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data lntervie wing

collection nterviewing is one of the most common methods for collect- ing data in qualitative research.

Interviews allow participants to provide rich, contextual descrip- tions of events. The process of interviewing is time-consuming, and the quality of data often is dependent on the aptitude of the interviewer. This article will address preparing and implement- ing a research interview, as well as strategies for transcribing and analyzing the data collected.

PREPARING FOR INTERVIEWS

as a data collection method, the researcher must determine whether the research question can be answered appropriately by interviewing people who have experienced the phenomenon of interest. A hypothetical study will be used to illustrate one process the researcher could use to facili- tate interviewing. One focus for a research study could be to explore the lived experiences of fathers during cesarean section procedures. For this study, it has been proposed to interview fathers within 48 hours after delivery and then again between one and two months postdelivery.

You may wonder why the researcher would want to inter- view the same person more than once. There are two major rea- sons. First is the perspective of temporal knowledge. The term temporal is a philosophical term that defines how a person’s cur- rent situation and knowledge

Before selecting interviewing

as a method

have been influenced by his or her experiences and how the cur- rent situation will partially deter- mine his or her future.’ This explanation of temporality sug- gests that a person’s perceptions of events may change with time.

The second reason for con- ducting more than one interview is to meet methodological rigor criteria for prolonged engage- ment. A second interview allows the participant to confirm or clar- ify information given in the first interview. A second interview also may ensure heightened trust between the participant and the researcher, thus enabling further disclosure of private thoughts and feelings.

IMPLEMENTING INTERVIEWS The first step in all research is

to conduct a pilot study. The researcher should practice how he or she will gain access to a sam- ple, conduct interviews, and tran- scribe and analyze the data. Different approaches may exist depending on the methodology used.l A consistent approach should be used with both the pilot and actual study.

Accessing the sample. Ini- tially, the researcher must decide whether to interview fathers whose significant others experi- enced emergent cesarean sections or fathers whose significant others experienced scheduled cesarean sections. Another sampling issue may be whether to include fathers of all ages. All of these decisions should be documented in a

research journal. A literature review and access to participants may assist the researcher in decid- ing on sample criteria. In this hypothetical study, the sample comprises fathers between the ages of 20 and 45 who speak English and whose significant others underwent a planned cesarean section to deliver first- born children.

to participate in the study. The researcher could talk to obstetri- cians for referrals. Contacting childbirth educators in the area also may elicit referrals. Another option may be to access the infor- mation from a surgical schedule. Keep in mind, however, the researcher will need appropriate permission from an institutional review board before contacting potential participants. After receiving names of potential par- ticipants for the study, the researcher will need to make preinterview contact.

Preinterview contact or intro- duction usually is made via tele- phone. This discussion should provide the potential participant information regarding the study, ensure protection of privacy, and explain what will and will not be done with the data. If the poten- tial participant agrees to partici- pate in the study, a mutually agreed time and place for the interview should be decided.

interview should take place in a quiet environment with no dis- tractions. Ideally, the researcher

The next step is finding fathers

Conducting the intenrlew. The

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should sit across from the partici- pant with a tape recorder between the two to capture both voices equally well. This posi- tioning also enables the researcher to note nonverbal cues, such as eye contact, crying, laughing, or hand gestures.

The type of interview will be determined by the research ques- tion, methodology, and literature insight. Interviews can either be structured or unstructured.’ In a structured interview, the researcher asks explicit questions consistently of all participants. In an unstructured interview, the researcher asks open-ended ques- tions. The researcher’s probes then are related directly to the participant’s answers.

An interview generally con- sists of three stages.‘ The first stage includes introductions, pro- vides an overview of the process, and builds trust. The middle of the interview usually is where the bulk of useful data is derived. Questions and probes should be directed to the phenomenon of interest. It is important at this stage for the researcher to keep the discussion focused on the topic. Participants who ramble or discuss irrelevant issues will increase the cost and time for transcription of audiotapes. If a participant spends 10 minutes dis- cussing a new sports car, that dis- cussion will not generate any new knowledge about the experience of cesarean section for fathers. The final portion of the interview should be a summary of the par- ticipant’s responses and allow for conf i a t ion or additional infor- mation to be given.

The researcher usually devel- ops an interview guide with cues for topic questions and probese5 A good interviewer must master

communication skills. These skills include listening, paraphras- ing, probing, and summarizing.6 The researcher must be careful not to lead the participant in a specific direction. There is noth- ing quite so humbling as listening

It is important for the researcher

to keep the discussion focused

on the interview topic.

to yourself on audiotape and hearing overt blunders, such as interrupting the participant and asking leading or inane questions. This is another reason for con- ducting a pilot study-improving one’s interviewing skills.

Most often, interviews are recorded on audiotape or video- tape. Occasionally, a researcher may rely solely on taking notes during interviews. There is a greater chance for misinterpreta- tion of the responses if the inter- view is not recorded. To facilitate the recording process, the researcher should check the tapes, volume, and equipment with a “this is a test” format immediately before an interview. A test taping might include the researcher stating the date and place and letting the participant state his or her name and consent to be included in the study. Next, the tape can be stopped and replayed to make certain all par- ties can be heard. Another tip is

to carry extra batteries and tapes and to practice troubleshooting the equipment before the first interview.

Transcribing and analyzing intewiew data. It is a good idea for the researcher to transcribe an initial audiotape. Transcribing audiotapes is an arduous process. It can be quite costly to hire a transcriptionist. Further, if med- ical terminology is used in the interview, it is important that the transcriptionist be familiar with such terminology. Dictation machines that use foot pedals to start and stop audiotapes so hands are free to type data into a soft- ware program are available. Another area of concern during transcription is participant confi- dentiality and anonymity. A tran- scriptionist will hear discussions that are private and confidential, so the researcher must have the participant’s consent for a third party to listen to the interview tapes.

the participant cannot be identified. They also should be kept in a secure location (eg, locked file cab- inet) to which only the researcher or consented transcriptionist have access. When quotes are used, details may need to be changed or omitted. For example, if one father had a terrible experience and said “at Mercy Hospital there is no mercy,” the actual hospital name should not be disclosed in a research report.

Interview transcripts provide the data for analysis. Usually in qualitative research, the researcher concurrently collects and analyzes data. This is done to support the evolution of theory or theme con- f i a t i o n . For example, if three out of five fathers talk about fear of blood, the researcher may want

Transcripts should be coded so

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to add a question to the interview guide so he or she can determine whether future participants have the same fear. Another example would be if the researcher explained to a subsequent partici- pant that other fathers reported experiencing feelings of helpless- ness when they first saw the mother on the OR bed and asked if the participant also experienced this feeling. With concurrent data collection and analysis, the inter-

view guide will evolve and change with an increasing number of completed interviews.

CONCLUSION Interviewing as a data collection

method is common for qualitative research studies. Although method- ology may cause the process of interviewing to differ, many meth- ods are similar. The researcher must make preinterview contact, prepare for the interview by draft-

NOTES 1. P E Benner, J Wrubel, The Primacy ofCaring:

Stress and Coping in Health and Illness (Menlo Park, Calif: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co, 1989) 412-413.

2. J M Sorrell, G M Redmond, “Interviews in quali- tative nursing research: Differing approaches for ethno- graphic and phenomenological studies,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 21 (June 1995) 1 1 17-1 122; P Wimpenny, J Gass. “Interviewing in phenomenology and grounded theory: Is there a difference?” Journal of Advanced Nursiyg 3 1 (June 2000) 1485-1492.

3. H J Streubert, D R Carpenter, Qualitative Research in Nursing: Advancing the Humanistic Imperative, sec-

ing an interview guide, conduct the interview using good communica- tion skills, oversee transcription of audiotapes or videotapes, and ensure that the transcripts provide the basis for analysis. Although the process of interviewing can be time-consuming and costly, it also can be a rewarding experience for the researcher.

MICHELLE BYRNE RN, MS, PHD, CNOR

NURSING RESEARCH COMMITTEE

ond ed (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins, 1999) 23-24; D A Erlandson et al, Doing Naturalistic Inquiiy: A Guide to Methods (Newbury Park, Calif Sage Publications, 1993) 85-94.

4. Y S Lincoln, E G Guba, Naturalistic Inquiry (Beverly Hills, Calif Sage Publications, 1985).

5. S L Norwood, Research Strategies for Advanced Practice Nurses (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Health, 2000) 257-261.

6. N Bums, S K Grove, The Practice ofNursing Research: Conduct, Critique & Utilization (Philadelphia: W B Saunders, 1993) 365-367.

Botanical Product May Lead to Kidney Damage or Cancer Consumers are advised to immediately discontinue use of any botanical product containing aristolochic acid, according to an April 1 1, 200 1, news release from the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Products containing the ingredient may have been sold as traditional medicines or ingredients in dietary supplements. Consuming products contain- ing aristolochic acid may lead to permanent kidney damage or certain types of cancer.

Two cases of permanent kidney damage from use of the ingredient that occurred in the United Kingdom led the FDA to impose an alert to detain botanical ingredients labeled as Al-istolochia or those suspected of containing aristolochic acid. The ingredient will be allowed into the United States only after testing shows the suspect product is aris- tolochic acid-free.

Reports of two US patients who developed seri- ous kidney disease associated with the use of aris- tolochic acid have been received, according to the release. Additionally, testing of 38 botanical prod-

ucts available in the United States labeled as con- taining Aristolochia revealed that these products contain aristolochic acid. Based on this information, the FDA is asking manufacturers and distributors to recall these products.

The FDA is warning consumers to discontinue use of any products labeled as containing Aristolochia, bragantia, or asarum. The only way to determine if products containing these ingredients are free of aristolochic acid is to have them laborato- ry tested. To determine if a product has been tested, contact the manufacturer or distributor. According to the release, the FDA also is urging consumers who have taken any of these products to visit their health care providers immediately.

FDA Warns Consumers to Discontinue Use of Botanical Products That Contain Aristolochic Acid (news release, Rockville, MD: US Food and Drug Adminiskution, April 1 1, 200 1) http:/?$vww cfsan. fda.gov/-dmd (accessed 1 7 April 200 1).

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