International Seafood Trade: Quality and Safety1

Ningsheng Yang2

June 2002

Information Center

Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences Beijing, China

Tel: 010-68673942 Fax:010-68676685

E-mail:nsyang@cafs.ac.cn

1 This paper is prepared for an internship program under the project of China Fishery Policy and WTO Accession/Implementation collaborated by the Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences (CAFS) & the Centre for Trade Policy and Law (CTPL), Ottawa, Canada and financed by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The author wishes to acknowledge Wenguo Cai, a senior research associate at CTPL, for his instruction and Sarah Geddes for her English editorial assistance. 2 Ningsheng Yang is a fishery information specialist at the Information Center of the Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences.

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Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................3 IMPORTANCE OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE...................................................4 FOR HUMAN BEINGS .......................................................................................................4

Global Production of Fisheries and Aquaculture ..............................................................4 Fish Utilization..................................................................................................................5 Employment ......................................................................................................................6

INTERNATIONAL SEAFOOD TRADE ENVIRONMENT ...............................................7 Current Situation of Seafood Trade...................................................................................7 Growing Worldwide Concern on Food Quality and Safety ..............................................8 Development of the Concept of Seafood Quality Assurance ............................................8 What is HACCP? ..............................................................................................................9 Current Practices of the HACCP System in the World ...................................................10 HACCP Implications for Developing Countries.............................................................11 Aquaculture Products ......................................................................................................12

CANADIAN CASE STUDY: SEAFOOD QUALITY AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT 13 The Canadian Food Safety System .................................................................................13 Fish Inspection Program .................................................................................................13

Quality Management Program (QMP) ......................................................................14 The Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program (CSSP) ..................................................14 Import Inspection Program .........................................................................................16 International Program..................................................................................................16

Canadian Practice on Control of Seafood Quality and Safety ........................................16 CHINA’S FISHERIES: CHALLENGES AND SUGGESTIONS ......................................18

China’s Fishery Production .............................................................................................18 China’s Seafood Trade ....................................................................................................18 China’s Seafood Exports .................................................................................................19 China’s Seafood Imports .................................................................................................20 Challenges for China.......................................................................................................20 Some Suggestions to Fishery Authorities of China.........................................................21

CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................23 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY..........................................................................................24

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INTRODUCTION

In many countries, especially developing countries, fish grew in economic importance during the second half of the twentieth century and, by the end of the 1990s, the fisheries sector had become an important source of food, employment and foreign exchange - a situation that is likely to continue. Seafood as a source of foreign currency is vital for countries, as increased participation in international trade is an essential condition for their economic growth, particularly for countries with limited or no mineral resources. The increase in net receipts of foreign exchange by developing countries - deducting their imports from the total value of their exports - is impressive, rising from US$5 200 million in 1985 to about US$17 billion in recent years. For many developing nations, fish trade represents a significant source of foreign currency earnings.

However, with rapid development of international trade, some issues on seafood production and trade have drawn more and more attention from the international community. The major issues during the past few years were: the change in quality control measures in the main importing countries; the concern of the general public on overexploitation of the resource and other environmental concerns with regard to aquaculture.

Many exporting countries felt the change in quality control measures. In August 1997, the EU stopped imports of seafood from India, Bangladesh and Madagascar. In December 1997, there was a decision to prohibit the import of fresh seafood from Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and Uganda. The impact of these measures was severe in the seafood industry of these exporting countries, creating loss of employment and foreign exchange earnings of several hundred million US dollars.

Very important factors influencing the fish processing industry are the new regulations with regard to quality control and assurance that have been adopted by major importing countries. These regulations make the entrepreneur (processor, trader) fully responsible for the quality of his product. These new regulations are based on the HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) principle. All imported fish products sold to markets adopting this approach must come from plants with an HACCP plan. However, the investments needed to bring a fish processing plant up to the standards of an HACCP plan are substantial, and many companies, especially in developing countries feel that the implementation of the new regulations on fishery products is de facto a non-tariff measure against value-added products originating from developing countries.

HACCP programs are being implemented by a number of countries for seafood imports. The United States adopted mandatory seafood HACCP regulations in December 1997, which apply to both domestic and imported products. In the European Union, the HACCP system was adopted in 1994 as a Directive (491/93 EEC) to be applied at industry level and endorsed by each EU member government by l January 1996. Inspection and certification systems from foreign countries wishing to export to the EU or the United States need to integrate verification and audit techniques to assure that factories have an effective HACCP system in place. Canada

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has applied a Quality Management Program (QMP) since l992, the first mandatory food inspection program in the world based on HACCP principles. The program has now been re-engineered to make it fully consistent with all the principles of the HACCP food safety system. Japan enforces similar standards on fish and fish products under the Food and Sanitation Law. The use of HACCP-based systems is voluntary for domestic production but mandatory for exports to the EU and United States. There are already many other OECD and developing countries that have passed regulations based on HACCP.

This paper examines the current status of worldwide seafood production and trade with emphasis on international concerns about seafood quality and safety. Following the introduction, the paper gives a general picture of the importance of the world fishery industry including fishery and aquaculture production, fish utilization and employment. The third section reviews the world seafood trade environment identifying global concerns over seafood quality and safety, the HACCP system and recent practices of seafood quality control on a worldwide basis. The forth section presents the Canadian case study focusing on the Canadian food safety system, fish inspection programs and the implementation of seafood quality control. The last section aims to analyze the current situation of China’s seafood production and trade. After pointing out the challenges that China is facing, the paper provides some suggestions for fishery authorities of China on how to keep pace with the development of world seafood production and international seafood trade.

IMPORTANCE OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE FOR HUMAN BEINGS

Despite fluctuations in supply and demand caused by the changing state of fisheries resources, the economic climate and environmental conditions, fisheries and aquaculture remain very important as a source of food, employment and revenue in many countries.

Global Production of Fisheries and Aquaculture

Global production of fish, shellfish and other aquatic animals increased from 117 million tonnes in 1998 to 125 million tonnes in 1999. Capture fisheries production amounted to 92.3 million tones, representing an increase of 7 percent compared with 1998. Aquaculture increased by 2 million tonnes to reach 32.9 million tonnes in 1999. Availability of fish for human consumption was estimated at 15.4 kg per capita, falling slightly due to about 30.4 million tonnes of fish used for fish meal, 6.5 million tonnes more than in the preceding year. The value of total world fisheries and aquaculture production grew by 7 percent to an estimated US$ 125 billion in 1999.

The total production increase of 20 million tonnes over the last decade was mainly due to aquaculture. The Asian region, particularly China, continued to dominate world aquaculture production, holding an 89 percent share of the total volume (33.3 million tonnes in 1999).

Table 1: World fisheries production (million tonnes)

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PRODUCTION 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 INLAND Capture 6.7 7.2 7.4 7.5 8.0 8.2 Aquaculture 12.1 14.1 16.0 17.6 18.7 19.8 Total inland 18.8 21.4 23.4 25.1 26.7 28.0 MARINE Capture 84.7 84.3 86.0 86.1 78.3 84.1 Aquaculture 8.7 10.5 10.9 11.2 12.1 13.1 Total marine 93.4 94.8 96.9 97.3 90.4 97.2 Total capture 91.4 91.6 93.5 93.6 86.3 92.3 Total aquaculture 20.8 24.6 26.8 28.8 30.9 32.9 Total world fisheries

112.3 116.1 120.3 122.4 117.2 125.2

Source: FAO. State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000.

Figure 1: World Fish Catch Figure 2: Per Capita Fish Supply For Food

Source: FAO. State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000.

Fish Utilization Over three quarters of global fish production were utilized for direct human

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consumption with about 46 percent of this amount consumed in fresh/chilled form and a further 28 percent as frozen products. The remaining 26 percent was salted, dried, smoked or canned. Fish nutritional contribution accounts for about one-sixth of the estimated animal protein intake of 28 grams per person per day.

In 1999, the amount of fish used for reduction to meal and oil increased by 23 percent compared to 1998, reaching 29 million tonnes. Nearly one third of the total capture fisheries were used for reduction to fish meal, consisting almost entirely of natural stocks of small pelagic organisms.

Table 2: World Fisheries Utilization 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Human consumption (million tonnes)

79.8 86.5 90.7 93.9 93.3 92.6

Reduction to fish meal and oil(million tonnes)

32.5 29.6 29.6 28.5 23.9 30.4

Population (billions) 5.6 5.7 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0 Per capita food fish supply (kg)

14.3 15.3 15.8 16.1 15.8 15.4

Source: FAO. State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000. Employment

The primary capture fisheries and aquaculture production sectors in 1998 is estimated to have provided employment for 36 million people, comprising about 15 million full-time, 13 million part-time and 8 million occasional workers. Employment in inland and marine aquaculture is estimated to account for about 25 percent of the total, while marine capture fisheries account for about 60 percent and inland capture fisheries for the remaining 15 percent. Figure 3: World Fishers and Fish Farmers (including full-time, part-time and occasional workers): millions

Source: FAO. State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000.

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INTERNATIONAL SEAFOOD TRADE ENVIRONMENT

Current Situation of Seafood Trade International trade in fishery commodities in 1999 amounted to US$52.9 billion, an

increase of 3.3 percent at current values, compared to 1998. Thailand (US$4.1 billion worth of fish trade) continued to be the leading exporter contributing almost 8 percent of the total world value. Other major exporters were Norway, China, the United States, Denmark and Canada. Developing countries continue to record an impressive trade surplus in fish products. Their net fish exports have now been established at between US$16 billion and US$17 billion per year, offering a significant source of foreign currency earnings.

Most of the seafood exports were destined to developed countries. In 1999 industrialized countries accounted for over 80 percent of the total value of imports, of which Japan (US$14.8 billion) claimed almost 26 percent of the world total, followed by the United States (US$9.4 billion) accounting for 16 percent of the total. The European Union further increased its dependency on imports for its fish supply. Its share in total world imports reached 36 percent; however, more than 40 percent of the European Union’s imports originate from intra-European Union trade. Spain was again the leading importer of fish and fishery products within the European Union, followed by France, Italy, Germany and United Kingdom.3 Shrimp is the most important commodity, accounting for about 20 percent of international trade in value terms. This share remained stable over the past 20 years, despite the substantial changes in trade patterns and supply of fish and fishery products to the world market. Groundfish, the second-most important group of species, account for 12 percent of the fishery trade. Tuna - traded fresh, frozen or canned - represented 9 percent of the total in 1999. The relative importance of fish meal and of squid, cuttlefish and octopus has decreased over the past years to reach 3 and 4 percent, respectively, of the value of world exports in 1999. At the same time, however, exports of fresh, frozen, smoked and canned salmon have been increasing, and represented 7 percent of the total in 1999.

Figure 4: Trade in Fishery Products

Source: FAO. State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000.

3 See FAO. State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000.

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Growing Worldwide Concern on Food Quality and Safety With rapid development of international trade, requirements for food safety have

been drawing more and more attention from the international community, as it was reported that some 200 different types of illness have been identified as being transmitted by food. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of the United States estimated in 1999 the following numbers of cases of food-borne disease in the United States: 76 million cases of gastrointestinal illnesses; 325 000 serious illnesses resulting in hospitalization; 5 000 deaths.4 These data represent one of the best existing estimates of the impact of food-borne diseases on a developed country. Similar figures could be expected to be found in other developed countries.

In poorer areas of developing countries, poverty, malnutrition, illiteracy and inadequate public facilities are likely to compound the situation. In those areas, newborn babies, small children, the elderly, the undernourished and the immune-deficient are the categories most exposed to food-borne diseases. A study conducted in the United Republic of Tanzania from 1992 to 1998 indicates that food-borne and water-borne disease is probably one of the four major causes of adult death in the locations studied.

Seafood, as is true of any other food, can cause health problems. It can be contaminated at any time from the moment of capture until it is eaten. A study published by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1995 estimated that about 39 million people worldwide were infested with parasites transmitted by the ingestion of raw or improperly cooked freshwater fish and crustaceans. Almost all of these people - about 38 million - lived in Asia, with the remainder living in Europe and Latin America.

This was perplexing, given that an increasing proportion of foods were being - and continue to be - produced under stringent hygienic conditions. Possible reasons for such a "food safety paradox" are: increased urbanization; improved systems for recording the incidence of illnesses transmitted by food; human and industrial pollution; non-rational use of antibiotics; new emerging pathogens; uncontrolled recycling of organic material; increased susceptibility to contaminants; increased consumption of mass-produced foods; the introduction of new technologies for "minimally processed foods"; prolonged rains, droughts and/or increases in average temperatures, favouring

the ecologies of pathogens.5 Development of the Concept of Seafood Quality Assurance

When the trend of increasing outbreaks of food-related diseases was first identified in the early 1980s, food and fish inspection services in developed countries increased

4 Ibid. 5 Ibid.

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end product sampling. The effort did not halt the trend of more frequent outbreaks of food-related diseases, however, showing that dependence on end product sampling alone was an inadequate response to the problem.

By the end of the 1980s, it had become clear to public health authorities in developed countries that a new system was necessary. The system had to address all the relevant hazards in food production and had, therefore, to be incorporated into the harvesting, processing and distribution of fish products. This would require its use on-board fishing vessels and by aquaculturists, as well as in fish processing factories, the vehicles used to transport fish and storage and retailing areas. The system that was developed is called the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. In the HACCP system, each substance, micro-organism or condition of food that can cause disease is called a "hazard". Initially, the system gained credibility through its proven efficiency in controlling the hazard created by Clostridium botulinum, a common toxinogenic bacterium, in low-acid canned foods. By applying the HACCP principle, processors were consistently able to ensure adequate timing and temperature control during retorting and improved seaming of cans. This, in turn, virtually eliminated the bacterium from canned foods.

By the beginning of the 1990s, a number of food processing companies in developed countries, including fish processors, were already applying the HACCP system on a voluntary basis. They were soon followed by intermediate and even small food processing companies.

In 1997, the HACCP system was incorporated into the WHO/FAO Codex Alimentarius in the form of a general guideline. This makes the HACCP system the basic reference for international trade disputes under the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.6 What is HACCP?

HACCP is a management system in which food safety is addressed through the analysis and control of biological, chemical, and physical hazards from raw material production, procurement and handling, to manufacturing, distribution and consumption of the finished product. For successful implementation of an HACCP plan, management must be strongly committed to the HACCP concept. A firm commitment to HACCP by top management provides company employees with a sense of the importance of producing safe food.

HACCP is designed for use in all segments of the food industry from growing, harvesting, processing, manufacturing, distributing, and merchandising to preparing food for consumption. Prerequisite programs such as current Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) are an essential foundation for the development and implementation of successful HACCP plans. Food safety systems based on the HACCP principles have been successfully applied in food processing plants, retail food stores, and food service operations. At the moment, Government agencies, trade associations and the food industry around the world have universally accepted the seven principles of

6 See Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition, US FDA Fish and Fishery Product Processes, Hazards, and Controls.

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HACCP, which includes.7 Analyze hazards. Every processor must determine the potential hazards

associated with each of its seafood products and the measures needed to control those hazards. The hazard could be biological, such as a microbe; chemical, such as mercury or a toxin; or physical, such as ground glass.

Identify critical control points, such as cooking or cooling, where the potential hazard can be controlled or eliminated.

Establish preventive measures with critical limits for each control point. Establish procedures to monitor the critical control points. This might

include determining how cooking time and temperatures will be monitored and by whom.

Establish corrective actions to take when monitoring shows that a critical limit has not been met. Such actions might include reprocessing the seafood product or disposing of it altogether.

Establish procedures to verify that the system is working properly. Establish effective record-keeping.

Current Practices of the HACCP System in the World

It is generally agreed that the HACCP system is an improvement on traditional fish inspection and that its use will lead to reduced numbers of food-borne diseases. Implementation of the HACCP system requires an improved understanding of all aspects of the processes that lead to the final product, and this knowledge can be used immediately to reduce costs and improve overall product quality. The introduction of HACCP principles is shaping the seafood industry of tomorrow.

The United States adopted mandatory seafood HACCP regulations in December 1997, which apply to both domestic and imported products. In particular, in the case of fish imports, the regulations state: "If assurances do not exist that the imported fish or fishery products has been processed under conditions that are equivalent to those required of domestic processors under this part, the product will appear adulterated, and will be denied entry".

In the European Union, the HACCP system was adopted in 1994 as a Directive (491/93 EEC) to be applied at industry level. It had to be endorsed by each EU member government by l January 1996. Inspection and certification systems from foreign countries wishing to export to the EU or the United States need to integrate verification and audit techniques to assure that factories have an effective HACCP system in place.

Since l992 Canada has applied a Quality Management Program (QMP), the first mandatory food inspection program in the world based on HACCP principles. The program has now been re-engineered to make it fully consistent with all the principles of the HACCP food safety system. While the QMP only applies to Canadian federally registered fish plans, imports are subject to the Quality Management Program for Importers (QMPI). Importers that participate in QMPI on a voluntary basis will be classified as either shared QMPI or enhanced QMPI. Fish and fish products imported 7 Source: Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition, U.S. FDA, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point.

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into Canada are inspected to prevent the marketing of unsafe, unwholesome or mislabeled products. Inspection efforts are directed at foreign processors that have demonstrated a history of poor compliance with Canadian standards. On the other hand, inspection efforts are reduced through the establishment of Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) or Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs) with countries which have reliable inspection systems.

Japan enforces similar standards on fish and fish products under the Food and Sanitation Law. The use of HACCP-based systems is voluntary for domestic production but mandatory for exports to the EU and United States.

There are already many other OECD and developing countries that have passed regulations based on HACCP, such as Australia, New Zealand, Iceland, Brazil, Thailand and Morocco. As a consequence of the customs union with the EU, most of Turkey's fish processing plants are now applying the HACCP approach. In the Republic of Korea the use of HACCP-based systems is voluntary for domestic consumption but mandatory for exports. The Fisheries working group of APEC agreed on the harmonization of SPS measures by 2003 and on the elimination of non-tariff barriers no later than 2007.

A comprehensive study following a 1998 OECD Fishery Division workshop held on Seafood Inspection gives full details of food safety and quality measures present in OECD member countries. Furthermore, as a practical outcome of this workshop, a list of seafood inspection contact points has been placed on the OECD web site which, to date, features contact points for Estonia, Finland, Japan, Norway, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Denmark, Mexico, Germany, Belgium, Lithuania and Portugal. HACCP Implications for Developing Countries

Over the last ten years, both the fishing industry and the fish and food inspection services in many developing countries have made a very determined effort to adapt processing and inspection methodologies that satisfy HACCP requirements. Many countries have been successful. Among the countries that were authorized to export fish and fishery products to the EU in mid-1999, 50 operate in full accordance with the EU's HACCP-based regulations. Most of them received technical assistance from the FAO, which, during the period from 1995 to 1999, organized 44 workshops and trained more than 1 300 professionals from industry and government in HACCP principles.

However, not all developing countries were able to make the necessary initial investments. The impact of these changes in quality control measures was felt severely by national seafood industries in many exporting countries, creating loss of employment and foreign exchange earnings of millions of US dollars.

In August 1997, for example, the EU imposed bans on the import of seafood from India, Bangladesh and Madagascar. The bans were imposed due to concerns about the quality of hygiene measures applied to fish and fish processing operations.

In December 1997, the EU decided to prohibit the import of fresh and frozen fish from Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and Uganda. Among the reasons given in the case of Tanzania, was the fact that on their tour of inspection inspectors noticed some

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poor laboratory practices and they criticized the fact that there was improper record- keeping of fish export quality.

In early September l998, East African stakeholders in the fisheries sector complained against the EU for maintaining its ban on fish exports from Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, saying that EU claims that fish exports from the three states were contaminated were "discriminatory and aimed at strangling the region's fish industry." The participants, from the private and public sectors, demanded that the EU's claims be scientifically backed.

Still, in September 1999, EU health inspectors were dissatisfied with the product from East Africa and so have refused to lift the ban on fish exports to the EU. They have likewise maintained the ban on fish from the other East African states on the grounds that, while they approve of the steps being taken to eradicate fish poisoning in Lake Victoria they are still not convinced that the fish is safe for human consumption.

Tanzania reported that 40 percent of its fisheries workforce had been laid off and the country had lost $US46.9 million as a result of the ban. In October 1999 Tanzania's private fish processors decide to set up a regulatory body to exercise quality control over all fish products, thus ensuring only the highest quality exports.

Those examples show that fish processing establishments which have not adopted the HACCP system or countries which do not have the infrastructure or the capability to implement HACCP measures may find that market access will be denied until HACCP or equivalent inspection systems have been implemented.

The exporting ability of developing countries will be determined by their capacity to meet the requirements over hygiene standards as well as technical regulations set by the major market countries. For developing countries interested in maintaining and increasing their exports, this implies a substantial need for investment in each stage: fishing, handling, processing and transporting, as well as in human resource development to meet legislative and administrative requirements. Aquaculture Products As far as aquaculture products are concerned, problems may also arise with the development of biotechnology. While only a small percentage of the world's aquaculture production comes from genetically improved species there is tremendous potential to increase output by applying techniques of genetic improvement including selective breeding programs, chromosome manipulation, hybridization, production of mono-sex groups and gene transfer. In this regard, consumers from Europe have strongly expressed their fears about genetically modified organisms (GMOs), both in crops and in the use of bovine growth hormones. This has already led to a trade dispute between the European Union and the United States concerning the EU import ban, introduced in 1997, on products from the United States containing bovine growth hormones. With ongoing breakthroughs in aquaculture research, similar challenges call be expected in the future.

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CANADIAN CASE STUDY: SEAFOOD QUALITY AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT

The Canadian Food Safety System8 The Canadian food safety system is based on evaluations by experts in nutrition,

molecular biology, chemistry, toxicology, and environmental science. The system has the flexibility to keep pace with rapid changes in the production and processing of food, increased trade globalization, and shifting public expectations. It adheres to three fundamental principles: the health of the population must remain paramount; policy decisions must be grounded on scientific evidence; and, all sectors and jurisdictions must collaborate to protect consumers.

Health Canada is responsible for establishing policies and standards related to the safety and nutritional quality of all food sold in Canada, and for carrying out food-borne disease surveillance for early detection and warning. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) enforces the policies and standards set by Health Canada. The creation of the CFIA in 1997 not only brought all federal inspection and enforcement together, it also clarified roles and responsibilities, tightening accountabilities and re-enforcing checks and balances right across the system.

In addition, complementary provincial/territorial legislation governs food produced and sold within their jurisdictions. The success of the food safety system depends on close working partnerships between federal, provincial/territorial authorities, industry and consumers. This cooperative structure retains clear lines of authority and accountability at all times. Food-policy decisions are made within a context that is both transparent and rational.

At the local level, provinces, territories and municipalities are responsible for public health, including food-safety surveillance, investigations and compliance. Often the first to be notified of potential food-borne illnesses, they play an integral role in the food safety system. Fish Inspection Program

Under the mandate of the Fish Inspection Act, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) sets the policies, standards and inspection requirements for fish products, federally-registered fish and seafood processing establishments, importers, fishing vessels, and equipment used for handling, transporting and storing fish.

The CFIA’s Fish Inspection Program ensures that standards are relevant and necessary and that there is proper labeling of products. Standards cover all aspects of the processing of fish products, thereby promoting timely, effective and efficient intervention at critical processing stages.

The Fish Inspection Program also encompasses the maintenance of databases on contaminants in fish and fish products, and the inspection of fishing vessels, facilities used in the offloading and holding of fish prior to processing, and vehicles used in the

8 Information from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency.

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transportation of fish and fisher-packer facilities. Also, all consumer and trade complaints involving fish products are investigated to

determine the cause of the complaint and the appropriate follow-up action. There are four sub-programs within the Fish Inspection Program: the Quality

Management Program, the Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program, the Import Inspection Program and the International Program.

Quality Management Program (QMP) 9 This is a regulatory-based system that requires all federally registered fish

processing plants in Canada to develop and implement an in-plant quality control program. As set out in the Fish Inspection Regulations, all establishments in Canada that process fish and seafood for export or inter-provincial trade must be registered with the Government of Canada. To become federally registered, a fish processor is legally required to develop a QMP plan of their own, following the "QMP Reference Standard"; submit it to the CFIA for review and acceptance; and apply it to their processing operations.

The QMP uses the principles of HACCP to provide a high level of assurance that fish and seafood products produced in Canada are safe and wholesome to eat. However, the QMP also deals with non-safety issues, including fish quality and federal regulatory requirements such as labeling.

The QMP was established as a mandatory program in 1992, making it the first mandatory food inspection program in the world based on HACCP principles. Prior to this, fish inspection was conducted as a traditional food inspection program, with federal inspectors inspecting fish plants and testing their products. The QMP was extensively re-engineered between 1996 and 2000, with the active participation of the fish processing industry. Along with promoting the production of safe and wholesome fish and seafood products and thereby protecting Canadian consumers, the QMP benefits fish processors in a number of ways. These include a streamlined process for the certification of final products for export; the privilege of using the "Canada Inspected" logo on their products; and a minimization of government intrusion and intervention in their day-to-day operations. Also, because it incorporates the application of HACCP principles, the QMP has been effective in maintaining access to international markets, at a time when many countries are introducing HACCP requirements for imported fish and seafood. This is important for Canada’s fish processing industry, which is heavily export-oriented: almost 90 per cent of the fish and seafood products produced in Canada are exported to foreign countries.

The Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program (CSSP)10 This is a federal program jointly administered by the Departments of Fisheries and

Oceans (DFO) and the Department of the Environment (DOE). The main aim of the

9 See Canadian Food Inspection Agency: Quality Management Program. 10 See Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program (CSSP).

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CSSP is to ensure that all bivalve molluscan shellfish growing areas meet approved federal water quality criteria, that pollution sources to these areas are identified and that all shellfish sold commercially are harvested, transported and processed in an approved manner.

In Canada, the legal authority for the CSSP is provided by the Management of Contaminated Fisheries Regulations under the Fisheries Act, and the Fish Inspection Regulations (FIR) under the Fish Inspection Act. DOE Canada is specifically responsible for carrying out sanitary and bacteriological surveys of shellfish growing areas according to the procedures, standards and protocols of the CSSP Manual of Operations. The Department of Fisheries and Oceans is responsible for the control of commercial harvesting, licensing, handling, storage, transportation, processing and labeling of shellfish including imports, and the patrolling of closed areas. It regularly tests commercially harvested shellfish for bacterial contamination and maintains a biotoxin surveillance program of shellfish growing areas.

With the transfer of Fish Inspection Directorate activities to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) the February, 1990, Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between Fisheries and Oceans Canada and Environment Canada has been revised to reflect the specific roles of the three organizations with respect to the CSSP. The Fish, Seafood and Production Division, Canadian Food Inspection Agency: Regulates the import and export, processing, packaging, labeling, shipping,

certification, storage, repacking of shellfish to protect against contamination and product quality degradation, to maintain source and lot identity and integrity. Suspends operations or decertifies shellfish processors on the basis of unacceptable operating and sanitation conditions.

Regulates the depuration (i.e., controlled purification) of shellstock, verifies product quality and purification effectiveness, maintains production and product quality records,

Evaluates laboratories performing shellfish analyses in accordance with the requirements of the CSSP and maintains a biotoxin surveillance program of shellfish growing areas in support of DFO and CFIA activities.

Environment Canada classifies all actual and potential shellfish growing areas as to their suitability for shellfish harvesting on the basis of sanitary quality and public health safety. Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Fisheries Management controls the harvesting of shellfish from areas which are classified as contaminated or otherwise closed; patrols growing areas, apprehends and prosecutes persons violating restrictions; regulates and supervises relaying, transplanting and replanting; restricts harvesting of shellfish from actual and potentially affected growing areas in a public health emergency; regulates licenses, harvesting locations and times and minimum harvest sizes for stock management purposes.

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Import Inspection Program11 Fish and fish products imported into Canada are inspected to prevent the marketing

of unsafe, unwholesome or mislabeled products. All importers must be licensed and must identify every lot brought into Canada.

License holders are required to maintain records for recall and consumer complaint purposes, as well as documentation of process controls for higher risk products such as canned and ready to eat (RTE). The CFIA has a defined system and testing regime for products imported by the Fish Import License holders.

Some importers have chosen to participate in QMP for importers (QMPI), a voluntary program, at either the Shared or Enhanced level. The importer takes additional responsibility to develop a written program which addresses quality and safety issues (similar to the domestic QMP) and participates in product testing. The CFIA audits the Shared or Enhanced QMPI through regulatory activities, which include records review, verification of the operation of the QMP and testing of products. Although all imported products may be subject to inspection, effort is directed at the testing of imported product of foreign processors which have demonstrated a history of poor compliance with Canadian standards.

International Program12 The International Program focuses on developing and maintaining international

arrangements with foreign countries having recognized inspection systems. Foreign processors recognized in these arrangements benefit from reduced inspection frequencies when their products are imported into Canada. Canadian Practice on Control of Seafood Quality and Safety

Canada was the first country to depart from the traditional approach of fish inspection when it introduced the Quality Management Program (QMP), a set of regulations that proved to be very similar to those constituting the HACCP system. All 970 federally registered fish processing plants in Canada have developed and implemented a QMP plan. With industry's movement to HACCP programs, the CFIA has changed its approach from traditional inspection to auditing industry's compliance capabilities. During 2000-2001, the CFIA conducted over 1,000 assessments of industry's controls in fish plants. The rate of compliance was over 99 percent. Where problems were identified, industry modified its controls and procedures to meet CFIA standards. When required, enforcement actions were taken by the CFIA. In 2001, 49 written warnings were issued, five prosecutions were initiated, 157 lots of product were detained and, in one instance, products were recalled from the marketplace.

Each of the approximately 1,000 commercial importers of fish and fish products is required to obtain a license from the CFIA and demonstrate rigorous process controls.

11 See the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Import Inspection Program. 12 Information from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency.

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The CFIA inspects imported fish products and targets products with a history of non-compliance. Imported products showing a good history of compliance are sampled randomly at frequencies ranging from two percent to 15 percent depending on the safety risk associated with the product. In 2001, over 250,000 tonnes of fish products were imported into Canada with one percent of the products found to be in violation of the acts and regulations. These products were held and not released for sale until they were brought into compliance by, for example, re-labeling. If the products were unable to be brought into compliance, then they were ordered removed from Canada or destroyed. In 2001, 73 percent of the rejections were due to net weight, product composition and labeling infractions. Product rejections for safety concerns accounted for 13 percent of the rejections. Other rejections were due to inadequate quality. To assist the fishing industry in achieving better compliance, the CFIA has undertaken a number of initiatives including providing labeling regulatory advice in guidebooks, communiqués, newsletters, labeling workshops and on the agency's web site.

Under the CSSP, the CFIA is responsible for detecting marine biotoxins by analyzing shellfish samples taken from hundreds of harvest sites in Atlantic Canada, Quebec and British Columbia, as well as from processing establishments. If present in shellfish consumed by humans, biotoxins can cause several types of illnesses that are potentially deadly, including paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) and amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP).

When appropriate, the Agency also analyzes for microbiological and chemical contaminants. The CFIA recommends to DFO when shellfish harvesting areas should be closed due to contamination and when they are safe to reopen. In 2001, the CFIA made 165 biotoxin closure recommendations to DFO, plus additional closure recommendations for sanitary reasons, such as unacceptable faecal coliform bacteria levels. In 2001, there were no reported human illnesses associated with biotoxins in commercially harvested shellfish on both the east and west coasts. In calendar year 2000, the CFIA conducted approximately 9,300 tests for PSP and 6,800 tests for ASP toxins, a slight increase over the previous year. In the course of its overall testing program, CFIA staff discovered domoic acid, the toxin causing ASP, in two previously unaffected species in the Quebec Region, namely the Razor clam and the Stimpson surfclam.

On the West coast, the Agency continued to test for Vibrio parahaemolyticus, a bacterium sometimes found in fish and shellfish that may cause severe gastrointestinal problems when consumed by humans. Agency staff collected approximately 100 samples from seven sites. The CFIA has been working with industry on a risk reduction strategy to decrease V. parahaemolyticus illnesses from commercially harvested oysters. The combined efforts of the CFIA, other departments and industry appear to be paying off. Since surveillance was stepped up several years ago, there has been a marked reduction of illnesses due to V. parahaemolyticus associated with commercially harvested products.

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CHINA’S FISHERIES: CHALLENGES AND SUGGESTIONS

China’s Fishery Production Having one of the biggest demands for seafood in the world, China has paid great

attention to the development of fishery production since the reform and opening-up. China's output of fishery products has been ranked the first in the world for over a decade and is also the sole country in the world where aquaculture production outweighs capture fishery production.

It has not been forgotten that during a long period of time in the past, China had been obsessed with the short supply of fish in urban areas for many years due to the low productivity of fishery production. Since the 1980s, with China’s overall reform and opening up, the fisheries industry was the pioneer in introducing market mechanisms and is playing an increasingly important role in the agricultural economy. The portion of output value of fisheries in agriculture has been raised from 1.6% in 1978 to 12% in 2001. Many fishermen/farmers have become rich through fish culture. In 2001, Chinese fishermen's per capita net income reached 4,987 yuan, increased by 53 times compared to the income of 93 yuan in 1978. The population engaged in fisheries increased from 3.07 million in 1979 by a net increase of 10.67 million.

Aquaculture has become a new sector pulling up the rural economy of the country, increasing farmer's income, improving food structure and raising people's livelihoods. The Chinese government promulgated a policy that puts aquaculture on the top priority in the fishery industry and encourages people to develop aquaculture by rational reclaiming of inland waters, shallow seas, mudflats and waste alkaline land which has been left uncultivated for thousands of years. Figure 5: Production Share of Aquaculture and Fishing

Source: China Fishery Statistics 2000. China’s Seafood Trade The seafood trade plays a very important role in China’s fishery sector. Although China’s fishery trade declined slightly over the past years due to the Asian economic crisis, it has recovered quickly since 1999. China’s fish exports in 2000 were reported at 1.534 million tons in volume and USD3.83 billion in value, an increase of 13.8% and 21.9% respectively over 1999. Reported imports were 2.52 million tons in volume and USD1.85 billion in value, increased by 93.1% and 43.4% respectively over 1999.

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

1 9 8 5 1 9 8 8 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 7

F i s h i n g

A q u a c u l t u r e

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Source: China Fishery Statistics 2001. Figure 6: Comparison of Exports and Imports in Value

0

1 000

2000

3000

1 996 ----2000

Export Volum e (1 ,000 m t)

Im port Volum e (1 ,000 m t)

Source: China Fishery Statistics 2001. China’s Seafood Exports

Japan, the United States, Korea, the EU and Hong Kong are the major markets of China’s fish products. About 90% of China’s fish exports go to those destinations. Japan is China’s largest market. Exports to Japan in 2000 reached 590,000 tonnes in volume and USD20 billion in value, accounting for 38% and 52% of China’s total exports respectively. The products are mainly made up of roast eel, frozen fillet, squid, iced fish, seaweed, shrimp and crab.

Table 4: China’s Major Fish Exporting Countries and Regions

No. Countries & Regions

Volume (tons)

Value (USD million)

Increase over 1999 (%)

1 Japan 590,483 2027.91 16 2 U.S. 183,287 527.00 49 3 Korea 286,914 440.18 14 4 EU 176,891 370.48 41 5 Hong Kong 135,931 234.09 9 6 Taiwan 55,455 58.58 7 Canada 16,806 42.51 8 Singapore 6,802 17.62 9 Thailand 4,206 15.14 10 Russia 11,495 14.81 Source: China Fishery Statistics, 2001.

Table 3: Imports & Exports of China’s Fish Products Year Export Volume

(1,000 mt) Export value (billion USD)

Import Volume (1,000 mt)

Import value (billion USD)

1996 802 3.297 1387 1.204 1997 922 3.14 1513 1.22 1998 1003 2.84 1141 1.02 1999 1348 3.14 1305 1.29 2000 1534 3.83 2520 1.85

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China’s Seafood Imports China is becoming one of the largest fish meal consumers in the world. In 2000, it

imported 1.1 million tonnes, almost doubling the imports of the previous year. Peru is largest fishmeal exporter to China. Forty percent of its fish meal imports were used in aquaculture, as China’s aquaculture has greatly expanded over the past years. The amount of fish meal that China imported from Peru in 2000 was reported as 942 thousand tonnes, about double of that in 1999. Russia is China’s second largest fish importer with major products of frozen cod, frozen plaice, frozen herring and fishmeal, most of which are used as raw material and re-exported after being processed. Table 5: China’s major fish importing countries and regions No. Countries & Regions Volume (tons) Value (USD million) 1 Peru 965,654 402.59 2 Russia 576,068 419.16 3 U.S. 155,999 125.89 4 Korea 66,058 70.05 5 Chile 63,164 45.55 6 Thailand 54,907 4 2.99 7 Taiwan 51,283 28.09 8 Japan 51,224 146.18 9 New Zealand 49,089 46.03 10 EU 47,563 71.68 11 Canada 36,892 79.74 12 Hong Kong 2,680 4.57 Source: China Fishery Statistics, 2001. Challenges for China

China has the largest population in the world with 1.3 billion people. Its population growth will stop only after 30-40 years from now at a new level of 1.6 billion. China must work hard to prepare the country to accommodate another 400 million people to come. As affordable resources on land are going to be depleted and the ecological environment is degenerating, a question arises of how to find the right way to produce as much food and products to satisfy the needs of the people. The sector of fisheries and aquaculture is probably one of the most pertinent sectors to rely on. It is not only an important source of seafood, but also a significant source of foreign currency earning.

However, China’s fishery industry still encounters some difficulties and has some weak points: Decline of natural fishery resources.

The statistics show that between the 1950’s and 1960’s, China’s annual marine fishing production was about 2 million tonnes, and the products were mainly made of commercially important species such as great yellow croaker, small yellow croaker, hairtail, flounder, cod and squid. However, up to the mid-1970’s, low valued species such as pelagic species gradually took over the above species. The survey data in

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1998 again revealed that biomass in the Bohai Sea decreased to 11% of that in 1992. A similar situation was shown in the rest of China Seas: Yellow Sea, East China Sea and South China Sea. Deterioration of water environment.

With a rapid development of China’s economy, it is inevitable that pollution will become more and more serious. It is estimated that about 70% of lakes in China are polluted in various levels and 61% of lakes eutrophied. Pollution in coastal waters is also getting worse. During the 1990’s 310 red tides were recorded along China’s coastal areas. Most pollutants are from industrial and living discharges such as petroleum, paint, detergent, textiles, plastics, pesticides and herbicides. Aquaculture itself in some areas also results in pollution. For example, the feed residuals, fish wastes, dead fish, fertilizer and fish drugs are all pollutant sources. Less advanced fishing and aquaculture technologies.

China’s fishery industry, in general, is still a less industrialized industry although its production takes first place in the world. The production patterns in most areas are still backward. Apart from a few modernized fishing fleets and fish farms, scattered artisanal fishermen and fish farmers are dominating both capture fisheries and aquaculture. Fish disease is one of the major obstacles for China’s aquaculture. It is reported that over a dozen billion yuan13 is lost annually in China’s aquaculture due to out of control of fish diseases. Less advanced fish processing capacity.

China’s fish processing capacities are relatively backward compared to world practices. Only 30% of landed fish are processed compared to 70% in developed countries. The majority is simply iced or refrigerated. Fresh water fishes are sold almost alive. In China, traditional fish products represent a significantly large part of total fish utilization and are one of major sources of animal protein. However, traditional products are usually of low value for the domestic market, although some specialized products are high value and are now being exported. Problems facing the Chinese fisheries industry are obtaining a reliable supply of good quality raw materials, a lack of infrastructure, poor processing techniques, a poor knowledge of food safety and quality, inadequate marketing, and a lack of food safety standards. To address these issues and improve traditional fish products, it is necessary that China promote and preserve the production and use of these products, strengthen research and training activities, improve their marketing, and ensure that they meet food safety standards. Some Suggestions to Fishery Authorities of China

Implementation of an effective quality and safety management systems is essential if China wants to expand its seafood trade and increase competitiveness of fish and fishery products for international trade. Likewise, a good quality and safe product for domestic markets is necessary in order to ensure food security for its people. Promote an appropriate quality and safety management system.

The quality and safety of fish products are of concern throughout the catching, 13 The yuan is the Chinese money unit. US$1=8.275 yuan.

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handling, processing and distribution chain for both the domestic and export markets. Fish quality, safety and management systems are required to ensure healthy and wholesome fish products. The overall fish quality, safety and management systems should encompass both the fish producers and distributors in the private sector and government agencies responsible for food, health and consumer protection.

At the moment, a range of standards and codes of practice are used as guidelines by many countries for national legislation on fish and food safety and quality. The main guidelines are those developed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex), Office International des Epizooties (OIE) and the International Plant Protection Council (IPPC). The Codex system is particularly important as it sets out principles, standards, and guidelines to protect consumer health and ensure fair practices in trade. China should further harmonize, as far as possible, the standards applicable to fishery products in accordance with relevant internationally recognized provisions.

Among various management systems, the Codex recommends a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP)-based approach to food safety. The systems are particularly important for exports to several major markets. HACCP differs from other systems by placing the obligation on producers to remove risks to food safety, rather than relying on inspection to detect problems in food. Improve the quality and safety of raw materials.

A supply of safe and good quality raw material is fundamental to the production of safe, high quality final products. In China, a number of generic causes for poor raw materials can be identified, including poor infrastructure, poor handling practices, weak product inspection and lack of appropriate standards. As many traditional products are produced from low value fish species and low quality raw materials, the quality of material will lead to the lower quality and price of the traditional product. In some cases, the fish species cannot be used at all as a “traditional product” and are used for fish feed or fishmeal instead. The governments should encourage the industry to use better quality materials in order to improve the quality of the products. Improve fish handling and holding capabilities and infrastructures.

In China, some fish producing areas are absent or lack a suitable infrastructure for preservation, storage and distribution of fish. This ranges from ports and landing sites, which may not have clean water or hygienic waste disposal facilities, drainage, or clean toilets, shortages of ice and inadequate freezing facilities. Infrastructure improvements include chilled distribution channels of fish to markets and processing centers, along with the provision of relatively cheap ice to harvesters. Hygiene and sanitation, including potable water, and improved handling and storage of the product are also necessary. These improvements will greatly facilitate the distribution of good quality seafood. Strengthen research and training activities.

A lack of awareness of good sanitary practices among fish processors and others involved in fish handling and distribution also contributes to safety and quality problems. In general, processors are poorly educated and lack know-how in processing and marketing. There is also a lack of standardized processing techniques between processors. This, along with poor quality raw materials, results in the

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inconsistent quality of products. Therefore, training and education aiming to raise public awareness of food handling are necessary, particularly among small-scale fishers and fish traders. The governments will also need to strengthen their extension services, research and development activities and market promotion activities in relation to seafood products. Strengthen Coordination among the government agencies.

In China, several government agencies, including fisheries, health, commerce, trade, etc. are currently providing services for the safety and quality of seafood products. The lack of coordination among these agencies has created confusion and conflicting standards and duplication of roles. To overcome the above-mentioned problems, the national fisheries agency must be given full responsibility for establishing greater coordination between the various government agencies. This includes ensuring coordinated legislation and regulatory requirements for seafood products, as well as fish inspection and control units. Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) between the various agencies could be established, clearly setting out their respective roles and responsibilities. The different agencies need to apply standards and guidelines in a consistent and harmonized manner, including those on inspection, auditing, laboratory testing, and HACCP implementation. Joint seminars and training can assist in this cooperation, making effective use of government manpower and finances, and helping achieve the harmonized national control system that is necessary for seafood security. Increase international cooperation.

China has been a WTO member since 2001. As a member country, China needs to harmonize food safety and quality standards with the international codex. This requires a number of initiatives at both policy and technical levels. At the policy level, for example, China needs to enhance its participation in international forum on issues related to SPS and TBT, so that the international instruments will better reflect China’s concerns.

Capacity building is the key to technical success. This can be assisted through sharing the technical expertise of other countries. Some of the key areas of technical deficiency include: laboratory analysis, product sampling plans and methodologies, laboratory equivalence testing, control systems auditing, fish disease identification and control, and maintenance and upgrading of skills to stay abreast of technological developments.

CONCLUSION

It was noted that fish plays a very important role in the world from a socio-economic point of view and contributes to food security by creating income and providing food.

In a world characterized by globalization, trade in fishery products is likely to become increasingly important. A large part of the world fish production is traded internationally; about 33% of the total volume was exported. International trade in fishery products has continued to grow thanks to expanding economies, increased production and, in particular, the greater availability of aquaculture products in high demand.

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The development of future trade will depend on the development in international markets and be largely driven by demand in the main importing countries, i.e., Japan, the United States and the European Union, where demand for fishery products has increased considerably recently due to the outbreak of the foot-and-mouth livestock disease in 2001.

However, the growing concern on food quality and safety lead to increasingly strict requirements in the international seafood markets as numbers of food-borne diseases severely threaten human health. It is generally agreed that the HACCP system, monitoring all aspects of the processes that lead to the final product, is an improvement on traditional fish inspection. The introduction of HACCP principles is shaping the seafood industry of tomorrow. China is a largest fish producer in the world. Fishery and aquaculture is a very important sector in providing food, income, employment and foreign currency. As WTO member country, China now is faced with many international opportunities. However, China needs to give particular attention to the implementation of an effective quality and safety management system if it wants to expand its seafood trade and increase competitiveness of its seafood products in international markets. This includes promoting an appropriate quality and safety management system, improving the quality and safety of raw materials, improvement of fish handling, holding capabilities and infrastructures, strengthening research and training activities, strengthening coordination among government agencies and increasing international cooperation.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guide, Second Edition, January 1998. http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/haccp-2.html (accessed on 17 May, 2002). Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point. http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/haccp.html (accessed on 17 May, 2002). FAO. Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit (FIDI). http://www.fao.org/fi/struct/fidi.asp (accessed on 15 May, 2002). FAO Information Division. The State of World Fisheries and Aquacutlture 2000. FAO. Report on Important Recent Events Concerning Trade in Fisheries Products, FAO Sixth Session, Bremen, 3-6 June 1998. Fish, Seafood and Production , Animal Products Directorate, Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Quality Management Program http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/fispoi/qmp/qmppgqe.shtml. (accessed on 17 May, 2002).

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Fish, Seafood and Production , Animal Products Directorate, Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program (CSSP) http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/fispoi/csspccsme.shtml. (accessed on 17 May, 2002). Fish, Seafood and Production , Animal Products Directorate, Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Import Inspection Program http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/fispoi/import/importe.shtml. (accessed on 17 May, 2002). The Ministry of Agriculture. China Fishery Statistics, 2000, 2001. NACA. Aquaculture Development Beyond 2000: The Bangkok Declaration and Strategy http://www.enaca.org/AquaMillennium/BangkokDeclare.htm (accessed on 18 May, 2002). National Seafood HACCP Alliance for Training and Education. Compendium of Fish and Fishery Product Processes, Hazards, and Controls http://seafood.ucdavis.edu/haccp/compendium/compend.htm. (accessed on 17 May, 2002). Qi Jingfa. China's Aquaculture Development and Outlook. http://www.was.org/main/FrameMain.asp. (accessed on 20 May, 2002). Song Jian. Address to the World Aquaculture Conference 2002. http://www.was.org/main/FrameMain.asp. (accessed on 20 May, 2002). Zhang Yutai. Address to the World Aquaculture Conference 2002. http://www.was.org/main/FrameMain.asp. (accessed on 20 May, 2002).