. setosa 146 Pithecanthus sp.

49 C. vitiginea 147 Plumbago zeylanica

50 Citrus sp. 148 Pogostemon sp. 51 Clausena dentate 149 Polycarpon prostratum

52 Cleome aspera 150 Polygala arvensis

53 C. viscose 151 P. javana

54 Cocculus hirsutus 152 Portulaca oleracea

55 Coldenia procumbens 153 Prosopis juliflora

56 Commelina sp. 154 Pterosperum suberifolium

57 Corchorus sp. 155 Randia brandissi

58 Corypha umbraculifera 156 R. dumetorum

59 Crossandra infundibuliforms 157 R. malabarica

60 Crotalaria medicagenia 158 Reissantia indica

61 Croton boneplandianus 159 Ricinis communis

62 Croton sp. 160 Saccharum sp. 63 Cyanotis tuberose 161 Salacia chinesis

64 Cynodon dactylon 162 Sanseviera sp.

65 Cypreus sp. 163 Sapindus emarginata

66 Dalbergia paniculata 164 Sarcostemma acidum

67 Datura metal 165 Sebestiana chamaelea

68 Densrocalanmus stictus 166 Securinega leucopyrus

69 Derris scandens 167 Sesbania sp. 70 Derris sp. 168 Sida sp.

71 Desmodium biarticulatum 169 Solanum sp. 72 Dichrostachys cinerea 170 S. surattense

73 Disopyros ferrea 171 Spermacoce hispida

74 Dodonaea viscose 172 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis

75 Ecbolium viride 173 Striga asiatica

76 Ehretia pubescebs 174 Strychnos colubrine

77 Eulophia nuda 175 Stylosanthes fruticosa

78 Euphorbia hirta 176 Synedrella nodiflora

79 E. rosea 177 Syzygium caryophyllatum

80 Ficus benghalensis 178 S. cumini

81 F. hispida 179 Tamarindus indica

82 F. religiosa 180 Tarenna asiatica

83 Fimbristylis sp. 181 Tephrosia pulcherrima

84 Flacourtia indica 182 Terminalia bellirica

85 Garcinia spicata 183 Toddalia asiatica

86 G. talbottii 184 Tragia involucrate

87 Glinus oppositifolius 185 Tribulus terrestris

88 Glorisa superba 186 Trichurus monsoniae

89 Glycosmis mauritiana 187 Typha angustata

90 Gmelina asiatica 188 Vitex sp. 91 Gomphrena globosa 189 Waltheria indica

92 G. celosiodes 190 Wattakaka volubilis

93 Grewia tenax 191 Wrightia tinctoria

94 Heliotropium sp. 192 Zizyphus mauritiana

95 Hrmidesmus indicus 193 Z. oenoplia

96 Hugonia mystax 194 Z. xyophyrus

97 Hybanthes enneaspermus 195 Zornia gibbosa

98 Hyptis suaveolens

Aquatic weeds: Hydrilla verticillata, Ipomea sp.

Fishes: No comprehensive account is available of the fish fauna of the lake, nor of the possible association between the various fish species and the predator birds. Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Argentius carpio, Catla catla, Labeo

rohita, Cirrhina mrigala.

Birds: An important wintering area for migratory waterfowl, Ousteri Tank is much more suitable for diving ducks than the nearby Kaliveli Tank. Peak counts in the winters of 1986–87 and 1987–88 included 13,500 dabbling ducks (mainly Anas

querquedula. A. penelope, A. acuta, and A. clypeata) and: 100 Phalacrocorax spp., 930 Egretta spp., 110 Ardea cinerea, 150 Anastomus oscitans, 320 Ciconia ciconia,

160 Threskiornis melanocephalus, 74 Plegadis falcinellus, 600 Aythya farina, 800 A.

fuligula, 100 Fulica atra, 250 Himantopus himantopus and 1000 other shorebirds. Ousteri Tank benefits from its proximity to Kaliveli Tank, and when the latter dries out, some species such as egrets, storks, and ibises, move to Ousteri. More than 103

species of native and migratory birds have been spotted in and around Ousteri. These are follows;

S.

No

Species Name S.

No

Species Name

1 Accipiter badius 53 Himantopus himantopus

2 A. nisus 54 Hirundo rustica

3 Acridotheres tristis 55 Lanius cristatus

4 Acrocephalus dumetorum 56 L. excubitor

5 Aegithina tiphia 57 Megalaima haemacephala

6 Alauda gulgula 58 Merops orientalis

7 Alcedo atthis 59 M. philippinus

8 Anas poecilorhyncha 60 Milvus migrans

9 Anastomus oscitons 61 Mirafra assamica

10 Anthus hodgsoni 62 Motacilla flava

11 A. novaeseelandiae 63 M. maderaspatensis

12 Apus affinis 64 Muscicapa latirostris

13 Arachnothera longirostris 65 Nectarinia asiatica

14 Ardea alba 66 N. zeylonica

15 A. cinerea 67 Neophron percnopterus

16 Ardeola grayii 68 Numenius arquata

17 Athene bramea 69 Oasser domesticus

18 Bubo bubo 70 Oriolus oriolus

19 Bubulcus ibis 71 Orthotomus sutorius

20 Calidris minuta 72 Otus asio

21 Caprimulgus asiaticus 73 Pelecanus philippensis 22 Carocina melanoptera 74 Pellorneum ruficeps

23 Ceryl rudius 75 Pericrocotus cinnamomeus

24 Charadrius dubius 76 Phalacrocroax niger 25 Chlidonias hybridus 77 Phoenicopterus roseus

26 Ciconia ciconia 78 Phylloscopus collybita

27 Circus aeruguinosus 79 Pitta brachyuran

28 C. pygargus 80 Plataleu leucorodia

29 Clamator jacobinus 81 Podiceps ruficollia 30 Columba lilvia 82 Prinia subflava

31 Copsychus saularis 83 Psittacula krameri

32 Coracias benghalensis 84 Pycnonotus cafer

33 Coracina novaehollandiae 85 Saxicoloides fulicata

34 Corvus corax 86 Sterna acuticauda

35 C. macrorhynchos 87 S. aurantia

36 C. splendens 88 Streptopelia chinensis

37 Cuculus various 89 Sturnus pagodarum

38 Cypsiurus parvus 90 Sylvia curruca

39 Delihcon dasypus 91 Tephrodronis pondicerianus

40 Dendrocitta vagabunda 92 Terpsiphone paradise

41 Dicaeum erythrorhycnchos 93 Threskiornis aethiopica

42 Dicrurus adsimilis 94 Tringa glareola

43 Dinopium benghalense 95 T. hypoleucos

44 Egretta garzetta 96 T. ochropus

45 Elanus caeruleus 97 T. stagnatilis

46 Eremopterix grisea 98 Turdoides affinis

47 Eudynamys scolopacea 99 T. caudatus

48 Falco tinnunculus 100 Tyro alba

49 Francolinus pondicerianus 101 Upupa epops

50 Gallinago gallinago 102 Vannellus indicus

51 Halcyon samyrnensis 103 V. malanbaricus

52 Haliaster indus

Land tenure: Pondicherry State-owned

Land use: The tank is used for Irrigation

Conservation measures proposed: C. Perennou has recommended that the tank be declared a Bird Sanctuary and developed for bird-watching. Ousteri could then

become the first area in Pondicherry Union Territory dedicated to wildlife protection.

Disturbances and threats: Excessive grazing of aquatic vegetation and some illegal hunting of waterfowl.

Socio-economic values: Ousteri is one of the 93 Indian wetlands identified as highly important by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). This importance emanates from ousteri’s rich ecosystem of which a lot is still to be studied

and understood. Ousteri is a major wintering spot for a large number of migratory birds and is a rich source of inland fisheries.

Pollution status: Quite a few of such industries are situated within an eye-shot of Ousteri. Industrial waste dumped at the bank of Ousteri

Odour Offensive, caused dizziness

Colour Dark, dingy

pH 0.3 units

Conductivity 45,00,00 m

Sulphate 23,00,00 ppm

Nickel 700 ppm

Cobalt 380 ppm

Mercury 110 ppm

Research and facilities: C. Perennou conducted research on the aquatic avifauna of Ousteri Tank and the nearby Kaliveli Tank in 1986–88.

Reference: Perennou (1987); WWF India (1993); Abbasi (1997).

REFERENCE

Abbasi, S. A & Remani, K. N. 1985. Environmental. pollution due to retting of coconut husk and preliminary studies on closed system retting. Proc.

Workshop on Coir Research, Coir. Board. Alapuzha, pp. 121-131.

Abdul Aziz, p .K & Balakrishnan Nail, N. 1986. Ecology of the coconut husk retting grounds in Kerala. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture. Trivandrum, Kerala, pp. 1115-1130.

Abdul Aziz, P .K. 1978. Ecology of the retting grouf1.ds in the backwater systems of Kerala. Ph.D Thesis, University ofKerala, Trivandrum, Kerala.

Abdul Aziz, P. K. & Balakrishnan Nair, N. 1982. Ecology of the crustacean plankton of the rerting zone with special reference to sulphide pollution in a backwater

system ofKerala. Mahasagar:. Bull. Natn./nst. Oceanogr. 15: 175-182.

Abdul Aziz, P. K. 1974. Preliminary observations on the ecology of the coconut retting grounds in the back water systems of Kerala. Proc. Envirqnmental

Pollution in Kerala.

Abdul Hameed 1975. Fertility investigations in the kole soils of Kerala. MSc(Ag)Thesis, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala.

Ahmed Ali, K. 1985. Dynamics ofChettuva -Kottapuram sound and Kuttiyadi estuary of Malabar coast. M. Tech Thesis, University of Mangalore, Karnataka, 85 pp.

Ahmed Ali. K., James, E.J. & Namboodripad, K.D. 1987. Salinity intrusion in to the

Chettuva- Kottapuram sound of the Trichur kole lands. Proc. i\'ain. Sem. on

Estuarine

Alagarrajan, S. 1990. The ecology of Indian Ring Dove Streptopelia decaocto

decaoctc (Frivaldszky) and the Indian Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis

suratensis (Gmelin) at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Bombay, Bombay.

Alagarrajan, S. 1996. The avifauna of the Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest of Poin Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bombay Bombay.

Ali, S. & R. Sugathan 1995 .Studies on the movement and population structure of Indian Avifauna. Annual Report (1994-1995). Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Ali, S. & S. D. Ripley 1987. Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan Oxford University Press, Delhi

Ali, S. 1963. Point Calimere as a refuge for wintering shorebirds. J. BombaIJ nat. Hist

Soc. 60(2): 458-460.

Ali, S. 1981. Ecological reconnaissance of the Vedaranyam Swamp, Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1968. Hand book of the Birds of Indian & Pakistan together with those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon- Volume,1.

Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1983. A pictoral guide to the Birds of Indian Subcontinent

BNHS Bombay.

Ali, S.Q. 1990. Ecology and behaviour of the Grey 1 Fancolin Francolinus

pondicerianus (Gmelin) Class: Aves, Family: Phasianidae. M.Sc Thesis , University of Bombay, Bombay.

Anderson, J. 1878. Anatomical and Zoological researches. Comprising an account of the Zoological result of the two expedition to western Yamuna in 1868 and 1875 and a monograph of the two cetacean genera, Platanista and Orcaella,

Vol. I B. Quoritch, London, 550 P

Anitha, A. B. 1991. Analysis and correlation of rainfall and run off of selected river basins of Kerala. M.Tech. Thesis, University of Calicut, Kerala, 65 pp.

Anon 1989. Environmental Impact Assessment Gas Turbine Zainakote Eco. Ser. D.E.E./11/89-90, June, 1989. Deptt. of Ecology and Environment.

Anon. (1993) Directory of Asian Wetlands, New Delhi: WWF India and Kuala

Lumpur: AWB

Anon. (1995) Workshop on Sustainable tourism initiatives in Himachal Pradesh. Minutes of a workshop organised by State Council for Science, Technology & Environment, HP; Department of Tourism, Govt. of Himachal Pradesh, ICIMOD, Equitable Tourism Options, Bangalore & Spiti Toursm Management Society. Simla 14-16.11.1995.

Anon. (1996) Asia-Pacific Migratory Waterbird Conservation Strategy: 1996-2000. Wetlands International – Asia Pacific, Kuala Lumpur, Publication No 117, and International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau – Japan Committee, Tokyo.

Anon. (1998) Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. UNESCO, Paris.

Anon. 1978. Report of the study group on exploitation of salt and sea water for the manufacture of chemicals. Ministry of Petroleum, Chemicals and Fertilizers

Government of India.

Anon. 1998. Bird Migration Studies in India (1980-1992) Final Report Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai.

Anonymous, 1983. Water Supply Scheme to Quilon, World Bank Assistance Project Report, PHED (KWA), Govt. of Kerala.

Azariah, J., V. Selvam, S. Gunasekaran 1992. Impact of past management practices

on the present status of the Muthupet mangrove ecosystem. !!!-;. The ecology of mangroves and related ecosystems (Eds: v. Jaccarini & E. Martens). Hydrobiologia 247: 253-259.

Bacha, M.S. 1991. Status report chapters “Fauna, Research activities and Future Research Programmes”.

Bacha, M.S. 1992. Waterfowl census in Kashmir Wetlands (Feb-April, 1992).

Bacha, M.S. 1996. Waterfowl census in Kashmir Wetlands (January, 1994-April, 1994).

Bacha, M.S. 1996. Waterfowl census in Kashmir Wetlands (Sept.92-April, 93).

Bahaguna, V.K., Luthra, V., and Rathore, B.M.S. (1994). Collective forest management in India. Ambio. 23:4-5.

Balakrishnan Nair, N. 1971. Water wealth of Kerala. Seafood Export Journal.3: 1-10.

Balasubramanian, P. 1990. Plant-animal interrelations at Point Calimer Sanctuary,

Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bombay, Bombay.

Balasubrarnanian, P.1982. Study of the flora of Vedharanyarn Reserve M.Sc. Dissertation, University of Madras, Madras.

Balchand, A.N. 1983. Kuttanad: A case study on environmental consequences of water resources mismanagement Water International8: 35-41. ,

Behera, S.K. 1995. “Studies on Population Dynamics, Habitat Utilisation and

Conservation Aspects of Gangetic Dolphin (Platanista gangetica)”, PhD thesis.

Belega, B.S. 1957. Tanjore District Gazetteers, Tanjore, Volume 1. Government Press, Madras.

Bharathan, K. 1984. Assessment of water resources of KerJla by the Public Works Department. .Proc. National Workshop on Interbasin Transfer of Water,

CWRDM. Calicut. Kerala,5:1-11.

Bhattacharji, R.D. (1994) Back to Rupshu. The Himalayan Journal 50:125-143.

Bijoy Nandan, S., Abdul Aziz, P .K. & Natarajan, P. 1989. Water quality and faunal

depletion in the retting zones of the backwaters ofKerala. Proc. First Kerala

Science Congress. Cochin, Stale Committee on Science Technology and

Environment. Government of Kerala. Trivandntm, pp.167-175.

Blasco, F. & P. Legris .1973. Dry Evergreen Forest of Point Calimare and Marakanam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(2): 279-294.

Blasco, F. I Pondicherry .1975. The Mangroves of India Institute Francais de

Pondicherry, Pondicherry.

Brandon, K. and Wells, M. 1992. Planning for people and Parks: Design Dilemmas. World Development, Vol. 20, No.4, 557-570.

Ceballos-Lascurain H. (1996) Tourism, ecotourism, and protected areas: The state of nature-based

tourism around the world and guidelines for its development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland

and Cambridge, UK.

CG WB 1992. Coastal Kerela G.W. Project, Final Technical Report. Ministry of Water Resources. Government of India. Chattopadhyay, ,S. & Sidharthan, S. 1985. Regional analysis of the Greater. Kullanad. Kerala. Technical Report

43. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Trivandrum, Kerala, 119 pp.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth.1968. A revised survey of the forest types of India. Govt. of India. Publications.

Chandra, D.P. 1992. Management plan of the Pong Dam Bird Sanctuary. Submitted to Department of Forest Farming and Conservation, Himachal Pradesh.

Cheriyan, P. V. 1967. Hydrographical studies in and around the Cochin harbour, Mahasagar. Bull.Natn. Inst. Oceanogr 3: 9- 17.

CMFRI 1984. Coastal Zone Management. Mud banks of Kerala Coast. CMFRI

Bulletin 31: 1- 74

Comprehensive Management Action Plan on Conservation and Management of Renuka wetland Report. 1990. State Council for Science, Technology & Environment.

CWRDM 1984. Network design of raingauge stations in the Muvattupuzha river

basin, Technical report TR-0030, CWRDM, Kozhikode, Kerala, 21 pp.

CWRDM 1986. Impact of deforestation on hydrological parameteers in the Western

ghats of Kerala. Final Project Report submitted to DOE, Govt of India, New Delhi, 169 pp.

CWRDM 1989. ,Assessment of pollution due to retting of Coconut husk and

development of alternative retting technology. Final Project Report submitted to State Committee on Science, Technology and Environment, Govt, of Kerala, Trivandrum, 30 pp,

CWRDM 1990. Hydrology of cultivated W'atersheds of midland Kerala, Final

Project Report SW-3/EH CWRDM, Kozhikode, 179 pp.

CWRDM 1991. Compilation of Hydrological and other allied data of Periyar river

basin. Final Project Report, State Committee on Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala, 20 pp.

Daniel, J. C. 1967. The Point Calimere Sanctuary, Madras State. May 1967. J.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 64(3): 512-523.

Daniel, J.C., S. Balachandran & S. Alagarrajan 1999. Community participation in the conservation of the waterbirds of Vedaranyam Swamp. A case study on the

bird trappers. Salim Ali Wild Wings Trust, Mumbai.

Darokhan, M.D. (1986) Animal husbandry in Ladakh: an ecological perspective. Ladakh Project, Ecology and principles for sustainable development. Proceedings of a conference co-housed by the Ladakh Project and the Ladakh Ecological Development Group in Leh, Ladakh, pp. 71-74.

Das Brijraj & Kaur Parkesh .2001. Major Ion Chemistry of Renuka Lake and Weathering Processes, Environment Geology. 40:908-912

Department of Agriculture 1978. Soils of Kerala, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum,

Kerala. Department of Agriculture 1980. Comprehensive Development of

Kullanad, Government of Kerala Report,Trivandrum, Kerala, 69 pp.

Department of Groundwater & KLDC 1976. Project Report for Thrissur Kole Land

Development, KLDC, Thrissur, Kerala.

Department of Public Works 1963a. Long range outline plan for flood col1frol in

Kerala. Part 1, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala.

Department of Public Works 1963b. Long range outline plan for flood Control in

Kerala. Part II. Vol.I, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala,

Department of Public Works 1971 a, Project report 0n Chimoni Mupli-Kole irrigation

scheme. VoI 2, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala.

Department of Public Works 1971 c. Project report on the Kuttanad Development

scheme, Superintendent of Government Press, Government of Kerala,

Trivandrum, Kerala.

Department of Public Works 1971b. Development of kole lands in Trichur District.

Synopsis of project report, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum. Kerala, India.

Department of Public Works 1974. Water Resources of Kerala, Government of Kerala,

Department of Public Works, 1972. Project report on salt water regulator at

Thanneermukkom, Government of Kerala, Tri\.andrum, Kerala.

Deptt. of Wildlife, Govt. of Punjab (1993) : A Checklist of Birds of Punjab.

Deptt. of Wildlife, Govt. of Punjab 1993. A Checklist of Birds of Punjab.

Dhillon, SS and Kaur H. (1996) : Analytical Studies on Aquatic Ecosystems of Punjab. Deptt. of Zoology, Punjabi University Patiala.

DOEn 1989. Conservation of W.etlands in lndia, Ministry of Environment & Forests,

Government of India, New Delhi, 67 pp.

Fauna of Renuka wetland. 2000. Zoological Survey of India.

Fleming, SR, R.L., Fleming, Jr. R.L., Bangdel, L.S. 1976. Birds of Nepal, Isted, Arum

K. Mehta and Vakil and Son’s 1976.

Fox, J.L., Nurbu, C., Bhatt, S. and Chandola, A. (1994) Wildlife conservation and land-use changes in the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India. Mountain Research and Development 14(1): 39-60.

Gangadhara Menon, P. K., 1975. Morphological and physico-chemical properties of

the kayal soils of Kuttanad, Kerala State. M.Sc(Ag) Thesis, Kerala Agricultural. University, Thrissur. Kerala. 122 pp.

Gaston (1985); Gaston & Pandey (1987)

Gaston, A.J., and Garson, P.J. 1993. A Re-Appraisal of the Great Himalayan National Park. Report to HDPFFC, International Trust for Nation Conservation, WWF-India, Oriental Bird Club.

Gaston, A.J., and Pandey, S. 1987. Sighting of Red necked Grebe Podiceps griseigena on the Pong Dam Lake, Himachal Pradesh. J.Bombay Natural History Society, 84: 676-7.

George. K. V. 1974. Some aspects of prawn culture in the seasonal fields of Vypeen Island. Indian. J. Fish. 21: 1-19.

George. M. J., 1961. Studies on prawn fishery of Cochin and Alleppey. Indian. J.

Fisheries 8: 75-95.

Goldstein, M.S. (1981) High-altitude Tibetan populations in the remote Himalaya: social transformation and its demographic, economic, and ecological consequences. Mountain Research and Development 1:5-18.

Gopal, Brij. 1995. Hand Book of Wetland Management prepared and produced by World Wide Fund for Nature.

Gopalan. U. K. 1984. Need for legal protection: In: P. Leelakrishnan (ed.), Law and

Environment, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin, Kerala, pp.268-273.

Gore, P .S. Raveendran, 0. & Unnithan, R. V. 1979, Pollution in Cochin backwaters

with reference to indicator bacteria. 1ndian. J. Mar. Sci. 8:43-46.

Government of Kerala 1971, Report of the Kuttanad Enquiry Commission,

Tivandrum. Kerala, 103 pp.

Government of Kerala. 1974. Kuttanad Development Project Report, Trivandrum. Kerala. 101pp. Government of Kerala 1978. Report on the conditions of

Trichur District, Trivandrum, Kerala.

Grimmet, R., Inskipp, C. and Inskipp, T. Birds of the Indian Subcontinent Christopher Helm, A & C Black, London.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp. 1998. Birds of the Indian Subcontinent Oxford

University Press, Delhi.

GSI 1976. Miscellaneous Publication No.30, Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Hand, B.K. (1993). Management and Control of Aquatic Weeds in Kanjli Lake,

District Kapurthala (Punjab), NEERI, Nagpur.

Haridas, P., Madhu Pratap, M. & Rao, T.S.S. 1973. Salinity temperature oxygen and zooplankton biomass of the backwaters from Cochin to Alleppey. Indian

J,Mar. Sci. 2: 94-102.

Hussain, S. and Silva, D. 1987. Waterfowl indicator, B.N.H.S. Bombay Indian revised ed., 1987.

Hussain, S.A., R. Sugathan & R. Pandian 1985. Importance of Vedaranyam Swamp as a major ecological entity in the south-east coast of India. Proc: Symposium

on EndangeredMarine Animals and Marine Parks. Paper No.38. Marine

Biological Association of India, Cochin.

Indo-Dutch Mission 1982. Report of a project formulation mission to the Kuttanad

region for a study of the water balance and ground water resources of

Kuttanad, Ministry. of Foreign affairs, Netherlands and Government of Kerala. Trivandrum, Kerala.

Indo-Dutch Mission 1987, Kuttanad water balance study: Inception report, Ministry

of Foreign Affairs, Netherlands and Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala, 80 pp.

Indo-Dutch Mission 1988. Kuttanad water balance study: Mission Report

Environmental aspects. Ministry of Foreign Affairs Netherlands and Government of Kerala, Trivandrum. Kernla. 59 pp.

Indo-Dutch Mission 1989a. Kuttanad Water Balance Study (Draft Final Report). Vol.

I to IV Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala.

Indo-Dutch Mission 1989b. Kuttanad Water Balance study-plan report, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Netherlands and Government of Kerala, Trivandrum. Kerala, 70 pp.

Indo-Dutch Mission 1989c. Kuttanad water Balance Study: updating mission report.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs Netherlands and Government of Kerala. Trivandrum, Kerala. 25pp.

IUCN (1990) Rabbits, Hares and Pikas: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN Gland, Switzerland.

IUCN (1996) Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

James, E. J, 1988. Integrated planning and Development of river basins, CBI, New Delhi.

James, E. J. & Pradeep Kumar, P. K. 1988. Hydrology and forest ecosystem. In: Seminar on. Ecology and Environment, Trivandrum, Kerala.

James, E. J. 1983. Establishing a hydrometeorological data bank at CWRDM. Proc.Nat.Workshop on Scientific Methods to Collection and Documentation of

Hydrologic Data, CWROM. Kozhikode. Kerala, pp. 29-35.

James, E. J., Nandeshwar, M. D. & Anitha. A.B. 1993. Management of wetlands. Proc. Fourth National Water Convention, Thiruvananthapuram,Kerala, India,

Vol. II, pp. 11/141-148.

James, E. J., Ranganna, G. & Mohan, R. 1992. Regional flood frequency study for Kerala region in India. In: Proc. 5th International Meeting of Statistical

Climatology, University of Toronto, Canada, pp.477-480.

James, E.J., Pradeep Kumar, P.K, Ranganna, G., Nayakl.V. & Ravi, T.B. 1987. Studies on the hydrological processes in the forest drainage basins of the

Western Ghats of lndia. In: Forest Hydrology and Watershed and

Management, IAHS-AISH Publ. No. 167, Wallingford. U.K. pp. 223-229.

James. E J., 1984a. Impact of interbasin transfer of water on estuarine processes.

Proc. Natn. Workshop on Interbasin Transfer of Water, CWRDM. Kozhikode. Kerala. pp. 19/1-8.

James. E, J, 1995a. Hydrologic considerations in the management of wetlands and

their Watersheds. Keynote address delivered at the UNEP/AWB Scoping

workshop of AsianWetlkands in relation to their role in Watershed

Management, Kualalampur, Malaysia.

James. E. J. 1985, Problems in estuarine management -south coast of lndia. Vth World Congress on Water resources. 9-15 June 1995. Brussels pp. 436-445.

James. E. J. 1992a. Hydroenvironment of wetlands. Proc, Workshop on Waterlogging

and Drainage. CWRDM, Kozhikode. Kerala. pp. 1-11.

James. E. J. 1992b. Waterlogging and drainage -their relevance in Kerala context,

Proc. Workshop on Waterlogging and Drainage. CWRDM. Kozhikode. Kerala, pp. 85-103.

James. E. J. 1995b. Management strace!!ies tor the rivers and wetlands of Keraia. In: P.K. Iyengar ( ed. ). Science and technology for Development, STEC,

Trivendrum, Kerala, India. pp.84-104..

Jamwal, K.S. 1990. Wetland Kashmir, Sanctuary Mag., 1991.

Jayapalan, A. P., Sasidharan, K.M., & Achuthan Nair, V. 1976. Some aspects of physicochemical and biological variations of Periyar water due to the effluent

discharge from FACT. Bulletin of the Department of Fisheries, Kerala 1: 47-59.

Jayararnan, K.C., T. Venkateswarlu & M.B. Ragunathan .1982. A survey of the

Cauvery river system, with a major account of its fish fauna. Rec. Zool. Surv.

India Miscellaneous Publication. Occ. Paper No.36.

Jayasree, E. M. 1983. Hydrology and plankton biomass of Vembanad lake. MSc

Thesis. Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin, Kerala, 44 pp.

Jhingran, V .G. 1982. Fish and Fisheries of India, Hindustan Publishing Corporation.(lndia). New Delhi, 666 pp.

Johnkutty, I. & Venugopal, V. K. 1993. Kolelands of Kerala. Kerala Agricultural University. Thrissur, Kerala, 68 pp.

Johnson, J.M. 1975. The Blackbuck in Point Calimere Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. Population dynamics and observations on behaviour. Indian Forester.

101:484-494.

Jones, S. 1982. The present status of the Ganges river susu, Platanista gangetica with comments on the Indus susu. P. minor. Mammals of the seas. FAO Fisheries

series No. 5 Vol. IV, FAO, Rome.

Joseph, C. A. 1987. Management ofrice in relation to environmental pollution with special reference to Kuttanad. Proc. Sem. Environmental Pollution and

Conservation of Nature. Department of Zoology, Marthoma College.

Thiruvalla, Kerala.

Joseph, P .S. 1974. Nutrient distribution in the Cochin harbour and in its vicinity.

Indian J. Mar. Sci. 3: 28-32.

Jrunes, E. J, 1984b. Estuarine mechanics with special reference to circulation, mixing and pollution dispersion. Proc. Natn. Workshop on the State of the Art on

Water Resources. Development and Management. October 1984 Warangal.

Kabeerathumma, S. & Patnaik, S. 1978. Effects of submergence on the availability of toxic and deficient nutrients in acid sulphale soils in Kerala. Agri. Res. J. of

Kerala 16: 181-187.

Kannan, K. P. 1979a. Ecological and socio-economic consequences of water control projects in the Kuttanad region of Kerala. Proc.lndian Acad. Sci. (Engg. Sci.)

C2: 417-433.

Kannan, K. P. 1979b. Socio-economic and ecological consequences of water control

projects: The case of Kuttanad in Kerala, Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum, Kerala, 39pp.

Kaushik, S (1993) Towards a tourism strategy in Spiti. Equations, Bangalore.

Kerala Agricultural University 1989. Scheme for studving the possible changes in the

eco-system consequent on the construction of Thanneerrnukkom Barrier,

Trichur, Kerala.

Kerala Agricultural University 1990. Kole Lands of Kerala, Kerala Agricultural

University, Thrissur.. Kerala.

Kerala Land Development Corporation 1976. Project report for Thrissur kole land

development. Thrissur, Kerala.

Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad 1978. Report of the study team on Kuttanad. KSSP,

Trivandrum, Kerala, 60 pp.

Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishath 1992. Kuttanad -Facts & Fallacy. M. P.

Parameswaran, & M. K. Prasad, (eds.), KSSP, Calicut, Kerala. 168 pp.

Kerala State Pollution Control Board 1982. Environmental Status report on Greater

Cochin. Kerala (with special reference to water pollution), KSPCB,

Trivandrum, Kerala. 32pp.

Kerala State Pollution Control Board 1986. Water quality studies -Kuttanad water

balance study project-inception report. KSPCB, Trivandrum, Kerala, 56 pp.

Kitchloo N.A. (1997) Unified Ecosystem Management Plan for the Changthang Wilderness Area. Department of Wildlife Protection, J&K Government, Srinagar.

Kothar, A., Pande, P., Singh, S., and Variava, D. 1989. Management of National Parks and Sanctuaries in India: A Status Report. Indian Institute of Public Administration, N. Delhi.

Kothari, A., Suti S. & Singh, N. (1996) Rethinking Conservation of India. The Ecologist Asia Vol. 4 (1): 54-71.

Kurup, P.G. & Varadachar, V.V.R.G. 1975. Hydrography of Purakkad Mudbank Region, Indian J. Mar. Sci. 4: 18-20.

Ladhar S.S. (1995) Inventory and Ecological Status of Wetlands and Lake Ecosystems of Punjab:

Ladhar S.S. (1995) Inventory and Ecological Status of Wetlands and Lake Ecosystems of Punjab.

Ladhar S.S. and Handa, S.M. (1992). Status Paper on Wetlands of Punjab.

Lakshmanan, P.T., Shynamma, C. S., Balchand, A. N., Kurup. G. & Nambisan, P. N.

K. 1982. Distribution and seasonal variation of temperature and salinity in Cochin backwaters. lndian J. Mar. Sci. II: 170-172.

Lakshminarayanan, P. & Sivaprasad Rao, G. V. V .R.G. 1988. Detailed hydrological

studies in the kole land basin. Coastal Kerala Groundwater Project Report,

No.38. Central Groundwater Board. Trivandrum, Kerala, 23 pp.

Mackinnon, J., Mackinnon, K., Chil;d, G. Thorsell, J. 1986. Managing Protected areas in the Tropics.IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Maitland, P.S. and Morgan N.C. (1997) Conservation Management of FreshwaterHabitats. Chapman & Hall.London.

Malhotra. Y.R. et.al. (1990). Ecology of lake Mansar with emphasis on conserving fish and wildlife population endangered by creation of recreational tourist and

other human interference in the area. Department of Environment, Government of India.

Mallon, D.P. (1991) Status and Conservation of Large mammals in Ladakh Biological

Conservation

Maltby, E. 1986. Waterlogged Wealth. Why Waste The World's Wet Places.

Earthscan, Russel Press, U.K.

Managemenl. Trivandnlm. State Committee on Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, pp. 83-87.

Manakadan, R. 1992 .Ecology of waterbirds of Point Calimere Sanctuary with special

reference to impact of salt works. .Ph. D. Thesis, University of Bombay, Bombay.

Manakadan, R. 1994. Impact of salt works on waterbirds and their habitats in the

Great Vedaranyam Swamp, pp. 95-131. In: Ecology of Point Calimere Sanctuary: An Endangered Ecosystem (Eds. J.C. Daniel & Y.N. Rao). Final Report (1988-1991). Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Manakadan, R. 1995.Impact of salt works on the status, population of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus and the Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor in the Great Vedaranyam Swamp. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 92(3): 364-71.

Mascarenhas, J,. Shah, P., Joseph, S., Jayakaran, R,. Devavaram, J., Ramachandran, V., Fernandes, A., Chambers, R., and Pretty, J., eds. 1991. PRA in India. In proceddings of the February 1991 Bangalore PRA Trainees workshop, PRA Notes 13, IIED, London, U.K. August 1991.

Matthew, E. K., Madhusudan Nair & Raju, T. D. 1993. Drainage and rice

productivity in the acid- saline (Karl) soils of Kuttanad, Kerala, Kerala

Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala, 27 pp.

Matthew,T. B., Visalakshi, A. & Das, N.M. 1988. Insecticide residues in irrigation water in rice fields sprayed with different volumes of carbaryl suspension. In: A. Reghupathy (ed.), Pesticides and Environment. Tamilnadu Agricultural

University, Coimbatore. Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.

Mazari.R.K. 1992. Report- Comments on the Comprehensive Management Action Plan.

McClure, H.E. & P. Leelavit. 1972. Migratory Animal Pathological Survey- Birds banded in Asia during the MAPS program, by locality, from 1963 through 197 Army Research and Development Group, Fareast, San Francisco.

McClure, H.E. 1974. Migration and survival of the birds of Asia U.S. Army Medical Component, SEATO Medical Project, Bangkok, Thailand.

McNeely, J.A. 1988. Economics and Biological Diversity: Developing and Using Econiomic Incentive to Conserve Biological Resources. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (eds.) 1984. National Park Conservation and Development: The Role of Protected Area in Sustaining Society. Smithsonia Institution Press, Washington D.C.

Meher- Homji, V .J . community of India .1973 .A phytosociological study of Albizzia

amara Biov. Community of India. Phytosociologia 1( 1): 114-119.

Meher-Homji, V.J. 1974. On the origin of the tropical dry evergreen forests of south

India. Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci. 1: 19-39.

Meher-Homji, V.J. 1984. A new classification of the phytogeographic zones of India Indian J. Bot. 7: 224-233.

Miller, D.J. (1998) Conserving Biodiversity in Himalayan and Tibetan Plateau Rangelands. Paper prepared for the Himalaya Eco-regional Co-operation Meeting organised by UNDP, February 16-18, 1998, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Ministry of Environment and Forests (1990). Directory of Wetlands. Government of India.

Mishra, C. (1997) Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: conflict perceptions and conservation prospects Environmental Conservation 24 (4): 338-343

Mishra, C. and Humbert-Droz, B. (1998) Avifaunal survey of Tsomoriri Lake and adjoining Nuro Sumdo wetland in Ladakh, Indian trans-Himalaya. Draft for private circulation. In prep.

Mitch and Gosselink. “Wetlands” Second Edition, published by Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1993.

Moni, N. S. 1961. Studies on the soils of Kuttanad. Part- I. Toxic factors.. Agric. Res.

J. Kerala 1: 52-58.

Mulhauser, B. and Monnier G. (1995) Guide de la Faune et de la Flore des Lacs et des Etangs d’Europe.Delachaux et Niestle S.A. Lausanne, Switzerland and Paris.

Mundkur,T.&Taylor V. 1993. Asian Waterfowl Census 1993, AWB. Malaysia & IWRB. U.K.

Mungall, E.C., B.H. Patel, N.L.N.S. Prasad & S.E. Dougherty 1981 . Conservation and management of the Indian Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) A Final Report. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Muny, P.S. N. & Veerayya, M.. 1974. Studies on the sediments ofVembanad lake, Kerala state. Part 111. Distribution and interruption of bottom sediments.lndia

J. Mar. Sci, 3: 16-27.

Murti, C.R. Bilgrami, K. S. Das, T.M. and Mathur, R.P. 1991. The Ganga. A Scientific study. Publ. Northern, Book Centre, New Delhi.

Murty, P.S.N. & Veerayya, M. 1972a. Studies on the sediments of Vembanad lake,

Kerala state: Part I. Distribution of organic matter. Lndian J. Mar. Sci.1: 45-51.

Murty, P.S.N. & Veerayya, M. 1972b. Studies on the sediments of Vembanad lake.

Kerala stare, Part 11. Distribution of phosphorus. Indian J.Mar. Sci.1: 106-115.

Murty, P.S.N. & Veerayya, M. 1981. Studies on sediments of Vembanad lake. Kerala

state. Part IV. Distribution of trace elements. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 10: 165.172.

Myers, N.1983. A wealth of Wild Species. Westview Press, Boulder.

Nair, S. R & Unni. P. N. 1993. Environmental status of Vembanad lake. Proc, Natn.

Water Convention, Trivandrum. Vol. I, pp. II/1-16.

Nair, S.S. 1976. A population survey and observations on the behaviour of the Blackbuck in the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 73: 304-310.

Nair, S.S. 1976. A population survey and observations on the behaviour of the Blackbuck in the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 73: 304-310.

Nameer, P.O. 1990. Floristics, zonation and above-ground biomass productivity of mangrove forests of Puduvyppu. Kerala. B.Sc. Project Report, Kerala

Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala.

Nameer, P.O. 1995. Kole Wetlands. A potential Ramsar site from South India. Asian

Waterfowl Census 1995. AWB, Malaysia & IWRB, U.K., 9 pp.

Natarajan, K.N T.S.P.S. Raj & C.K. Shah (1978). Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) at Point Calimere. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sac. 75(1): 209-211.

Natarajan, V & S. A1agarrajan 1991. Range extension of the Dumeri1's B1ackheaded

Snake Sibynophis subpunctatus (Dum. & Bibr.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 123.

Natarajan, V. 1990 .The ecology of the Southern Crow-pheasant Centropus sinensis

parroti Stresemann (Aves: Cuculidae) at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bombay, Bombay.

Natarajan, V. 1994. Biology of the Blackbuck, pp. 70-94. In: Ecology of Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary: An Endangered Ecosystem. Final Report (Eds J.C. Daniel & Y.N. Rao). Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

Natarajan, V., R. Sugathan & S.A. Hussain 1984. Prosopis juliflora -Profile of an exotic in the Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest of Point Calimere. Technical

Report No.5, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Neelakantan. K.K., Sreenivasan & Sureshkumar. 1981. The crab plover in Kerala J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 508.

Numeer, P .0. 1992. Birds of Kole Wetland: a survey report, Nature Education Society. Thrissur. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Thrissur and Forest Department, Govt. of Kerala.

Nurusimha Prasad N. B & Haridasan Varakkepat. 1990. Groundwater exploration in kole lands: a case study. Proc. Intern. Conf. on Groundwater Resources

Management, Bangkok. Thailand. Pp.123-128.

Pabla, H.S., Pandey, S. and Badola, R. 1995. Guidelines Of Ecodevelopment Planning. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. India.

Padmakumar. K.G., Rajasekharan Nair, J. & Moharned Kunju, U. 1988. Observation on the scope of rice-cum-fish culture in the rice fields of Kunanad, Kerala. Aquatic Biology 7: 161-166.

Pandey, S. 1989. The Birds of Pong Dam Bird Lake Sanctuary. Tigerpaper, 162: 20-6.

Pandey, S. 1993. Changes in Waterbird Diversity Due to Construction of Pong Dam Reservoir, H.P., India. Biological Conservation 1993, 66: 125-130.

Panwar, H.S. 1992. Planning of Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. Vol.I and

II. Field Document No. 7. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun. Savarkar, V.

B. 1995. Guidelines of Wildlife Planning. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun.

Paul, A.C. & Pillai, K.C. 1976. Studies on pollution aspects of Periyar river, Bhabha

Atomic Research Centre Report No. BARC-I-419, Bombay, 93 pp.

Paul, A.C. & Pillai, K.C. 1984. Geochemical transport of trace metals in Periyar river. Proc. Sem. Status of Environmental Studies in India. Centre for Earth Science

Studies, Trivendrum. Kerala, pp. 357-362.

Perennou, C. 1990. Species to look for in India. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 30:10.

Perennou, C., Rose, P., and Poole, C. 1990. Asian Waterfowl. IWRB, Slimbridge.

Perennou. C., Rose. P.. & Poole. C. 1990. Asian Waterfowl Census 1990, The International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB), Slimbridge, U.K,

Pillai, 1981. Studies on some aspects of the ecology of larvan Chaoborus in Lake Sasthamcotta.M. Phil Dissert., Univ. Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

Pillai, K.C. 1983. Heavy metals in aquatic environment. In: C.K. Varshney (ed,). Water pollution and Management, Wiley Eastern Ltd., India, pp. 74-93.

Plumpley Dominic & Sharma Virinder. 1990. A report from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne Himalyan Expedition, World Pheasant Association Newsletter.

Polunin, O. and Stainton, A. (1984) Flowers of the Himalaya Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Pradeep. R. & Lakshmanaperumal Samy, P. 1986:Distribution of faecal indicator

bacteria in Cochin backwaters. lndian,J, Mar. Sci. 15: 99-101.

Prakasham, V.R. & Joseph, M.L., 1991. Sasthamkotta Lake: Water sediment interaction and productivity. Proc. II Kerala Sci. Congr., 28 Feb. – 03 March

1991, Kozhikode, Kerala, pp 21-22

Prakasham, V.R. & Paul, Martin, 1991. Notes on the migratory teal, Anas

querquedula at Sasthamkotta, Quilon. J. Ecobiol., 3 (2): 169 – 171.

Prakasham, V.R., 1991. Ecology, Biology and Pollution of Sasthamcotta Lake. Final Project

Prasad, M.K. 1983. State of environment of ,Cochin. Proc. Natn. Sem, Estuarine

Management. Trichur, Kerala, pp. 79-92.

Prins, H.T.T. (1992) The pastoral road to extinction: competition between wildlife and

traditional pastoralism in East Africa. Environmental Conservation, 19: 117-123.

Pritchard, D.W. 1967. What is an estuary -physical point, pp: 3-5. In: Estuaries (Ed. G .H. Lauff) American Association for the Advancement of Science .Publn. No. 83.

Promod, K.C. 1985. Studies on phosphobacteria in the Vembanad lake. M. Sc. Thesis. Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin, Kerala. 53 pp.

Punjab Pollution Control Board (PPCB) (2000) : A Report on Ropar Wetland.

Punjab Pollution Control Board, (1993). Kanjli Wetland – A report on status of water quality. Patiala.

Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (1992): Comprehensive Management

Plan (Blue Print) for Harike and Kanjli Wetland Ecosystems.

Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (1992): Ropar Headworks Region - A Wetland of National Importance.

Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (1998): Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan (for Ninth Five Year Plan) for Kanjli Wetland.

Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (2000). Integrated Plan for

Conservation & Management of Kanjli Wetland.

Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (PSCST) (1998): Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan (for Ninth Five Year Plan) for Ropar

Wetland.

Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (PSCST) (2000): Integrated Plan for Conservation and Management of Ropar Wetland.

Purandara, B.K. & Dora, Y .L. 1987. Studies on texture and organic matter in the sediments of Vembanad lake nearshore estuaries. Proc. Natn. Sem, Estuarine

Management, Trivandrum, Kerala, pp. 449-452.

Qasim. S.Z. & Madhupratap, M. 1979. Changing ecology of Cochin backwaters. In: G.S. Sharma (ed.), Contributions to Marine Sciences, dedicated to C. V, Kurian on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday, pp. 137-142.

Rajendran, N., Kurian. C. V. & George, V. 1987. Mercury concentrations in Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston) from Cochin backwater. J. Mar. Biol..

Assn. India 29: 237-243.

Ramachandran. K.K., Mohanan, C.N., Balasubrahmanian, G., Johnson Kurian & Jessy Thomas 1986. The mangrove ecosystem of Kerala. its mapping,

inventory and some environmental aspects. Final Project Report. Centre for

Earth Science Studies, Trivandrum. 38 pp.

Randhawa, A.S. (1990); Ropar Wetland – A Serene and Scenic Environment.

Rao, R.J. 1995. Studies on Biological restoration of Ganga river in Uttar Pradesh: an

indicator species approach. Final technical report, Project No. J-11013/10/92 GPD.

Rao, Y.N. & P. Balasubramanian 1994. Vegetation Ecology of the Point Calimere

Sanctuary, pp. 17-50. In: Ecology of Point Calimere Sanctuary (An Endangered Ecosystem). Final Report (Eds: J.C. Daniel & Y.N. Rao). Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Ravi, T.B. 1986, Studies on forest hydrology, with reference to small catchments of Western Ghats, Kerala and computation of hydrologic parameters of Sitandi catchment, Karnataka. M.Tech Thesis, Karnataka Regional Engineering College, Surathkal.

Remani. K. N. Nirmala. E. & Rajagopalan Nair. S. 1989b. Pollution due to coir retting and its effect on estuarine flora and fauna. Intern. Environmental Studies. 32: 285-295.

Remani. K. N., Nirmala, E. & Rajagopalan Nair. S. 1989a. Effect of coir retting on water quality fauna and flora of backwaters of Kerala, 3rd Intern. Conf.

Environmental Contamination. 26- 29 Scptember 1989. ,Venice.

Remani. K. N., Venugopal. P.. Saraladevi. K. & Unnithan. R .V. 1980. Studies on the sediments of the Cochin backwaters in relation to pollution. Indian J. Mar.

Sci. 9: 111-114.

Remani. K. N., Venugopal.. P., Saraladevi, K. & Unnithan, R. V. 198 I. Sediments of retting yards. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 10:41-44 .

Remani. K. N.. Nirmala. E. & Rajagopalan Nair, S. 1989c, Prediction and assessment

of the biological characteristics in the retting yards of Kerala. Natn. Sem. On

Aquatic Pollution for Prevention and Management, 18-23 December 1989.

Trivandrum, Kerala.

Remani. K. N.. Saraladevi. K., Venugopal, P. & Unnithan, R. V. 1983. Indicator-organism of pollution in Cochin backwaters. ,Mahasagar- Bull. Inst.

Oceanogr. 16:199-207.

Report, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India, New Delhi, 78 pp.

Ripley, S.D. 1982. A synopsis of Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka (second edition).

Sa1im Ali 1969. Birds of Kerala, Oxford Univ. Press, New Delhi, 444 pp.

Sampath, K. 1989. Studies on the ecology of shorebirds (Aves: Charadriiformes) of the Great Vedaranyam Swamp and the Pichavaram mangroves of India. Ph.D. Thesis, Annamalai University, Parangipettai.

Samuel, J., 1991. Preliminary studies on the ecology of Chironomid larvae of Sasthamkotta lake, Kerala. J. Zool. Soc. Kerala, 1: 60 – 67.

Sankaranarayanan, V. N. & Qazim. S.Z. 1969. Nutrients of the Cochin backwater in relation to environmental characteristics. Marine Biol. 23: 236-247.

Santavan Virenderm & Aggarwal H.O. 1998. Hydro biological Studies on Renuka Wetland, Centre of Environment, Himachal Pradesh University.

Santhosh, G. & Thampi, P. 1988. Water balance study of Karuvannur river basin. M.Sc. Thesis. Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, Kerala. 129 pp.

Saraladevi, K. 1989. Temporal and spatial variations in particulate matter, particulate organic carbon and attenuation coefficient in Cochin backwaters. Indian J.

Mar. Sci. 18: 242-245.

Scott, D.A. and Poole, C.M. 1989. A status overview of Asian Wetlands. Asian

Wetland Bureau, Kuala Lampur, Malaysia, No. 53.

Scott. D.A. & Rose, P. 1989. Asian Waterfowl Census. The International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB), Slimbridge. U.K.

Sebastine, K. M. & J. L. Ellis 1967. A contribution to the vascular flora of Vedaranyam and Talaignayar Reserve Forests, Tanjore District, Madras Statt: Bull. Bot. Surv. India 9: 190-200.

Selvam, V., R. Somasundararn, R. Anbalagan & J. Raju. 1998. Coastal wetlands mangrove conservation and management. Muthupet mangrove wetland: Mangrove resources and resource utilisation pattern. Second Annual Report.

M. S Swarninathan Research Foundation, Chennai.

Selvarn, V., R. Somasundararn, Y. Ansari & J. Raju 1999. Coastal Wetlands Mangrove Conservation and Management. Canal fishing in the Muthupet

mangrove wetland: A traditional wisdom of local fishers to integrate fishery development with mangrove conservation. M. S. Swarninathan Research Foundation, Chennai.

Sethi Deepak. 1993. Dissertation on Environmental Pollution Study of Renuka Lake

Shah, G.M., Qadri, M.Y. and Inayat Ullah, M. 1980. Food of Greylag Goose, Anser

anser.J. Ind. Inst. Sci., 64(C), 1983.

Sharma, B.R. (1984). Punjab District Gazetteers. Kapurthala. Revenue Deptt. Punjab.

Sharma, BR (1987) : Punjab District Gazetteers, Rupnagar. Deptt. of Revenue, Govt. of Punjab.

Sharma, Virinder & Sethi, Deepak. 2000. Chandertal wetland: Conservation and Management, National Consultation, Conservation of High altitude wetlands ,WWF

Singh, S., Kothari, A. and Pande, P. 1990. Directories of Sanctuary and National

Parks in Himachal Pradesh: Management Status and Profiles. Indian Institute of Public Administration, N. Delhi.

Sonobe, K. and Usui, S. (ed.) 1993. A Field Guide to the Waterbirds of Asia. Wild Bird Society of Japan, Tokyo.

Spillett, J. J. 1968. A report on wildlife surveys in south and west India J. Bomb. nat.

Hist. Soc. 65(3): 633-663.

Springer Verlag, Gopal Brij .1995. Handbook of Wetland Management prepared and

produced by WorldWide Fund for Nature.

Sreejith, S., 1998. Hydrogeochemistry of the Sasthamcotta lake, Kollam district, Kerala, with special reference to sediment – water interaction. Proc.X Kerala

Sci. Congr., 02-04 January 1998, Kozhikode, Kerala, pp 4-7.

Srikantia, S.V. and Bhargava, O.N.1998. Geology of Himachal Pradesh, Geological Society of India pp-26-27.

Srikantia, S.V.& Bhargava, O.N. 1998. Geology of Himachal Pradesh, Geological Society of India pp-26-27.

Steck, A., Epard, J.-L., Vannay, J.-C., Hunziker, J., Girard, M., Morard, M. & Robyr M. (1998) Geological Transect across the Tsomoriri and Spiti areas: The nappe structures of the Tethys Himalaya Eclogae Geol. Helv. 91: 103-121.

The Travancore State Manual, 1834. Kerala Government Press, Trivandrum. Kerala.

Tholasilingam, T. et al. 1964. A study of the fishery and estimation of relative abundance of ground fish of Cochin. Indian J. Fish. 11A:709-734.

Tissot, C. 1987. Recent evolution of mangrove vegetation in the Cauvery delta: A palynological study J. Mar. Bioi. Ass. India 29: 16-22.

Trivandrum. Kerala. Department of Public Works 1984-88. Suiface Water Year Book,

Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala, pp. 21-56.

University of Cochin Undated. Effect of effluents discharge from biocide industries as

well as agricultural runoff, School of Environmental Studies, University of

Cochin, Kerala.

Unni, P .N. & Nair, S.R. 1995. Environmental issues in Vembanad estuary due to salinity and flood, control structures. Procs. Intern. Convention 'Coastal Zone

95 " Florida. USA. (In press).

Unnithan, R. V. Vijayan, M. & Remani. K.N. 1975. Organic pollution in Cochin backwaters. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 4: 39-42.

Unnithan, R. V., Vijayan, M., Ramakrishnan, E. V. & Remani, K.N. 1977. Incidence of fish mortality from industrial pollution in Cochin backwaters. Indian J.

Mar. Sci. 6: 81-83.

USDA 1978. Predicting rainfall-erosion losses: a guide to conservation planning.

Agriculture Handbook No.537.

Varatharaj, P. 1988. Management Plan for Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird

Sanctuary (19881994) Tamil Nadu Forest Department, Madras.

Vasudev , S. 1969. Project report on feasibility studies for the construction of

permanent bunds and other improvements to Thrissur kole lands, College of Engineering, Trivandrum, Kerala.

Venugopal, M.R. 1992. Coastal zone management-application of remote sensing techniques. Sem. Coastal Zone Management, CWRDM, Kannur, Kerala.

Venugopal, P., Remani, K. N., Saraladevi, K. & Unnithan, R. V. 1980. Fish kill in

Chitrapuzha. Seafood Export J. 12: 17-20.

Venugopal, P., Sarala Devi, K., Remani, K.N. & Unnithan, R. V. 1982. Trace metal levels in the sediments of the Cochin Backwaters, Mahasagar -Bull. Natn. Inst.

Oceanogr. 15: 203-214.

Verma, V.K., Chopra, R., and Sharma P.K. (1994). Kanjli Wetland Ecosystem- Its Conservation and Management. Punjab Remote Sensing Centre, PAU

Campus, Ludhiana.

Verma, V.K.; Chopra, R.; Sharma, P.K.; Singh, C. (1994): Ropar Wetland Ecosystem – Its conservation and management (Technical Report of Punjab Remote

Sensing, Ludhiana).

Vijayan, V.S. 1975. Ecological isolation of bulbuls (Family pycnonotidae, Class Aves) with special reference to pycnonotus cafer cafer (Linn.) and P. luteolus

luteolus (Lesson) at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bombay, Bombay.

W.W.F.- India’s Handbook of Wetland Management, published by Avenash Datta for

W.W.F.-India, New Delhi, August, 1995.

W.W.F.- India’s Handbook of Wetland Management, published by Avenash Datta for W.W.F.-India, New Delhi, August, 1995.

Wells, M. 1992. Biodiversity Conservation. Affluence and Poverty: Mismatched Cosrts and Benefits and efforts to remedy them. Ambio. 21(3): 237-243.

Wells, M. 1994. Biodiversity Conservation and Local Peoples Development

Aspirations: New priorities for the 1990s. In Biodiversity Conservation: Problems and Policies. Perrings, C., Maler, K.G., Folke, C., Holling, C.S., and Jansson, B.O. (eds.), Kluwer Academis Press. Dordrecht, the Netherlands.

Wells, M., Brandon, K., and Hannah, L. 1992. People and Parks: Linking Protected

Area Management with Local Communities. World Bank, Washington D.C. Conservation. Ambio. Vol. 22. No. 2-3: 157-162.

Whistler, H. 1926. The birds of kangra District, Punjab. Ibis, Part I, July, pp.521-81:

Part II, October, pp. 724-83.

Williams, M. (ed.) (1997) Wetlands: A Threatened Landscape. Blackwell, Oxford UK & Cambridge USA.

WWF & AWB 1993. Directory, of Indian Wetlands, WWF India, New Delhi & AWB. Kuala Lampur, 264pp.

WWF 1994a. Ramsar sires of India: Sambhar Lake, Gopa1, B.K. & Sharrna, P. World Wide Fund for Nature India. New Delhi, 37 pp.

WWF 1994b. Ramsar sites of India: Harike Lake, Ladhar, S.S.. Chauhan. M., Handa,

S.M. & Neelima Terath World Wide Fund for Nature India, New Delhi, 57 pp.

WWF 1994c. Ramsarsites of lndia: Keoladeo National Park. Lalitha Vijayan, World Wide Fund for Nature India, New Delhi.

WWF 1994d. Ramsar sites of India: Chilka Lake, Ram, R.N., K. V. Rama Rao & Asish Ghosh, World Wide Fund for Nature India, New Delhi, 69 pp,

WWF 1994e. Ramsarsites of lndia: Loktak Lake, Singh. H.T. & Singh, R.K.S. World Wide Fund for Nature India. New Delhi, 69 pp.

WWF 1994f. Ramsarsiles of lndia: Wular Lake. Trisal. C.L., Robson Ivan & Kundangar. M.R.D. World Wide Fund for Nature India, New Delhi. 39 pp.

WWF-India (1997) Biodiversity of Jammu & Kashmir, New Delhi: WWF-India.

WWF-India (1997) Wetlands Conservation in Jammu & Kashmir, New Delhi: WWF-India.

WWF-India, 1993. Directory of Indian Wetlands. WWF-India & Asian Wetland Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, xvi + 264 pp.

Zutshi, D.P., Subla, B.A., Khan, M.A. and Wangnoo, A. 1980. Comperative

limnology of nine lakes of Jammu and Kashmir Himalayas- Hydrobiologia 72 P.P. 101-112.

Documents

Introduction Inventory of wetlands Inventory.pdf · Wetlands in Lali Sanctuary Assam 192 Deepor Beel Beels of Assam Sareswar Beel Dibru Floodplain Sone Lake Wetlands in Kaziranga