InterProcess Communications

1

Outline

IPC fundamentals UNIX sockets Remote procedural call Shared memory and large memory spaces IPC in Windows NT Shared memory IPC Shared memory and large address spaces Windows NT IPC Mechanisms

2

IPC Fundamentals

What is IPC?Mechanisms to transfer data between

processesWhy is it needed?

Not all important procedures can be easily built in a single process

3

Why do processes communicate?

To share resourcesClient/server paradigmsInherently distributed applicationsReusable software componentsOther good software engineering

reasons

4

The Basic Concept of IPC

A process needs to send data to a receiving process

Sender wants to avoid details of receiver’s condition

Receiver wants to get the data in an organized way

5

IPC from the OS Point of View

OS address space

Process A Process B

Private address space

Private address space

6

Fundamental IPC Problem for the OS

Each process has a private address space

Normally, no process can write to another process’s space

How to get important data from process A to process B?

7

OS Solutions to IPC Problem

Fundamentally, two options

1. Support some form of shared address space Shared memory

2. Use OS mechanisms to transport data from one address space to another Files, messages, pipes, RPC

8

Fundamental Differences in OS Treatment of IPC Solutions Shared memory

OS has job of setting it up And perhaps synchronizing But not transporting data

Messages, etc OS involved in every IPC OS transports data

9

Desirable IPC Characteristics

Fast Easy to use Well defined synchronization model Versatile Easy to implement Works Remotely

10

IPC and Synchronization

Synchronization is a major concern for IPC Allowing sender to indicate when data is

transmitted Allowing receiver to know when data is ready Allowing both to know when more IPC is

possible

11

IPC and Connections

IPC mechanisms can be connection less or require connection Connectionless IPC mechanisms require no

preliminary setup Connection IPC mechanisms require

negotiation and setup before data flows

12

Connectionless IPC

Data simply flows Typically, no permanent data structures

shared in OS by sender and receiver

+ Good for quick, short communication

+ Less long-term OS overhead

- Less efficient for large, frequent communications

- Each communication takes more OS resources per byte

13

Connection-Oriented IPC

Sender and receiver pre-arrange IPC delivery details

OS typically saves IPC-related information for them

Advantages/disadvantages pretty much the opposites of connectionless IPC

14

Basic IPC Mechanisms

File system IPC Message-based IPC Procedure call IPC Shared memory IPC

15

IPC Through the File System

Sender writes to a file Receiver reads from it But when does the receiver do the read?

Often synchronized with file locking or lock files

Special types of files can make file-based IPC easier

16

File IPC Diagram

Process A Process BData

17

Message-Based IPC

Sender formats data into a formal message With some form of address for receiver

OS delivers message to receiver’s message input queue (might signal too)

Receiver (when ready) reads a message from the queue

Sender might or might not block

18

Message-Based IPC Diagram

Process A Process BData sentfrom A to B

OS

B’s message queue

19

File IPC Diagram

Process A Process B

Data as parametersmain () {

.call();...

}

.

.

.server();...Data as return values

20

Shared Memory IPC

Different processes share a common piece of memory Either physically or virtually

Communications via normal reads/writes May need semaphores or locks

In or associated with the shared memory

21

Shared Memory IPC Diagram

Process A Process B

write variable xmain () {

.x = 10...

}

.

.

.print(x);...

read variable x

x: 10

22

Synchronizing in IPC

How do sending and receiving process synchronize their communications?

Many possibilities Based on which process block when

Examples that follow in message context, but more generally applicable

23

Blocking Send, Blocking Receive

Both sender and receiver block Sender blocks till receiver receives Receiver blocks until sender sends Often called message rendezvous

24

Non-Blocking Send, Blocking Receive

Sender issues send, can proceed without waiting to discover fate of message

Receiver waits for message arrival before proceeding Essentially, receiver is message-driven

25

Non-Blocking Send, Non-Blocking Receive Neither party blocks Sender proceeds after sending message Receiver works until message arrives

Either receiver periodically checks in non-blocking fashion

Or some form of interrupt delivered

26

Addressing in IPC

How does the sender specify where the data goes?

In some cases, the mechanism makes it explicit (e.g., shared memory and RPC)

In others, there are options

27

Direct Addressing

Sender specifies name of the receiving process

Using some form of unique process name Receiver can either specify name of expected

sender Or take stuff from anyone

28

Indirect Addressing

Data is sent to queues, mailboxes, or some other form of shared data structure

Receiver performs some form of read operations on that structure

Much more flexible than direct addressing

29

Duality in IPC Mechanisms

Many aspects of IPC mechanisms are duals of each other

Which implies that these mechanisms have the same power

First recognized in context of messages vs. procedure calls

At least, IPC mechanisms can be simulated by each other

30

So which IPC mechanism to build/choose/use?

Depends on model of computation

And on philosophy of user

In particular cases, hardware or existing software may make one perform better

31

Typical UNIX IPC Mechanisms

Different versions of UNIX introduced different IPC mechanisms Pipes Message queues Semaphores Shared memory Sockets RPC

32

Pipes

Only IPC mechanism in early UNIX systems (other than files) Uni-directional Unformatted Un interpreted Inter process byte streams

Accessed in file-like way

33

Pipe Details

One process feeds bytes into pipe

A second process reads the bytes from it

Potentially blocking communication mechanism

Requires close cooperation between processes to set up Named pipes allow more flexibility

34

Pipes and Blocking

Writing more bytes than pipe capacity blocks the sender Until the receiver reads some of them

Reading bytes when none are available blocks the receiver Until the sender writes some

Single pipe can’t cause deadlock

35

UNIX Message Queues

Introduced in System V Release 3 UNIX

Like pipes, but data organized into messages

Message component include: Type identifier Length Data

36

Semaphores

Also introduced in System V Release 3 UNIX

Mostly for synchronization only Since they only communicate one bit of

information

Often used in conjunction with shared memory

37

UNIX Shared Memory Also introduced in System V Release 3

Allows two or more processes to share some memory segments

With some control over read/write permissions

Often used to implement threads packages for UNIX

38

Sockets Introduced in 4.3 BSD

A socket is an IPC channel with generated endpoints

Great flexibility in it characteristics Intended as building block for communication

Endpoints established by the source and destination processes

39

UNIX Remote Procedure Calls

Procedure calls from one address space to another On the same or different machines

Requires cooperation from both processes

In UNIX, often built on sockets

Often used in client/server computing

40

More on Sockets

Created using the socket() system call

Specifying domain, type, and protocol

Sockets can be connected or connectionless Each side responsible for proper setup/access

41

Socket Domains

the socket domain describes a protocol family used by the socket Generally related to the address family

Domains can be: Internal protocols Internet protocols IMP link layer protocols

42

Socket Types

The socket type describes what the socket does

Several types are defined SOCK_STREAM SOCK_DGRAM SOCK_SEQPACKET SOCK_RAW SOCK_RDM

43

Socket Protocols

This parameter specifies a particular protocol to be used by the socket

Must match other parameters Not all protocols usable with all domains and

types Generally, only one protocol per socket type

available

44

Some Examples of Sockets

Socket streams

Socket sequential packets

Socket datagrams

45

Socket Streams

Of type SOCK_STREAM

Full-duplex reliable byte streams

Like 2-way pipes

Requires other side to connect

46

Socket Sequential Packets

Similar to streams

But for fixed-sized packets

So reads always return a fixed number of bytes

Allow easy use of buffers

47

Socket Datagrams

Like sequential packets

But non-reliable delivery

Which implies certain simplifications

And lower overhead

send(), rather than write(), used to send data

48

Socket Options

Connection or connectionless

Blocking or non-blocking

Out-of-band information

Broadcast

Buffer sizes (input and output)

Routing options

And others 49

Binding Sockets

Binding is the process of preparing a socket for

use by a process

Sockets are typically bound to local names

For IPC on a single machine

Often accessed using descriptors

Requires clean-up when done

Binding can be to IP addresses, as well50

Connecting to Sockets

Method for setting up the receiving end of a

socket

In local domain, similar to opening file

Multiple clients can connect to a socket

Program establishing socket can limit connections

51

Remote Procedural Call

Method of calling procedures in other address

spaces

Either on the same machine

Or other machines

Attempts to provide interface just like local

procedure call

Request/reply communications model52

Semantics of RPC

Similar to regular procedure call

1. Calling procedure blocks

2. Set of parameters transferred to called

procedure

3. Called procedure computes till it returns

4. Return value delivered to calling procedure

5. Calling procedure continues53

High-Level RPC Mechanics

Hide details from applications

Clients pass requests to stub programs

Client-end stub sends request to server stub

Server-end stub calls user-level server

Results travel in reverse direction

Network transport or OS actually moves data

54

Diagram of RPC in Action

Server (callee)Client (caller)

OS or Network

Server stubClient stub

call reply callreply

55

What do the stubs do?

Stubs handle complex details like:

Marshaling arguments

Message construction

Data format translation

Finding the server process

56

Setting Up RPC

Caller must have a way to find the called

procedure

But it can’t be found at link time

Unlike local procedure

Potential servers must make their presence

known

57

Registering Servers

Either register the server at a “well-known” port

Or register it with a name server

Which in turn is at a “well-known” port

Calling procedure “addresses” RPC to that port

58

Binding to a Service

A client process binds to the service it wants Two major sub-problem:

Naming Location

59

Binding: The Naming Problem

How does a caller name the server program? Depends on the RPC mechanism

And perhaps the protocol or type within it Do you name the server explicitly? Or do you name the service and let some

other authority choose which server?

60

Binding: The Location Problem

Where is the remote server? Some naming schemes make it explicit

Some don’t If it’s not explicit, system must convert

symbolic names to physical locations

61

Binding in Cedar RPC

Client applications bind to a symbolic name Composed of:

Type Instance

Type is which kind of service Instance is which particular implementer

62

Locating Cedar RPC Service

Names do not contain physical location So Cedar consults a database of services Services register with database Binding call automatically looks up location in

database

63

Binding in UNIX RPC

bind() system call used by servers Allows servers to bind naming/location

information to particular socket connect() system call used by clients

Using information similar to that bound by the server

Automatic code generation hides details

64

UNIX Binding Information

Like most socket operations, it’s flexible Fill in all or part of a socket address data

structure Create an appropriate socket Then call bind to link socket to address

information connect works similarly

65

UNIX Binding Example

On server side,

struct sockaddr_un sin;

int sd;

strcpy(sin.sun_path,”./socket”);

sd = socket(AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, 0);

bind(sd, &sin, sizeof(sin));

66

UNIX Binding Example, Con’t

For client side,

struct sockaddr_un sin;

int sd;

strcpy(sin.sun_path, “./socket”);

sd = socket(AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, 0);

connect(sd, &sin, sizeof(sin));

67

Locating Remove Services in UNIX RPC Similar to Cedar methods Register services with the portmapper The portmapper is typically called through

automatically generated code the portmapper runs on each machine Another service (e.g., NIS) deals with

intermachine requests

68

Using RPC

Once it’s bound, how does the client use RPC?

Just call the routines As if they were local

And the results come back

69

What’s happening under the covers?

When a client calls a remote routine, he really calls a local stub program

Stub program packages up request to remote server

And sends it to local transport code When reply arrives, local transport code

returns results to stub Which returns to client program

70

What happens at the server side?

A request comes in to the RPC transport code It routes it to the appropriate server stub Which converts it into a local procedure call Which is made within the context of the

server

71

Conceptual Diagram of RPC

call_procedure();

Message from client stub to server stub

call_procedure();

Message received by server stub

Network transport

client program continues

Return value formatted as message to client stub

Network transport

Client stub converts message to return value

return(…);

72

Transport for RPC

In Cedar, special-purpose RPC transport protocol

In UNIX RPC, can use either UDP or TCP for transport Typically protocol is chosen automatically by

stub generator program

73

Other RPC Issues

Mostly related to intermachine RPC Data format conversions Security and authentication Locating remote services Multipacket RPC

74

Shared Memory

A simple and powerful form of IPC Most multiprogramming OS’s use some form

of shared memory E.g., sharing executables

Not all OS’s make shared memory available to applications

75

Shared Memory Diagram

Process A Process B

x: 10 y: 20z: __

a: __ b: __

76

Problems with Shared Memory

Synchronization Protection Pointers

77

Synchronization

Shared memory itself does not provide synchronization of communications

Except at the single-word level Typically, some other synchronization

mechanism is used E.g., semaphore in UNIX Events, semaphores, or hardware locks in

Windows NT

78

Protection

Who can access a segment? And in what ways?

UNIX allows some read/write controls Windows NT has general security monitoring

based on the object-status of shared memory

79

Pointers in Shared Memory

Pointers in a shared memory segment can be troublesome

For that matter, pointers in any IPC can be troublesome

80

Shared Memory Containing Pointers

Process A Process B

x: 10 y: 20z: __

a: __ b: __

w: 5

81

A Troublesome Pointer

Process A Process B

x: 10 y: 20z: __

a: __ b: __

w: 5

82

So, how do you share pointers?

Several methods are in use Copy-time translation Reference-time translation Pointer swizzling

All involve somehow translating pointers at some point before they are used

83

Copy-Time Pointer Translation

When a process sends data containing pointers to another process

Locate each pointer within old version of the data

Then translate pointers are required Requires both sides to traverse entire

structure Not really feasible for shared memory

84

Reference-Time Translation

Encode pointers in shared memory segment as pointer surrogates

Typically as offsets into some other segment in separate contexts

So each sharer can have its own copy of what is pointed to

Slow, pointers in two formats

85

Pointer Swizzling

Like reference-time, but cache results in the memory location

Only first reference is expensive But each sharer must have his own copy Must “unswizzle” pointers to transfer data

outside of local context Stale swizzled pointers can cause problems

86

Shared Memory in a Wide Virtual Address Space When virtual memory was created, 16 or 32

bit addresses were available Reasonable size for one process

But maybe not for all processes on a machine And certainly not for all processes ever on a

machine

87

Wide Address Space Architectures

Computer architects can now give us 64-bit virtual addresses

A 64-bit address space, consumed at 100 MB/sec, lasts 5000 years Orders of magnitude beyond any process’s

needs 40 bits can address a TB

88

Do we care?

Should OS designers care about wide address space?

Well, what can we do with them? One possible answer:

Put all processes in the same address space Maybe all processes for all time?

89

Implications of Single Shared Address Space IPC is trivial

Shared memory, RPC Separation of concepts of address space and

protection domain Uniform address space

90

Address Space and Protection Domain A process has a protection domain

The data that cannot be touched by other processes

And an address space The addresses it can generate and access

In standard systems, these concepts are merged

91

Separating the Concepts

These concepts are potentially orthogonal Just because you can issue an address

doesn’t mean you can access it (Though clearly to access an address you

must be able to issue it) Existing hardware can support this separation

92

Context-Independent Addressing

Addresses mean the same thing in any execution context

So, a given address always refers to the same piece of data

Key concept of uniform-address systems Allows many OS optimizations/improvements

93

Uniform-Addressing Allows Easy Sharing Any process can issue any address

So any data can be shared All that’s required is changing protection to

permit desired sharing Suggests programming methods that make

wider use of sharing

94

To Opal System

New OS using uniform-addressing Developed at University of Washington Not intended as slight alteration to existing

UNIX system Most of the rest of material specific to Opal

95

Protection Mechanisms for Uniform-Addressing Protection domains are assigned portions of

the address space They can allow other protection domains to

access them Read-only Transferable access permissions System-enforced page-level locking

96

Program Execution in Uniform-Access Memory Executing a program creates a new

protection domain The new domain is assigned an unused

portion of the address space But it may also get access to used portions E.g., a segment containing the required

executable image

97

Virtual Segments

Global address space is divided into segments Each composed of variable number of

contiguous virtual pages Domains can only access segments they

attach to Attempting to access unattached segment

causes a segment fault

98

Persistent Memory in Opal

Persistent segments exist even when attached to no current domain

Recoverable segments are permanently stored And can thus survive crashes

All Opal segments can be persistent and recoverable

Pointers can thus live forever on disk

99

Code Modules in Opal

Executable code stored in modules Independent of protection domains

Pure modules can be easily shared Because they are essentially static

Can get benefit of dynamic loading without run-time linking

100

Address Space Reclamation

Trivial in non-uniform-address systems Tricky in uniform-address systems Problem akin to reclaiming i_nodes in the

presence of hard links But even if segments improperly reclaimed,

only trusting domains can be hurt

101

Windows NT IPC

Inter-thread communications Within a single process

Local procedure calls Between processes on same machine

Shared memory

102

Windows NT and Threads

Windows NT support multiple threads of control in a single process address space

Threads share address space So communication among them is through

memory

103

Windows NT and Client/Server Computing Windows NT strongly supports the

client/server model of computing Various OS services are built as servers,

rather than part of the kernel Windows NT needs facilities to support

client/server operations Which guide users to building client/server

solution

104

Client/Server Computing and RPC

In client/server computing, clients request services from servers

Service can be requested in many ways But RPC is a typical way

Windows NT uses a specialized service for single machine RPC

105

Local Procedure Call (LPC)

Similar in many ways to RPC But optimized to only work on a single

machine Primarily used to communicate with protected

subsystems Windows NT also provides a true RPC facility

for genuinely distributed computing

106

Basic Flow of Control in Windows NT LPC Application calls routine in an application

programming interface Which is usually in a dynamically linked

library Which sends a message to the server

through a messaging mechanism

107

Windows NT LPC Messaging Mechanisms Messages between port objects Message pointers into shared memory Using dedicated shared memory segments

108

Port Objects

Windows NT is generally object-oriented Port objects support communications Two types:

Connection ports Communication ports

109

Connection Ports

Used to establish connections between clients and servers

Named, so they can be located Only used to set up communication ports

110

Communication Ports

Used to actually pass data Created in pairs, between given client and

given server Private to those two processes Destroyed when communications end

111

Windows NT Port Example

Client process Server process

Connection port

112

Windows NT Port Example

Client process Server process

Connection port

113

Communication ports

Windows NT Port Example

Client process Server process

Connection port

114

Communication ports

Windows NT Port Example

Client process Server process

Connection port

Send request

115

Message Passing through Port Object Message Queues One of three methods in Windows NT to pass

messages1. Client submits message to OS

2. OS copies to receiver’s queue

3. Receiver copies from queue to its own address space

116

Characteristics of Message Passing via Queues Two message copies required Fixed-sized, fairly short message

~256 bytes Port objects stored in system memory

So always accessible to OS Fixed number of entries in message queue

117

Message Passing Through Shared Memory Used for messages larger than 256 bytes Client must create section object

Shared memory segment Of arbitrary size

Message goes into the section Pointer to message sent to receiver’s queue

118

Setting up Section Objects

Pre-arranged through OS calls Using virtual memory to map segment into

both sender and receiver’s address space If replies are large, need another segment for

the receiver to store responses OS doesn’t format section objects

119

Characteristics of Message Passing via Shared Memory Capable of handling arbitrarily large transfers Sender and receiver can share a single copy

of data i.e., data copied only once

Requires pre-arrangement for section object

120

Server Handling of Requests

Windows NT servers expect requests from multiple clients

Typically, they have multiple threads to handle requests

Must be sufficiently general to handle many different ports and section objects

121

Message Passing Through Quick LPC Third way to pass messages in Windows NT Used exclusively with Win32 subsystem Like shared memory, but with a key difference

Dedicated resources

122

Use of Dedicated Resources in Quick LPC To avoid overhead of copying

Notification messages to port queue And thread switching overhead

Client sets up dedicated server thread only for its use

Also dedicated 64KB section object And event pair object for synchronization

123

Characteristics of Message Passing via Quick LPC Transfers of limited size Very quick Minimal copying of anything Wasteful of OS resources

124

Shared Memory in Windows NT

Similar in most ways to other shared memory services

Windows NT runs on multiprocessors, which complicates things

Done through virtual memory

125

Shared Memory Sections

Block of memory shared by two or more processes Created with unique name

Can be very, very large

126

Section Views

Given process might not want to waste lots of its address space on big sections

So a process can have a view into a shared memory section

Different processes can have different views of same section

Or multiple views for single process

127

Shared Memory View Diagram

Process A Process B

Physical memory

Section

view 1 view 2

view 3

128