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Introduction
TheChangingFaceofIslaminBulgaria
SilviaBulgarianMuslimandanAvonlady1alwaysworriedaboutherrootsNotwhereshecamefromnorwhohergreat-grandparentswereSilviobsessedabouttherootsofherhairmdashhowmanymillimetersofwhiteshecouldstandbeforeshehadtodyeitagainWhenImetherinthesmallBulgariancityofMadanin2005Silviwas inher late fortiesandhadthickjet-blackhairthathungallthewaydownherbackOvertheyearsthegrayhadtakenoveranditwasonlyninedaysaftereachdyethatshecouldseethesilverysheenglisteningathertemplesonceagainSilvihadbeenbornwiththenameAyselwhichshewastoldmeansldquomoonlightrdquoinTurkishShedidnotcarethatthecommunistshadmadeherchangehernameasshewasarathersecularMuslimandreallyonlycaredaboutsell-ingAvonproductswhichshehadbeendoingforalmosttenyearsSilvishort forSilviaisaWestern-soundingnamewhereasAysel isMuslimSincesomanyBulgariansassociatedMuslimswithrurallifeandtobaccogrowingitwashardforsomeonewithaTurkishnametoprojecttheauraof glamorneeded tosellbeauty productsldquoWomenwillbuymoretoiletriesfromlsquoSilvirsquothantheywillfromlsquoAyselrsquordquoshetoldme
InrecentmonthstherehadbeenagrowingtrendthatdisturbedheranincreasingnumberofyoungwomenweredressingheadtotoeinanewIs-lamicstyleimportedfromabroadSomeofherbest-sellingAvonproductswereanticelluliteandbust-firmingcreamsandSilviwonderedifthemar-ketforthemwouldshrinkasfewerandfeweryoungwomenworetheonceubiquitouscombinationofmicro-miniskirtsandampledeacutecolletageldquoIfuglyoldwomenwearakŭrpa [kerchief ] itdoesnotmatter Noonewantsto seethem anyway ButyounggirlsrdquoShetoldmethisaswewalkedto thecenteroftownShepointedtothebigmosqueldquoThosefanatitsi [fanatics]willbebadforbusinessrdquoSilvithenbeganrecitingalistofthingsthatwerechanging inherhomecityofMadan restaurantshad stopped servingporkmdashonceastapleofthelocaldietsomewomenwerenolongerallowedtoleavetheirhomeswithouttheirhusbandsrsquopermissionmdashsomethingun-heardofbefore1989menwhowenttothemosquewerebeinggivenpref-erenceforlocaljobsandoldpeoplewhoshouldbeveneratedwerenowbeingchastisedasldquobadrdquoMuslimsforcarryingonlocaltraditionsprac-ticedintheregionsincebeforetheSecondWorldWar
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Figure1 GirlsdressedinthenewldquoArabrdquostyle
OneofSilvirsquosAvondistributorswasnamedLiliana(Liliforshort)andshewasthedaughterofoneoftheoldesthodzhas(Muslimpreachers)intheareaShewasatallthinclear-complexionedwomaninherearlythir-tiesLikeSilvishehadlongstraighthairbutherswasanaturalauburnwhileSilvirsquoswasachemicalblackLilipreferredfrostedlipsticksnailpol-ishesandeyeshadowsandtheheavydoseofglitterinhermakeupgaveheradatedandalmostotherworldlyappearanceShelivedinavillagejustoutsideofMadanwithheragedmotherandherchronicallyillfatherwhoevennowstillmademuski (amulets)forthosewhotookthetroubletocomevisithimLilihadbeenmarriedandwasthemotheroftwoschool-agedchildrenHerhusbandhadlongsinceabandonedthemsoshemovedbackinwithherparentsinthemid-1990stohelptakecareofherfather
Thevillagewhereshelivedwasathirty-minutewalkfromthecenterofMadanLilicameintothecitytwoorthreetimesaweektolookforworkLilihadonlyaneighth-gradeeducationandforwomenlikeher
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therewereonlythreepossiblejobsseamstressshopkeeperorwaitressLilihadtakenasewingcoursethroughthemunicipalityandwashopingtofindapositioninoneofthelocalgarmentfactoriesSinceseamstresseswerepaidbythepieceshewouldearnassheproducedunlikethewait-ressesandshopkeeperswhomightworktwiceasmanyhoursforatinymonthlywageButmostwomeninMadanweretryingtofindworkinthegarmentfactoriestolandajobyouhadtohavetherightconnectionsortobeintherightplaceattherighttimeSoLiliostensiblycameintotowntofollowuponpossiblejobleadsbutshealsowantedtotakeabreakfromtheboredomofvillagelifeandtheseeminglyconstantfoldingandunfoldingoftheprayerrugs
WatchingLilicomeintoMadanwasalwaysacuriousaffairShewouldwalkonthemainroadcomingintothecitywearinganankle-lengthlong-sleevedloosepatterneddressandalargesquareofclothfoldedinhalfdrapedoverherheadandtiedbeneathherchinShealwayscarriedalargecanvasbagslungoverhershoulderona longyellownylonstrapShedressedexactlyasmostwomeninthevillagesaroundMadandressedastyletypicalfortheBulgarianMuslimsinthisregionButeachtimeshearrivedthefirstthingshewoulddowasorderanespressoatthepizze-riaandthenduckimmediatelyintothebathroomtochangeShewouldemergemomentslaterinskin-tightjeansandalow-cutblouseherlonghairspillingoverhersometimesbareshouldersIwasaccustomedtothesecostumechangesbecauseIhadcoffeeinfrontofthepizzeriaalmosteverymorning
ldquoAnddoyouchangebackintoyourotherclotheswhenyougohomerdquoIaskedheroneday
ldquoOfcourserdquoshesaidldquoMyfatherisveryoldHebelievesintheoldwaysandheisveryproudthatheisahodzhaPeoplerespecthimbecausethatwasverydifficultduringcommunismHeissicknowIdonotwanttomakehimangryrdquo
LiliwasfairlysureherfatherknewaboutthecityclothesshechangedintoonherexcursionsawayfromthevillagebuthepreferrednottoseethemLilibelievedthatherparentshavinglivedmostoftheirlivesundercommunismhadlimitedunderstandingoftheworldafterthecomingofdemocracyin1989andnoneatallofthemarketeconomyinwhichthestatenolongerguaranteedfullemploymentNomatterhowoftensheex-plainedittohimherfathercouldnotcomprehendwhytherewasnotajobforLiliwhenshewaswillingtoworkThelasttimethathehadfeltwellenoughtogointoMadanfortheFridayprayersLilirsquosfatherhadbeenperplexedbythemanychangesthathadbefallenhisbelovedcitythedirty streetstheabandonedbuildingstheobviouslydrunkenmenstumblingintothemosqueLilirsquosfatherrsquoshearthadsoaredwithjoywhenworkbeganonanewmosquesomanyyearsafterthecommunistshad
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Figure2 ThecenterofMadaninwinter
destroyedtheoldoneAndsoitwasmostupsettingofallwhenthenewimam(congregationalleader)andsomeyounglocalmenwhowerestudy-inginSaudiArabiastartedsayingthattheoldhodzhaswerenottrueMus-limsthattheywereuneducatedandthattheyhaddeceivedpeopleintoacceptingpracticeswhichwereun-Islamic
ldquoIamnotsurewhichwouldkillhimfasterrdquoLilireflectedonemorningovercoffeeastwoyounggirlsdressedinthenewArabski stil (Arab-style)ofIslamicdresspassedusinfrontofthepizzerialdquoToseemewearingashortskirtortoseemedressedlikeanArabka [femaleArab]Thisisnotthecityheknewrdquo
MadanthesmallcitythatwashometowomenlikeSilviandLiliwasnamedaftertheArabicwordforldquominerdquoItisaboutasix-hourdrivesouthandeastfromtheBulgariancapitalofSofiamostofitonsecondaryroadsthat wind precariously through the undulating peaks of the RhodopeMountainsBulgariansclaimthatthisisthelegendarylandofOrpheusthecradleofancientThraceThemountainsstraddletheonceimpervi-ousborderbetweencommunistBulgariaandcapitalistGreeceandtheyarefilledwithsmalltownsandvillagestuckedawayintodeepvalleysor
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perchedhighatopremotepeaksAmongthesesmalltownsthereareonlyafewcitiescreatedthroughcarefullyplannedprojectsofcommunistruraleconomicdevelopmentAtacertainpointinthedrivedownfromSofiathecrossesandbelltowersofthesmallcountrychurchesfoundacrossmostofBulgariaarereplacedbycone-tippedminaretsmdashminaretsrecentlyrebuiltafterhavingbeensystematicallytorndownbythecommunistsCities likeMadanandnearby Smolyan andRudozemwere clusteredinthecentralpartoftheRhodopeMountainsandwerehometothein-digenousBulgarian-speakingMuslimpopulationthePomaks2By2005theminaretsinmanyPomaksettlementshadsproutedanewlikeresilientdandelionsinthefertilesoilofnewfoundreligiousfreedom
AlthoughIslamhasalonghistoryinBulgariaitslocalmeaningsandpracticesbeganchangingafter1989asthereligionevolvedandadaptedtotheexigenciesoftheglobalforcesmdashsocialpoliticalandeconomicmdashunleashedbytheendofsocialism3ThecontoursofBulgarianIslamwerealsobeingshapedbythecontentiousinternalpoliticsofitsMuslimleadersaswellasbythedynamicandincreasinglycontroversialpositionofIslaminldquooldrdquoEuropewhereMuslimminoritiesbeganrejectingsecularismanddemandingthattheWesternnationsmakegoodontheirpromisesofmul-ticulturalismandtoleranceInthisbookIexaminethecomplexandever-mutatingtrajectoryofIslamthroughthelivesofmenandwomenlivinginonesmallcorneroftheEuropeancontinenttheRhodopeMountainsButratherthandepictingIslamwestoftheBosphorusasanundifferentiatedtotalitythiscasestudyofoneMuslimcitywilldemonstratehowthesocialmeaningsofIslaminformercommunistcountriesmaybequalitativelydifferentfromitsmeaningsontheothersideofthenow-phantomIronCurtain
MoreoverthiscasestudyshowsthatpeopleembracenewformsofIslamforlocallydefinedreasonsthatisinresponsetoground-levelculturalpoliticalhistoricalandeconomicfactorsthatdonoteasilyfitintograndschematicmodelstoexplainthegrowinginfluenceofIslaminEuropeCer-tainlyEuropeanMuslimcommunitiessharesomecommongeopoliticalcircumstancessuchastheubiquityofglobalizationthefinancialdomi-nanceofSaudiArabiaovertheinternationalIslamiccharitableaidestab-lishmentandgrowingworldwideIslamophobiaButthesemacrofactorsinteractwithparticularlocalconditionstopushorpullMuslimcommuni-tiestowardnewbeliefsandpracticesThisexaminationofMadanisjustoneglimpseintoachangethatseemstobeoccurringinMuslimcommuni-tiesaroundtheworldnamelytheeclipsingofldquotraditionalrdquoformsofIs-lambyldquopurifiedrdquoonesimportedfromabroadButasIwilldemonstratethesechangesareoccurringinsomeBulgarianMuslimcommunitieswhileotheralmostidenticalcommunitiesarerelativelyunaffectedThecentralquestionsareWhyhereandnotelsewhereAndwhynow
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SetwithinashallownarrowvalleyandbisectedbytheMadanskaRiverMadanhardlyqualifiesasacityin2005therewasonlyoneroadthatledinandoutWhenIdidmyfieldworktherebetween2005and2008IhadtodrivesouthfirsttotheregionalcapitalofSmolyanandthenturneastandtravelonadilapidatedtwo-laneroadthatledtowardtheGreekborderandthetwinPomakcitiesofMadanandRudozemAsIenteredMadanasmallbluesignwithwhiteCyrillicletteringinformedmethatIwas670metersabovesealevelandthatthecityhadapopulationof9000IknewhoweverthatmanypeoplehadleftMadanhaddroppeddowntoabout6000inthelastfewyearsAsIdroveintotownoneofthefirstthingsIpassedontherightwasanoldcommunistgarmentfactorynowownedbyanAustriancompanythatproducedluxuryskiclothingInthesummerthewindowswerealwaysopenandIcouldseethewomenin-sidesewingandembroideringtheindividualjacketsandpantsthatcouldcostasmuchasoneyearrsquosworthoftheirwagesYetthefactorypaidthehighestpiecerateintownplusalloftherequiredworkerrsquosinsurancesOntheleftwasaneighborhoodcalledldquo25rdquofullofageingfive-andsix-storeyapartmentblocsandsmalllocalshopssellingdrygoodsvegetableschildrenrsquosclothesfromTurkeyandcheapimportedChinesegoodsintheBulgarianequivalentofaldquodollarstorerdquo
FurtheruptheroadontherighttherewasasmallclusterofbusinessesincludingagasstationacarwasharestaurantandasmallhotelallnewandpaintedbrightyellowAlthough the signs readldquoRegalrdquothe localscalledtheplaceldquoSaramovrdquothelastnameofthemanwhobuiltandownedthebusinessesSaramovwasoneofthe10percentofMadanrsquosresidentsorMadanchaniwhowereChristianAlthoughhiswifewasaBulgarianMus-limfromanearbyvillageaprominentbannerofsixnakedblondewomenadvertisedhiscarwashtothoseenteringthecitySomeofthelocalsin-terpretedthebannerasasignofdisrespectforthemoreconservativereli-giousvaluesofMadanrsquosincreasinglydevoutMuslimsSomeclaimedthatSaramovhadlinkstothemutri (theBulgarianMafia)HedroveaMer-cedes jeepandhad two largebodyguardswhohungarounddrinkingcoffeeandgloweringatthecustomersDespitethishisrestaurantwasthemostpopularplaceintownandhissmallhotelwasalwaysfull
TheroadcurvedslightlyafterIpassedSaramovrsquoscomplexanditwasfromtherethatIcaughtfirstsightofthetoweringminaretofMadanrsquosimposingnewmosqueAboutaminutelaterIwouldarriveinthecenteroftownHeretherewerethreeimportantlandmarksthatcouldserveasarchitecturalmetaphorsforthetempestuouspostsocialisthistoryofthecityThefirstwastheoldGORUBSObuildingheadquartersoftheonceall-importantcommunistleadandzincminingenterpriseThesecondwastheIvanVazovKulturenDom(communitycenter)andthethirdwasthemegamosqueIftheAustrian-ownedgarmentfactoryandSaramovrsquosRegal
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Figure3 TheGORUBSObuilding
complexrepresentedthecityrsquostransitionaryprotocapitalistpresentthentheGORUBSObuildingstoodasasymbolofMadanrsquosoncevibrantcom-munistpastThecommunitycenterthefaccediladeofwhichwasrestoredandrepainted with funds from the European UnionrsquosldquoBeautiful Bulgariardquoproj-ect4representedonepossiblefuturefortheMadanchaniintheyearslead-inguptotheircountryrsquos2007EUaccessionwhilethemosquestoodforanotherpossiblefuturethatwoulddrawthemclosertotheMiddleEast
TheGORUBSObuildingwasthetalleststructureinthecityandsatatthetopofthemainintersectionwherethesingleroadtookasharpleft turn and led drivers out of Madan and toward the city of Zlato-gradAlthoughGORUBSOhaddivisionsinfivesouthernBulgariancitiesMadanhadbeenitsadministrativecenterThenine-storeybuildingheldalloftheadministrativeofficesoftheenterpriseThissitehadoncesup-portedMadanrsquosoldmosqueapictureofwhichcanstillbefoundintheGORUBSOminingmuseumThelowhumblesquarestructurewithitstelltaleminarethadbeenthepreviouscenterofthecityuntilitwasbull-dozedtomakeroomforthelead-zincenterpriseheadquartersForoverthreedecadestheGORUBSObuildingdominatedthecenterofMadanashiningbeaconofcommunistmodernityjustasthecommunistenterprisehadoncedominatedthelivesofallwholivedinthecity
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Figure4 AbuildinginMadanin2005
GORUBSO brought immeasurable wealth to the city between 1945andtheearly1990swhenminingandmetalprocessingwereamongthemostrespectedandwellremuneratedprofessionsinBulgariaThousandsofworkerscamefromalloverthecountryandfromasfarawayasChinaandVietnamtoworkforthethrivingindustryItssuccesswasbasedontherichoredepositsintheMadanareaandGORUBSOinvestedheavilyinthedevelopmentofthecitybuildingapartmentblocsrecreationcom-plexescommunitycentersasoccerstadiumpoolsschoolsspecialhospi-talwardsetceteraItsupportedtheentirelocalcommunityuntilBulgariawassuddenlythrustintotheglobalcapitalisteconomyintheearly1990sandafatalcombinationoflaborunrestinternationalmarketpressurebungled privatization and high-level corruption conspired to run theminesintobankruptcy
ThecollapseofGORUBSOleftthousandsofmeninMadanunemployedanddestroyedthelocaleconomyleavingthewholecitytosinkincremen-tallyintoastateofvisibledisrepairTimeandgravityswallowedupmuchoftheinfrastructuresoproudlydevelopedthroughthenow-hackneyedcommunistidealsofprogressandmodernizationThecomingofdemoc-racyhadpromisedtomakethelivesoftheminersevenbettercombiningeconomicsuccesswithpoliticalandreligiousfreedomsbutinMadanas
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Figure5 TherenovatedfaccediladeoftheCultureHouserepresentingtheidealcommunistmanandwoman
elsewherethroughoutthepostsocialistworldinEasternEuropeandCen-tralAsiademocracyfailedtoliveuptoitspromisesandleftthousandsofdesertedruralcitiesinitswakeIndeedldquolivingblocsrdquothatoncehousedtwofamiliesineachapartmentwerenowemptyandcrumblingInmanyplacesolderbuildingscollapsedtheneighborhoodsontheoutskirtsofMadanwerepockmarkedwiththeruinsofthefailedenterpriselikeanar-cheologicalsiteoftherecentpastAsinRussiaEasternGermanyorKyr-gyzstanwheretheclosureofinefficientorhighlypollutingcommunist-eraenterprisesdestroyedthe localeconomiestheyoncesupportedMadanwasdecimatedbytheprivatizationofthelead-zincminesWithfewlocalreemploymentopportunitiesmanymenwereforcedtoseekjobsascon-structionworkersinBulgariarsquoslargercitiesorinWesternEuropeThosewho stayedbehindoften turned to alcoholdrowning their despair instronglocalrakiya(brandy)
Asapre-accessioncandidatetotheEuropeanUnionhoweverBulgariawasthebeneficiaryofmanyinitiativesTheldquoBeautifulBulgariardquoprojectwasonethattriedtokilltwoproverbialbirdswithonestoneAsawaytocombatthehighlevelofunemploymentaftertheclosureoftheminesandtorestoreMadanrsquoscentertoitsformerglorytheEuropeanUnioninvestedintherestorationofthesquareandthebuildingssurroundingittheIvan
10
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VazovKulturenDomtheofficesofthemunicipalitythefirestationalongwithafewsmallerprojectsThemainefforthoweverwasconcentratedontheroofdoorswindowsandplasterfaccediladeofthecommunitycenterwhichallneededextensiverepairsTheEuropeanUnionmeasured thesuccessoftheprojectbyhowmanyunemployedlaborerswereputtoworkon it andfor how manyldquoman-monthsrdquoThe communitycenter project em-ployedtwenty-fourpeopleforfifty-fiveman-monthsandleftabeautifullyrestoredcrimsonbuildingwithwhitecolumnsatthetopofawideplazawithachildrenrsquosplaygroundnearbyButwhentheworkwasfinishedthelaborerswereonceagainleftwithoutjobsThecommunitycenterwasin-deedabeautifulbuildingoneofthefewinacityinwhichalmosteveryotherstructurehadfallenorwasfallingapartanditstoodregallyasareminderofthepromiseoftheEuropeanUnionButtomanyitwasalsoasymboloftheshallownessofthatpromiseTheEuropeansmightbehappytorepaintafewbuildingsbuttherewerethoseinMadanwhoquestionedwhethertheEUwouldeversubstantiallyinvestinthefutureofthecityorifMadanwithits90percentMuslimpopulationwouldbeavictimratherthanabeneficiaryoftheEUaccession
ldquoTheEuropeanscandonothingforBulgariardquosaidHasanaretiredminerwhoworkedinthecafeacuteofthenewmosqueldquoThegoodswehavetosellthemtheyalreadyhaveTheyonlywanttosellustheirgoodsOurnaturaltradingpartnersareintheMiddleEastandthe[Soviet]UnionlikeitwasbeforedemocracyWehavegoodsthattheyneedBulgariashouldestablishclosertieswiththeMuslimworldandnotwiththeEuropeansTheEuropeansdonotneedusrdquo
HasantoldmethiswhilewesharedteainthecafeacuteofthemainmosqueAthinbluecurtaininthedoorwaybillowedinwardwiththelightbreezeItwasasentimentthatIhadheardfromothersinMadanparticularlyfromthosefrustratedintheirattemptstopenetratetheBulgarianmarketwiththeproductsoflocalindustryTheownerofasmallicecreamfactorycomplainedincessantlythattheaggressiveGreekshadtakenoverBulgariawiththeirDeltaicecreamleavinghimnochoicebuttoseekmarketsintheMiddleEastwherebeingaMuslimatleastearnedhimsomeadvantagesOnthewallsofthecafeacutetherewerethreeglossypostersofMeccaandinadditiontothejuiceshotdrinkssnacksand(Madan-made)icecreamHasansoldanassortmentofIslamicnewspapersmagazinesbooksandcompactdiscsforlearningmodernArabicHasantoldmethatordinarylaborersalsolookedtotheMiddleEastforworkwhentheycouldnotfinditinBulgariaandwereunwillingtoworkillegallyinHollandGermanyorSpainThecafeacutewesatinwastuckedonthegroundfloorofthethree-storeymosquewhichincludedahugewindoweddomeandatoweringminarettoppedbyasmallsilvercrescentTheoutsidewallsofthemosquewereacoolwhiteandthefirstthreemetersweretiledwithlargemosaic-
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likepiecesofsmoothgraymarbleTheminaretwastallandwhitewithgoldenverticalstripestwocircularbalconiesandfourbullhornspeak-ersthatdeliveredthecalltoprayerfivetimesadayItwasanimpressivestructure
Themost impressivepartof theMadanmosquehoweverwas theprayerhallAnelaboratefive-tieredcrystalchandelierhunginthecen-terofthevoluminousroomwithtwentylargearchedwindowsstream-inglightinfromtherightandleftsidesThemainfloorwherethemenprayedwascarpetedwithaluxuriousindigoblueandgoldrugTherewasaU-shapedbalconysupportedbywhitecolumnsthatdividedpartofthehallintotwofloorstheupperlevelwasthewomenrsquossectionanarchitectural feature thatmostBulgarianmosquesdidnothaveat thetimeAtthefrontofthehalltherewerefourmorearchedwindowsthatdribbledlightaroundanexquisitelydecoratednicheindicatingthedirec-tionofMeccaandcoveredwithbluemosaictilesandArabicscriptTheroomevokedasenseofaweandgrandeurthatwasquiteoutofplaceintheotherwiseimpoverishedcity
ThesheersizeandopulenceofthemosqueledtomanyspeculationsabouttheoriginofthefundsresponsibleforitsconstructionAlthoughnoonecouldspeakwithcertaintymanyMadanchanithoughtthefundshadcomefromabroadTheyhadfirstwantedtobuildthemosqueintheearly1990sand collectionswere takenupamong the cityrsquos residentsMenvolunteeredtheirlabortohelpwithitsconstructionButtheprojectsoonranoutoffundsformaterialsasthefutureofGORUBSObecameuncertainThemosquelanguishedunfinishedthroughthemiddlepartofthedecadeThentowardtheendofthe1990sthemoneysuddenlyap-pearedHasanclaimedthatthemoneyhadcomefromMadanresidentswholivedabroadSilvibelievedthatthefundshadcomefromSaudiAra-biaalthoughsomeofherAvonclientswhisperedthatithadcomefromIranIn2005themosquestoodasapowerfulreminderofthegrowinginfluenceoftheMuslimworldonthesmallcityThemosquebecameavibrantculturalandeducationalcenterunlikethecommunitycenterthesymboloftheEUrsquosfleetingandsuperficialaid
InthebattleforheartsandmindsinMadanthepromisesofglobalIs-lamicsolidaritychallengedthestill-remotealluresofWesternEuropeOnFridayswhentheimam(congregationalleader)gavehisweeklysermon themosquewasoverrunwithclosetoathousandmenmanyofthemformerminersThemosquehadbecomethecentraldistributionpointforrituallysacrificedmeatsdonatedfromabroadduringthetwobigIslamicfeastsRamazanBayramandKurbanBayramDuringthemonthofRamazan(Ramadan)attheendofeachdayrsquosfastthemosquedistributedanalmostendlesssupplyoffreecookiespastriesandothersweetsTheimamwasalsoresponsibleforsupportingthestudiesandambitionsofyoungpeople
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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Figure1 GirlsdressedinthenewldquoArabrdquostyle
OneofSilvirsquosAvondistributorswasnamedLiliana(Liliforshort)andshewasthedaughterofoneoftheoldesthodzhas(Muslimpreachers)intheareaShewasatallthinclear-complexionedwomaninherearlythir-tiesLikeSilvishehadlongstraighthairbutherswasanaturalauburnwhileSilvirsquoswasachemicalblackLilipreferredfrostedlipsticksnailpol-ishesandeyeshadowsandtheheavydoseofglitterinhermakeupgaveheradatedandalmostotherworldlyappearanceShelivedinavillagejustoutsideofMadanwithheragedmotherandherchronicallyillfatherwhoevennowstillmademuski (amulets)forthosewhotookthetroubletocomevisithimLilihadbeenmarriedandwasthemotheroftwoschool-agedchildrenHerhusbandhadlongsinceabandonedthemsoshemovedbackinwithherparentsinthemid-1990stohelptakecareofherfather
Thevillagewhereshelivedwasathirty-minutewalkfromthecenterofMadanLilicameintothecitytwoorthreetimesaweektolookforworkLilihadonlyaneighth-gradeeducationandforwomenlikeher
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therewereonlythreepossiblejobsseamstressshopkeeperorwaitressLilihadtakenasewingcoursethroughthemunicipalityandwashopingtofindapositioninoneofthelocalgarmentfactoriesSinceseamstresseswerepaidbythepieceshewouldearnassheproducedunlikethewait-ressesandshopkeeperswhomightworktwiceasmanyhoursforatinymonthlywageButmostwomeninMadanweretryingtofindworkinthegarmentfactoriestolandajobyouhadtohavetherightconnectionsortobeintherightplaceattherighttimeSoLiliostensiblycameintotowntofollowuponpossiblejobleadsbutshealsowantedtotakeabreakfromtheboredomofvillagelifeandtheseeminglyconstantfoldingandunfoldingoftheprayerrugs
WatchingLilicomeintoMadanwasalwaysacuriousaffairShewouldwalkonthemainroadcomingintothecitywearinganankle-lengthlong-sleevedloosepatterneddressandalargesquareofclothfoldedinhalfdrapedoverherheadandtiedbeneathherchinShealwayscarriedalargecanvasbagslungoverhershoulderona longyellownylonstrapShedressedexactlyasmostwomeninthevillagesaroundMadandressedastyletypicalfortheBulgarianMuslimsinthisregionButeachtimeshearrivedthefirstthingshewoulddowasorderanespressoatthepizze-riaandthenduckimmediatelyintothebathroomtochangeShewouldemergemomentslaterinskin-tightjeansandalow-cutblouseherlonghairspillingoverhersometimesbareshouldersIwasaccustomedtothesecostumechangesbecauseIhadcoffeeinfrontofthepizzeriaalmosteverymorning
ldquoAnddoyouchangebackintoyourotherclotheswhenyougohomerdquoIaskedheroneday
ldquoOfcourserdquoshesaidldquoMyfatherisveryoldHebelievesintheoldwaysandheisveryproudthatheisahodzhaPeoplerespecthimbecausethatwasverydifficultduringcommunismHeissicknowIdonotwanttomakehimangryrdquo
LiliwasfairlysureherfatherknewaboutthecityclothesshechangedintoonherexcursionsawayfromthevillagebuthepreferrednottoseethemLilibelievedthatherparentshavinglivedmostoftheirlivesundercommunismhadlimitedunderstandingoftheworldafterthecomingofdemocracyin1989andnoneatallofthemarketeconomyinwhichthestatenolongerguaranteedfullemploymentNomatterhowoftensheex-plainedittohimherfathercouldnotcomprehendwhytherewasnotajobforLiliwhenshewaswillingtoworkThelasttimethathehadfeltwellenoughtogointoMadanfortheFridayprayersLilirsquosfatherhadbeenperplexedbythemanychangesthathadbefallenhisbelovedcitythedirty streetstheabandonedbuildingstheobviouslydrunkenmenstumblingintothemosqueLilirsquosfatherrsquoshearthadsoaredwithjoywhenworkbeganonanewmosquesomanyyearsafterthecommunistshad
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Figure2 ThecenterofMadaninwinter
destroyedtheoldoneAndsoitwasmostupsettingofallwhenthenewimam(congregationalleader)andsomeyounglocalmenwhowerestudy-inginSaudiArabiastartedsayingthattheoldhodzhaswerenottrueMus-limsthattheywereuneducatedandthattheyhaddeceivedpeopleintoacceptingpracticeswhichwereun-Islamic
ldquoIamnotsurewhichwouldkillhimfasterrdquoLilireflectedonemorningovercoffeeastwoyounggirlsdressedinthenewArabski stil (Arab-style)ofIslamicdresspassedusinfrontofthepizzerialdquoToseemewearingashortskirtortoseemedressedlikeanArabka [femaleArab]Thisisnotthecityheknewrdquo
MadanthesmallcitythatwashometowomenlikeSilviandLiliwasnamedaftertheArabicwordforldquominerdquoItisaboutasix-hourdrivesouthandeastfromtheBulgariancapitalofSofiamostofitonsecondaryroadsthat wind precariously through the undulating peaks of the RhodopeMountainsBulgariansclaimthatthisisthelegendarylandofOrpheusthecradleofancientThraceThemountainsstraddletheonceimpervi-ousborderbetweencommunistBulgariaandcapitalistGreeceandtheyarefilledwithsmalltownsandvillagestuckedawayintodeepvalleysor
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perchedhighatopremotepeaksAmongthesesmalltownsthereareonlyafewcitiescreatedthroughcarefullyplannedprojectsofcommunistruraleconomicdevelopmentAtacertainpointinthedrivedownfromSofiathecrossesandbelltowersofthesmallcountrychurchesfoundacrossmostofBulgariaarereplacedbycone-tippedminaretsmdashminaretsrecentlyrebuiltafterhavingbeensystematicallytorndownbythecommunistsCities likeMadanandnearby Smolyan andRudozemwere clusteredinthecentralpartoftheRhodopeMountainsandwerehometothein-digenousBulgarian-speakingMuslimpopulationthePomaks2By2005theminaretsinmanyPomaksettlementshadsproutedanewlikeresilientdandelionsinthefertilesoilofnewfoundreligiousfreedom
AlthoughIslamhasalonghistoryinBulgariaitslocalmeaningsandpracticesbeganchangingafter1989asthereligionevolvedandadaptedtotheexigenciesoftheglobalforcesmdashsocialpoliticalandeconomicmdashunleashedbytheendofsocialism3ThecontoursofBulgarianIslamwerealsobeingshapedbythecontentiousinternalpoliticsofitsMuslimleadersaswellasbythedynamicandincreasinglycontroversialpositionofIslaminldquooldrdquoEuropewhereMuslimminoritiesbeganrejectingsecularismanddemandingthattheWesternnationsmakegoodontheirpromisesofmul-ticulturalismandtoleranceInthisbookIexaminethecomplexandever-mutatingtrajectoryofIslamthroughthelivesofmenandwomenlivinginonesmallcorneroftheEuropeancontinenttheRhodopeMountainsButratherthandepictingIslamwestoftheBosphorusasanundifferentiatedtotalitythiscasestudyofoneMuslimcitywilldemonstratehowthesocialmeaningsofIslaminformercommunistcountriesmaybequalitativelydifferentfromitsmeaningsontheothersideofthenow-phantomIronCurtain
MoreoverthiscasestudyshowsthatpeopleembracenewformsofIslamforlocallydefinedreasonsthatisinresponsetoground-levelculturalpoliticalhistoricalandeconomicfactorsthatdonoteasilyfitintograndschematicmodelstoexplainthegrowinginfluenceofIslaminEuropeCer-tainlyEuropeanMuslimcommunitiessharesomecommongeopoliticalcircumstancessuchastheubiquityofglobalizationthefinancialdomi-nanceofSaudiArabiaovertheinternationalIslamiccharitableaidestab-lishmentandgrowingworldwideIslamophobiaButthesemacrofactorsinteractwithparticularlocalconditionstopushorpullMuslimcommuni-tiestowardnewbeliefsandpracticesThisexaminationofMadanisjustoneglimpseintoachangethatseemstobeoccurringinMuslimcommuni-tiesaroundtheworldnamelytheeclipsingofldquotraditionalrdquoformsofIs-lambyldquopurifiedrdquoonesimportedfromabroadButasIwilldemonstratethesechangesareoccurringinsomeBulgarianMuslimcommunitieswhileotheralmostidenticalcommunitiesarerelativelyunaffectedThecentralquestionsareWhyhereandnotelsewhereAndwhynow
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SetwithinashallownarrowvalleyandbisectedbytheMadanskaRiverMadanhardlyqualifiesasacityin2005therewasonlyoneroadthatledinandoutWhenIdidmyfieldworktherebetween2005and2008IhadtodrivesouthfirsttotheregionalcapitalofSmolyanandthenturneastandtravelonadilapidatedtwo-laneroadthatledtowardtheGreekborderandthetwinPomakcitiesofMadanandRudozemAsIenteredMadanasmallbluesignwithwhiteCyrillicletteringinformedmethatIwas670metersabovesealevelandthatthecityhadapopulationof9000IknewhoweverthatmanypeoplehadleftMadanhaddroppeddowntoabout6000inthelastfewyearsAsIdroveintotownoneofthefirstthingsIpassedontherightwasanoldcommunistgarmentfactorynowownedbyanAustriancompanythatproducedluxuryskiclothingInthesummerthewindowswerealwaysopenandIcouldseethewomenin-sidesewingandembroideringtheindividualjacketsandpantsthatcouldcostasmuchasoneyearrsquosworthoftheirwagesYetthefactorypaidthehighestpiecerateintownplusalloftherequiredworkerrsquosinsurancesOntheleftwasaneighborhoodcalledldquo25rdquofullofageingfive-andsix-storeyapartmentblocsandsmalllocalshopssellingdrygoodsvegetableschildrenrsquosclothesfromTurkeyandcheapimportedChinesegoodsintheBulgarianequivalentofaldquodollarstorerdquo
FurtheruptheroadontherighttherewasasmallclusterofbusinessesincludingagasstationacarwasharestaurantandasmallhotelallnewandpaintedbrightyellowAlthough the signs readldquoRegalrdquothe localscalledtheplaceldquoSaramovrdquothelastnameofthemanwhobuiltandownedthebusinessesSaramovwasoneofthe10percentofMadanrsquosresidentsorMadanchaniwhowereChristianAlthoughhiswifewasaBulgarianMus-limfromanearbyvillageaprominentbannerofsixnakedblondewomenadvertisedhiscarwashtothoseenteringthecitySomeofthelocalsin-terpretedthebannerasasignofdisrespectforthemoreconservativereli-giousvaluesofMadanrsquosincreasinglydevoutMuslimsSomeclaimedthatSaramovhadlinkstothemutri (theBulgarianMafia)HedroveaMer-cedes jeepandhad two largebodyguardswhohungarounddrinkingcoffeeandgloweringatthecustomersDespitethishisrestaurantwasthemostpopularplaceintownandhissmallhotelwasalwaysfull
TheroadcurvedslightlyafterIpassedSaramovrsquoscomplexanditwasfromtherethatIcaughtfirstsightofthetoweringminaretofMadanrsquosimposingnewmosqueAboutaminutelaterIwouldarriveinthecenteroftownHeretherewerethreeimportantlandmarksthatcouldserveasarchitecturalmetaphorsforthetempestuouspostsocialisthistoryofthecityThefirstwastheoldGORUBSObuildingheadquartersoftheonceall-importantcommunistleadandzincminingenterpriseThesecondwastheIvanVazovKulturenDom(communitycenter)andthethirdwasthemegamosqueIftheAustrian-ownedgarmentfactoryandSaramovrsquosRegal
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Figure3 TheGORUBSObuilding
complexrepresentedthecityrsquostransitionaryprotocapitalistpresentthentheGORUBSObuildingstoodasasymbolofMadanrsquosoncevibrantcom-munistpastThecommunitycenterthefaccediladeofwhichwasrestoredandrepainted with funds from the European UnionrsquosldquoBeautiful Bulgariardquoproj-ect4representedonepossiblefuturefortheMadanchaniintheyearslead-inguptotheircountryrsquos2007EUaccessionwhilethemosquestoodforanotherpossiblefuturethatwoulddrawthemclosertotheMiddleEast
TheGORUBSObuildingwasthetalleststructureinthecityandsatatthetopofthemainintersectionwherethesingleroadtookasharpleft turn and led drivers out of Madan and toward the city of Zlato-gradAlthoughGORUBSOhaddivisionsinfivesouthernBulgariancitiesMadanhadbeenitsadministrativecenterThenine-storeybuildingheldalloftheadministrativeofficesoftheenterpriseThissitehadoncesup-portedMadanrsquosoldmosqueapictureofwhichcanstillbefoundintheGORUBSOminingmuseumThelowhumblesquarestructurewithitstelltaleminarethadbeenthepreviouscenterofthecityuntilitwasbull-dozedtomakeroomforthelead-zincenterpriseheadquartersForoverthreedecadestheGORUBSObuildingdominatedthecenterofMadanashiningbeaconofcommunistmodernityjustasthecommunistenterprisehadoncedominatedthelivesofallwholivedinthecity
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Figure4 AbuildinginMadanin2005
GORUBSO brought immeasurable wealth to the city between 1945andtheearly1990swhenminingandmetalprocessingwereamongthemostrespectedandwellremuneratedprofessionsinBulgariaThousandsofworkerscamefromalloverthecountryandfromasfarawayasChinaandVietnamtoworkforthethrivingindustryItssuccesswasbasedontherichoredepositsintheMadanareaandGORUBSOinvestedheavilyinthedevelopmentofthecitybuildingapartmentblocsrecreationcom-plexescommunitycentersasoccerstadiumpoolsschoolsspecialhospi-talwardsetceteraItsupportedtheentirelocalcommunityuntilBulgariawassuddenlythrustintotheglobalcapitalisteconomyintheearly1990sandafatalcombinationoflaborunrestinternationalmarketpressurebungled privatization and high-level corruption conspired to run theminesintobankruptcy
ThecollapseofGORUBSOleftthousandsofmeninMadanunemployedanddestroyedthelocaleconomyleavingthewholecitytosinkincremen-tallyintoastateofvisibledisrepairTimeandgravityswallowedupmuchoftheinfrastructuresoproudlydevelopedthroughthenow-hackneyedcommunistidealsofprogressandmodernizationThecomingofdemoc-racyhadpromisedtomakethelivesoftheminersevenbettercombiningeconomicsuccesswithpoliticalandreligiousfreedomsbutinMadanas
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Figure5 TherenovatedfaccediladeoftheCultureHouserepresentingtheidealcommunistmanandwoman
elsewherethroughoutthepostsocialistworldinEasternEuropeandCen-tralAsiademocracyfailedtoliveuptoitspromisesandleftthousandsofdesertedruralcitiesinitswakeIndeedldquolivingblocsrdquothatoncehousedtwofamiliesineachapartmentwerenowemptyandcrumblingInmanyplacesolderbuildingscollapsedtheneighborhoodsontheoutskirtsofMadanwerepockmarkedwiththeruinsofthefailedenterpriselikeanar-cheologicalsiteoftherecentpastAsinRussiaEasternGermanyorKyr-gyzstanwheretheclosureofinefficientorhighlypollutingcommunist-eraenterprisesdestroyedthe localeconomiestheyoncesupportedMadanwasdecimatedbytheprivatizationofthelead-zincminesWithfewlocalreemploymentopportunitiesmanymenwereforcedtoseekjobsascon-structionworkersinBulgariarsquoslargercitiesorinWesternEuropeThosewho stayedbehindoften turned to alcoholdrowning their despair instronglocalrakiya(brandy)
Asapre-accessioncandidatetotheEuropeanUnionhoweverBulgariawasthebeneficiaryofmanyinitiativesTheldquoBeautifulBulgariardquoprojectwasonethattriedtokilltwoproverbialbirdswithonestoneAsawaytocombatthehighlevelofunemploymentaftertheclosureoftheminesandtorestoreMadanrsquoscentertoitsformerglorytheEuropeanUnioninvestedintherestorationofthesquareandthebuildingssurroundingittheIvan
10
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VazovKulturenDomtheofficesofthemunicipalitythefirestationalongwithafewsmallerprojectsThemainefforthoweverwasconcentratedontheroofdoorswindowsandplasterfaccediladeofthecommunitycenterwhichallneededextensiverepairsTheEuropeanUnionmeasured thesuccessoftheprojectbyhowmanyunemployedlaborerswereputtoworkon it andfor how manyldquoman-monthsrdquoThe communitycenter project em-ployedtwenty-fourpeopleforfifty-fiveman-monthsandleftabeautifullyrestoredcrimsonbuildingwithwhitecolumnsatthetopofawideplazawithachildrenrsquosplaygroundnearbyButwhentheworkwasfinishedthelaborerswereonceagainleftwithoutjobsThecommunitycenterwasin-deedabeautifulbuildingoneofthefewinacityinwhichalmosteveryotherstructurehadfallenorwasfallingapartanditstoodregallyasareminderofthepromiseoftheEuropeanUnionButtomanyitwasalsoasymboloftheshallownessofthatpromiseTheEuropeansmightbehappytorepaintafewbuildingsbuttherewerethoseinMadanwhoquestionedwhethertheEUwouldeversubstantiallyinvestinthefutureofthecityorifMadanwithits90percentMuslimpopulationwouldbeavictimratherthanabeneficiaryoftheEUaccession
ldquoTheEuropeanscandonothingforBulgariardquosaidHasanaretiredminerwhoworkedinthecafeacuteofthenewmosqueldquoThegoodswehavetosellthemtheyalreadyhaveTheyonlywanttosellustheirgoodsOurnaturaltradingpartnersareintheMiddleEastandthe[Soviet]UnionlikeitwasbeforedemocracyWehavegoodsthattheyneedBulgariashouldestablishclosertieswiththeMuslimworldandnotwiththeEuropeansTheEuropeansdonotneedusrdquo
HasantoldmethiswhilewesharedteainthecafeacuteofthemainmosqueAthinbluecurtaininthedoorwaybillowedinwardwiththelightbreezeItwasasentimentthatIhadheardfromothersinMadanparticularlyfromthosefrustratedintheirattemptstopenetratetheBulgarianmarketwiththeproductsoflocalindustryTheownerofasmallicecreamfactorycomplainedincessantlythattheaggressiveGreekshadtakenoverBulgariawiththeirDeltaicecreamleavinghimnochoicebuttoseekmarketsintheMiddleEastwherebeingaMuslimatleastearnedhimsomeadvantagesOnthewallsofthecafeacutetherewerethreeglossypostersofMeccaandinadditiontothejuiceshotdrinkssnacksand(Madan-made)icecreamHasansoldanassortmentofIslamicnewspapersmagazinesbooksandcompactdiscsforlearningmodernArabicHasantoldmethatordinarylaborersalsolookedtotheMiddleEastforworkwhentheycouldnotfinditinBulgariaandwereunwillingtoworkillegallyinHollandGermanyorSpainThecafeacutewesatinwastuckedonthegroundfloorofthethree-storeymosquewhichincludedahugewindoweddomeandatoweringminarettoppedbyasmallsilvercrescentTheoutsidewallsofthemosquewereacoolwhiteandthefirstthreemetersweretiledwithlargemosaic-
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likepiecesofsmoothgraymarbleTheminaretwastallandwhitewithgoldenverticalstripestwocircularbalconiesandfourbullhornspeak-ersthatdeliveredthecalltoprayerfivetimesadayItwasanimpressivestructure
Themost impressivepartof theMadanmosquehoweverwas theprayerhallAnelaboratefive-tieredcrystalchandelierhunginthecen-terofthevoluminousroomwithtwentylargearchedwindowsstream-inglightinfromtherightandleftsidesThemainfloorwherethemenprayedwascarpetedwithaluxuriousindigoblueandgoldrugTherewasaU-shapedbalconysupportedbywhitecolumnsthatdividedpartofthehallintotwofloorstheupperlevelwasthewomenrsquossectionanarchitectural feature thatmostBulgarianmosquesdidnothaveat thetimeAtthefrontofthehalltherewerefourmorearchedwindowsthatdribbledlightaroundanexquisitelydecoratednicheindicatingthedirec-tionofMeccaandcoveredwithbluemosaictilesandArabicscriptTheroomevokedasenseofaweandgrandeurthatwasquiteoutofplaceintheotherwiseimpoverishedcity
ThesheersizeandopulenceofthemosqueledtomanyspeculationsabouttheoriginofthefundsresponsibleforitsconstructionAlthoughnoonecouldspeakwithcertaintymanyMadanchanithoughtthefundshadcomefromabroadTheyhadfirstwantedtobuildthemosqueintheearly1990sand collectionswere takenupamong the cityrsquos residentsMenvolunteeredtheirlabortohelpwithitsconstructionButtheprojectsoonranoutoffundsformaterialsasthefutureofGORUBSObecameuncertainThemosquelanguishedunfinishedthroughthemiddlepartofthedecadeThentowardtheendofthe1990sthemoneysuddenlyap-pearedHasanclaimedthatthemoneyhadcomefromMadanresidentswholivedabroadSilvibelievedthatthefundshadcomefromSaudiAra-biaalthoughsomeofherAvonclientswhisperedthatithadcomefromIranIn2005themosquestoodasapowerfulreminderofthegrowinginfluenceoftheMuslimworldonthesmallcityThemosquebecameavibrantculturalandeducationalcenterunlikethecommunitycenterthesymboloftheEUrsquosfleetingandsuperficialaid
InthebattleforheartsandmindsinMadanthepromisesofglobalIs-lamicsolidaritychallengedthestill-remotealluresofWesternEuropeOnFridayswhentheimam(congregationalleader)gavehisweeklysermon themosquewasoverrunwithclosetoathousandmenmanyofthemformerminersThemosquehadbecomethecentraldistributionpointforrituallysacrificedmeatsdonatedfromabroadduringthetwobigIslamicfeastsRamazanBayramandKurbanBayramDuringthemonthofRamazan(Ramadan)attheendofeachdayrsquosfastthemosquedistributedanalmostendlesssupplyoffreecookiespastriesandothersweetsTheimamwasalsoresponsibleforsupportingthestudiesandambitionsofyoungpeople
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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therewereonlythreepossiblejobsseamstressshopkeeperorwaitressLilihadtakenasewingcoursethroughthemunicipalityandwashopingtofindapositioninoneofthelocalgarmentfactoriesSinceseamstresseswerepaidbythepieceshewouldearnassheproducedunlikethewait-ressesandshopkeeperswhomightworktwiceasmanyhoursforatinymonthlywageButmostwomeninMadanweretryingtofindworkinthegarmentfactoriestolandajobyouhadtohavetherightconnectionsortobeintherightplaceattherighttimeSoLiliostensiblycameintotowntofollowuponpossiblejobleadsbutshealsowantedtotakeabreakfromtheboredomofvillagelifeandtheseeminglyconstantfoldingandunfoldingoftheprayerrugs
WatchingLilicomeintoMadanwasalwaysacuriousaffairShewouldwalkonthemainroadcomingintothecitywearinganankle-lengthlong-sleevedloosepatterneddressandalargesquareofclothfoldedinhalfdrapedoverherheadandtiedbeneathherchinShealwayscarriedalargecanvasbagslungoverhershoulderona longyellownylonstrapShedressedexactlyasmostwomeninthevillagesaroundMadandressedastyletypicalfortheBulgarianMuslimsinthisregionButeachtimeshearrivedthefirstthingshewoulddowasorderanespressoatthepizze-riaandthenduckimmediatelyintothebathroomtochangeShewouldemergemomentslaterinskin-tightjeansandalow-cutblouseherlonghairspillingoverhersometimesbareshouldersIwasaccustomedtothesecostumechangesbecauseIhadcoffeeinfrontofthepizzeriaalmosteverymorning
ldquoAnddoyouchangebackintoyourotherclotheswhenyougohomerdquoIaskedheroneday
ldquoOfcourserdquoshesaidldquoMyfatherisveryoldHebelievesintheoldwaysandheisveryproudthatheisahodzhaPeoplerespecthimbecausethatwasverydifficultduringcommunismHeissicknowIdonotwanttomakehimangryrdquo
LiliwasfairlysureherfatherknewaboutthecityclothesshechangedintoonherexcursionsawayfromthevillagebuthepreferrednottoseethemLilibelievedthatherparentshavinglivedmostoftheirlivesundercommunismhadlimitedunderstandingoftheworldafterthecomingofdemocracyin1989andnoneatallofthemarketeconomyinwhichthestatenolongerguaranteedfullemploymentNomatterhowoftensheex-plainedittohimherfathercouldnotcomprehendwhytherewasnotajobforLiliwhenshewaswillingtoworkThelasttimethathehadfeltwellenoughtogointoMadanfortheFridayprayersLilirsquosfatherhadbeenperplexedbythemanychangesthathadbefallenhisbelovedcitythedirty streetstheabandonedbuildingstheobviouslydrunkenmenstumblingintothemosqueLilirsquosfatherrsquoshearthadsoaredwithjoywhenworkbeganonanewmosquesomanyyearsafterthecommunistshad
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Figure2 ThecenterofMadaninwinter
destroyedtheoldoneAndsoitwasmostupsettingofallwhenthenewimam(congregationalleader)andsomeyounglocalmenwhowerestudy-inginSaudiArabiastartedsayingthattheoldhodzhaswerenottrueMus-limsthattheywereuneducatedandthattheyhaddeceivedpeopleintoacceptingpracticeswhichwereun-Islamic
ldquoIamnotsurewhichwouldkillhimfasterrdquoLilireflectedonemorningovercoffeeastwoyounggirlsdressedinthenewArabski stil (Arab-style)ofIslamicdresspassedusinfrontofthepizzerialdquoToseemewearingashortskirtortoseemedressedlikeanArabka [femaleArab]Thisisnotthecityheknewrdquo
MadanthesmallcitythatwashometowomenlikeSilviandLiliwasnamedaftertheArabicwordforldquominerdquoItisaboutasix-hourdrivesouthandeastfromtheBulgariancapitalofSofiamostofitonsecondaryroadsthat wind precariously through the undulating peaks of the RhodopeMountainsBulgariansclaimthatthisisthelegendarylandofOrpheusthecradleofancientThraceThemountainsstraddletheonceimpervi-ousborderbetweencommunistBulgariaandcapitalistGreeceandtheyarefilledwithsmalltownsandvillagestuckedawayintodeepvalleysor
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perchedhighatopremotepeaksAmongthesesmalltownsthereareonlyafewcitiescreatedthroughcarefullyplannedprojectsofcommunistruraleconomicdevelopmentAtacertainpointinthedrivedownfromSofiathecrossesandbelltowersofthesmallcountrychurchesfoundacrossmostofBulgariaarereplacedbycone-tippedminaretsmdashminaretsrecentlyrebuiltafterhavingbeensystematicallytorndownbythecommunistsCities likeMadanandnearby Smolyan andRudozemwere clusteredinthecentralpartoftheRhodopeMountainsandwerehometothein-digenousBulgarian-speakingMuslimpopulationthePomaks2By2005theminaretsinmanyPomaksettlementshadsproutedanewlikeresilientdandelionsinthefertilesoilofnewfoundreligiousfreedom
AlthoughIslamhasalonghistoryinBulgariaitslocalmeaningsandpracticesbeganchangingafter1989asthereligionevolvedandadaptedtotheexigenciesoftheglobalforcesmdashsocialpoliticalandeconomicmdashunleashedbytheendofsocialism3ThecontoursofBulgarianIslamwerealsobeingshapedbythecontentiousinternalpoliticsofitsMuslimleadersaswellasbythedynamicandincreasinglycontroversialpositionofIslaminldquooldrdquoEuropewhereMuslimminoritiesbeganrejectingsecularismanddemandingthattheWesternnationsmakegoodontheirpromisesofmul-ticulturalismandtoleranceInthisbookIexaminethecomplexandever-mutatingtrajectoryofIslamthroughthelivesofmenandwomenlivinginonesmallcorneroftheEuropeancontinenttheRhodopeMountainsButratherthandepictingIslamwestoftheBosphorusasanundifferentiatedtotalitythiscasestudyofoneMuslimcitywilldemonstratehowthesocialmeaningsofIslaminformercommunistcountriesmaybequalitativelydifferentfromitsmeaningsontheothersideofthenow-phantomIronCurtain
MoreoverthiscasestudyshowsthatpeopleembracenewformsofIslamforlocallydefinedreasonsthatisinresponsetoground-levelculturalpoliticalhistoricalandeconomicfactorsthatdonoteasilyfitintograndschematicmodelstoexplainthegrowinginfluenceofIslaminEuropeCer-tainlyEuropeanMuslimcommunitiessharesomecommongeopoliticalcircumstancessuchastheubiquityofglobalizationthefinancialdomi-nanceofSaudiArabiaovertheinternationalIslamiccharitableaidestab-lishmentandgrowingworldwideIslamophobiaButthesemacrofactorsinteractwithparticularlocalconditionstopushorpullMuslimcommuni-tiestowardnewbeliefsandpracticesThisexaminationofMadanisjustoneglimpseintoachangethatseemstobeoccurringinMuslimcommuni-tiesaroundtheworldnamelytheeclipsingofldquotraditionalrdquoformsofIs-lambyldquopurifiedrdquoonesimportedfromabroadButasIwilldemonstratethesechangesareoccurringinsomeBulgarianMuslimcommunitieswhileotheralmostidenticalcommunitiesarerelativelyunaffectedThecentralquestionsareWhyhereandnotelsewhereAndwhynow
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SetwithinashallownarrowvalleyandbisectedbytheMadanskaRiverMadanhardlyqualifiesasacityin2005therewasonlyoneroadthatledinandoutWhenIdidmyfieldworktherebetween2005and2008IhadtodrivesouthfirsttotheregionalcapitalofSmolyanandthenturneastandtravelonadilapidatedtwo-laneroadthatledtowardtheGreekborderandthetwinPomakcitiesofMadanandRudozemAsIenteredMadanasmallbluesignwithwhiteCyrillicletteringinformedmethatIwas670metersabovesealevelandthatthecityhadapopulationof9000IknewhoweverthatmanypeoplehadleftMadanhaddroppeddowntoabout6000inthelastfewyearsAsIdroveintotownoneofthefirstthingsIpassedontherightwasanoldcommunistgarmentfactorynowownedbyanAustriancompanythatproducedluxuryskiclothingInthesummerthewindowswerealwaysopenandIcouldseethewomenin-sidesewingandembroideringtheindividualjacketsandpantsthatcouldcostasmuchasoneyearrsquosworthoftheirwagesYetthefactorypaidthehighestpiecerateintownplusalloftherequiredworkerrsquosinsurancesOntheleftwasaneighborhoodcalledldquo25rdquofullofageingfive-andsix-storeyapartmentblocsandsmalllocalshopssellingdrygoodsvegetableschildrenrsquosclothesfromTurkeyandcheapimportedChinesegoodsintheBulgarianequivalentofaldquodollarstorerdquo
FurtheruptheroadontherighttherewasasmallclusterofbusinessesincludingagasstationacarwasharestaurantandasmallhotelallnewandpaintedbrightyellowAlthough the signs readldquoRegalrdquothe localscalledtheplaceldquoSaramovrdquothelastnameofthemanwhobuiltandownedthebusinessesSaramovwasoneofthe10percentofMadanrsquosresidentsorMadanchaniwhowereChristianAlthoughhiswifewasaBulgarianMus-limfromanearbyvillageaprominentbannerofsixnakedblondewomenadvertisedhiscarwashtothoseenteringthecitySomeofthelocalsin-terpretedthebannerasasignofdisrespectforthemoreconservativereli-giousvaluesofMadanrsquosincreasinglydevoutMuslimsSomeclaimedthatSaramovhadlinkstothemutri (theBulgarianMafia)HedroveaMer-cedes jeepandhad two largebodyguardswhohungarounddrinkingcoffeeandgloweringatthecustomersDespitethishisrestaurantwasthemostpopularplaceintownandhissmallhotelwasalwaysfull
TheroadcurvedslightlyafterIpassedSaramovrsquoscomplexanditwasfromtherethatIcaughtfirstsightofthetoweringminaretofMadanrsquosimposingnewmosqueAboutaminutelaterIwouldarriveinthecenteroftownHeretherewerethreeimportantlandmarksthatcouldserveasarchitecturalmetaphorsforthetempestuouspostsocialisthistoryofthecityThefirstwastheoldGORUBSObuildingheadquartersoftheonceall-importantcommunistleadandzincminingenterpriseThesecondwastheIvanVazovKulturenDom(communitycenter)andthethirdwasthemegamosqueIftheAustrian-ownedgarmentfactoryandSaramovrsquosRegal
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Figure3 TheGORUBSObuilding
complexrepresentedthecityrsquostransitionaryprotocapitalistpresentthentheGORUBSObuildingstoodasasymbolofMadanrsquosoncevibrantcom-munistpastThecommunitycenterthefaccediladeofwhichwasrestoredandrepainted with funds from the European UnionrsquosldquoBeautiful Bulgariardquoproj-ect4representedonepossiblefuturefortheMadanchaniintheyearslead-inguptotheircountryrsquos2007EUaccessionwhilethemosquestoodforanotherpossiblefuturethatwoulddrawthemclosertotheMiddleEast
TheGORUBSObuildingwasthetalleststructureinthecityandsatatthetopofthemainintersectionwherethesingleroadtookasharpleft turn and led drivers out of Madan and toward the city of Zlato-gradAlthoughGORUBSOhaddivisionsinfivesouthernBulgariancitiesMadanhadbeenitsadministrativecenterThenine-storeybuildingheldalloftheadministrativeofficesoftheenterpriseThissitehadoncesup-portedMadanrsquosoldmosqueapictureofwhichcanstillbefoundintheGORUBSOminingmuseumThelowhumblesquarestructurewithitstelltaleminarethadbeenthepreviouscenterofthecityuntilitwasbull-dozedtomakeroomforthelead-zincenterpriseheadquartersForoverthreedecadestheGORUBSObuildingdominatedthecenterofMadanashiningbeaconofcommunistmodernityjustasthecommunistenterprisehadoncedominatedthelivesofallwholivedinthecity
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Figure4 AbuildinginMadanin2005
GORUBSO brought immeasurable wealth to the city between 1945andtheearly1990swhenminingandmetalprocessingwereamongthemostrespectedandwellremuneratedprofessionsinBulgariaThousandsofworkerscamefromalloverthecountryandfromasfarawayasChinaandVietnamtoworkforthethrivingindustryItssuccesswasbasedontherichoredepositsintheMadanareaandGORUBSOinvestedheavilyinthedevelopmentofthecitybuildingapartmentblocsrecreationcom-plexescommunitycentersasoccerstadiumpoolsschoolsspecialhospi-talwardsetceteraItsupportedtheentirelocalcommunityuntilBulgariawassuddenlythrustintotheglobalcapitalisteconomyintheearly1990sandafatalcombinationoflaborunrestinternationalmarketpressurebungled privatization and high-level corruption conspired to run theminesintobankruptcy
ThecollapseofGORUBSOleftthousandsofmeninMadanunemployedanddestroyedthelocaleconomyleavingthewholecitytosinkincremen-tallyintoastateofvisibledisrepairTimeandgravityswallowedupmuchoftheinfrastructuresoproudlydevelopedthroughthenow-hackneyedcommunistidealsofprogressandmodernizationThecomingofdemoc-racyhadpromisedtomakethelivesoftheminersevenbettercombiningeconomicsuccesswithpoliticalandreligiousfreedomsbutinMadanas
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Figure5 TherenovatedfaccediladeoftheCultureHouserepresentingtheidealcommunistmanandwoman
elsewherethroughoutthepostsocialistworldinEasternEuropeandCen-tralAsiademocracyfailedtoliveuptoitspromisesandleftthousandsofdesertedruralcitiesinitswakeIndeedldquolivingblocsrdquothatoncehousedtwofamiliesineachapartmentwerenowemptyandcrumblingInmanyplacesolderbuildingscollapsedtheneighborhoodsontheoutskirtsofMadanwerepockmarkedwiththeruinsofthefailedenterpriselikeanar-cheologicalsiteoftherecentpastAsinRussiaEasternGermanyorKyr-gyzstanwheretheclosureofinefficientorhighlypollutingcommunist-eraenterprisesdestroyedthe localeconomiestheyoncesupportedMadanwasdecimatedbytheprivatizationofthelead-zincminesWithfewlocalreemploymentopportunitiesmanymenwereforcedtoseekjobsascon-structionworkersinBulgariarsquoslargercitiesorinWesternEuropeThosewho stayedbehindoften turned to alcoholdrowning their despair instronglocalrakiya(brandy)
Asapre-accessioncandidatetotheEuropeanUnionhoweverBulgariawasthebeneficiaryofmanyinitiativesTheldquoBeautifulBulgariardquoprojectwasonethattriedtokilltwoproverbialbirdswithonestoneAsawaytocombatthehighlevelofunemploymentaftertheclosureoftheminesandtorestoreMadanrsquoscentertoitsformerglorytheEuropeanUnioninvestedintherestorationofthesquareandthebuildingssurroundingittheIvan
10
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VazovKulturenDomtheofficesofthemunicipalitythefirestationalongwithafewsmallerprojectsThemainefforthoweverwasconcentratedontheroofdoorswindowsandplasterfaccediladeofthecommunitycenterwhichallneededextensiverepairsTheEuropeanUnionmeasured thesuccessoftheprojectbyhowmanyunemployedlaborerswereputtoworkon it andfor how manyldquoman-monthsrdquoThe communitycenter project em-ployedtwenty-fourpeopleforfifty-fiveman-monthsandleftabeautifullyrestoredcrimsonbuildingwithwhitecolumnsatthetopofawideplazawithachildrenrsquosplaygroundnearbyButwhentheworkwasfinishedthelaborerswereonceagainleftwithoutjobsThecommunitycenterwasin-deedabeautifulbuildingoneofthefewinacityinwhichalmosteveryotherstructurehadfallenorwasfallingapartanditstoodregallyasareminderofthepromiseoftheEuropeanUnionButtomanyitwasalsoasymboloftheshallownessofthatpromiseTheEuropeansmightbehappytorepaintafewbuildingsbuttherewerethoseinMadanwhoquestionedwhethertheEUwouldeversubstantiallyinvestinthefutureofthecityorifMadanwithits90percentMuslimpopulationwouldbeavictimratherthanabeneficiaryoftheEUaccession
ldquoTheEuropeanscandonothingforBulgariardquosaidHasanaretiredminerwhoworkedinthecafeacuteofthenewmosqueldquoThegoodswehavetosellthemtheyalreadyhaveTheyonlywanttosellustheirgoodsOurnaturaltradingpartnersareintheMiddleEastandthe[Soviet]UnionlikeitwasbeforedemocracyWehavegoodsthattheyneedBulgariashouldestablishclosertieswiththeMuslimworldandnotwiththeEuropeansTheEuropeansdonotneedusrdquo
HasantoldmethiswhilewesharedteainthecafeacuteofthemainmosqueAthinbluecurtaininthedoorwaybillowedinwardwiththelightbreezeItwasasentimentthatIhadheardfromothersinMadanparticularlyfromthosefrustratedintheirattemptstopenetratetheBulgarianmarketwiththeproductsoflocalindustryTheownerofasmallicecreamfactorycomplainedincessantlythattheaggressiveGreekshadtakenoverBulgariawiththeirDeltaicecreamleavinghimnochoicebuttoseekmarketsintheMiddleEastwherebeingaMuslimatleastearnedhimsomeadvantagesOnthewallsofthecafeacutetherewerethreeglossypostersofMeccaandinadditiontothejuiceshotdrinkssnacksand(Madan-made)icecreamHasansoldanassortmentofIslamicnewspapersmagazinesbooksandcompactdiscsforlearningmodernArabicHasantoldmethatordinarylaborersalsolookedtotheMiddleEastforworkwhentheycouldnotfinditinBulgariaandwereunwillingtoworkillegallyinHollandGermanyorSpainThecafeacutewesatinwastuckedonthegroundfloorofthethree-storeymosquewhichincludedahugewindoweddomeandatoweringminarettoppedbyasmallsilvercrescentTheoutsidewallsofthemosquewereacoolwhiteandthefirstthreemetersweretiledwithlargemosaic-
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likepiecesofsmoothgraymarbleTheminaretwastallandwhitewithgoldenverticalstripestwocircularbalconiesandfourbullhornspeak-ersthatdeliveredthecalltoprayerfivetimesadayItwasanimpressivestructure
Themost impressivepartof theMadanmosquehoweverwas theprayerhallAnelaboratefive-tieredcrystalchandelierhunginthecen-terofthevoluminousroomwithtwentylargearchedwindowsstream-inglightinfromtherightandleftsidesThemainfloorwherethemenprayedwascarpetedwithaluxuriousindigoblueandgoldrugTherewasaU-shapedbalconysupportedbywhitecolumnsthatdividedpartofthehallintotwofloorstheupperlevelwasthewomenrsquossectionanarchitectural feature thatmostBulgarianmosquesdidnothaveat thetimeAtthefrontofthehalltherewerefourmorearchedwindowsthatdribbledlightaroundanexquisitelydecoratednicheindicatingthedirec-tionofMeccaandcoveredwithbluemosaictilesandArabicscriptTheroomevokedasenseofaweandgrandeurthatwasquiteoutofplaceintheotherwiseimpoverishedcity
ThesheersizeandopulenceofthemosqueledtomanyspeculationsabouttheoriginofthefundsresponsibleforitsconstructionAlthoughnoonecouldspeakwithcertaintymanyMadanchanithoughtthefundshadcomefromabroadTheyhadfirstwantedtobuildthemosqueintheearly1990sand collectionswere takenupamong the cityrsquos residentsMenvolunteeredtheirlabortohelpwithitsconstructionButtheprojectsoonranoutoffundsformaterialsasthefutureofGORUBSObecameuncertainThemosquelanguishedunfinishedthroughthemiddlepartofthedecadeThentowardtheendofthe1990sthemoneysuddenlyap-pearedHasanclaimedthatthemoneyhadcomefromMadanresidentswholivedabroadSilvibelievedthatthefundshadcomefromSaudiAra-biaalthoughsomeofherAvonclientswhisperedthatithadcomefromIranIn2005themosquestoodasapowerfulreminderofthegrowinginfluenceoftheMuslimworldonthesmallcityThemosquebecameavibrantculturalandeducationalcenterunlikethecommunitycenterthesymboloftheEUrsquosfleetingandsuperficialaid
InthebattleforheartsandmindsinMadanthepromisesofglobalIs-lamicsolidaritychallengedthestill-remotealluresofWesternEuropeOnFridayswhentheimam(congregationalleader)gavehisweeklysermon themosquewasoverrunwithclosetoathousandmenmanyofthemformerminersThemosquehadbecomethecentraldistributionpointforrituallysacrificedmeatsdonatedfromabroadduringthetwobigIslamicfeastsRamazanBayramandKurbanBayramDuringthemonthofRamazan(Ramadan)attheendofeachdayrsquosfastthemosquedistributedanalmostendlesssupplyoffreecookiespastriesandothersweetsTheimamwasalsoresponsibleforsupportingthestudiesandambitionsofyoungpeople
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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Figure2 ThecenterofMadaninwinter
destroyedtheoldoneAndsoitwasmostupsettingofallwhenthenewimam(congregationalleader)andsomeyounglocalmenwhowerestudy-inginSaudiArabiastartedsayingthattheoldhodzhaswerenottrueMus-limsthattheywereuneducatedandthattheyhaddeceivedpeopleintoacceptingpracticeswhichwereun-Islamic
ldquoIamnotsurewhichwouldkillhimfasterrdquoLilireflectedonemorningovercoffeeastwoyounggirlsdressedinthenewArabski stil (Arab-style)ofIslamicdresspassedusinfrontofthepizzerialdquoToseemewearingashortskirtortoseemedressedlikeanArabka [femaleArab]Thisisnotthecityheknewrdquo
MadanthesmallcitythatwashometowomenlikeSilviandLiliwasnamedaftertheArabicwordforldquominerdquoItisaboutasix-hourdrivesouthandeastfromtheBulgariancapitalofSofiamostofitonsecondaryroadsthat wind precariously through the undulating peaks of the RhodopeMountainsBulgariansclaimthatthisisthelegendarylandofOrpheusthecradleofancientThraceThemountainsstraddletheonceimpervi-ousborderbetweencommunistBulgariaandcapitalistGreeceandtheyarefilledwithsmalltownsandvillagestuckedawayintodeepvalleysor
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perchedhighatopremotepeaksAmongthesesmalltownsthereareonlyafewcitiescreatedthroughcarefullyplannedprojectsofcommunistruraleconomicdevelopmentAtacertainpointinthedrivedownfromSofiathecrossesandbelltowersofthesmallcountrychurchesfoundacrossmostofBulgariaarereplacedbycone-tippedminaretsmdashminaretsrecentlyrebuiltafterhavingbeensystematicallytorndownbythecommunistsCities likeMadanandnearby Smolyan andRudozemwere clusteredinthecentralpartoftheRhodopeMountainsandwerehometothein-digenousBulgarian-speakingMuslimpopulationthePomaks2By2005theminaretsinmanyPomaksettlementshadsproutedanewlikeresilientdandelionsinthefertilesoilofnewfoundreligiousfreedom
AlthoughIslamhasalonghistoryinBulgariaitslocalmeaningsandpracticesbeganchangingafter1989asthereligionevolvedandadaptedtotheexigenciesoftheglobalforcesmdashsocialpoliticalandeconomicmdashunleashedbytheendofsocialism3ThecontoursofBulgarianIslamwerealsobeingshapedbythecontentiousinternalpoliticsofitsMuslimleadersaswellasbythedynamicandincreasinglycontroversialpositionofIslaminldquooldrdquoEuropewhereMuslimminoritiesbeganrejectingsecularismanddemandingthattheWesternnationsmakegoodontheirpromisesofmul-ticulturalismandtoleranceInthisbookIexaminethecomplexandever-mutatingtrajectoryofIslamthroughthelivesofmenandwomenlivinginonesmallcorneroftheEuropeancontinenttheRhodopeMountainsButratherthandepictingIslamwestoftheBosphorusasanundifferentiatedtotalitythiscasestudyofoneMuslimcitywilldemonstratehowthesocialmeaningsofIslaminformercommunistcountriesmaybequalitativelydifferentfromitsmeaningsontheothersideofthenow-phantomIronCurtain
MoreoverthiscasestudyshowsthatpeopleembracenewformsofIslamforlocallydefinedreasonsthatisinresponsetoground-levelculturalpoliticalhistoricalandeconomicfactorsthatdonoteasilyfitintograndschematicmodelstoexplainthegrowinginfluenceofIslaminEuropeCer-tainlyEuropeanMuslimcommunitiessharesomecommongeopoliticalcircumstancessuchastheubiquityofglobalizationthefinancialdomi-nanceofSaudiArabiaovertheinternationalIslamiccharitableaidestab-lishmentandgrowingworldwideIslamophobiaButthesemacrofactorsinteractwithparticularlocalconditionstopushorpullMuslimcommuni-tiestowardnewbeliefsandpracticesThisexaminationofMadanisjustoneglimpseintoachangethatseemstobeoccurringinMuslimcommuni-tiesaroundtheworldnamelytheeclipsingofldquotraditionalrdquoformsofIs-lambyldquopurifiedrdquoonesimportedfromabroadButasIwilldemonstratethesechangesareoccurringinsomeBulgarianMuslimcommunitieswhileotheralmostidenticalcommunitiesarerelativelyunaffectedThecentralquestionsareWhyhereandnotelsewhereAndwhynow
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SetwithinashallownarrowvalleyandbisectedbytheMadanskaRiverMadanhardlyqualifiesasacityin2005therewasonlyoneroadthatledinandoutWhenIdidmyfieldworktherebetween2005and2008IhadtodrivesouthfirsttotheregionalcapitalofSmolyanandthenturneastandtravelonadilapidatedtwo-laneroadthatledtowardtheGreekborderandthetwinPomakcitiesofMadanandRudozemAsIenteredMadanasmallbluesignwithwhiteCyrillicletteringinformedmethatIwas670metersabovesealevelandthatthecityhadapopulationof9000IknewhoweverthatmanypeoplehadleftMadanhaddroppeddowntoabout6000inthelastfewyearsAsIdroveintotownoneofthefirstthingsIpassedontherightwasanoldcommunistgarmentfactorynowownedbyanAustriancompanythatproducedluxuryskiclothingInthesummerthewindowswerealwaysopenandIcouldseethewomenin-sidesewingandembroideringtheindividualjacketsandpantsthatcouldcostasmuchasoneyearrsquosworthoftheirwagesYetthefactorypaidthehighestpiecerateintownplusalloftherequiredworkerrsquosinsurancesOntheleftwasaneighborhoodcalledldquo25rdquofullofageingfive-andsix-storeyapartmentblocsandsmalllocalshopssellingdrygoodsvegetableschildrenrsquosclothesfromTurkeyandcheapimportedChinesegoodsintheBulgarianequivalentofaldquodollarstorerdquo
FurtheruptheroadontherighttherewasasmallclusterofbusinessesincludingagasstationacarwasharestaurantandasmallhotelallnewandpaintedbrightyellowAlthough the signs readldquoRegalrdquothe localscalledtheplaceldquoSaramovrdquothelastnameofthemanwhobuiltandownedthebusinessesSaramovwasoneofthe10percentofMadanrsquosresidentsorMadanchaniwhowereChristianAlthoughhiswifewasaBulgarianMus-limfromanearbyvillageaprominentbannerofsixnakedblondewomenadvertisedhiscarwashtothoseenteringthecitySomeofthelocalsin-terpretedthebannerasasignofdisrespectforthemoreconservativereli-giousvaluesofMadanrsquosincreasinglydevoutMuslimsSomeclaimedthatSaramovhadlinkstothemutri (theBulgarianMafia)HedroveaMer-cedes jeepandhad two largebodyguardswhohungarounddrinkingcoffeeandgloweringatthecustomersDespitethishisrestaurantwasthemostpopularplaceintownandhissmallhotelwasalwaysfull
TheroadcurvedslightlyafterIpassedSaramovrsquoscomplexanditwasfromtherethatIcaughtfirstsightofthetoweringminaretofMadanrsquosimposingnewmosqueAboutaminutelaterIwouldarriveinthecenteroftownHeretherewerethreeimportantlandmarksthatcouldserveasarchitecturalmetaphorsforthetempestuouspostsocialisthistoryofthecityThefirstwastheoldGORUBSObuildingheadquartersoftheonceall-importantcommunistleadandzincminingenterpriseThesecondwastheIvanVazovKulturenDom(communitycenter)andthethirdwasthemegamosqueIftheAustrian-ownedgarmentfactoryandSaramovrsquosRegal
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Figure3 TheGORUBSObuilding
complexrepresentedthecityrsquostransitionaryprotocapitalistpresentthentheGORUBSObuildingstoodasasymbolofMadanrsquosoncevibrantcom-munistpastThecommunitycenterthefaccediladeofwhichwasrestoredandrepainted with funds from the European UnionrsquosldquoBeautiful Bulgariardquoproj-ect4representedonepossiblefuturefortheMadanchaniintheyearslead-inguptotheircountryrsquos2007EUaccessionwhilethemosquestoodforanotherpossiblefuturethatwoulddrawthemclosertotheMiddleEast
TheGORUBSObuildingwasthetalleststructureinthecityandsatatthetopofthemainintersectionwherethesingleroadtookasharpleft turn and led drivers out of Madan and toward the city of Zlato-gradAlthoughGORUBSOhaddivisionsinfivesouthernBulgariancitiesMadanhadbeenitsadministrativecenterThenine-storeybuildingheldalloftheadministrativeofficesoftheenterpriseThissitehadoncesup-portedMadanrsquosoldmosqueapictureofwhichcanstillbefoundintheGORUBSOminingmuseumThelowhumblesquarestructurewithitstelltaleminarethadbeenthepreviouscenterofthecityuntilitwasbull-dozedtomakeroomforthelead-zincenterpriseheadquartersForoverthreedecadestheGORUBSObuildingdominatedthecenterofMadanashiningbeaconofcommunistmodernityjustasthecommunistenterprisehadoncedominatedthelivesofallwholivedinthecity
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Figure4 AbuildinginMadanin2005
GORUBSO brought immeasurable wealth to the city between 1945andtheearly1990swhenminingandmetalprocessingwereamongthemostrespectedandwellremuneratedprofessionsinBulgariaThousandsofworkerscamefromalloverthecountryandfromasfarawayasChinaandVietnamtoworkforthethrivingindustryItssuccesswasbasedontherichoredepositsintheMadanareaandGORUBSOinvestedheavilyinthedevelopmentofthecitybuildingapartmentblocsrecreationcom-plexescommunitycentersasoccerstadiumpoolsschoolsspecialhospi-talwardsetceteraItsupportedtheentirelocalcommunityuntilBulgariawassuddenlythrustintotheglobalcapitalisteconomyintheearly1990sandafatalcombinationoflaborunrestinternationalmarketpressurebungled privatization and high-level corruption conspired to run theminesintobankruptcy
ThecollapseofGORUBSOleftthousandsofmeninMadanunemployedanddestroyedthelocaleconomyleavingthewholecitytosinkincremen-tallyintoastateofvisibledisrepairTimeandgravityswallowedupmuchoftheinfrastructuresoproudlydevelopedthroughthenow-hackneyedcommunistidealsofprogressandmodernizationThecomingofdemoc-racyhadpromisedtomakethelivesoftheminersevenbettercombiningeconomicsuccesswithpoliticalandreligiousfreedomsbutinMadanas
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Figure5 TherenovatedfaccediladeoftheCultureHouserepresentingtheidealcommunistmanandwoman
elsewherethroughoutthepostsocialistworldinEasternEuropeandCen-tralAsiademocracyfailedtoliveuptoitspromisesandleftthousandsofdesertedruralcitiesinitswakeIndeedldquolivingblocsrdquothatoncehousedtwofamiliesineachapartmentwerenowemptyandcrumblingInmanyplacesolderbuildingscollapsedtheneighborhoodsontheoutskirtsofMadanwerepockmarkedwiththeruinsofthefailedenterpriselikeanar-cheologicalsiteoftherecentpastAsinRussiaEasternGermanyorKyr-gyzstanwheretheclosureofinefficientorhighlypollutingcommunist-eraenterprisesdestroyedthe localeconomiestheyoncesupportedMadanwasdecimatedbytheprivatizationofthelead-zincminesWithfewlocalreemploymentopportunitiesmanymenwereforcedtoseekjobsascon-structionworkersinBulgariarsquoslargercitiesorinWesternEuropeThosewho stayedbehindoften turned to alcoholdrowning their despair instronglocalrakiya(brandy)
Asapre-accessioncandidatetotheEuropeanUnionhoweverBulgariawasthebeneficiaryofmanyinitiativesTheldquoBeautifulBulgariardquoprojectwasonethattriedtokilltwoproverbialbirdswithonestoneAsawaytocombatthehighlevelofunemploymentaftertheclosureoftheminesandtorestoreMadanrsquoscentertoitsformerglorytheEuropeanUnioninvestedintherestorationofthesquareandthebuildingssurroundingittheIvan
10
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VazovKulturenDomtheofficesofthemunicipalitythefirestationalongwithafewsmallerprojectsThemainefforthoweverwasconcentratedontheroofdoorswindowsandplasterfaccediladeofthecommunitycenterwhichallneededextensiverepairsTheEuropeanUnionmeasured thesuccessoftheprojectbyhowmanyunemployedlaborerswereputtoworkon it andfor how manyldquoman-monthsrdquoThe communitycenter project em-ployedtwenty-fourpeopleforfifty-fiveman-monthsandleftabeautifullyrestoredcrimsonbuildingwithwhitecolumnsatthetopofawideplazawithachildrenrsquosplaygroundnearbyButwhentheworkwasfinishedthelaborerswereonceagainleftwithoutjobsThecommunitycenterwasin-deedabeautifulbuildingoneofthefewinacityinwhichalmosteveryotherstructurehadfallenorwasfallingapartanditstoodregallyasareminderofthepromiseoftheEuropeanUnionButtomanyitwasalsoasymboloftheshallownessofthatpromiseTheEuropeansmightbehappytorepaintafewbuildingsbuttherewerethoseinMadanwhoquestionedwhethertheEUwouldeversubstantiallyinvestinthefutureofthecityorifMadanwithits90percentMuslimpopulationwouldbeavictimratherthanabeneficiaryoftheEUaccession
ldquoTheEuropeanscandonothingforBulgariardquosaidHasanaretiredminerwhoworkedinthecafeacuteofthenewmosqueldquoThegoodswehavetosellthemtheyalreadyhaveTheyonlywanttosellustheirgoodsOurnaturaltradingpartnersareintheMiddleEastandthe[Soviet]UnionlikeitwasbeforedemocracyWehavegoodsthattheyneedBulgariashouldestablishclosertieswiththeMuslimworldandnotwiththeEuropeansTheEuropeansdonotneedusrdquo
HasantoldmethiswhilewesharedteainthecafeacuteofthemainmosqueAthinbluecurtaininthedoorwaybillowedinwardwiththelightbreezeItwasasentimentthatIhadheardfromothersinMadanparticularlyfromthosefrustratedintheirattemptstopenetratetheBulgarianmarketwiththeproductsoflocalindustryTheownerofasmallicecreamfactorycomplainedincessantlythattheaggressiveGreekshadtakenoverBulgariawiththeirDeltaicecreamleavinghimnochoicebuttoseekmarketsintheMiddleEastwherebeingaMuslimatleastearnedhimsomeadvantagesOnthewallsofthecafeacutetherewerethreeglossypostersofMeccaandinadditiontothejuiceshotdrinkssnacksand(Madan-made)icecreamHasansoldanassortmentofIslamicnewspapersmagazinesbooksandcompactdiscsforlearningmodernArabicHasantoldmethatordinarylaborersalsolookedtotheMiddleEastforworkwhentheycouldnotfinditinBulgariaandwereunwillingtoworkillegallyinHollandGermanyorSpainThecafeacutewesatinwastuckedonthegroundfloorofthethree-storeymosquewhichincludedahugewindoweddomeandatoweringminarettoppedbyasmallsilvercrescentTheoutsidewallsofthemosquewereacoolwhiteandthefirstthreemetersweretiledwithlargemosaic-
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likepiecesofsmoothgraymarbleTheminaretwastallandwhitewithgoldenverticalstripestwocircularbalconiesandfourbullhornspeak-ersthatdeliveredthecalltoprayerfivetimesadayItwasanimpressivestructure
Themost impressivepartof theMadanmosquehoweverwas theprayerhallAnelaboratefive-tieredcrystalchandelierhunginthecen-terofthevoluminousroomwithtwentylargearchedwindowsstream-inglightinfromtherightandleftsidesThemainfloorwherethemenprayedwascarpetedwithaluxuriousindigoblueandgoldrugTherewasaU-shapedbalconysupportedbywhitecolumnsthatdividedpartofthehallintotwofloorstheupperlevelwasthewomenrsquossectionanarchitectural feature thatmostBulgarianmosquesdidnothaveat thetimeAtthefrontofthehalltherewerefourmorearchedwindowsthatdribbledlightaroundanexquisitelydecoratednicheindicatingthedirec-tionofMeccaandcoveredwithbluemosaictilesandArabicscriptTheroomevokedasenseofaweandgrandeurthatwasquiteoutofplaceintheotherwiseimpoverishedcity
ThesheersizeandopulenceofthemosqueledtomanyspeculationsabouttheoriginofthefundsresponsibleforitsconstructionAlthoughnoonecouldspeakwithcertaintymanyMadanchanithoughtthefundshadcomefromabroadTheyhadfirstwantedtobuildthemosqueintheearly1990sand collectionswere takenupamong the cityrsquos residentsMenvolunteeredtheirlabortohelpwithitsconstructionButtheprojectsoonranoutoffundsformaterialsasthefutureofGORUBSObecameuncertainThemosquelanguishedunfinishedthroughthemiddlepartofthedecadeThentowardtheendofthe1990sthemoneysuddenlyap-pearedHasanclaimedthatthemoneyhadcomefromMadanresidentswholivedabroadSilvibelievedthatthefundshadcomefromSaudiAra-biaalthoughsomeofherAvonclientswhisperedthatithadcomefromIranIn2005themosquestoodasapowerfulreminderofthegrowinginfluenceoftheMuslimworldonthesmallcityThemosquebecameavibrantculturalandeducationalcenterunlikethecommunitycenterthesymboloftheEUrsquosfleetingandsuperficialaid
InthebattleforheartsandmindsinMadanthepromisesofglobalIs-lamicsolidaritychallengedthestill-remotealluresofWesternEuropeOnFridayswhentheimam(congregationalleader)gavehisweeklysermon themosquewasoverrunwithclosetoathousandmenmanyofthemformerminersThemosquehadbecomethecentraldistributionpointforrituallysacrificedmeatsdonatedfromabroadduringthetwobigIslamicfeastsRamazanBayramandKurbanBayramDuringthemonthofRamazan(Ramadan)attheendofeachdayrsquosfastthemosquedistributedanalmostendlesssupplyoffreecookiespastriesandothersweetsTheimamwasalsoresponsibleforsupportingthestudiesandambitionsofyoungpeople
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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perchedhighatopremotepeaksAmongthesesmalltownsthereareonlyafewcitiescreatedthroughcarefullyplannedprojectsofcommunistruraleconomicdevelopmentAtacertainpointinthedrivedownfromSofiathecrossesandbelltowersofthesmallcountrychurchesfoundacrossmostofBulgariaarereplacedbycone-tippedminaretsmdashminaretsrecentlyrebuiltafterhavingbeensystematicallytorndownbythecommunistsCities likeMadanandnearby Smolyan andRudozemwere clusteredinthecentralpartoftheRhodopeMountainsandwerehometothein-digenousBulgarian-speakingMuslimpopulationthePomaks2By2005theminaretsinmanyPomaksettlementshadsproutedanewlikeresilientdandelionsinthefertilesoilofnewfoundreligiousfreedom
AlthoughIslamhasalonghistoryinBulgariaitslocalmeaningsandpracticesbeganchangingafter1989asthereligionevolvedandadaptedtotheexigenciesoftheglobalforcesmdashsocialpoliticalandeconomicmdashunleashedbytheendofsocialism3ThecontoursofBulgarianIslamwerealsobeingshapedbythecontentiousinternalpoliticsofitsMuslimleadersaswellasbythedynamicandincreasinglycontroversialpositionofIslaminldquooldrdquoEuropewhereMuslimminoritiesbeganrejectingsecularismanddemandingthattheWesternnationsmakegoodontheirpromisesofmul-ticulturalismandtoleranceInthisbookIexaminethecomplexandever-mutatingtrajectoryofIslamthroughthelivesofmenandwomenlivinginonesmallcorneroftheEuropeancontinenttheRhodopeMountainsButratherthandepictingIslamwestoftheBosphorusasanundifferentiatedtotalitythiscasestudyofoneMuslimcitywilldemonstratehowthesocialmeaningsofIslaminformercommunistcountriesmaybequalitativelydifferentfromitsmeaningsontheothersideofthenow-phantomIronCurtain
MoreoverthiscasestudyshowsthatpeopleembracenewformsofIslamforlocallydefinedreasonsthatisinresponsetoground-levelculturalpoliticalhistoricalandeconomicfactorsthatdonoteasilyfitintograndschematicmodelstoexplainthegrowinginfluenceofIslaminEuropeCer-tainlyEuropeanMuslimcommunitiessharesomecommongeopoliticalcircumstancessuchastheubiquityofglobalizationthefinancialdomi-nanceofSaudiArabiaovertheinternationalIslamiccharitableaidestab-lishmentandgrowingworldwideIslamophobiaButthesemacrofactorsinteractwithparticularlocalconditionstopushorpullMuslimcommuni-tiestowardnewbeliefsandpracticesThisexaminationofMadanisjustoneglimpseintoachangethatseemstobeoccurringinMuslimcommuni-tiesaroundtheworldnamelytheeclipsingofldquotraditionalrdquoformsofIs-lambyldquopurifiedrdquoonesimportedfromabroadButasIwilldemonstratethesechangesareoccurringinsomeBulgarianMuslimcommunitieswhileotheralmostidenticalcommunitiesarerelativelyunaffectedThecentralquestionsareWhyhereandnotelsewhereAndwhynow
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SetwithinashallownarrowvalleyandbisectedbytheMadanskaRiverMadanhardlyqualifiesasacityin2005therewasonlyoneroadthatledinandoutWhenIdidmyfieldworktherebetween2005and2008IhadtodrivesouthfirsttotheregionalcapitalofSmolyanandthenturneastandtravelonadilapidatedtwo-laneroadthatledtowardtheGreekborderandthetwinPomakcitiesofMadanandRudozemAsIenteredMadanasmallbluesignwithwhiteCyrillicletteringinformedmethatIwas670metersabovesealevelandthatthecityhadapopulationof9000IknewhoweverthatmanypeoplehadleftMadanhaddroppeddowntoabout6000inthelastfewyearsAsIdroveintotownoneofthefirstthingsIpassedontherightwasanoldcommunistgarmentfactorynowownedbyanAustriancompanythatproducedluxuryskiclothingInthesummerthewindowswerealwaysopenandIcouldseethewomenin-sidesewingandembroideringtheindividualjacketsandpantsthatcouldcostasmuchasoneyearrsquosworthoftheirwagesYetthefactorypaidthehighestpiecerateintownplusalloftherequiredworkerrsquosinsurancesOntheleftwasaneighborhoodcalledldquo25rdquofullofageingfive-andsix-storeyapartmentblocsandsmalllocalshopssellingdrygoodsvegetableschildrenrsquosclothesfromTurkeyandcheapimportedChinesegoodsintheBulgarianequivalentofaldquodollarstorerdquo
FurtheruptheroadontherighttherewasasmallclusterofbusinessesincludingagasstationacarwasharestaurantandasmallhotelallnewandpaintedbrightyellowAlthough the signs readldquoRegalrdquothe localscalledtheplaceldquoSaramovrdquothelastnameofthemanwhobuiltandownedthebusinessesSaramovwasoneofthe10percentofMadanrsquosresidentsorMadanchaniwhowereChristianAlthoughhiswifewasaBulgarianMus-limfromanearbyvillageaprominentbannerofsixnakedblondewomenadvertisedhiscarwashtothoseenteringthecitySomeofthelocalsin-terpretedthebannerasasignofdisrespectforthemoreconservativereli-giousvaluesofMadanrsquosincreasinglydevoutMuslimsSomeclaimedthatSaramovhadlinkstothemutri (theBulgarianMafia)HedroveaMer-cedes jeepandhad two largebodyguardswhohungarounddrinkingcoffeeandgloweringatthecustomersDespitethishisrestaurantwasthemostpopularplaceintownandhissmallhotelwasalwaysfull
TheroadcurvedslightlyafterIpassedSaramovrsquoscomplexanditwasfromtherethatIcaughtfirstsightofthetoweringminaretofMadanrsquosimposingnewmosqueAboutaminutelaterIwouldarriveinthecenteroftownHeretherewerethreeimportantlandmarksthatcouldserveasarchitecturalmetaphorsforthetempestuouspostsocialisthistoryofthecityThefirstwastheoldGORUBSObuildingheadquartersoftheonceall-importantcommunistleadandzincminingenterpriseThesecondwastheIvanVazovKulturenDom(communitycenter)andthethirdwasthemegamosqueIftheAustrian-ownedgarmentfactoryandSaramovrsquosRegal
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Figure3 TheGORUBSObuilding
complexrepresentedthecityrsquostransitionaryprotocapitalistpresentthentheGORUBSObuildingstoodasasymbolofMadanrsquosoncevibrantcom-munistpastThecommunitycenterthefaccediladeofwhichwasrestoredandrepainted with funds from the European UnionrsquosldquoBeautiful Bulgariardquoproj-ect4representedonepossiblefuturefortheMadanchaniintheyearslead-inguptotheircountryrsquos2007EUaccessionwhilethemosquestoodforanotherpossiblefuturethatwoulddrawthemclosertotheMiddleEast
TheGORUBSObuildingwasthetalleststructureinthecityandsatatthetopofthemainintersectionwherethesingleroadtookasharpleft turn and led drivers out of Madan and toward the city of Zlato-gradAlthoughGORUBSOhaddivisionsinfivesouthernBulgariancitiesMadanhadbeenitsadministrativecenterThenine-storeybuildingheldalloftheadministrativeofficesoftheenterpriseThissitehadoncesup-portedMadanrsquosoldmosqueapictureofwhichcanstillbefoundintheGORUBSOminingmuseumThelowhumblesquarestructurewithitstelltaleminarethadbeenthepreviouscenterofthecityuntilitwasbull-dozedtomakeroomforthelead-zincenterpriseheadquartersForoverthreedecadestheGORUBSObuildingdominatedthecenterofMadanashiningbeaconofcommunistmodernityjustasthecommunistenterprisehadoncedominatedthelivesofallwholivedinthecity
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Figure4 AbuildinginMadanin2005
GORUBSO brought immeasurable wealth to the city between 1945andtheearly1990swhenminingandmetalprocessingwereamongthemostrespectedandwellremuneratedprofessionsinBulgariaThousandsofworkerscamefromalloverthecountryandfromasfarawayasChinaandVietnamtoworkforthethrivingindustryItssuccesswasbasedontherichoredepositsintheMadanareaandGORUBSOinvestedheavilyinthedevelopmentofthecitybuildingapartmentblocsrecreationcom-plexescommunitycentersasoccerstadiumpoolsschoolsspecialhospi-talwardsetceteraItsupportedtheentirelocalcommunityuntilBulgariawassuddenlythrustintotheglobalcapitalisteconomyintheearly1990sandafatalcombinationoflaborunrestinternationalmarketpressurebungled privatization and high-level corruption conspired to run theminesintobankruptcy
ThecollapseofGORUBSOleftthousandsofmeninMadanunemployedanddestroyedthelocaleconomyleavingthewholecitytosinkincremen-tallyintoastateofvisibledisrepairTimeandgravityswallowedupmuchoftheinfrastructuresoproudlydevelopedthroughthenow-hackneyedcommunistidealsofprogressandmodernizationThecomingofdemoc-racyhadpromisedtomakethelivesoftheminersevenbettercombiningeconomicsuccesswithpoliticalandreligiousfreedomsbutinMadanas
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Figure5 TherenovatedfaccediladeoftheCultureHouserepresentingtheidealcommunistmanandwoman
elsewherethroughoutthepostsocialistworldinEasternEuropeandCen-tralAsiademocracyfailedtoliveuptoitspromisesandleftthousandsofdesertedruralcitiesinitswakeIndeedldquolivingblocsrdquothatoncehousedtwofamiliesineachapartmentwerenowemptyandcrumblingInmanyplacesolderbuildingscollapsedtheneighborhoodsontheoutskirtsofMadanwerepockmarkedwiththeruinsofthefailedenterpriselikeanar-cheologicalsiteoftherecentpastAsinRussiaEasternGermanyorKyr-gyzstanwheretheclosureofinefficientorhighlypollutingcommunist-eraenterprisesdestroyedthe localeconomiestheyoncesupportedMadanwasdecimatedbytheprivatizationofthelead-zincminesWithfewlocalreemploymentopportunitiesmanymenwereforcedtoseekjobsascon-structionworkersinBulgariarsquoslargercitiesorinWesternEuropeThosewho stayedbehindoften turned to alcoholdrowning their despair instronglocalrakiya(brandy)
Asapre-accessioncandidatetotheEuropeanUnionhoweverBulgariawasthebeneficiaryofmanyinitiativesTheldquoBeautifulBulgariardquoprojectwasonethattriedtokilltwoproverbialbirdswithonestoneAsawaytocombatthehighlevelofunemploymentaftertheclosureoftheminesandtorestoreMadanrsquoscentertoitsformerglorytheEuropeanUnioninvestedintherestorationofthesquareandthebuildingssurroundingittheIvan
10
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VazovKulturenDomtheofficesofthemunicipalitythefirestationalongwithafewsmallerprojectsThemainefforthoweverwasconcentratedontheroofdoorswindowsandplasterfaccediladeofthecommunitycenterwhichallneededextensiverepairsTheEuropeanUnionmeasured thesuccessoftheprojectbyhowmanyunemployedlaborerswereputtoworkon it andfor how manyldquoman-monthsrdquoThe communitycenter project em-ployedtwenty-fourpeopleforfifty-fiveman-monthsandleftabeautifullyrestoredcrimsonbuildingwithwhitecolumnsatthetopofawideplazawithachildrenrsquosplaygroundnearbyButwhentheworkwasfinishedthelaborerswereonceagainleftwithoutjobsThecommunitycenterwasin-deedabeautifulbuildingoneofthefewinacityinwhichalmosteveryotherstructurehadfallenorwasfallingapartanditstoodregallyasareminderofthepromiseoftheEuropeanUnionButtomanyitwasalsoasymboloftheshallownessofthatpromiseTheEuropeansmightbehappytorepaintafewbuildingsbuttherewerethoseinMadanwhoquestionedwhethertheEUwouldeversubstantiallyinvestinthefutureofthecityorifMadanwithits90percentMuslimpopulationwouldbeavictimratherthanabeneficiaryoftheEUaccession
ldquoTheEuropeanscandonothingforBulgariardquosaidHasanaretiredminerwhoworkedinthecafeacuteofthenewmosqueldquoThegoodswehavetosellthemtheyalreadyhaveTheyonlywanttosellustheirgoodsOurnaturaltradingpartnersareintheMiddleEastandthe[Soviet]UnionlikeitwasbeforedemocracyWehavegoodsthattheyneedBulgariashouldestablishclosertieswiththeMuslimworldandnotwiththeEuropeansTheEuropeansdonotneedusrdquo
HasantoldmethiswhilewesharedteainthecafeacuteofthemainmosqueAthinbluecurtaininthedoorwaybillowedinwardwiththelightbreezeItwasasentimentthatIhadheardfromothersinMadanparticularlyfromthosefrustratedintheirattemptstopenetratetheBulgarianmarketwiththeproductsoflocalindustryTheownerofasmallicecreamfactorycomplainedincessantlythattheaggressiveGreekshadtakenoverBulgariawiththeirDeltaicecreamleavinghimnochoicebuttoseekmarketsintheMiddleEastwherebeingaMuslimatleastearnedhimsomeadvantagesOnthewallsofthecafeacutetherewerethreeglossypostersofMeccaandinadditiontothejuiceshotdrinkssnacksand(Madan-made)icecreamHasansoldanassortmentofIslamicnewspapersmagazinesbooksandcompactdiscsforlearningmodernArabicHasantoldmethatordinarylaborersalsolookedtotheMiddleEastforworkwhentheycouldnotfinditinBulgariaandwereunwillingtoworkillegallyinHollandGermanyorSpainThecafeacutewesatinwastuckedonthegroundfloorofthethree-storeymosquewhichincludedahugewindoweddomeandatoweringminarettoppedbyasmallsilvercrescentTheoutsidewallsofthemosquewereacoolwhiteandthefirstthreemetersweretiledwithlargemosaic-
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likepiecesofsmoothgraymarbleTheminaretwastallandwhitewithgoldenverticalstripestwocircularbalconiesandfourbullhornspeak-ersthatdeliveredthecalltoprayerfivetimesadayItwasanimpressivestructure
Themost impressivepartof theMadanmosquehoweverwas theprayerhallAnelaboratefive-tieredcrystalchandelierhunginthecen-terofthevoluminousroomwithtwentylargearchedwindowsstream-inglightinfromtherightandleftsidesThemainfloorwherethemenprayedwascarpetedwithaluxuriousindigoblueandgoldrugTherewasaU-shapedbalconysupportedbywhitecolumnsthatdividedpartofthehallintotwofloorstheupperlevelwasthewomenrsquossectionanarchitectural feature thatmostBulgarianmosquesdidnothaveat thetimeAtthefrontofthehalltherewerefourmorearchedwindowsthatdribbledlightaroundanexquisitelydecoratednicheindicatingthedirec-tionofMeccaandcoveredwithbluemosaictilesandArabicscriptTheroomevokedasenseofaweandgrandeurthatwasquiteoutofplaceintheotherwiseimpoverishedcity
ThesheersizeandopulenceofthemosqueledtomanyspeculationsabouttheoriginofthefundsresponsibleforitsconstructionAlthoughnoonecouldspeakwithcertaintymanyMadanchanithoughtthefundshadcomefromabroadTheyhadfirstwantedtobuildthemosqueintheearly1990sand collectionswere takenupamong the cityrsquos residentsMenvolunteeredtheirlabortohelpwithitsconstructionButtheprojectsoonranoutoffundsformaterialsasthefutureofGORUBSObecameuncertainThemosquelanguishedunfinishedthroughthemiddlepartofthedecadeThentowardtheendofthe1990sthemoneysuddenlyap-pearedHasanclaimedthatthemoneyhadcomefromMadanresidentswholivedabroadSilvibelievedthatthefundshadcomefromSaudiAra-biaalthoughsomeofherAvonclientswhisperedthatithadcomefromIranIn2005themosquestoodasapowerfulreminderofthegrowinginfluenceoftheMuslimworldonthesmallcityThemosquebecameavibrantculturalandeducationalcenterunlikethecommunitycenterthesymboloftheEUrsquosfleetingandsuperficialaid
InthebattleforheartsandmindsinMadanthepromisesofglobalIs-lamicsolidaritychallengedthestill-remotealluresofWesternEuropeOnFridayswhentheimam(congregationalleader)gavehisweeklysermon themosquewasoverrunwithclosetoathousandmenmanyofthemformerminersThemosquehadbecomethecentraldistributionpointforrituallysacrificedmeatsdonatedfromabroadduringthetwobigIslamicfeastsRamazanBayramandKurbanBayramDuringthemonthofRamazan(Ramadan)attheendofeachdayrsquosfastthemosquedistributedanalmostendlesssupplyoffreecookiespastriesandothersweetsTheimamwasalsoresponsibleforsupportingthestudiesandambitionsofyoungpeople
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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SetwithinashallownarrowvalleyandbisectedbytheMadanskaRiverMadanhardlyqualifiesasacityin2005therewasonlyoneroadthatledinandoutWhenIdidmyfieldworktherebetween2005and2008IhadtodrivesouthfirsttotheregionalcapitalofSmolyanandthenturneastandtravelonadilapidatedtwo-laneroadthatledtowardtheGreekborderandthetwinPomakcitiesofMadanandRudozemAsIenteredMadanasmallbluesignwithwhiteCyrillicletteringinformedmethatIwas670metersabovesealevelandthatthecityhadapopulationof9000IknewhoweverthatmanypeoplehadleftMadanhaddroppeddowntoabout6000inthelastfewyearsAsIdroveintotownoneofthefirstthingsIpassedontherightwasanoldcommunistgarmentfactorynowownedbyanAustriancompanythatproducedluxuryskiclothingInthesummerthewindowswerealwaysopenandIcouldseethewomenin-sidesewingandembroideringtheindividualjacketsandpantsthatcouldcostasmuchasoneyearrsquosworthoftheirwagesYetthefactorypaidthehighestpiecerateintownplusalloftherequiredworkerrsquosinsurancesOntheleftwasaneighborhoodcalledldquo25rdquofullofageingfive-andsix-storeyapartmentblocsandsmalllocalshopssellingdrygoodsvegetableschildrenrsquosclothesfromTurkeyandcheapimportedChinesegoodsintheBulgarianequivalentofaldquodollarstorerdquo
FurtheruptheroadontherighttherewasasmallclusterofbusinessesincludingagasstationacarwasharestaurantandasmallhotelallnewandpaintedbrightyellowAlthough the signs readldquoRegalrdquothe localscalledtheplaceldquoSaramovrdquothelastnameofthemanwhobuiltandownedthebusinessesSaramovwasoneofthe10percentofMadanrsquosresidentsorMadanchaniwhowereChristianAlthoughhiswifewasaBulgarianMus-limfromanearbyvillageaprominentbannerofsixnakedblondewomenadvertisedhiscarwashtothoseenteringthecitySomeofthelocalsin-terpretedthebannerasasignofdisrespectforthemoreconservativereli-giousvaluesofMadanrsquosincreasinglydevoutMuslimsSomeclaimedthatSaramovhadlinkstothemutri (theBulgarianMafia)HedroveaMer-cedes jeepandhad two largebodyguardswhohungarounddrinkingcoffeeandgloweringatthecustomersDespitethishisrestaurantwasthemostpopularplaceintownandhissmallhotelwasalwaysfull
TheroadcurvedslightlyafterIpassedSaramovrsquoscomplexanditwasfromtherethatIcaughtfirstsightofthetoweringminaretofMadanrsquosimposingnewmosqueAboutaminutelaterIwouldarriveinthecenteroftownHeretherewerethreeimportantlandmarksthatcouldserveasarchitecturalmetaphorsforthetempestuouspostsocialisthistoryofthecityThefirstwastheoldGORUBSObuildingheadquartersoftheonceall-importantcommunistleadandzincminingenterpriseThesecondwastheIvanVazovKulturenDom(communitycenter)andthethirdwasthemegamosqueIftheAustrian-ownedgarmentfactoryandSaramovrsquosRegal
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Figure3 TheGORUBSObuilding
complexrepresentedthecityrsquostransitionaryprotocapitalistpresentthentheGORUBSObuildingstoodasasymbolofMadanrsquosoncevibrantcom-munistpastThecommunitycenterthefaccediladeofwhichwasrestoredandrepainted with funds from the European UnionrsquosldquoBeautiful Bulgariardquoproj-ect4representedonepossiblefuturefortheMadanchaniintheyearslead-inguptotheircountryrsquos2007EUaccessionwhilethemosquestoodforanotherpossiblefuturethatwoulddrawthemclosertotheMiddleEast
TheGORUBSObuildingwasthetalleststructureinthecityandsatatthetopofthemainintersectionwherethesingleroadtookasharpleft turn and led drivers out of Madan and toward the city of Zlato-gradAlthoughGORUBSOhaddivisionsinfivesouthernBulgariancitiesMadanhadbeenitsadministrativecenterThenine-storeybuildingheldalloftheadministrativeofficesoftheenterpriseThissitehadoncesup-portedMadanrsquosoldmosqueapictureofwhichcanstillbefoundintheGORUBSOminingmuseumThelowhumblesquarestructurewithitstelltaleminarethadbeenthepreviouscenterofthecityuntilitwasbull-dozedtomakeroomforthelead-zincenterpriseheadquartersForoverthreedecadestheGORUBSObuildingdominatedthecenterofMadanashiningbeaconofcommunistmodernityjustasthecommunistenterprisehadoncedominatedthelivesofallwholivedinthecity
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Figure4 AbuildinginMadanin2005
GORUBSO brought immeasurable wealth to the city between 1945andtheearly1990swhenminingandmetalprocessingwereamongthemostrespectedandwellremuneratedprofessionsinBulgariaThousandsofworkerscamefromalloverthecountryandfromasfarawayasChinaandVietnamtoworkforthethrivingindustryItssuccesswasbasedontherichoredepositsintheMadanareaandGORUBSOinvestedheavilyinthedevelopmentofthecitybuildingapartmentblocsrecreationcom-plexescommunitycentersasoccerstadiumpoolsschoolsspecialhospi-talwardsetceteraItsupportedtheentirelocalcommunityuntilBulgariawassuddenlythrustintotheglobalcapitalisteconomyintheearly1990sandafatalcombinationoflaborunrestinternationalmarketpressurebungled privatization and high-level corruption conspired to run theminesintobankruptcy
ThecollapseofGORUBSOleftthousandsofmeninMadanunemployedanddestroyedthelocaleconomyleavingthewholecitytosinkincremen-tallyintoastateofvisibledisrepairTimeandgravityswallowedupmuchoftheinfrastructuresoproudlydevelopedthroughthenow-hackneyedcommunistidealsofprogressandmodernizationThecomingofdemoc-racyhadpromisedtomakethelivesoftheminersevenbettercombiningeconomicsuccesswithpoliticalandreligiousfreedomsbutinMadanas
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Figure5 TherenovatedfaccediladeoftheCultureHouserepresentingtheidealcommunistmanandwoman
elsewherethroughoutthepostsocialistworldinEasternEuropeandCen-tralAsiademocracyfailedtoliveuptoitspromisesandleftthousandsofdesertedruralcitiesinitswakeIndeedldquolivingblocsrdquothatoncehousedtwofamiliesineachapartmentwerenowemptyandcrumblingInmanyplacesolderbuildingscollapsedtheneighborhoodsontheoutskirtsofMadanwerepockmarkedwiththeruinsofthefailedenterpriselikeanar-cheologicalsiteoftherecentpastAsinRussiaEasternGermanyorKyr-gyzstanwheretheclosureofinefficientorhighlypollutingcommunist-eraenterprisesdestroyedthe localeconomiestheyoncesupportedMadanwasdecimatedbytheprivatizationofthelead-zincminesWithfewlocalreemploymentopportunitiesmanymenwereforcedtoseekjobsascon-structionworkersinBulgariarsquoslargercitiesorinWesternEuropeThosewho stayedbehindoften turned to alcoholdrowning their despair instronglocalrakiya(brandy)
Asapre-accessioncandidatetotheEuropeanUnionhoweverBulgariawasthebeneficiaryofmanyinitiativesTheldquoBeautifulBulgariardquoprojectwasonethattriedtokilltwoproverbialbirdswithonestoneAsawaytocombatthehighlevelofunemploymentaftertheclosureoftheminesandtorestoreMadanrsquoscentertoitsformerglorytheEuropeanUnioninvestedintherestorationofthesquareandthebuildingssurroundingittheIvan
10
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VazovKulturenDomtheofficesofthemunicipalitythefirestationalongwithafewsmallerprojectsThemainefforthoweverwasconcentratedontheroofdoorswindowsandplasterfaccediladeofthecommunitycenterwhichallneededextensiverepairsTheEuropeanUnionmeasured thesuccessoftheprojectbyhowmanyunemployedlaborerswereputtoworkon it andfor how manyldquoman-monthsrdquoThe communitycenter project em-ployedtwenty-fourpeopleforfifty-fiveman-monthsandleftabeautifullyrestoredcrimsonbuildingwithwhitecolumnsatthetopofawideplazawithachildrenrsquosplaygroundnearbyButwhentheworkwasfinishedthelaborerswereonceagainleftwithoutjobsThecommunitycenterwasin-deedabeautifulbuildingoneofthefewinacityinwhichalmosteveryotherstructurehadfallenorwasfallingapartanditstoodregallyasareminderofthepromiseoftheEuropeanUnionButtomanyitwasalsoasymboloftheshallownessofthatpromiseTheEuropeansmightbehappytorepaintafewbuildingsbuttherewerethoseinMadanwhoquestionedwhethertheEUwouldeversubstantiallyinvestinthefutureofthecityorifMadanwithits90percentMuslimpopulationwouldbeavictimratherthanabeneficiaryoftheEUaccession
ldquoTheEuropeanscandonothingforBulgariardquosaidHasanaretiredminerwhoworkedinthecafeacuteofthenewmosqueldquoThegoodswehavetosellthemtheyalreadyhaveTheyonlywanttosellustheirgoodsOurnaturaltradingpartnersareintheMiddleEastandthe[Soviet]UnionlikeitwasbeforedemocracyWehavegoodsthattheyneedBulgariashouldestablishclosertieswiththeMuslimworldandnotwiththeEuropeansTheEuropeansdonotneedusrdquo
HasantoldmethiswhilewesharedteainthecafeacuteofthemainmosqueAthinbluecurtaininthedoorwaybillowedinwardwiththelightbreezeItwasasentimentthatIhadheardfromothersinMadanparticularlyfromthosefrustratedintheirattemptstopenetratetheBulgarianmarketwiththeproductsoflocalindustryTheownerofasmallicecreamfactorycomplainedincessantlythattheaggressiveGreekshadtakenoverBulgariawiththeirDeltaicecreamleavinghimnochoicebuttoseekmarketsintheMiddleEastwherebeingaMuslimatleastearnedhimsomeadvantagesOnthewallsofthecafeacutetherewerethreeglossypostersofMeccaandinadditiontothejuiceshotdrinkssnacksand(Madan-made)icecreamHasansoldanassortmentofIslamicnewspapersmagazinesbooksandcompactdiscsforlearningmodernArabicHasantoldmethatordinarylaborersalsolookedtotheMiddleEastforworkwhentheycouldnotfinditinBulgariaandwereunwillingtoworkillegallyinHollandGermanyorSpainThecafeacutewesatinwastuckedonthegroundfloorofthethree-storeymosquewhichincludedahugewindoweddomeandatoweringminarettoppedbyasmallsilvercrescentTheoutsidewallsofthemosquewereacoolwhiteandthefirstthreemetersweretiledwithlargemosaic-
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likepiecesofsmoothgraymarbleTheminaretwastallandwhitewithgoldenverticalstripestwocircularbalconiesandfourbullhornspeak-ersthatdeliveredthecalltoprayerfivetimesadayItwasanimpressivestructure
Themost impressivepartof theMadanmosquehoweverwas theprayerhallAnelaboratefive-tieredcrystalchandelierhunginthecen-terofthevoluminousroomwithtwentylargearchedwindowsstream-inglightinfromtherightandleftsidesThemainfloorwherethemenprayedwascarpetedwithaluxuriousindigoblueandgoldrugTherewasaU-shapedbalconysupportedbywhitecolumnsthatdividedpartofthehallintotwofloorstheupperlevelwasthewomenrsquossectionanarchitectural feature thatmostBulgarianmosquesdidnothaveat thetimeAtthefrontofthehalltherewerefourmorearchedwindowsthatdribbledlightaroundanexquisitelydecoratednicheindicatingthedirec-tionofMeccaandcoveredwithbluemosaictilesandArabicscriptTheroomevokedasenseofaweandgrandeurthatwasquiteoutofplaceintheotherwiseimpoverishedcity
ThesheersizeandopulenceofthemosqueledtomanyspeculationsabouttheoriginofthefundsresponsibleforitsconstructionAlthoughnoonecouldspeakwithcertaintymanyMadanchanithoughtthefundshadcomefromabroadTheyhadfirstwantedtobuildthemosqueintheearly1990sand collectionswere takenupamong the cityrsquos residentsMenvolunteeredtheirlabortohelpwithitsconstructionButtheprojectsoonranoutoffundsformaterialsasthefutureofGORUBSObecameuncertainThemosquelanguishedunfinishedthroughthemiddlepartofthedecadeThentowardtheendofthe1990sthemoneysuddenlyap-pearedHasanclaimedthatthemoneyhadcomefromMadanresidentswholivedabroadSilvibelievedthatthefundshadcomefromSaudiAra-biaalthoughsomeofherAvonclientswhisperedthatithadcomefromIranIn2005themosquestoodasapowerfulreminderofthegrowinginfluenceoftheMuslimworldonthesmallcityThemosquebecameavibrantculturalandeducationalcenterunlikethecommunitycenterthesymboloftheEUrsquosfleetingandsuperficialaid
InthebattleforheartsandmindsinMadanthepromisesofglobalIs-lamicsolidaritychallengedthestill-remotealluresofWesternEuropeOnFridayswhentheimam(congregationalleader)gavehisweeklysermon themosquewasoverrunwithclosetoathousandmenmanyofthemformerminersThemosquehadbecomethecentraldistributionpointforrituallysacrificedmeatsdonatedfromabroadduringthetwobigIslamicfeastsRamazanBayramandKurbanBayramDuringthemonthofRamazan(Ramadan)attheendofeachdayrsquosfastthemosquedistributedanalmostendlesssupplyoffreecookiespastriesandothersweetsTheimamwasalsoresponsibleforsupportingthestudiesandambitionsofyoungpeople
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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Figure3 TheGORUBSObuilding
complexrepresentedthecityrsquostransitionaryprotocapitalistpresentthentheGORUBSObuildingstoodasasymbolofMadanrsquosoncevibrantcom-munistpastThecommunitycenterthefaccediladeofwhichwasrestoredandrepainted with funds from the European UnionrsquosldquoBeautiful Bulgariardquoproj-ect4representedonepossiblefuturefortheMadanchaniintheyearslead-inguptotheircountryrsquos2007EUaccessionwhilethemosquestoodforanotherpossiblefuturethatwoulddrawthemclosertotheMiddleEast
TheGORUBSObuildingwasthetalleststructureinthecityandsatatthetopofthemainintersectionwherethesingleroadtookasharpleft turn and led drivers out of Madan and toward the city of Zlato-gradAlthoughGORUBSOhaddivisionsinfivesouthernBulgariancitiesMadanhadbeenitsadministrativecenterThenine-storeybuildingheldalloftheadministrativeofficesoftheenterpriseThissitehadoncesup-portedMadanrsquosoldmosqueapictureofwhichcanstillbefoundintheGORUBSOminingmuseumThelowhumblesquarestructurewithitstelltaleminarethadbeenthepreviouscenterofthecityuntilitwasbull-dozedtomakeroomforthelead-zincenterpriseheadquartersForoverthreedecadestheGORUBSObuildingdominatedthecenterofMadanashiningbeaconofcommunistmodernityjustasthecommunistenterprisehadoncedominatedthelivesofallwholivedinthecity
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Figure4 AbuildinginMadanin2005
GORUBSO brought immeasurable wealth to the city between 1945andtheearly1990swhenminingandmetalprocessingwereamongthemostrespectedandwellremuneratedprofessionsinBulgariaThousandsofworkerscamefromalloverthecountryandfromasfarawayasChinaandVietnamtoworkforthethrivingindustryItssuccesswasbasedontherichoredepositsintheMadanareaandGORUBSOinvestedheavilyinthedevelopmentofthecitybuildingapartmentblocsrecreationcom-plexescommunitycentersasoccerstadiumpoolsschoolsspecialhospi-talwardsetceteraItsupportedtheentirelocalcommunityuntilBulgariawassuddenlythrustintotheglobalcapitalisteconomyintheearly1990sandafatalcombinationoflaborunrestinternationalmarketpressurebungled privatization and high-level corruption conspired to run theminesintobankruptcy
ThecollapseofGORUBSOleftthousandsofmeninMadanunemployedanddestroyedthelocaleconomyleavingthewholecitytosinkincremen-tallyintoastateofvisibledisrepairTimeandgravityswallowedupmuchoftheinfrastructuresoproudlydevelopedthroughthenow-hackneyedcommunistidealsofprogressandmodernizationThecomingofdemoc-racyhadpromisedtomakethelivesoftheminersevenbettercombiningeconomicsuccesswithpoliticalandreligiousfreedomsbutinMadanas
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Figure5 TherenovatedfaccediladeoftheCultureHouserepresentingtheidealcommunistmanandwoman
elsewherethroughoutthepostsocialistworldinEasternEuropeandCen-tralAsiademocracyfailedtoliveuptoitspromisesandleftthousandsofdesertedruralcitiesinitswakeIndeedldquolivingblocsrdquothatoncehousedtwofamiliesineachapartmentwerenowemptyandcrumblingInmanyplacesolderbuildingscollapsedtheneighborhoodsontheoutskirtsofMadanwerepockmarkedwiththeruinsofthefailedenterpriselikeanar-cheologicalsiteoftherecentpastAsinRussiaEasternGermanyorKyr-gyzstanwheretheclosureofinefficientorhighlypollutingcommunist-eraenterprisesdestroyedthe localeconomiestheyoncesupportedMadanwasdecimatedbytheprivatizationofthelead-zincminesWithfewlocalreemploymentopportunitiesmanymenwereforcedtoseekjobsascon-structionworkersinBulgariarsquoslargercitiesorinWesternEuropeThosewho stayedbehindoften turned to alcoholdrowning their despair instronglocalrakiya(brandy)
Asapre-accessioncandidatetotheEuropeanUnionhoweverBulgariawasthebeneficiaryofmanyinitiativesTheldquoBeautifulBulgariardquoprojectwasonethattriedtokilltwoproverbialbirdswithonestoneAsawaytocombatthehighlevelofunemploymentaftertheclosureoftheminesandtorestoreMadanrsquoscentertoitsformerglorytheEuropeanUnioninvestedintherestorationofthesquareandthebuildingssurroundingittheIvan
10
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VazovKulturenDomtheofficesofthemunicipalitythefirestationalongwithafewsmallerprojectsThemainefforthoweverwasconcentratedontheroofdoorswindowsandplasterfaccediladeofthecommunitycenterwhichallneededextensiverepairsTheEuropeanUnionmeasured thesuccessoftheprojectbyhowmanyunemployedlaborerswereputtoworkon it andfor how manyldquoman-monthsrdquoThe communitycenter project em-ployedtwenty-fourpeopleforfifty-fiveman-monthsandleftabeautifullyrestoredcrimsonbuildingwithwhitecolumnsatthetopofawideplazawithachildrenrsquosplaygroundnearbyButwhentheworkwasfinishedthelaborerswereonceagainleftwithoutjobsThecommunitycenterwasin-deedabeautifulbuildingoneofthefewinacityinwhichalmosteveryotherstructurehadfallenorwasfallingapartanditstoodregallyasareminderofthepromiseoftheEuropeanUnionButtomanyitwasalsoasymboloftheshallownessofthatpromiseTheEuropeansmightbehappytorepaintafewbuildingsbuttherewerethoseinMadanwhoquestionedwhethertheEUwouldeversubstantiallyinvestinthefutureofthecityorifMadanwithits90percentMuslimpopulationwouldbeavictimratherthanabeneficiaryoftheEUaccession
ldquoTheEuropeanscandonothingforBulgariardquosaidHasanaretiredminerwhoworkedinthecafeacuteofthenewmosqueldquoThegoodswehavetosellthemtheyalreadyhaveTheyonlywanttosellustheirgoodsOurnaturaltradingpartnersareintheMiddleEastandthe[Soviet]UnionlikeitwasbeforedemocracyWehavegoodsthattheyneedBulgariashouldestablishclosertieswiththeMuslimworldandnotwiththeEuropeansTheEuropeansdonotneedusrdquo
HasantoldmethiswhilewesharedteainthecafeacuteofthemainmosqueAthinbluecurtaininthedoorwaybillowedinwardwiththelightbreezeItwasasentimentthatIhadheardfromothersinMadanparticularlyfromthosefrustratedintheirattemptstopenetratetheBulgarianmarketwiththeproductsoflocalindustryTheownerofasmallicecreamfactorycomplainedincessantlythattheaggressiveGreekshadtakenoverBulgariawiththeirDeltaicecreamleavinghimnochoicebuttoseekmarketsintheMiddleEastwherebeingaMuslimatleastearnedhimsomeadvantagesOnthewallsofthecafeacutetherewerethreeglossypostersofMeccaandinadditiontothejuiceshotdrinkssnacksand(Madan-made)icecreamHasansoldanassortmentofIslamicnewspapersmagazinesbooksandcompactdiscsforlearningmodernArabicHasantoldmethatordinarylaborersalsolookedtotheMiddleEastforworkwhentheycouldnotfinditinBulgariaandwereunwillingtoworkillegallyinHollandGermanyorSpainThecafeacutewesatinwastuckedonthegroundfloorofthethree-storeymosquewhichincludedahugewindoweddomeandatoweringminarettoppedbyasmallsilvercrescentTheoutsidewallsofthemosquewereacoolwhiteandthefirstthreemetersweretiledwithlargemosaic-
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likepiecesofsmoothgraymarbleTheminaretwastallandwhitewithgoldenverticalstripestwocircularbalconiesandfourbullhornspeak-ersthatdeliveredthecalltoprayerfivetimesadayItwasanimpressivestructure
Themost impressivepartof theMadanmosquehoweverwas theprayerhallAnelaboratefive-tieredcrystalchandelierhunginthecen-terofthevoluminousroomwithtwentylargearchedwindowsstream-inglightinfromtherightandleftsidesThemainfloorwherethemenprayedwascarpetedwithaluxuriousindigoblueandgoldrugTherewasaU-shapedbalconysupportedbywhitecolumnsthatdividedpartofthehallintotwofloorstheupperlevelwasthewomenrsquossectionanarchitectural feature thatmostBulgarianmosquesdidnothaveat thetimeAtthefrontofthehalltherewerefourmorearchedwindowsthatdribbledlightaroundanexquisitelydecoratednicheindicatingthedirec-tionofMeccaandcoveredwithbluemosaictilesandArabicscriptTheroomevokedasenseofaweandgrandeurthatwasquiteoutofplaceintheotherwiseimpoverishedcity
ThesheersizeandopulenceofthemosqueledtomanyspeculationsabouttheoriginofthefundsresponsibleforitsconstructionAlthoughnoonecouldspeakwithcertaintymanyMadanchanithoughtthefundshadcomefromabroadTheyhadfirstwantedtobuildthemosqueintheearly1990sand collectionswere takenupamong the cityrsquos residentsMenvolunteeredtheirlabortohelpwithitsconstructionButtheprojectsoonranoutoffundsformaterialsasthefutureofGORUBSObecameuncertainThemosquelanguishedunfinishedthroughthemiddlepartofthedecadeThentowardtheendofthe1990sthemoneysuddenlyap-pearedHasanclaimedthatthemoneyhadcomefromMadanresidentswholivedabroadSilvibelievedthatthefundshadcomefromSaudiAra-biaalthoughsomeofherAvonclientswhisperedthatithadcomefromIranIn2005themosquestoodasapowerfulreminderofthegrowinginfluenceoftheMuslimworldonthesmallcityThemosquebecameavibrantculturalandeducationalcenterunlikethecommunitycenterthesymboloftheEUrsquosfleetingandsuperficialaid
InthebattleforheartsandmindsinMadanthepromisesofglobalIs-lamicsolidaritychallengedthestill-remotealluresofWesternEuropeOnFridayswhentheimam(congregationalleader)gavehisweeklysermon themosquewasoverrunwithclosetoathousandmenmanyofthemformerminersThemosquehadbecomethecentraldistributionpointforrituallysacrificedmeatsdonatedfromabroadduringthetwobigIslamicfeastsRamazanBayramandKurbanBayramDuringthemonthofRamazan(Ramadan)attheendofeachdayrsquosfastthemosquedistributedanalmostendlesssupplyoffreecookiespastriesandothersweetsTheimamwasalsoresponsibleforsupportingthestudiesandambitionsofyoungpeople
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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Figure4 AbuildinginMadanin2005
GORUBSO brought immeasurable wealth to the city between 1945andtheearly1990swhenminingandmetalprocessingwereamongthemostrespectedandwellremuneratedprofessionsinBulgariaThousandsofworkerscamefromalloverthecountryandfromasfarawayasChinaandVietnamtoworkforthethrivingindustryItssuccesswasbasedontherichoredepositsintheMadanareaandGORUBSOinvestedheavilyinthedevelopmentofthecitybuildingapartmentblocsrecreationcom-plexescommunitycentersasoccerstadiumpoolsschoolsspecialhospi-talwardsetceteraItsupportedtheentirelocalcommunityuntilBulgariawassuddenlythrustintotheglobalcapitalisteconomyintheearly1990sandafatalcombinationoflaborunrestinternationalmarketpressurebungled privatization and high-level corruption conspired to run theminesintobankruptcy
ThecollapseofGORUBSOleftthousandsofmeninMadanunemployedanddestroyedthelocaleconomyleavingthewholecitytosinkincremen-tallyintoastateofvisibledisrepairTimeandgravityswallowedupmuchoftheinfrastructuresoproudlydevelopedthroughthenow-hackneyedcommunistidealsofprogressandmodernizationThecomingofdemoc-racyhadpromisedtomakethelivesoftheminersevenbettercombiningeconomicsuccesswithpoliticalandreligiousfreedomsbutinMadanas
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Figure5 TherenovatedfaccediladeoftheCultureHouserepresentingtheidealcommunistmanandwoman
elsewherethroughoutthepostsocialistworldinEasternEuropeandCen-tralAsiademocracyfailedtoliveuptoitspromisesandleftthousandsofdesertedruralcitiesinitswakeIndeedldquolivingblocsrdquothatoncehousedtwofamiliesineachapartmentwerenowemptyandcrumblingInmanyplacesolderbuildingscollapsedtheneighborhoodsontheoutskirtsofMadanwerepockmarkedwiththeruinsofthefailedenterpriselikeanar-cheologicalsiteoftherecentpastAsinRussiaEasternGermanyorKyr-gyzstanwheretheclosureofinefficientorhighlypollutingcommunist-eraenterprisesdestroyedthe localeconomiestheyoncesupportedMadanwasdecimatedbytheprivatizationofthelead-zincminesWithfewlocalreemploymentopportunitiesmanymenwereforcedtoseekjobsascon-structionworkersinBulgariarsquoslargercitiesorinWesternEuropeThosewho stayedbehindoften turned to alcoholdrowning their despair instronglocalrakiya(brandy)
Asapre-accessioncandidatetotheEuropeanUnionhoweverBulgariawasthebeneficiaryofmanyinitiativesTheldquoBeautifulBulgariardquoprojectwasonethattriedtokilltwoproverbialbirdswithonestoneAsawaytocombatthehighlevelofunemploymentaftertheclosureoftheminesandtorestoreMadanrsquoscentertoitsformerglorytheEuropeanUnioninvestedintherestorationofthesquareandthebuildingssurroundingittheIvan
10
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VazovKulturenDomtheofficesofthemunicipalitythefirestationalongwithafewsmallerprojectsThemainefforthoweverwasconcentratedontheroofdoorswindowsandplasterfaccediladeofthecommunitycenterwhichallneededextensiverepairsTheEuropeanUnionmeasured thesuccessoftheprojectbyhowmanyunemployedlaborerswereputtoworkon it andfor how manyldquoman-monthsrdquoThe communitycenter project em-ployedtwenty-fourpeopleforfifty-fiveman-monthsandleftabeautifullyrestoredcrimsonbuildingwithwhitecolumnsatthetopofawideplazawithachildrenrsquosplaygroundnearbyButwhentheworkwasfinishedthelaborerswereonceagainleftwithoutjobsThecommunitycenterwasin-deedabeautifulbuildingoneofthefewinacityinwhichalmosteveryotherstructurehadfallenorwasfallingapartanditstoodregallyasareminderofthepromiseoftheEuropeanUnionButtomanyitwasalsoasymboloftheshallownessofthatpromiseTheEuropeansmightbehappytorepaintafewbuildingsbuttherewerethoseinMadanwhoquestionedwhethertheEUwouldeversubstantiallyinvestinthefutureofthecityorifMadanwithits90percentMuslimpopulationwouldbeavictimratherthanabeneficiaryoftheEUaccession
ldquoTheEuropeanscandonothingforBulgariardquosaidHasanaretiredminerwhoworkedinthecafeacuteofthenewmosqueldquoThegoodswehavetosellthemtheyalreadyhaveTheyonlywanttosellustheirgoodsOurnaturaltradingpartnersareintheMiddleEastandthe[Soviet]UnionlikeitwasbeforedemocracyWehavegoodsthattheyneedBulgariashouldestablishclosertieswiththeMuslimworldandnotwiththeEuropeansTheEuropeansdonotneedusrdquo
HasantoldmethiswhilewesharedteainthecafeacuteofthemainmosqueAthinbluecurtaininthedoorwaybillowedinwardwiththelightbreezeItwasasentimentthatIhadheardfromothersinMadanparticularlyfromthosefrustratedintheirattemptstopenetratetheBulgarianmarketwiththeproductsoflocalindustryTheownerofasmallicecreamfactorycomplainedincessantlythattheaggressiveGreekshadtakenoverBulgariawiththeirDeltaicecreamleavinghimnochoicebuttoseekmarketsintheMiddleEastwherebeingaMuslimatleastearnedhimsomeadvantagesOnthewallsofthecafeacutetherewerethreeglossypostersofMeccaandinadditiontothejuiceshotdrinkssnacksand(Madan-made)icecreamHasansoldanassortmentofIslamicnewspapersmagazinesbooksandcompactdiscsforlearningmodernArabicHasantoldmethatordinarylaborersalsolookedtotheMiddleEastforworkwhentheycouldnotfinditinBulgariaandwereunwillingtoworkillegallyinHollandGermanyorSpainThecafeacutewesatinwastuckedonthegroundfloorofthethree-storeymosquewhichincludedahugewindoweddomeandatoweringminarettoppedbyasmallsilvercrescentTheoutsidewallsofthemosquewereacoolwhiteandthefirstthreemetersweretiledwithlargemosaic-
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likepiecesofsmoothgraymarbleTheminaretwastallandwhitewithgoldenverticalstripestwocircularbalconiesandfourbullhornspeak-ersthatdeliveredthecalltoprayerfivetimesadayItwasanimpressivestructure
Themost impressivepartof theMadanmosquehoweverwas theprayerhallAnelaboratefive-tieredcrystalchandelierhunginthecen-terofthevoluminousroomwithtwentylargearchedwindowsstream-inglightinfromtherightandleftsidesThemainfloorwherethemenprayedwascarpetedwithaluxuriousindigoblueandgoldrugTherewasaU-shapedbalconysupportedbywhitecolumnsthatdividedpartofthehallintotwofloorstheupperlevelwasthewomenrsquossectionanarchitectural feature thatmostBulgarianmosquesdidnothaveat thetimeAtthefrontofthehalltherewerefourmorearchedwindowsthatdribbledlightaroundanexquisitelydecoratednicheindicatingthedirec-tionofMeccaandcoveredwithbluemosaictilesandArabicscriptTheroomevokedasenseofaweandgrandeurthatwasquiteoutofplaceintheotherwiseimpoverishedcity
ThesheersizeandopulenceofthemosqueledtomanyspeculationsabouttheoriginofthefundsresponsibleforitsconstructionAlthoughnoonecouldspeakwithcertaintymanyMadanchanithoughtthefundshadcomefromabroadTheyhadfirstwantedtobuildthemosqueintheearly1990sand collectionswere takenupamong the cityrsquos residentsMenvolunteeredtheirlabortohelpwithitsconstructionButtheprojectsoonranoutoffundsformaterialsasthefutureofGORUBSObecameuncertainThemosquelanguishedunfinishedthroughthemiddlepartofthedecadeThentowardtheendofthe1990sthemoneysuddenlyap-pearedHasanclaimedthatthemoneyhadcomefromMadanresidentswholivedabroadSilvibelievedthatthefundshadcomefromSaudiAra-biaalthoughsomeofherAvonclientswhisperedthatithadcomefromIranIn2005themosquestoodasapowerfulreminderofthegrowinginfluenceoftheMuslimworldonthesmallcityThemosquebecameavibrantculturalandeducationalcenterunlikethecommunitycenterthesymboloftheEUrsquosfleetingandsuperficialaid
InthebattleforheartsandmindsinMadanthepromisesofglobalIs-lamicsolidaritychallengedthestill-remotealluresofWesternEuropeOnFridayswhentheimam(congregationalleader)gavehisweeklysermon themosquewasoverrunwithclosetoathousandmenmanyofthemformerminersThemosquehadbecomethecentraldistributionpointforrituallysacrificedmeatsdonatedfromabroadduringthetwobigIslamicfeastsRamazanBayramandKurbanBayramDuringthemonthofRamazan(Ramadan)attheendofeachdayrsquosfastthemosquedistributedanalmostendlesssupplyoffreecookiespastriesandothersweetsTheimamwasalsoresponsibleforsupportingthestudiesandambitionsofyoungpeople
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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Figure5 TherenovatedfaccediladeoftheCultureHouserepresentingtheidealcommunistmanandwoman
elsewherethroughoutthepostsocialistworldinEasternEuropeandCen-tralAsiademocracyfailedtoliveuptoitspromisesandleftthousandsofdesertedruralcitiesinitswakeIndeedldquolivingblocsrdquothatoncehousedtwofamiliesineachapartmentwerenowemptyandcrumblingInmanyplacesolderbuildingscollapsedtheneighborhoodsontheoutskirtsofMadanwerepockmarkedwiththeruinsofthefailedenterpriselikeanar-cheologicalsiteoftherecentpastAsinRussiaEasternGermanyorKyr-gyzstanwheretheclosureofinefficientorhighlypollutingcommunist-eraenterprisesdestroyedthe localeconomiestheyoncesupportedMadanwasdecimatedbytheprivatizationofthelead-zincminesWithfewlocalreemploymentopportunitiesmanymenwereforcedtoseekjobsascon-structionworkersinBulgariarsquoslargercitiesorinWesternEuropeThosewho stayedbehindoften turned to alcoholdrowning their despair instronglocalrakiya(brandy)
Asapre-accessioncandidatetotheEuropeanUnionhoweverBulgariawasthebeneficiaryofmanyinitiativesTheldquoBeautifulBulgariardquoprojectwasonethattriedtokilltwoproverbialbirdswithonestoneAsawaytocombatthehighlevelofunemploymentaftertheclosureoftheminesandtorestoreMadanrsquoscentertoitsformerglorytheEuropeanUnioninvestedintherestorationofthesquareandthebuildingssurroundingittheIvan
10
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VazovKulturenDomtheofficesofthemunicipalitythefirestationalongwithafewsmallerprojectsThemainefforthoweverwasconcentratedontheroofdoorswindowsandplasterfaccediladeofthecommunitycenterwhichallneededextensiverepairsTheEuropeanUnionmeasured thesuccessoftheprojectbyhowmanyunemployedlaborerswereputtoworkon it andfor how manyldquoman-monthsrdquoThe communitycenter project em-ployedtwenty-fourpeopleforfifty-fiveman-monthsandleftabeautifullyrestoredcrimsonbuildingwithwhitecolumnsatthetopofawideplazawithachildrenrsquosplaygroundnearbyButwhentheworkwasfinishedthelaborerswereonceagainleftwithoutjobsThecommunitycenterwasin-deedabeautifulbuildingoneofthefewinacityinwhichalmosteveryotherstructurehadfallenorwasfallingapartanditstoodregallyasareminderofthepromiseoftheEuropeanUnionButtomanyitwasalsoasymboloftheshallownessofthatpromiseTheEuropeansmightbehappytorepaintafewbuildingsbuttherewerethoseinMadanwhoquestionedwhethertheEUwouldeversubstantiallyinvestinthefutureofthecityorifMadanwithits90percentMuslimpopulationwouldbeavictimratherthanabeneficiaryoftheEUaccession
ldquoTheEuropeanscandonothingforBulgariardquosaidHasanaretiredminerwhoworkedinthecafeacuteofthenewmosqueldquoThegoodswehavetosellthemtheyalreadyhaveTheyonlywanttosellustheirgoodsOurnaturaltradingpartnersareintheMiddleEastandthe[Soviet]UnionlikeitwasbeforedemocracyWehavegoodsthattheyneedBulgariashouldestablishclosertieswiththeMuslimworldandnotwiththeEuropeansTheEuropeansdonotneedusrdquo
HasantoldmethiswhilewesharedteainthecafeacuteofthemainmosqueAthinbluecurtaininthedoorwaybillowedinwardwiththelightbreezeItwasasentimentthatIhadheardfromothersinMadanparticularlyfromthosefrustratedintheirattemptstopenetratetheBulgarianmarketwiththeproductsoflocalindustryTheownerofasmallicecreamfactorycomplainedincessantlythattheaggressiveGreekshadtakenoverBulgariawiththeirDeltaicecreamleavinghimnochoicebuttoseekmarketsintheMiddleEastwherebeingaMuslimatleastearnedhimsomeadvantagesOnthewallsofthecafeacutetherewerethreeglossypostersofMeccaandinadditiontothejuiceshotdrinkssnacksand(Madan-made)icecreamHasansoldanassortmentofIslamicnewspapersmagazinesbooksandcompactdiscsforlearningmodernArabicHasantoldmethatordinarylaborersalsolookedtotheMiddleEastforworkwhentheycouldnotfinditinBulgariaandwereunwillingtoworkillegallyinHollandGermanyorSpainThecafeacutewesatinwastuckedonthegroundfloorofthethree-storeymosquewhichincludedahugewindoweddomeandatoweringminarettoppedbyasmallsilvercrescentTheoutsidewallsofthemosquewereacoolwhiteandthefirstthreemetersweretiledwithlargemosaic-
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likepiecesofsmoothgraymarbleTheminaretwastallandwhitewithgoldenverticalstripestwocircularbalconiesandfourbullhornspeak-ersthatdeliveredthecalltoprayerfivetimesadayItwasanimpressivestructure
Themost impressivepartof theMadanmosquehoweverwas theprayerhallAnelaboratefive-tieredcrystalchandelierhunginthecen-terofthevoluminousroomwithtwentylargearchedwindowsstream-inglightinfromtherightandleftsidesThemainfloorwherethemenprayedwascarpetedwithaluxuriousindigoblueandgoldrugTherewasaU-shapedbalconysupportedbywhitecolumnsthatdividedpartofthehallintotwofloorstheupperlevelwasthewomenrsquossectionanarchitectural feature thatmostBulgarianmosquesdidnothaveat thetimeAtthefrontofthehalltherewerefourmorearchedwindowsthatdribbledlightaroundanexquisitelydecoratednicheindicatingthedirec-tionofMeccaandcoveredwithbluemosaictilesandArabicscriptTheroomevokedasenseofaweandgrandeurthatwasquiteoutofplaceintheotherwiseimpoverishedcity
ThesheersizeandopulenceofthemosqueledtomanyspeculationsabouttheoriginofthefundsresponsibleforitsconstructionAlthoughnoonecouldspeakwithcertaintymanyMadanchanithoughtthefundshadcomefromabroadTheyhadfirstwantedtobuildthemosqueintheearly1990sand collectionswere takenupamong the cityrsquos residentsMenvolunteeredtheirlabortohelpwithitsconstructionButtheprojectsoonranoutoffundsformaterialsasthefutureofGORUBSObecameuncertainThemosquelanguishedunfinishedthroughthemiddlepartofthedecadeThentowardtheendofthe1990sthemoneysuddenlyap-pearedHasanclaimedthatthemoneyhadcomefromMadanresidentswholivedabroadSilvibelievedthatthefundshadcomefromSaudiAra-biaalthoughsomeofherAvonclientswhisperedthatithadcomefromIranIn2005themosquestoodasapowerfulreminderofthegrowinginfluenceoftheMuslimworldonthesmallcityThemosquebecameavibrantculturalandeducationalcenterunlikethecommunitycenterthesymboloftheEUrsquosfleetingandsuperficialaid
InthebattleforheartsandmindsinMadanthepromisesofglobalIs-lamicsolidaritychallengedthestill-remotealluresofWesternEuropeOnFridayswhentheimam(congregationalleader)gavehisweeklysermon themosquewasoverrunwithclosetoathousandmenmanyofthemformerminersThemosquehadbecomethecentraldistributionpointforrituallysacrificedmeatsdonatedfromabroadduringthetwobigIslamicfeastsRamazanBayramandKurbanBayramDuringthemonthofRamazan(Ramadan)attheendofeachdayrsquosfastthemosquedistributedanalmostendlesssupplyoffreecookiespastriesandothersweetsTheimamwasalsoresponsibleforsupportingthestudiesandambitionsofyoungpeople
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
10
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VazovKulturenDomtheofficesofthemunicipalitythefirestationalongwithafewsmallerprojectsThemainefforthoweverwasconcentratedontheroofdoorswindowsandplasterfaccediladeofthecommunitycenterwhichallneededextensiverepairsTheEuropeanUnionmeasured thesuccessoftheprojectbyhowmanyunemployedlaborerswereputtoworkon it andfor how manyldquoman-monthsrdquoThe communitycenter project em-ployedtwenty-fourpeopleforfifty-fiveman-monthsandleftabeautifullyrestoredcrimsonbuildingwithwhitecolumnsatthetopofawideplazawithachildrenrsquosplaygroundnearbyButwhentheworkwasfinishedthelaborerswereonceagainleftwithoutjobsThecommunitycenterwasin-deedabeautifulbuildingoneofthefewinacityinwhichalmosteveryotherstructurehadfallenorwasfallingapartanditstoodregallyasareminderofthepromiseoftheEuropeanUnionButtomanyitwasalsoasymboloftheshallownessofthatpromiseTheEuropeansmightbehappytorepaintafewbuildingsbuttherewerethoseinMadanwhoquestionedwhethertheEUwouldeversubstantiallyinvestinthefutureofthecityorifMadanwithits90percentMuslimpopulationwouldbeavictimratherthanabeneficiaryoftheEUaccession
ldquoTheEuropeanscandonothingforBulgariardquosaidHasanaretiredminerwhoworkedinthecafeacuteofthenewmosqueldquoThegoodswehavetosellthemtheyalreadyhaveTheyonlywanttosellustheirgoodsOurnaturaltradingpartnersareintheMiddleEastandthe[Soviet]UnionlikeitwasbeforedemocracyWehavegoodsthattheyneedBulgariashouldestablishclosertieswiththeMuslimworldandnotwiththeEuropeansTheEuropeansdonotneedusrdquo
HasantoldmethiswhilewesharedteainthecafeacuteofthemainmosqueAthinbluecurtaininthedoorwaybillowedinwardwiththelightbreezeItwasasentimentthatIhadheardfromothersinMadanparticularlyfromthosefrustratedintheirattemptstopenetratetheBulgarianmarketwiththeproductsoflocalindustryTheownerofasmallicecreamfactorycomplainedincessantlythattheaggressiveGreekshadtakenoverBulgariawiththeirDeltaicecreamleavinghimnochoicebuttoseekmarketsintheMiddleEastwherebeingaMuslimatleastearnedhimsomeadvantagesOnthewallsofthecafeacutetherewerethreeglossypostersofMeccaandinadditiontothejuiceshotdrinkssnacksand(Madan-made)icecreamHasansoldanassortmentofIslamicnewspapersmagazinesbooksandcompactdiscsforlearningmodernArabicHasantoldmethatordinarylaborersalsolookedtotheMiddleEastforworkwhentheycouldnotfinditinBulgariaandwereunwillingtoworkillegallyinHollandGermanyorSpainThecafeacutewesatinwastuckedonthegroundfloorofthethree-storeymosquewhichincludedahugewindoweddomeandatoweringminarettoppedbyasmallsilvercrescentTheoutsidewallsofthemosquewereacoolwhiteandthefirstthreemetersweretiledwithlargemosaic-
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likepiecesofsmoothgraymarbleTheminaretwastallandwhitewithgoldenverticalstripestwocircularbalconiesandfourbullhornspeak-ersthatdeliveredthecalltoprayerfivetimesadayItwasanimpressivestructure
Themost impressivepartof theMadanmosquehoweverwas theprayerhallAnelaboratefive-tieredcrystalchandelierhunginthecen-terofthevoluminousroomwithtwentylargearchedwindowsstream-inglightinfromtherightandleftsidesThemainfloorwherethemenprayedwascarpetedwithaluxuriousindigoblueandgoldrugTherewasaU-shapedbalconysupportedbywhitecolumnsthatdividedpartofthehallintotwofloorstheupperlevelwasthewomenrsquossectionanarchitectural feature thatmostBulgarianmosquesdidnothaveat thetimeAtthefrontofthehalltherewerefourmorearchedwindowsthatdribbledlightaroundanexquisitelydecoratednicheindicatingthedirec-tionofMeccaandcoveredwithbluemosaictilesandArabicscriptTheroomevokedasenseofaweandgrandeurthatwasquiteoutofplaceintheotherwiseimpoverishedcity
ThesheersizeandopulenceofthemosqueledtomanyspeculationsabouttheoriginofthefundsresponsibleforitsconstructionAlthoughnoonecouldspeakwithcertaintymanyMadanchanithoughtthefundshadcomefromabroadTheyhadfirstwantedtobuildthemosqueintheearly1990sand collectionswere takenupamong the cityrsquos residentsMenvolunteeredtheirlabortohelpwithitsconstructionButtheprojectsoonranoutoffundsformaterialsasthefutureofGORUBSObecameuncertainThemosquelanguishedunfinishedthroughthemiddlepartofthedecadeThentowardtheendofthe1990sthemoneysuddenlyap-pearedHasanclaimedthatthemoneyhadcomefromMadanresidentswholivedabroadSilvibelievedthatthefundshadcomefromSaudiAra-biaalthoughsomeofherAvonclientswhisperedthatithadcomefromIranIn2005themosquestoodasapowerfulreminderofthegrowinginfluenceoftheMuslimworldonthesmallcityThemosquebecameavibrantculturalandeducationalcenterunlikethecommunitycenterthesymboloftheEUrsquosfleetingandsuperficialaid
InthebattleforheartsandmindsinMadanthepromisesofglobalIs-lamicsolidaritychallengedthestill-remotealluresofWesternEuropeOnFridayswhentheimam(congregationalleader)gavehisweeklysermon themosquewasoverrunwithclosetoathousandmenmanyofthemformerminersThemosquehadbecomethecentraldistributionpointforrituallysacrificedmeatsdonatedfromabroadduringthetwobigIslamicfeastsRamazanBayramandKurbanBayramDuringthemonthofRamazan(Ramadan)attheendofeachdayrsquosfastthemosquedistributedanalmostendlesssupplyoffreecookiespastriesandothersweetsTheimamwasalsoresponsibleforsupportingthestudiesandambitionsofyoungpeople
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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likepiecesofsmoothgraymarbleTheminaretwastallandwhitewithgoldenverticalstripestwocircularbalconiesandfourbullhornspeak-ersthatdeliveredthecalltoprayerfivetimesadayItwasanimpressivestructure
Themost impressivepartof theMadanmosquehoweverwas theprayerhallAnelaboratefive-tieredcrystalchandelierhunginthecen-terofthevoluminousroomwithtwentylargearchedwindowsstream-inglightinfromtherightandleftsidesThemainfloorwherethemenprayedwascarpetedwithaluxuriousindigoblueandgoldrugTherewasaU-shapedbalconysupportedbywhitecolumnsthatdividedpartofthehallintotwofloorstheupperlevelwasthewomenrsquossectionanarchitectural feature thatmostBulgarianmosquesdidnothaveat thetimeAtthefrontofthehalltherewerefourmorearchedwindowsthatdribbledlightaroundanexquisitelydecoratednicheindicatingthedirec-tionofMeccaandcoveredwithbluemosaictilesandArabicscriptTheroomevokedasenseofaweandgrandeurthatwasquiteoutofplaceintheotherwiseimpoverishedcity
ThesheersizeandopulenceofthemosqueledtomanyspeculationsabouttheoriginofthefundsresponsibleforitsconstructionAlthoughnoonecouldspeakwithcertaintymanyMadanchanithoughtthefundshadcomefromabroadTheyhadfirstwantedtobuildthemosqueintheearly1990sand collectionswere takenupamong the cityrsquos residentsMenvolunteeredtheirlabortohelpwithitsconstructionButtheprojectsoonranoutoffundsformaterialsasthefutureofGORUBSObecameuncertainThemosquelanguishedunfinishedthroughthemiddlepartofthedecadeThentowardtheendofthe1990sthemoneysuddenlyap-pearedHasanclaimedthatthemoneyhadcomefromMadanresidentswholivedabroadSilvibelievedthatthefundshadcomefromSaudiAra-biaalthoughsomeofherAvonclientswhisperedthatithadcomefromIranIn2005themosquestoodasapowerfulreminderofthegrowinginfluenceoftheMuslimworldonthesmallcityThemosquebecameavibrantculturalandeducationalcenterunlikethecommunitycenterthesymboloftheEUrsquosfleetingandsuperficialaid
InthebattleforheartsandmindsinMadanthepromisesofglobalIs-lamicsolidaritychallengedthestill-remotealluresofWesternEuropeOnFridayswhentheimam(congregationalleader)gavehisweeklysermon themosquewasoverrunwithclosetoathousandmenmanyofthemformerminersThemosquehadbecomethecentraldistributionpointforrituallysacrificedmeatsdonatedfromabroadduringthetwobigIslamicfeastsRamazanBayramandKurbanBayramDuringthemonthofRamazan(Ramadan)attheendofeachdayrsquosfastthemosquedistributedanalmostendlesssupplyoffreecookiespastriesandothersweetsTheimamwasalsoresponsibleforsupportingthestudiesandambitionsofyoungpeople
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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whohopedtogetanIslamiceducationeitherinBulgariaormoreimpor-tantlyabroadinTurkeySyriaSaudiArabiaJordanorKuwaitMostofthelocalbusinessmenandpoliticianscongregatedatthemosqueandinlocalaffairstheimamwhohadalsostudiedIslamabroadwasbecomingmorepowerfulwitheachpassingyearInacommunitycaughtinatempestofpoliticalandeconomicchangethemosqueprovidedsocialandspiritualsupportforthosedesperatelyinneedofabulwarkagainstthestorm
WhyBulgaria
OfalloftheEUcountriesBulgariamayseemthemostobscureinwhichtoexaminethegrowingpresenceofIslaminEuropeButBulgariaisafasci-natinglocationtostudythedynamismofIslambecauseitisaplacewheretheldquoWestrdquohashistoricallymettheldquoEastrdquoAlthoughbothNATOandtheEuropeanUnionhavenowembracedBulgariaithasbeenatthecross-roadsbetweentheldquoOccidentrdquoandtheldquoOrientrdquoforoveramillenniumIthasbeeninturnpartoftheRomanByzantineandOttomanempiresandRomanCatholicismOrthodoxChristianityandIslamhavealllefttheirlegaciesinthemodernnationoffewerthaneightmillionpeopleAsacloseSovietallyBulgariaalsoexperiencedoverfourdecadesoftheofficialstateatheismofMarxist-LeninismandscientificsocialismDuringthe1990swhen internalconflicts toreapartneighboringYugoslaviaBulgariare-mainedstableandpeacefuldespitesimilarreligiousdividessevereeco-nomichardshipsandthemassivesocialandpoliticalchangesthatfollowedthearrivalofdemocracyandfreemarketsIn2008Bulgariahadthelarg-estMuslimpopulationintheEUandwastheonlymemberstatewithalargehistoricallyindigenousMuslimpopulationAndunlikeMuslimpop-ulations elsewhere inthe EU BulgariarsquosMuslim PomaksTurks and RomahaveprofessedIslamforcenturiesFinallyastheAmericansmovedtheirEuropeanmilitarybasesintothecountrytobolsterstrategicpositionsforfutureforaysintotheMiddleEasttheMiddleEastwasstrengtheningitspresenceinBulgariathroughitsreligiousaidtoMuslimsthesameaidthatprobablyhelpedbuildtheimposingnewmosqueinMadanBulgariahadbecomeameetingpointonceagain
Bulgariahasalsohadalongandtempestuousrelationshipwithitseast-ernneighborTurkeyanditsethnicTurkishminorityhasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcontroversyBulgariawaspartoftheOttomanEm-pireforthebetterpartoffivecenturiesbeforeobtainingitsindependencein1878AlthoughtherewereseveralemigrationwavesofethnicTurksbacktoTurkeyandlargepopulationexchangesafterWorldWarIasizeableTurkishminorityremainedinBulgariathroughoutthetwentiethcenturyThiswasaparticularlythornyissuefortheWarsawPactBulgarianswho
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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fearedthattheirownTurkswerealdquofifthcolumnrdquoforNATO-alliedTurkeySeveralattemptsweremadetoassimilatetheTurksofBulgariaincludingamassivename-changingcampaigninthemid-1980s5ThesituationcametoaheadwhentheBulgariancommunistsunilaterallydeclaredthattherewereldquonoTurksrdquoinBulgariaprecipitatingamassiveexodustoTurkeyinMayof1989By2008TurkeyrsquosdesiretojointheEuropeanUnionfoundlittle support from thosewhobelieved thatEurope should stopat theBosphorusThisvexedgeopoliticalrelationshipwithTurkeywouldbeoneimportantfactorpushingBulgariarsquosPomakstoforgeclosertieswiththeGulfArabstates
AlthoughmyanalyticalfocusisonthemicrolevelofhumaninteractionthequestionsthatdrivethisbookgobeyondjustonecityontheedgeofEuropetheyapplytopostsocialistpopulationsfromBudapesttoVladi-vostokThey shed lightonhow religious ideologies fare afterdecadesofstate-imposedatheismandMarxistcritiquesofcapitalismTheyalsoprovideawindowonthesituationofMuslimminoritiesintheEuropeanUnionwhereanewpassport-freetravelregimemeansthatBulgarianswillbemoreandmoreintegratedintoWesternEuropeanMuslimnetworksandcommunitiesinGermanyFranceEnglandandSpaindespitethefactthattheremaybesignificantdifferencesinthereasonswhyIslamisembracedbydifferentgroupsThepersonalhistoriesofindividualmenandwomeninaruralcitylikeMadangivetextureanddetailtothesequestionsandreveal thespecificitiesofplacewithin the transnationalgeneralizationsmadepossiblebythepersistenceofcommunistmaterialculturethrough-outthepostsocialistworld6andbythehomogenizingeffectsofEuropeanlegalharmonization
Thusonecanexplorepressingglobal issuesbytellingthestoriesofordinarypeoplesecularMuslimsatheistMuslimsChristianizedMus-limsandthenewlydevoutInthepagesthatfollowyouwillencounterpeoplelikeIordananatheistPomakandalaid-offminerwhoagonizedabouthisChristiannameHisrecollectionsoftheperiodbefore1989willhelptoexplainthesituationoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsduringthecommunistperiodandthestridentcampaignslaunchedinordertoas-similatethemAwomannamedHigyarexplainshowtheldquonewrdquoIslamdif-feredfromtheldquooldwaysrdquoandAishawillilluminatewhysomanyMuslimyouthfeltthattheIslampracticedbytheirparentswastaintedbyatheismandwasinneedofrenewalAndSilvitheformerbanktellerturnedAvonladywholivedinMadanforalmostfivedecadeswillshareherownpercep-tionsandfearsofthechangestransformingherbelovedcitychangesshedesperatelywantstomakesenseofifonlysothatshecankeepthingsfromchangingtooquicklyAsfarasSilviwasconcernedoneunexpectedandworld-shatteringchangethealmostinstantaneousdemiseofcommunismwasenoughforonelifetime
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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theProblemofterminology
ActuallynamingthenewformofIslamthatwasmakingitswayintoBul-gariaduringmyfieldworkwasadifficulttaskandtherearemanyschol-arlydebatesonwhatitshouldbecalled7After1989theincreasedcontactwiththeMuslimworldslowlybeganwhathasbeentermedtheobjec-tificationofIslaminBulgariaThisoccurswhenMuslimpracticesthathadbeenobservedwithoutmuchcriticalreflectionbecomethesubjectofintensepublicscrutinyanddebate8ldquoObjectificationistheprocessbywhichbasicquestionscometotheforeintheconsciousnessoflargenum-bersofbelieverslsquoWhatismyreligionrsquolsquoWhyisitimportanttomylifersquoandlsquoHowdomybeliefsguidemyconductrsquordquo9 IslamisextractedfromitsrootsinlocaltraditionsandbecomesasystematizedbodyofideasthatisdistinctlyseparablefromnonreligiousonesInCentralAsiaAdeebKhalidhasarguedthattheSovietoppressionofIslampreventeditsobjectifica-tion leaving it fixed in the realmof tradition and custom throughoutthesocialistperiod10 AlthoughIslaminBulgariawasnotsubjecttotheextremeattemptsateradicationthatitwasintheSovietUnionandtheMuslimclergywasleftintact(albeitcooptedbythecommunistgovern-ment)ittooremainedpartofthefabricofeverydayculturesratherthananobjectifiedsystemofbeliefsdistinguishablefromlocalcustomBulgariathusbegantheprocessofobjectificationafter1989
ButIslaminBulgariaisveryheterogeneousThisheterogeneityhasmadeitdifficulttohavejustoneconversationaboutwhatIslammeansintheBulgariancontextAlthough95percentoftheMuslimsinBulgariaaretechnicallyHanafiSunnithere isaverywide spectrumofbeliefs sub-sumedinthiscategoryAdditionallythereisasmallheterodoxShirsquoapop-ulationcalledtheAlevisandawidevarietyofSufibrotherhoodssuchastheBektashiswhichhavealonghistoryinthecountryInadditiontothisspectrumofbeliefstherearealsothreedifferentethnicgroupsthatpro-fessIslamtheTurkstheRomaandthePomakswhoarethefocusofthepresentstudyAndevenamongthePomakstherearethosethatconsiderthemselvestobeTurksthosewhoconsiderthemselvesBulgariansandyetathirdgroupwhichbelievesthatldquoPomakrdquoisaseparateethnicidentityal-togetherThisbookhonesinonthereplacementoftraditionalpracticesofIslamwithnewformsofthereligionimportedfromabroadamongthelat-tertwogroupsofPomakswhyisthishappeningspecificallyamongthispopulation
IntheBulgariancontextthisnewformofIslamseemedtocomelargelyfromSaudiArabiaandfromtheinfluenceoftheJordanianMuslimBrothersTheBulgarianswhopromoteditreferredtothisnewinterpretationofIslamastheldquotrueIslamrdquobecauseitsupposedlycamestraightfromtheArabian
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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PeninsulawheretheProphet11hadlivedanddiedThosewhosupporteditpositionedthisldquotruerdquoIslaminoppositiontotheIslamofTurkeyIranortheBalkansmoregenerallyBecausetheresourcesthatfinancedthepubli-cationsandorganizationsthatpromotedthisnewformofobjectifiedIslamwerelinkedtoSaudi-fundedcharitiesmembersoftheBulgariangovern-mentandthoseintheleadershipoftheBulgarianMuslimcommunitywhorejectedittendedtorefertothisIslamasldquoWahhabismrdquospecificallylink-ingittoSaudiArabiaThoseordinaryBulgarianMuslimswhostillclungtotheirowntraditionsreferredtoitasldquoArabIslamrdquobecausetheyalsosawitasoriginatingwiththeSaudisJordaniansandEgyptiansandcon-trastedittotheirownBalkanorTurkishIslamthatisHanafiSunnismInCentral Asia Muslimsalso referred toldquoArabIslamrdquobecauseitwas seenasdistinctlyforeign to local traditions12AlthoughldquoArab Islamrdquowas thetermmostcommonlyusedbymyinformantsinthefielditassumedastaticandhomogenousformofldquoArabrdquoIslamthatdidnotactuallyexistintheArabworldandalsoelidedthewaysinwhichBulgarianreligiousleaderswereactivelyrecraftingforeigninterpretationsofIslamfortheirownpurposes
RecognizingthattherewereavarietyoftermswhichmeantdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleIinitiallyplannedtousethetermsmostfamiliartomeinthedisciplineofanthropologyandtorefertothisformofIslamasldquoorthodoxIslamrdquofollowingtheveryinfluentialworkofTalalAsad13
eventhoughitmightbeveryconfusingtousethisterminologyina(bigO)OrthodoxChristiancountryThetermldquoorthodoxIslamrdquoseemedtoworkwellintheBulgariancontextbecauseofAsadrsquosjuxtapositionofldquoortho-doxrdquoIslamwithtraditionalIslam andthe ways inwhich proponents oftheformerusescripturalauthoritytoclaimamoreldquorightfulrdquoversionoftheirreligionAsaddescribes(smallo)ldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamastheldquoscripturalistpuritanicalfaithofthetownsrdquo14andarguesthatitattemptsldquoa(re)orderingofknowledgethatgovernsthelsquocorrectrsquoformofIslamicpracticesrdquo1 ForAsadldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhas itshistoricalrootsintheldquoprocessbywhichlong-established indigenous practices (suchasthevenerationofsaintsrsquotombs)werejudgedtobeun-IslamicbytheWahhabireformersofArabiaandthenforciblyeliminatedrdquo(emphasisintheoriginal)16InherethnographicstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDuomatoalsousesthetermldquoorthodoxrdquotorefertotheinterpretationofIslampromotedbyWahhabireformersopposingittothewordldquoheterodoxrdquowhichre-ferredtospecificlocalMuslimtraditionsShewritesldquoWahhabiauthoritydefineditselfveryspecificallyinoppositiontosaintworshipprayingatgravesvotiveofferingsandSufizikr chantinganddancingaswellasfortune-tellingspellmakingtruthdiviningandamuletwearingrdquo17IntheworkofbothAsadandDuomatoIfoundimportantparallelswiththeBulgariancase
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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AsIsolicitedfeedbackonearlydraftsof themanuscripthoweverIlearnedthatmanyexpertsoutsideofthefieldofanthropologywereverydubious about the termldquoorthodoxrdquoEdwardWalkera political scien-tistatBerkeleywhosespecialtyisIslaminthepost-Sovietcontextob-jectedtothewordontwogroundsFirstlytheetymologyofthewordisfromtheGreekortho (correct)anddoxa (belief)andimpliesatheologi-callycorrectversionofareligionasdeterminedbysomeoverseeingpersonorbodyWalkerfeltthatbecauseIslamhadnooverseeingbodytherecouldbenoorthodoxySecondlymuchoftheldquocorrectingrdquoofIslamisaboutproperdevotionalpracticesratherthanbeliefsoldquoorthopraxyrdquo(correctpractice)wouldbemoreappropriatethanldquoorthodoxyrdquo18
Iwasalsofortunatetogetinvaluablefeedbackfromtheesteemedhis-torianofIslamNikkiRKeddie19 Shequitevehementlyobjectedtothetermldquoorthodoxrdquobecauseshefelt thattherecould benoldquocorrectrdquobelief inareligionasdiverseandcomplexasIslamparticularlywhenoneconsid-ersthefundamentaldivisionsbetweenSunniandShirsquoaMuslimsandthelonghistoryofconflictoverwhatisldquocorrectrdquobeliefandpracticeKeddiealsofeltthatImightasanauthorbeinterpretedasendorsingthisspecificformofIslamastheldquocorrectrdquooneFinallymycolleagueandmentorGailKligmanfeltthatthewordldquoorthodoxrdquowastooanalyticalforanethno-graphictextandthatasanethnologistIshouldusetheterminologyofmyinformants20ThiswouldbeeitherldquoArabIslamrdquo(Arabski Islyam)ifmyinformantdidnotembraceitorldquotrueIslamrdquo(istinski Islyam) ifheorshedid
FromthesecommentsIbegantohavereservationsaboutusingAsadrsquosterminologydespite itswideacceptance inanthropologyTheproblemwaswhattoreplaceitwithparticularlybecauseIwantedtobesensitivetotheBulgariancontextandhowthemediatherehasdeployeddifferentterms I ruled outldquofundamentalistrdquoIslam or even Olivier Royrsquosldquoneo-fundamentalismrdquo21becauseoftheirverynegativeconnotationsinBulgar-ian whereldquofundamentalistsrdquo aresynonymouswithldquoterroristsrdquoThetermldquoWahhabismrdquoconflatesradicalIslamicmovementssuchas Al-QaedawiththeofficialreligioninSaudiArabiaandsincethe2002publicationofSte-phenSchwartzrsquosThe Two Faces of Islam22 hasbecomeaplaceholderforldquobadrdquoIslaminoppositiontoldquogoodrdquoIslamldquoSalafismrdquoisanArabicwordthatreferstotheldquoancestorsrdquoandconnotesaversionofIslamtobeprac-ticedasitwaspracticedatthetimeoftheProphetTheproblemwiththistermisthatitisdistinctlybackward-lookingandrootedspecificallyintheArabianPeninsulaThenewformsofIslaminBulgariaseemtobemuchmoreforward-lookingandsupranationalinthesensethattheiradherentsareadvocatinganewermoreinclusiveformofIslamstrippedofitslocalvariationsandculturalparticularitiesasinOlivierRoyrsquosideaofldquoglobal-izedIslamrdquoorwhatoneBulgarianIslamicStudiesscholarpreferredtocall
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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ldquouniversalistrdquoIslam23 FurthermorebothldquoSalafismrdquoandldquoWahhabismrdquodenoteaformofIslamthatisseeminglyfixedandunchangingwhereasinBulgariaitwasstillrathervagueandundefinedDaleEickelmanandJamesPiscatori have remindedus thatldquoreligious communities like alllsquoimaginedcommunitiesrsquochangeovertimeTheirboundariesareshiftedbyandshiftthepoliticaleconomicandsocialcontextsinwhichtheseparticipantsfindthemselvesrdquo24
ThentherewerethetermsldquoIslamistrdquoandldquoIslamismrdquowhichconnoteapoliticalformofIslamonethatincludesafocusongainingpoliticalau-thorityinordertopromotemorality(ordeployingadiscourseofmoralitytogainpoliticalpower)IntheBulgariancontextatleastduringthetimeofmyfieldworkthepromotersofthisnewIslamdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticsandinfactwerequitecriticaloftheTurkishMovementforRightsandFreedompartyformixingreligionwithstatecraftTherewerealsothetermsldquoobjectifiedrdquoIslamorldquoauthenticatedrdquoIslam(usedintheShirsquoacontext)25whichdenotedacontinualprocessofdefininganddistill-ing Islamicbeliefsandpractices Theseterms betterdescribedthetheologi-calnegotiationssurroundingwhatthisnewIslamwouldlooklikeamongthePomaksandwhyitwasconsideredldquopurerrdquoormoreldquoauthenticrdquothanthelocalbeliefsbuttheywererarelyusedintheBulgariancontextFinallyNikkiKeddie suggested simply calling thisnew formof IslamldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquosinceitreliedsoheavilyonSaudiresourcesbutIfeltthatthistermignoredtheimportantJordanianinfluenceparticularlythatoftheMuslimBrothers
AftermuchdebateandruminationIwillcontinuetouseAsadrsquostermi-nologybecauseitaccuratelyreflectstheattitudeofBulgariansembracingthisnew Islamwhoclaimed that theirversionof the religionwas theldquocorrectbeliefrdquoandthattheoverseeingbodytowhichtheydeferredwastheQurrsquoanitselfIwillkeepthewordldquoorthodoxrdquoinquotesthroughoutthetexthowevertomakeitclearthatIamnotendorsingthisversionofIslam(oranyother)asthecorrectoneIwillalsooccasionallyuseldquoSaudi-influencedIslamrdquo(withoutquotes)becauseitisaccuratetosaythatthisformofIslamislargelypromotedinBulgariawithmoniesderivedfromSaudi-fundedIslamiccharitieseveniftheideasthemselvesareofmorediverseorigin
ThisobjectifiedformofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammountsadirectchallengetotraditionalMuslimpracticeswhichcometobecharacterizedasforbiddeninnovationsevenifthesepracticeswereapartoflocalMuslimcultureforcenturiesHereIalsofollowAsadinhisdefinitionofldquotraditionalrdquoIslamnotasafixedandstagnantritualisticpracticeofthefaithbutratheronewherethelegitimacyoftheinterpretationsofIslamicbeliefandpracticeisrootedinlocalhistories26SabaMahmoodfurtherarguesthatintradi-tionalIslamldquothepastistheverygroundthroughwhichthesubjectivity
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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andself-understandingofatraditionrsquosadherentsareconstitutedrdquo27ThusldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamoftencomesintoconflictwithtraditionalIslamastheformertriestoclaimdiscursivehegemonyoverthelatterbypropagatingtheideathatitismoreldquoauthenticrdquoThisoftenresultsinasituationwherewidelyvaryinglocalattitudesregardingmandatoryIslamicpractices(suchasfast-ingabstinencefromalcoholandhead-covering)arecriticizedandtar-getedbyldquoorthodoxrdquoreformerswho claim there is onlyoneldquotruerdquoorldquopurerdquoIslam
InBulgariatraditionalIslamspansaverywidespectrumofbelieffrommainstreamHanafiSunnismtoSufismtootherformsoflocallydefinedfolkIslamWhattheyallshareincommonisthattheircollectivepracticeisseenasapermanentpartofthefabricoflocalMuslimcommunitieswhichhaveacenturies-longpresenceintheBalkansThroughoutBulgariathereareremnantsofmosquesandotherremindersofMuslimOttomanculturethatlegitimatelocalinterpretationsofIslammdashBulgarianMuslimshavebeendoingthingstheirownwayforalongtimeEffortstoobjectifyIslaminBulgariathereforewillinevitablymeetresistancebythosewhowanttopreservesomeformofcontinuitywiththepastevenifthisisapastinwhichMuslimpracticeswerebannedbyacommunistgovernmentAfewexamplesoftheshapeofrecenttensionsbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditional Islam in Bulgaria will help to sharpen the analytical focusaroundthesetwoconcepts
One interestingexample is theattemptedprohibitionofaBulgarianMuslimholidayHadraleswhichcoincideswiththeOrthodoxChristianholidayofGeorgiovDen(StGeorgersquosDay)APomakandtheBulgarianchiefmuftiMustafaHadzhiexplainedina2005interviewthatthecel-ebrationofHadralesmarkedldquotheboundarybetweenwinterandsummerrdquoandcameintoBulgariathroughtheOttomansfromthePersianswhoalsocelebrateaholidaybythesamenameThemuftithenwentontoexplainthatHadraleswasapre-Islamic holidayof thePersiansand thereforeeventhoughithasbeencelebratedforperhapshalfamillenniumitscel-ebrationshouldbeeradicatedfromlocalMuslimpracticeinBulgaria
ThecelebrationofaholidaysuchasStGeorgersquosDayorwhattheMus-limscallldquoHadralesrdquodoesnotagreewiththeprinciplesoftheIslamicreligionbecauseitisveryclearonthisissuemdashtherearetwoholidaysinIslam[KurbanBayramandRamazanBayram]AsforotherholidaysincludingldquoHadralesrdquothe celebration of such holidays is in no wayallowedfortheMuslimstheIslamicreligionfullydistancesitselffromthetraditionsandallotherholidaysoftheotherreligionsWearenotagainstthenon-Muslimscelebratingtheirownholidaysfollowingtheirtraditionsbutweourselvescannotacceptthemasoursandwecannotobserveanyritualsconnectedwiththemthiscannotbeallowed
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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bytheIslamicreligionIslamisfirstofallanorderfromGodanditisthelastreligionandbecauseofthisitsreligiousprinciplesshouldbeobservednotoldtraditionsandrituals28
AlthoughthechiefmuftiofficiallycondemnedHadralesmanyPomakscontinuedtocelebratetheholidaybravingthedisapprovaloftheirnewlydevoutMuslimneighbors
AnotherextremeexampleofanattempttoeradicatelocalMuslimprac-ticeswasthatofAliKhairaddinaPomakwhowaspartoftheofficialMuslimleadership(theregionalmuftiofSofiaandallofWesternBul-garia)beforestartinghisownNationalAssociationofBulgarianMuslimsin2006KhairaddinarguedthatthereshouldbeseverepunishmentsforMuslimswhoclaimtobeabletodivinethefutureItwasnotanuncom-monpracticeamongthePomaksintheSmolyanregiontoseekoutlocalldquofortune-tellersrdquointimesofconfusionanduncertaintyandthentoaskforamuletsfromlocalhodzhasinordertoprotectthemselvesfromthedan-gerspredictedforthemIna2005interviewhoweverKhairaddinopenlycondonedthetraditionalIslamicpunishmentforfortune-tellersdeathbydecapitationHesaidldquoThisextrememeasureisrightanditconsidersthepsychologyandthenatureofmanbecauseamanwhohasbeentemptedbythisactivity[fortune-telling]andmakesaneasyprofitwillhaveahardtimegivingitupGivingituphappensthroughtheIslamiccourtrdquo29
BothofthepreviousexamplesshowreligiousleaderstryingtocleanselocalIslamofun-IslamicpracticesoftenagainstthedesiresoflocalMus-limcommunitiesOnamoreeverydaylevelfewBulgarianswhowouldcallthemselvesMuslimrefrainfromdrinkorporkandmostgenerallyignoreavarietyofpracticesassociatedwithbeingaproperMuslimTheproponentsofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtracetherootsofthislaxityinthelocalMuslimculturetolackofeducationandlackofcriticalreflectiononwhatitmeanstobeaMusliminBulgariaThesedebatesbetweenldquoorthodoxrdquoandtraditionalIslaminBulgariaareinevitablymappedontoethnicdivi-sionsandintergenerationalconflictsandasweshallseeinthisbookalsopiggybackontothecountryrsquosforty-five-yearhistoryofMarxist-Leninismanditspreoccupationswithsocialjusticeandtheldquocommongoodrdquo
ThediscoursesofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamtouchedalmostallMuslimcom-munitiesinBulgariaintheperiodafter1989butwhatisfascinatingfromthepointofviewofthepresentstudyisthewayinwhichthisnewandldquoforeignrdquoformofthefaithtookrootinaspecificregionoftheRhodopeThecentralquestionofthisbookishowandwhythistookplaceandwhat we can learn from it about the process through which religiouscommunitiesshiftandrefashionthemselvesinresponsetobothinternalandexternal stimuliMore importantlyin theEuropeancontexthowarelocaleclectictraditionalformsofIslambeingshapedbythecultural
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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politicalandeconomiccontextofpostcommunistsocietiesAndwhyaretheselocalformsofIslambeingdisplacedbyexternallydefinedversionsofthereligionAretheseimportedldquoorthodoxiesrdquobecominghegemonicoraretheyonlyselectivelyappropriatedandstrategicallyredeployedtosupportspecificlocalideologicalneedsAsof2008theembraceofthisexternallydefinedIslaminBulgariawasstillverylocalizedandfarfromcompleteBut attempts to promote theldquotruerdquoIslamparticularly withregardtothedressandbehaviorofwomenhaveprecipitatedincreasingtensionsnotonlybetweenthetraditionalMuslimsandtheirmoreldquoor-thodoxrdquoneighborsbutalsobetweenBulgariarsquosMuslimminorityanditsoverwhelmingOrthodoxChristianmajority
theoriestoexplainldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminBulgaria
FormorethantwentyyearsbeforeshebegansellingAvonSilviworkedasatellerinthelocalbranchoftheBulgarianPeoplersquosBankinMadanBythemid-1990stheeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandSilvilostherjobatatimewhenherfam-ilymostneededherincomeHerhusbandIordanwastravelingaroundBulgariainsearchofconstructionworkHertwosonswerestillinschooloneattheuniversityandtheotheratthegymnasium (academicsecondaryschool)andshewasdeterminedthattheywouldfinishtheirstudiesforshebelievedthateducationwastheonlypathwaytosuccessinthenewmarketsystemNomatterhowmuchmoneyIordansenthometherewasneverenoughbutSilvigaveasmuchofitasshecouldtohersons
ldquoAvonsavedmyliferdquo sheexplainedldquoWithoutAvon Icannotsaywhatwouldhavehappenedtousrdquo
ArmedwithhermonthlycataloguesSilviekedoutameagersalaryandmoreimportantlyfoundareasontogetupinthemorningandleavetheflatDuringalmost fourteenmonthsofunemploymentshehadstayedathomeldquostucktothecouchlikeVelcrordquoAnaturallysocialpersonsherememberedthatperiodwithgreatfrustrationldquoIdidnotevenwanttogoouttospendthirtystotinki30 ononecoffeeIntruthIdidnothaveonestotinkatospendIcouldnotbelievethatsomethinglikethiscouldhappentomerdquo
SlowlyshemanagedtobuildaclientbaseandhiredsomedistributorsbelowheronthepyramidShesoonbecameanastutebusinesswomanBecauseherlivelihooddependedsomuchonpeddlingbeautyproductsshewasquicktorealizepotentialthreatstoherbusinessinterestsAtsomepointshehaddeterminedthatthisnewformofIslamwasoneofthemandshetriedtomakesenseofwhatwashappeningaroundherHerviewofreligionwasadecidedlyMarxistonelikethatofmostBulgariansofher
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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generationwhowereschooledinthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterial-ismandtaughttoequatemodernitywithatheismAccordingtoMarxldquoReligioussufferingisatoneandthesametimetheexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsufferingReligionisthesighoftheoppressedcreaturetheheartofaheartlessworldandthesoulofsoullessconditionsItistheopiumofthepeopleTheabolitionofreligionastheil-lusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappinessrdquo31
Forpeople likeSilviwhowereraisedundercommunismthiswasafamiliarandcompellinganalysisoftheresurgenceofreligiosityintheircommunitiesandonthesurfacethestructuralargumenthadplentyofevidencetosupportitAsthelocaleconomiesofremoteareaslikeMadancollapsedtheruraleducationalinfrastructurecrumbledpopulationsde-clinedteachersleftandschoolsclosedTherewasanempiricallysignifi-cantregressioninthematerialconditionsofpeoplersquoslivesaftertheendof communism32 Marxistsbelieved thatpeopleweremore susceptibletoreligionwhentheywerepooranduneducatedparticularlyifthereli-giousauthoritieshadpowerandresourcesItwasasimpleandmechani-calexplanationforamorecomplexphenomenoninBulgariabutitsatcomfortablywiththerelativelyaccurateobservationthatdestituteruralpopulationstendedtobemorereligiousthanaffluentcity-dwellers
ButtherewereotherexplanationsforthisIslamicrevivalaswellex-planationsthatSilvididnotconsiderbutwhichwerepositedbyvariousexpertsIconsultedasIgrappledwiththelargertheoreticalquestionsthatwereraisedbymyexaminationofdailylifeinMadanWesternmissionar-iesandevangelistsforexampleheldthatcommunist-imposedatheismhadcreatedamassofgodlesssoulsinneedofsalvationfollowingthefalloftheBerlinWallldquoCapitalismaloneisnotabletofillthelsquospiritualvac-uumrsquoleftbyMarxismrsquoscollapserdquo33AccordingtothisargumentMarxist-Leninismwasanideologythatartificiallyfilledinforthemorespiritualneedsofthepeopleandtheimplosionofthatideologyleftagreatexis-tentialvoidintheheartsandmindsofformercommunistcitizenswhichreligioncouldthenfill34 IndeedtheseconvictionsinspiredthemadrushofMormonsMooniesHareKrishnasSeventhDayAdventistsJehovahrsquosWitnessesWahhabisAhmadisScientologistsBaharsquoisand evangelicalProtestantsofeverykindintotheformersocialistcountriesintheimmedi-ateaftermathoftheeventsof198935Thespiritualfree-for-allinBulgarialedeventheAmericanmagazineChristianity Today toclaimin1992thatthecountryhadbecomealdquofertilegroundforfalseteachingrdquo36
AthirdexplanationcamefromthelocalreligiousleadersOfficialsfromthechiefmuftirsquosoffice(theoreticallythespiritualauthorityoverallMuslimsinBulgaria)andtheregionalmuftishipinSmolyanarguedthatreligiousactivityamongMuslimsinBulgariaafter1989wasmerelythereemer-genceofapietythathadflourishedinthecountrybeforecommunism
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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Forty-fiveyearsofheavy-handedoppressionhadforcedmanyotherwisedevoutBulgarianMuslimstoabandontheirtraditionslosetouchwiththeirfaithandmostimportantlyforfeitconnectionsthattheywouldoth-erwisehavehadtotheMuslimworldFromthisperspectivethereligiousresurgenceinplaceslikeMadanwasasortofspiritualrestitutionNewIslamic practices were being promoted by those interested in reinstat-ingBulgariarsquos longMuslimpastevenif thesesupposedlyldquotraditionalrdquopracticesweretakingonformsquitedifferentfromthosepreservedbyoldhodzhassuchasLilirsquosfatherThesetensionsweremappedontosig-nificantgenerationaldividespittingyoungagainstoldinabattleovertheldquoproperrdquopracticeofIslam
SomeBulgarianintellectuals37andthedeputychiefmuftiinBulgaria38
believedthattheIslamicldquorevivalrdquointhecountrywasbeingdrivenbythePomakswhowerehavingsomewhatofanidentitycrisisBecausemost(thoughnotall)PomaksbelievedthattheywereethnicSlavstheyhadal-waysfounditdifficulttofindtheirplaceintheBulgarianculturalmosaicto classify themselves in a way that expressed their political interestsThelargerMuslimcommunityinBulgariawasmadeupofethnicTurksSlavsandRomawiththeTurksaccountingforthevastmajorityWhilesomePomaksactuallyclaimedthattheywereTurksothersarguedthattheywereethnicallyArabandstillotherssaidtheyhadauniqueethnic-ityoftheirown39TheGreeksclaimedthatthePomakswereGreekandtheMacedonianssaidtheywereMacedonian(whichneithertheGreeksnortheBulgariansrecognizedasaseparateethnicity)ThissituationsoindicativeofthecomplicatedethnicpoliticsoftheBalkanssupportedtheidentity-crisisargumentthehybridityandfluidityofPomakidentityandthepoliticalpowerlessnessthataccompanieditcausedsomePomakstoembraceformsofIslamthatdivergedsignificantlyfromthosepracticedbytheTurksSomePomaksdidthistodistinguishthemselvesfromtheTurksandmaketheclaimthattheTurksshouldnotrepresentthempolitically(ashadbeen the casebetween1990and2008)Byestablishingcloserlinks(eventhroughanimaginedethnicity)totheSaudisorGulfArabsandpracticingmoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformsofIslamthenewPomakreligiousleadersalsostrategicallypositionedthemselvestotakeadvantageofthegenerousresourcesavailablefromwealthySaudicharitiesorotherforeignsourcesofIslamicaid
Therewasalso the issueof faithand indeedmanyyoungmenandwomen embracing thenewways claimed that theyhad experienced atypeofspiritualawakeningthathadbeenlackingintheirlivesButwhyIaskedwouldthesespiritualawakeningsbesogeographicallyspecificIndeedwhileeachoftheproposedexplanationscouldaccountforapartofthestorynonecouldfullyexplaintheobservedvariabilitybetweenal-mostidenticalpopulationsManypostsocialistcommunitieswereaffected
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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bysimilarconditionsyettheembraceofthisldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamwasveryunevenandconcentratedinspecificregions
Communities throughout thepostsocialistworldexperiencedsimilarrapidruraldeclinesandstunningincreasesinpovertysince1989thissitu-ationwasbynomeansuniquetoBulgariaMoreovermostruralareasinBulgariahadexperiencedaseveredeclineintheirlivingstandards40Ruralindustrieshadbeencloseddownpopulationshadfledandaccesstoedu-cationhadbeenseverelycrippledbytheshrinkingofsocialwelfareprovi-sionsReligiousmissionariesofallfaithstraveledthroughoutthecountrytryingtoenticepotentialbelieverswithpromisesoffoodfinancialaidandreligiouseducationalongsidespiritualsalvationAndalthoughthePomaksmayhavebeenparticularlytargetedforconversionbecauseoftheperceivedambiguityintheirethno-religiousidentitynotallPomakshaveturnedtoldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamandmanyhaveactivelyresistedit
Themoreformalexplanationscouldalsobeappliedtoawidecross-sectionofBulgariansocietyIfreligionhadsimplyrushedintofixaprob-lemcreatedbyMarxistatheismitwouldhaveappliedtoallBulgariansparticularlysincesocialmobilitybefore1989waslinkedtojoiningthecommunist party and rejecting religion41 The so-calledldquospiritual vac-uumrdquoif itexistedwouldhaveengulfedthewholepostsocialistworldnotjustMadanandRudozemInRussiatwoprominentsociologistsofreligionfoundthatwhileldquobeliefinsupernaturalforcesrdquoincreasedintheearly1990samongRussiansthistrendwasnotsustained42AlthoughtheyoungwereinitiallyamongthefirsttoembracereligionasarebelliousactagainsttheSovietregimetheywerealsothefirsttoabandonitTheRussiancommunistsweremoreruthless intheiroppressionofreligionthantheirBulgariancounterpartsbutthepostsocialistldquospiritualvacuumrdquoexistedequallyinbothnationsThesociologistDimitriYefimovichFur-man argues that the majority of younger Russians lived in a morallyphilosophicallyand intellectually ambiguousuniversefilledwithwhathecallsldquopostmoderneclecticismrdquo43 Henoticesanincreaseinsituationalmoralityan unwillingness to define right or wrong in absolute termsSocialrulesandnormswereflexibleandfluidandabletoaccommodatealloftheuncertainexigenciesofthepostcommunistera44
ThismoralrelativityalsoengulfedBulgarianswhowereraisedundercommunismtobelievethatcapitalismwasbydefinitionanimmoralsys-temwherehereditaryprivilegeandbrute forceperpetually subjugatedthe toilingmassesandwhere theftcorruptionand exploitationwererewardedwithpowerandwealthWiththefalloftheBerlinWallin1989manyBulgarianshopedthatthecommunistshadbeenwrongandthatopenmultipartyelectionsandfreemarketswouldbringlibertyprosper-ityandgreateropportunitiesforthosewillingtotakeindividualinitiativeandworkhardinthenewcompetitivesystemInsteadtheywatchedas
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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corruptpoliticiansdisingenuousforeigninvestorsinternationalfinancialinstitutionsand a new Mafia elite that terrorized the population intosubmissionransackedandpillagedtheircountryValuablestate-ownedenterpriseswhichtechnicallybelongedtotheBulgarianpeopleweresoldforasongtobothforeignanddomesticvulturesthatstrippedtheirassetsandranthemintobankruptcyinexplicitviolationofcarefullypreparedprivatization contractsThe fire sale in Bulgaria left thousands unem-ployedmanyexperiencedrealpovertyforthefirsttimeintheirlivesTheaccumulatedwealthofthecountrywasconcentratedintothehandsoflessthan5percentofthepopulationinjustoveradecadeTherewasnowaytofightbackJudgeswereboughtandsoldthepolicewerethoroughlycorruptandtheWestrsquoscheerleadersfordemocracysupportedprivatiza-tionatallcostsdespitetheclearevidencethatstate-ownedassetswerefallingintothehandsofgangstersandthugswhoshotfirstandaskedquestionslater45
InspiteofthechaosofthetransitionfewBulgariansfoundcomfortinfaithasmanyRussiansdidNationallyrepresentativesurveysfoundalackofreligiousinterestinBulgariadespitetheinfluxofmissionariesandthesurgeofreligiousactivityintheearly1990sIn2006Bulgariarankedsev-enteenthoutofthefiftymostatheistcountriesintheworld(SwedenwasfirsttheCzechRepublicsixthRussiatwelfthHungaryfourteenthandtheUnitedStatesforty-fourth)46Thisstudyfoundthat34ndash40percentoftheBulgarianpopulationwasatheistagnosticornonreligious47Anothernationallyrepresentativesurveyconductedin1999foundthatalthough96percentofethnicBulgariansclaimedthattheywereChristiansand86percentdefinedthemselvesasBulgarianOrthodoxChristians48 only10percentofthosewhodeclaredthemselvesOrthodoxsaidthattheyfol-lowedtheprescriptionsoftheChurchwith493percentclaimingthattheywerereligiousldquointheirownwayrdquo49Thesurveyalsofoundthat305percentoftheBulgarianpopulationneverattendedchurchormosquewiththesamepercentagesayingthattheyonlywentonthebigreligiousholidaysonceortwiceayeardemonstratingthatBulgariansarepronetodefiningreligionasanaspectofethnicidentityratherthanadeclarationofbeliefinthedoctrinesofaparticularorganizedspiritualcommunityFurthermoreinaninternationalstudycorrelatingwealthandreligiosityBulgariawasa clearoutlierAlthoughBulgarianswere relativelypoortheyshowedalmostthesameindifferencetowardreligionastheSwedesandFrench50InanoverallcultureofreligiousindifferencetheresurgenceofIslaminMadanandRudozemwasquiteanomalous
Andwhiletherewassomesenseofcontinuitywiththeprecommunistpastthismainlyappliedtoindividualsandcommunitiesthatwereop-pressedbythecommunistsandfoughttomaintaintheirreligioustradi-tionsandpracticesIndeedthroughoutthePomakregionandelsewhere
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
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WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
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localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
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honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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inBulgariamenandwomenreembracedthereligionsthattheyhadprac-ticedpriorto1945orintheearlycommunistyearsButthesepopula-tionstendedtobeolderandtheirreturntotraditionalHanafipracticescouldnot explainwhy theyoungerPomaks inMadanRudozemandSmolyanwerelatchingontoimportedinterpretationsofIslampromotedbynewnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)suchastheUnionforIslamicDevelopmentandCulture(UIDC)ProponentsoftheseimportedversionsofthefaithclaimedthatBulgarianIslamwascorruptedbyfor-biddeninnovationsIndeedthiswaspartofthedrawofthenewIslamsyoungpeoplespecificallywantedtodistancethemselvesfromwhattheydeemedtheincorrectpracticesoftheireldersandthusclaimsuperiorityoverthemTheyounggainedanewfoundauthorityfromthepresumedpurityoftheirownpracticesadaptedldquodirectlyfromArabiardquothebirth-placeofIslam
Finally there were Pomak villages spread throughout the Rhodopeandwhile itwas true that their inhabitantswerebecomingmore reli-giousthantheTurksofBulgariaitremainedunclearwhythetwolargestpostsocialistmosquesinBulgariawerebuiltinMadanandRudozemandnot inotherpartsof theRhodopewherePomaks livedSomePomaksembracedaTurkishidentityandothersconvertedtoChristianityorre-mainedstaunchatheistslikeSilviandIordanButwhywerethosewhochosetoreachouttothenewlyimportedformsofIslamconcentratedinjustafewcitieswhenthelargerBulgariansocietyseemedtobemovingawayfromorganizedreligioningeneralAndalthoughintergenerationalconflictsareapparenttheyouthpopulationherewasnot significantlygreaterthaninotherregionsAllofthereasonsdiscussedaboveplayanimportantpartinsettingthestageforourstorybutthereareotherfac-torsaswell
Onecrucialfactoruniquetothesecommunitieswasthecollapseofthelead-zincminingenterpriseandthemassivemaleunemploymentthatfollowedinitswakeBecauseminersandespeciallyleadandzincmin-ershadbeenamong themost respectedandbest-paidworkers in theentireBulgariancommunisteconomythedominanceofthisindustryhadshapedtheconstructionofmasculineidentitiesinthisregionmorethanperhapsanyotherexternalfactorThesocialprojectofcommunismhadaskedmenandwomentoradicallyreshapeexistingconceptionsoffamilyparticularlyinMuslimregionsofthecountrywherepatriarchalgenderrolesweredeeplyentrenchedUndercommunismmenwereencouragedtoallowwomento leavethehomeobtainformaleducationandtakeupemploymentinthepublicspherebutthissolutiontowhatthecom-munistscalledtheldquowomanquestionrdquowasnotaboutwomenrsquosrightsorabouttheirindividualfulfillmentorpersonalemancipationInsteadthedramaticchangeinwomenrsquosrolesbetween1946and1989wasseenasa
Copyrighted Material I n t r o d u c t I o n
collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
Copyrighted Material I n t r o d u c t I o n
understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
Copyrighted Material 0 I n t r o d u c t I o n
localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a 1
honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
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almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
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Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
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collectivesacrificethatbothmenandwomenhadtomakeforthegoodofsocietyWomenrsquoslaborwasrequiredtorealizecommunistindustrial-izationandtheirlegalequalitywithmen(althoughonlytheoretical)wasconsideredthehallmarkofamodernsociety
InherstudyofwomenhealersinSaudiArabiaEleanorAbdellaDou-mato51 arguesthatitwasMuslimwomenwholostoutthemostintheWahhabireformsThiswasnotbecausetheWahabbireformerstargetedwomenrsquospracticeofIslamspecificallybecausemenalsoparticipatedintheseldquoheterodoxrdquoritualsButasthefocusofMuslimspiritualitybegantocenterexclusivelyonthemosquewomenwereexcludedfromthisnewspace and became increasingly isolatedThuswomen lost power andpublicpresenceintheprocessofreformingldquoheterodoxrdquoIslamtomakeitconformtowhattheWahhabisimaginedtobeamoreldquoorthodoxrdquointer-pretationofthereligionSimilarlyinBulgariathereareimportantgenderrepercussionsof the shift tomoreldquoorthodoxrdquointerpretationsof IslamthatmustnotbeignoredButtheimportanceofgenderasananalyticalcategoryisnotonly intherealmofeffectsIntheBulgariancontextIwillarguethatshiftingdefinitionsofmasculinityandfemininitymightbeoneimportantfactorfuelingthepost-1989embraceofthesenewformsofIslam
WiththeclosingoftheminescameacrisisinthewaymenandwomenunderstoodtheirplaceinthelocalsystemofgenderrelationsInmanyfamilies after the mid-1990smen who had been miners stayed homewhilewomenwentouttoworkinthegarmentfactoriesForthefirsttimewiveshadtogivetheirhusbandsspendingmoneySomefamiliesjustsankintopovertybecauseneitherhusbandnorwifecouldfindworkothersscratchedoutalivingbygrowingtheirownfoodandcollectingtheirownwoodMenturnedtoalcoholandspentwhatlittlepensionstheyhadonrakiyaInmanywaystheemergenceofamoreldquoorthodoxrdquoformofIslaminMadanalsopromotedthe ideathatexistinggenderrelationswouldhavetobearrangedforthegreatergoodofthecommunityadiscoursethatwasveryfamiliarandperhapshadappealfollowingthegenderrolereversalsthataccompaniedtheclosureofGORUBSOThisnewideologywas supported by a generous availability of Islamic aid from abroadThesewereresourcesdedicatedtohelpingMuslimcommunitiesfindtheirwaybacktotheldquotruerdquoIslamanIslamwhichimaginedadifferentgendersystemthantheonepreviouslyestablishedintheseruralcitiesduringthecommunisteraGender instabilityata timeofpoliticalandeconomictumultmaybeoneimportantandoftenoverlookedfactorinhelpingtoexplainwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslambegantotakerootinthisregionandnotinotherPomakorMuslimcommunitiesthroughoutBulgaria
FurthermoreIslamicdiscoursesofsocialjustice52andcommunitymayresonatedifferentlyinsocietiesshapedbysocial-democraticsystemsver-
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susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
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understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
Copyrighted Material 0 I n t r o d u c t I o n
localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a 1
honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
Copyrighted Material I n t r o d u c t I o n
almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
susthoseonceengineeredbyMarxist-LeninismIalsowanttoexplorewhathappenstoIslamwhenitentersapost-Marxistspaceandhowitisshapedbythehistoricalrealitiesofprotocapitalisminacountrythatby2008hadstillnotreachedthestandardoflivingithadonceenjoyedundercommunismInthisinterstitialBulgarianlimbobetweentwoseeminglycontradictoryeconomicsystemsitisimportanttolookforcontinuitiesbetween thenewly imported Islamic theologies and familiarold com-munistideologiesBothepistemologiesshareamoralchallengetotheex-cessesofkleptocraticcapitalismBothplacecommunitiesoverindividualsandbothshareatotalizingmetanarrativeofsocialjusticeThisisnottosaythatIslaminBulgariahasmerelyreplacedMarxismbutonlythatitsdiscoursesmaybepickedupandmobilizedbypost-Marxistsubjectsinuniqueandinterestingwaysthatdemandfurtherexploration
AndthiswouldnotbethefirsthistoricalmomentwhereinIslamandMarxismfindthemselvesindialoguewitheachotherInexaminingthemodernconditionofCentralAsianMuslimsthehistorianAdeebKhalidremindshisreaderstonotforgettheimportantcontinuitiesbetweenthesetwoseeminglyopposedmetanarrativespointingoutthateventheearlyMuslimBrothersfoundmuchinspirationinthesuccessoftheRussianRevolutionldquothepoliticalgoalsofIslamistmovementsoweagreatdealintheirformulationtomodernrevolutionaryideologiesandtoMarxist-LeninisminparticularDuringtheColdWarIslamiststendedtoberabidlyanticommunistintheirstancebecausecommunismwasarivalideologyone that rested on universal principles and was hostile to all religionbesidesThatstanceshouldnotblindushowevertothefascinationthatMarxist-Leninismhadfor Islamistsandthemodel itprovidedforsuc-cessfulpoliticalactionrdquo53 IntheBulgariancontextthegeneralculturalmemory of life under communism cannot be ignored especially sinceagrowingnumberofMuslimshavecometofeelnostalgiaforaneco-nomicsystemtheybelievetohaveofferedmorematerialsecuritydespiteitsrecognizedpoliticaldisadvantagesThedynamicinteractionbetweenthesetwoideologiesprovidedafascinatingwindowontothesituationinBulgariainthedawningyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury
ThecaseofthePomaksintheCentralRhodopedemonstratesthattheinfluenceofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminthispostsocialistcountryisnotjustan-othermanifestationofageneralEuropeantrendbuthasitsownuniquesetofcircumstancesandjustificationsdifferentfromthoseintheFrenchGermanorBritishcontextsThusalthoughsocialscientistsandpolicy-makersoftenwanttofindoneortwogenerallyapplicableandempiricallydemonstrablereasonswhytraditionalMuslimcommunitiesarepursuingnewavenuesinthepracticeofIslamlocalpoliticalandeconomiccontextscannotbeignoredwhentryingtodeterminehowpeoplefindtheirfaithinaneraofrapidsocialchange
Copyrighted Material I n t r o d u c t I o n
understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
Copyrighted Material 0 I n t r o d u c t I o n
localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a 1
honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
Copyrighted Material I n t r o d u c t I o n
almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
Copyrighted Material I n t r o d u c t I o n
understandingFaithincontext
IwouldliketomakeclearthatIamnotarguingthatallspiritualityiseconomicallydeterminedIamhoweverproposingthatitwouldbeer-roneoustoexaminequestionsoffaithandgrowingreligiositydivorcedfromtheirsocialpoliticalhistoricalandeconomiccontextsItisperhapsimportanthere topointout that Ididnot setout to study Islamandindeedbeyondmyownpersonalexperienceasthedaughterofaldquocul-turalrdquoMuslim54 I came to thefieldwithonlyageneralknowledgeofIslamicbeliefandpracticeMyinitialintentionwastobeginresearchonthedevelopmentofruraltourisminBulgariaTheRhodopewastheidealsettingforthisendeavorwithitsnaturalbeautyandgeographicproxim-itytoGreeceButoneconversationwouldsetmeonthepathtoaverydifferentproject
Inthesummerof2004awomanfromthetownofDevinwasdescrib-ingtheprospectsforruraltourismdevelopmentinasmallvillagewithamixed populationof ChristiansandMuslimsThingshad been going quitewellthereshesaidldquountiltheybuiltthemosquerdquoApparentlyabrandnewmosquehadbeenconstructedinthecenterofthevillageandmanyresidents(bothChristianandMuslim)wereupsetbecausetheybelievedithaddriven the touristsaway intoldquoquieterrdquovillagesldquoWhowants towakeupatfiveorsquoclockinthemorningtothehodzhashoutingfromtheminaretrdquosheexplained
OnceIstartedaskingaboutthemIfoundthatnewmosqueswereap-pearinginmanyvillagesthroughouttheRhodopesomeofthemquiteimpoverishedNoonereallycaredwherethemoneywascomingfrombecausethelocalmenwereonlytoohappytohaveworkforafewmonthswhilethemosqueswereunderconstructionInsomevillagesthelocalChristianswereup inarmsInothervillagesitwas thehodzhaswhotriedtofightthenewmosquesoncethelocalpreachersrealizedthatnewimamsfromoutsideoftheircommunitieswouldstaffthemInTrigradaninnkeeperexplainedthattheconflictswerebeingfueledbymoneyfromabroadWhilethehodzhassupportedthemselvesbycollectingcontribu-tionsfromlocalMuslimstheimamsweregivingmoneyawaymdashpromisingjobseducationandtravelabroadtofrustratedyouthtiredofpovertyandunemploymentOlderMuslimsweresuspiciousofthenewmosquesandtheirseeminglyendlessresourcesbuttheyoungwereeasilyswayedFami-lieswerebeingtornapartbyconflictingallegiancestooldandneworldquorightrdquoandldquowrongrdquowaysofbeingMuslimThisinnkeeperplacedgreathopeintheabilityofathrivinglocaltouristindustrytoprovideworkfortheyoungandbringhercommunitytogetheragain
ItwasaroundthistimethatthemayorofMadanannouncedthathewouldtrytodevelopminingtourismtorevivehiscityrsquosailingeconomy
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
Copyrighted Material 0 I n t r o d u c t I o n
localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a 1
honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
Copyrighted Material I n t r o d u c t I o n
almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
WhenIarrivedthereinJuneof2005therewasindeedmuchtalkaboutdeveloping somekindof tourism in light of a newborder checkpointwithGreecetobeopenedlessthantwentykilometerstothesouthButlittlewasbeingdoneTherewasalsoagiganticnewmosquelargerthananyoftheothersIhadseenintheRhodopeandasignificantnumberofwomendressedinwhatIwouldlatercometorefertoastheldquoArabstylerdquoIdidinfactbeginmyfieldworkdoinginterviewswithlocalofficialsabouttourism and the potential use of EU fundsbut the longer I stayed inMadanthemoreIrealizedthattherewassomethinguniquegoingonintheregionaresurgenceofIslamthatwouldeventuallyputMadanandthenearbycitiesofRudozemandSmolyaninthenationalspotlightwhentwoteenagegirlsinsistedonwearingtheirIslamicheadscarvestopublicschoolinthesummerof2006Thusasisoftenthecasewithethnogra-phywhereresearchquestionsarereshapedbytheshiftingcontoursandunpredictablerhythmsofeverydaylifeIwentintothefieldwiththeinten-tionofstudyingonethingbutemergedfromithavingstudiedsomethingentirelydifferent
ResearchforthisbookwascarriedoutbetweenJune2005andAugust2008aperiodduringwhichIspentacumulativetotalofthirteenmonthsconductingfieldworkinboththeRhodopeandtheBulgariancapitalcityofSofiaInaddition toparticipantobservationandcountless informalinterviewswithMuslimreligiousleadersandlaypeopleIspokewithBul-garianpoliticianspublicofficialsandmembersoflocalnongovernmentalorganizationsconcernedwithprotectingreligiousfreedomsandtherightsofethnicminoritiesOverthethreeyearsthatIconductedthisresearchIalsoamassedararecollectionofpublicationsproducedbyandfortheBulgarianMuslimcommunityThesebooksbrochuresnewslettersandmagazineswereusuallyonlyforsalethroughthelocalmosquesandveryfewofthemcouldbefoundinbookstoresorlibrariesIwasalsoanavidreaderof severalBulgarianMuslimwebsitesparticularly the Islam-bgwebsite(beforethegovernmenttookitdowninMarch2007)Itwasinthesepublications thatdebatesaboutdefending traditional Islamfromtheincursionsofthenewinterpretationsplayedoutandthatthejusti-ficationsfornewIslamicpracticeswerepromotedThoroughdiscourseanalysisofthesesourcesenrichedmyparticipantobservationFinallyinordertoattempttomakesenseofthecomplicatedwebofforeignfundingsupportinglocalMuslimNGOsandtofindconnectionsbetweendifferentMuslimorganizationsinthecountryImadeextensiveuseofBulgarianpublictaxrecordsandthelegaldocumentsusedtoregistercommercialfirmsandnonprofitorganizations
Whatemergesfromthisresearchisanin-depthcasestudyofaclusterofMuslimcitiesandvillagesinthesouth-centralpartoftheRhodopeMoun-tainsButinordertounderstandthewidespectrumoffactorsinfluencing
Copyrighted Material 0 I n t r o d u c t I o n
localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a 1
honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
Copyrighted Material I n t r o d u c t I o n
almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
Copyrighted Material 0 I n t r o d u c t I o n
localeventsIhavealsospentsometimedescribingthenationalpoliticalandeconomiccontextofBulgariaafter thecollapseof communism in1989aswellastheriseoftheinternationalIslamiccharitableestablish-mentanditsinfluenceonMuslimcommunitiesintheBalkansfollowingtheBosnianWar
Inchapter1wemeetSilvirsquoshusbandIordanandexplorethewaysthatordinaryBulgarian-speakingMuslimslivedduringthecommunistperiodInordertounderstandwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamhastakenrootamongthePomaksbutnotamongtheethnicTurksofBulgariaitisessentialtoexam-ineindetailthecontinuallycontestedhistoryofthePomaksasanethnicgroupUnderstandingthishistoryalsohelpstomakesenseofthecom-munistsrsquoeffortstomodernizethePomaksandtoreturnthemtotheBul-gariannationalfoldTherural-industrializationprogramthatbuiltcitieslikeMadanandnearbyRudozemwaspartofalargerplantolimitthelingeringinfluenceofIslam
Chapter2beginswithawalkthroughtheMiningMuseumandherethetaleofGORUBSOBulgariarsquos lead-zincndashproducingbehemothisre-toldinadditiontohowtheproletarianizationofthepreviouslypeasantlaborforcereshapedlocaldefinitionsofappropriatemasculinityandfemi-ninitytomeettheneedsofrapidmodernizationandruralindustrializa-tionThelongandtortureddemiseofGORUBSOandhowtheminersbecamepawnsinapowerstrugglebetweenBulgariarsquosnewpoliticalelitesisexploredTheriseandfallofthelead-zincminingenterpriseisuniquetothisregionandnewldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicdiscoursesbegantotakerootinthesecommunitiesaroundthesametimethatlocalsocialandeconomicrelationswere turnedupside-downby themassiveunemployment thatfollowedGORUBSOrsquosimplosion
Thedevastatingeffectsoftheprivatizationandliquidationofthelead-zincminesonthe individual livesof themenwomenandchildrenofMadanisthesubjectofchapter3Atexactlythehistoricalmomentwhenpreviouslywell-offfamilieswereplungedintounexpectedpovertyreli-giousworkersfromaroundtheworldwhopromisedbothaidandsalva-tiontargetedBulgariansInthischapterwemeetahostof individualsfromMadanincludingDonkaawomanworkingtwojobsandmakingjustenoughtobuysixloavesofbreadtofillthestomachsofherunem-ployedalcoholichusbandandhertwoteenagesonsDuringthisperiodmanywerestrugglingtosurvivethedemiseofcommunismanditsideo-logicalcommitmentstoprotecttheworkingclassesSomeofthemlikeayoungMuslimwomannamedHanareachedouttonewinterpretationsofIslamthatbroughtcomfortandhappinessintotheirlives
Chapter4brieflytakesusawayfromMadantoexplorethewidersocialpoliticalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichrecenteventsinBulgariaareembeddedIexaminethechangesthatoccurredinBulgariaafter1989and
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a 1
honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
Copyrighted Material I n t r o d u c t I o n
almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a 1
honeinontheinternalstructuresandpowerdynamicsofBulgariarsquosMus-limdenominationIlookattherivalriesovertheleadershipoftheMuslimcommunityandhowdifferentfactionsemergedinthe1990sThishistoryoftheMuslimleadershipwillbeessentialtounderstandinghowforeignIslamicaidbecamesoinfluentialintheBulgarian-speakingMuslimcom-munitiesinandaroundMadanSmolyanandRudozem
Chapter5beginswithalectureIattendedinMadanmdashldquoIslamPluralismandDialoguerdquomdashsponsoredbyalocalMuslimnongovernmentalorgani-zationthatwasaproponentofwhatmanylocalscalledtheldquonewwaysrdquoHereIinvestigatetheinfluenceontheBalkansofldquoorthodoxrdquoIslamicaidaftertheoutbreakoftheBosnianWarin1992SpecificallyIexplorehowriftsintheMuslimcommunitycreatedacompetitionforresourceswhichopenedthedoorstoSaudiandKuwaitifundsandtheldquoorthodoxrdquoversionof Islampromotedbybothcharitiesand individuals fromthesestatesThischapterisessentialtounderstandinghowlocalMuslimreformerswereable toharness resources from international Islamiccharitiesre-sourcesthatallowedthemtopromotetheirmessagethroughanincreasingnumberofpublicationsandpubliceventsaimedatdisplacingBulgariarsquostraditionalformsofIslam
ThewealthyshopkeeperHigyarhelpedmefocusspecificallyontheissueofheadscarvesandthechanginggenderexpectationsinMadanandthesurroundingareasInchapter6IexaminetheargumentsofthewomenwhofollowtheldquonewwaysrdquodespiteahistoryofrelativegenderequalityintheregionproducedbydecadesofcommunistruleIslamicpublicationspromotingnewformsofdressandbehaviorforwomenhelpdemonstratethekindsofdiscoursedeployedbythosewhowouldpromoteldquopurerrdquoformsofIslamamongthePomaksinMadanandthesurroundingregionsHerewecanseethereplacementof traditional IslamwithldquoorthodoxrdquoIslammostobviouslyaslocallydefinedideasabouttheproperplaceofwomeninsocietyarereshapedbyimportedIslamicdiscourses
IntheconcludingchapterIwillreexaminethelargertheoreticalques-tionofwhyldquoorthodoxrdquoIslaminparticularappealedtoBulgarianMus-limsandwhyitappealedtothematpreciselythismomentintheirhistoryTheBulgarian case study canhelpusunderstand twooverlappingge-ographiesWesternEuropeandEasternEurope(orwhatisincreasinglybecomingknownasldquoEurasiardquomdashtheformercommunistworldstretchingfromEasternEuropetotheSeaofJapan)Bothofthesegeopoliticalcon-structsweresignificantlyimpactedbythecollapseofcommunismandthesubsequentguttingofcommandeconomiescommuniststatesMarxistideologiesandtheirexplicit(ifonlytheoretical)commitmentstosocialequalityThe immediate postsocialist period opened up an intellectualwindowontohowcapitalismwouldbebuiltincommunistsocietiesthathadhadnopreviousexperienceofitandhowitmightbemodifiedbythe
Copyrighted Material I n t r o d u c t I o n
almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
Copyrighted Material I n t r o d u c t I o n
almostfifty-year(intheUSSRseventy-year)experimentwithMarxist-Leninism
As late as 1999 the philosopher Slavoj Žižek proposed that out oftheashesofcommunismwouldriseanewsocialandeconomicsystemcreatedbythosewhohadlivedunderbothcapitalismandcommunismandintimatelyknewtheiradvantagesanddisadvantages55 Butby2008thehopefortheemergenceofwhathehadcalledanewldquosecondwayrdquoseemedoccludedbytheincorporationofmanyoftheformercommuniststatesintothepoliticalprojectoftheEuropeanUnionAstheEUbecamemoreconcernedwithitsinternalrelationswithMuslimminoritiescon-cernsforsocialequalityweretrumpedbywidespreadworryaboutthefailuresofculturalassimilation
ThusitisveryimportanttorecognizethatthechangingpracticesoftheBulgarian-speakingMuslimsarebutonepartofalargertrendthatincludesageneralproliferationofIslamicliteratureandculturethrough-outtheworlddespitetheworldwideincreaseinIslamophobiathathasfollowed in thewakeof the terrorist attacksof11September2001IexaminethepossibilitythatthesenewformsofIslamarebecomingtheoppositionaldiscourseofchoiceamongthosefrustratedbytheircontin-uedexclusionfromthewealthandprivilegesgeneratedforincreasinglyremoteelitesofglobalcapitalismIinvestigatewhatonthesurfaceseemtobestrikingsimilaritiesbetweenMuslimtheologyandMarxisminBul-gariawith their communalist challenges to the logicsofneoliberalismandindividualism
ButthepossibilitiesofauniversalistIslamaredifferentinWesternEu-ropethantheyareinpostsocialistcontextsIntheabsenceofasecularideologythataddressestheinequalitiesandinjusticesoftheway(Mafia)capitalismhasbeenbuiltinBulgariareligionandspecificallyadenation-alizedformofuniversalist Islammayprovidepeoplewithanewkindofinternationalistmetanarrativethathelpsthemchallengethepervasiveimmoralityofaworldbasedonthemostruthlessinterpretationsofsur-vivalofthefittestandneoliberalismWhateverpromisescapitalismanddemocracyheldoutintheearly1990stheyhavebeenlostinthefetidcesspoolofmurderracketeeringtheftembezzlementcorruptionmoneygrubbingandpowergrabbingbythecountryrsquosunscrupulouspoliticalandeconomicelitesleadingmanytolookbackwithfondnessandnostalgiato themoral absolutesof the totalitarianpastOlivierRoyandGillesKepelbothproposethatIslamintheWesternEuropeancontextisbeingindividualizedsecularizedanddemocratizedbyitscontactwithliberalmulticulturalsocietiesIfthisistrueinFranceGermanySpainandtheUnitedKingdomthenperhapsintheformercommunistworldandinBulgaria specificallyIslammaybecomeldquopostsocializedrdquoby its contactwithsocietiesshapedbydecadesofcommunistruleLatchingontonew
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
Copyrighted Material t h e c h a n g I n g F a c e o F I s l a m I n B u l g a r I a
Islamicdiscoursemayprovidemenandwomenwiththetoolsforare-vivedcritiqueofcapitalismconsumerismandexploitativerelationsofproductionalanguageofmoralityandabstinencetotranscendthecrassmaterialismofthefreemarket
OnetaskofthisbookistounderstandhowIslamrsquoscontactwithdif-feringsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicinfluencesshapestheinnercontoursofitsownlogicinuniqueandunexpectedwaysThisisnottorelegatereligiontoitshackneyedstatusastheldquoopiateofthemassesrdquoonlytopointoutthatthemassesarestilltherewithorwithouttheiropiatesandtheycooptandsubvertreligiousdiscoursesinawidevarietyofwaysInthecurrentpolarizinggeopoliticalclimatethatpitsIslamagainsttheWestinanapocalypticclashofcivilizationsthemuchmorecomplicatedworldviewsofordinarypeopletoooftenfallbythewayside
InMadanwhatreallymatteredtomostpeoplewashowtomitigatetheworstsocialblowsdealtbytheso-calledinvisiblehandofthemarketSince theldquovisiblefistrdquo56 of theworkingclassno longerhadanyclouttheonlyresourceatleastforthetimebeingmayhavebeentheinvisiblefingerofGod
