Introduction General Concepts of Growth and Development

8/13/2019 Introduction General Concepts of Growth and Development

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Knowledge of normal growth and

development of children

Is essential

for preventing and detecting disease by

recognizing overt deviations from normal

pattern


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GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Many people use the terms growthand developmentinterchangeably

In reality they are different, though theyinseparable, neither take place alone


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GROWTH

Growth refers toquant i tat ivechanges

Increases in size and structure

Not only does the child become largerphysically, but the size and structure of theinternal organs and the brain increase

As result of the growth of the brain, the childhas a greater capacity of learning, forremembering, and for reasoning

The child grows mentally as well as physically


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DEVELOPMENT

Development refers

toquant i tat ive andqual i tat ive changes

It may defined as a progressive series oforderly, coherent changes

Progressivesignifies that the changes aredirectional, that they lead forward rather thanbackward

Orderly andcoherentsuggest that there is adefinite relationship between the changestaking place and those that preceded or willfollow them


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Fig 1 . The interacting of development

Physical, intellectual, and psychosocial developments should

not be viewed as separate entities because they operate

interdependently, each strongly influencing the others


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PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

Development involves changes

Early development is more critical than

later developmentDevelopment is the product of maturation

and learning

The developmental pattern is predictableThe developmental pattern has

predictable characteristics


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Hurlock EB. Chi ld Developm ent. Au ck land : McGraw-Hi l l Internat ionalBook Co , 1978. P.22-47.

There are individual differences

in development

There are periods in the developmental

pattern

There are social expectations for everydevelopmental period

Every area of development has

potential hazards


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DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES CHANGES

Changes in size

Physical: height, weight, circumference,internal organ

Mental : memory, reasoning, perception,creative imagination

Changes in proportion

Physical: see Fig. 3Mental : imaginative capacity is betterdeveloped than reasoningcapacity; while the reverse is

true in adults


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Fig 2.Changes in body proportions from the 2ndfetal mo to

adulthood. (From Robbins WJ, Brody S, Hogan AG, et al:Growth New Haven, Yale University Press, 1928)

2 mo (fetal) 5 mo Newborn 2 yr 6 yr 12 yr 25 yr

1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8


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Disappearance of old featuresPhysical: thymus gland, baby hair andteeth

Mental : babyish locomotion and speech

Acquisition of new features

Physical: second teeth, primary and

secondary sex characteristics

Mental : interest in sex, moral standards,religious beliefs


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EARLY DEVELOPMENT IS MORECRITICAL THAN LATER

Conditions affecting early foundations

a.Favorable interpersonal relationship

b.Emotional states

c.Child - training methods

d.Early role - playing

e.Childhood family structure

f.Environmental stimulation


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Fig 3.UNIVERSAL FACIAL EXPRESSIONSInfants show these types of facial expressions relating to basic emotions,regardless of the culture in which they are raised (Feldman RS, 2000)


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DEVELOPMENT IS THE PRODUCT OFMATURATION AND LEARNING

MATURATION

Intrinsic maturation.The unfolding ofcharacteristics potentially present in the

individuals genetic endowmentPhylogenetic functionsFunctions commonto the race, such ascreeping, crawling, sitting and walking.

Development comes from maturationOntogenetic functions.Functionsspecifictothe individual, such as swimming, ballthrowing, riding bicycle, writing. Training is

essential


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Fig 4.

MILESTONES

OF MOTORDEVELOPMENT


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.development is the product of maturation and learning

LEARNING

Learning is development that comes from

exercise and effort.

Through learning, children acquire

competence in using theirs hereditary

resources. They must have opportunity to

learnSome learning comes from practice or the

mere repetition of an act


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THE DEVELOPMENT PATTERN ISPREDICTABLE

Developmental direction

Cephalocaudal - proximodistal law (fig.5)

Motor development, emotional behavior,speech, social behavior, concept

development, goals, interests, and

identification with others

Specific areas of development likewisefollow predictable patterns


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TWO PRINCIPLES OFDEVELOPMENTAL DIRECTION

Cephalocaudal principle

Principle that development proceeds in a head-to - taildirection : the upper body partsdevelop before the lower parts

Proximodistal principle

Principle that development proceeds in a near-to-farmanner : the parts of body near its center

(spinal cord) develop before the extremities

Fig 5


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Fig 5.The laws of developmental direction


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THE DEVELOPMENT PATTERN HASPREDICTABLE CHARACTERISTICS

Similarity in developmental patterns

All children follow a similar developmentalpattern with one stage leading to the next

General pattern is not altered by individualvariations in the speed of development

Development proceeds from general to

specific responsesIn mental as well as in motor responses, generalactivity always precedes specific activityIn emotional behavior babies first response to

strange and usual objects with general fear


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.the development pattern has predictable characteristics

Development is continuos

Development is continuous from the momentof conception to death but it occurs atdifferent rates, sometimes slowly andsometimes rapidly

Developmental changes donot always goforward in straight line but, in the end, thechanges lead forward


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.the development pattern has predictable characteristics

Different areas develop at different rates

Fig 6. shows the pattern of development for four

different parts of the body (Brain and head,General, Lymphoid, Reproduction)

There is correlation in development

When physical development is rapid, so in

mental development


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200

180

160

120

100

80

60

140

40

0

20

0 4 8 12 16 20

LYMPHOID TYPE

NEURALTYPE

GENERAL TYPE

GENITAL TYPE

AGE IN YEARS

Fig 6.Main types of postnatal growth of the various parts and organs of thebody. (After Scammon: The measurement of the body in childhood. In:Harris B et al (eds): The Measurement of Man. Minneapolis, University ofMinnesota Press, 1930)


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THERE ARE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN

DEVELOPMENT

Although the pattern of development

is similar for all children

all children follow the predictable patternin their own way and at their own rate

all children do not reach the same pointof development at the same age


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there are individual differences in development

Every person is indeed biologically andgenetically different from every other

No two people have identical environmental

influences, even identical twinsIndividual differences are caused by both

internal and external conditions

Causes of differences


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THERE ARE PERIODS IN

THE DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERN

There are five major developmentalperiods in childhood (See Table 1)

Although eachperiod has its own

characteristic events and issues, theages given for each time span are only

approximate and somewhat arbitrary


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PHASE TIME SPAN CHARACTERISTICS

Prenatal

period

Infancy

Early

childhood

Conception to

birth

Birth to 18

months

(up to 24

months)

18 months to 6

years

Child begins as a single cell and

emerges 9 months later as a

multimillion-cell functioning

person

Changes in brain functioning result

from an increased number of

neural connections, leading to a

period of intense development of

motor abilities, language

acquisition, and socialization

Through exploration, play, and the

development of self-sufficiency,

children become increasingly

willful and independent

The Chronological Phases of Childhood andTheir Major Characteristics

Table 1


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PHASE TIME SPAN CHARACTERISTICS

Middlechildhood

Adolescence

6 to 11 years

11 to 18 years

Emphasis is on learning thefundamental skills of reading,writing, and mathematics; morecomplex thinking and reasoningabilities become evident, and

children become capable of logicalthought and of seeing the worldfrom the point of view of others

Dramatic physical and

psychological changes occur; keyissues are separation,independence, and peerrelationships


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Tabel 2.Tahap-tahap Tumbuh Kembang Anak

1. Masa pranatal (Prenatal perio d)

a. Masa zigot / mudigah: konsepsi2 minggu

b. Masa embrio: 2 minggu8 / 12 mingguc. Masa janin / fetus: 9 / 12 minggulahir

- Masa fetus dini: 9 minggutrimester ke-2

- Masa fetus lanjut: trimester akhir kehamilan

2. Masa bayi (Infancy) : usia 01 tahun

a. Masa neonatal: usia 028 hari

- Masa neonatal dini: 07 hari- Masa neonatal lanjut: 828 hari

b. Masa pasca neonatal: 29 hari12 / 15 bulan

3. Masa anak dini (Ear ly chi ldho od)

a. Toddlerhood: usia 13 tahun

b. Masa pra sekolah (Preschoo l per iod): usia 36 tahun

4. Masa sekolah (School p eriod): usia 618 / 20 tahuna. Masa pra remaja (Middle and late chi ldhood): usia 611 tahun

b. Masa remaja (Adolescence):

1. Masa remaja dini (Early ado lescence): 11 - 13 tahun2. Masa remaja pertengahan (Midd le adolescence): 1417 tahun

3. Masa remaja lanjut (Late ado lescence): 1720 tahun


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THERE ARE SOCIAL EXPECTATIONSFOR EVERY DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD

Social expectations are known asdevelopmental taskFactors influencing mastery of developmentaltasks

Accelerated physical developmentStrength and energy above average to ageAbove average intelligenceAn environment that offers opportunities for

learningGuidance from parents and teachers in learningA strong motivation to learnCreativity accompanied by a willingness to bedifferent

Aids to mastery


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.there are social expectations for every developmental period

Obstacles to mastery

Retardation of developmental level

(physical or mental) Poor healthA handicapping physical defect

Lack of opportunity to learn

Lack guidance in learning

Lack motivation to learn

Fear of beeing different


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EVERY AREA OF DEVELOPMENTHAS POTENTIAL HAZARD

Even when developmental pattern isprogressing normally, there are likely to be, at

every age, hazards in some areas ofdevelopment that interfere with this normalpattern

Individual hazards arising from the childs

genetic endowment or environment

Forewarning of potential hazards associatedwith different areas of development isimportant


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Fig 7. The influence of environment on child growth and

development

BIOLOGIFISIK

SOSIAL DAN BUDAYA EKONOMI DAN POLITIK

MASYARAKAT

KELUARGA

INDIVIDU


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Fig 8. Bronfenbrenners Chronosystem


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The pattern of developmental can beinterfered with either temporarily or

permanently, by environmental or physicalconditions

This interference may take the form of

delaying or accelerating the speed or it mayalter the pattern


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1. Soetjiningsih,Tumbuh Kembang Anak,

1995

2. Nelson Text book of Pediatrics, 2007

3. Rudolphs Pediatrics, 2003

4. Soetjiningsih, Tumbuh Kembang Remajadan Permasalahannya, 2004

5. Hurlock EB, child Development, 1978

FURTHER READING


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Documents

Introduction General Concepts of Growth and Development