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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT(An International Research Journal) Abbreviation: IJSTD
ISSN: 2348-4047Volume 1 - May, 2015
U/S 2(f) of the UGC Act 1956 & Member, Association of Indian Universities (AIU)
International Journal of Scientific andTechnical Development
(An International Research Journal) Abbreviation: IJSTD
ISSN 2348-4047 (Print)
Volume 1 May 2015
All rights reserved © 2015 Desh Bhagat University
No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means withoutthe permission in writing from the copyright owner.
An official publication of
University School of Engineering
Desh Bhagat UniversityAmloh Road, Mandi Gobindgarh,
Fatehgarh Sahib-147301
Punjab, INDIA
Phone : 01765-520531 www.dbuijstd.org E-mail: [email protected]
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC ANDTECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT
AIM AND SCOPE OF JOURNAL
The International Journal of Scientific and Technical Development is biannual Journal
dedicated to publishing high quality manuscripts that describe the most significant and
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In addition to primary and original research work, International Journal of Scientific
and Technical Development also publishes review articles, news and views, research
highlights about important work reported in other journals, commentaries, book reviews,
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worldwide community.
International Journal of Scientific and Technical Development is committed to publishing
top-tier original research in all areas of Science and technology through a fair and rigorous
review process. It offers authors high visibility for their papers, access to a broad readership,
high standards of copy editing and production, rapid publication and independence from
academic societies and others with vested interests. The IJSTD is open access online journal
So that it is easily approachable to anyone.
Editor in ChiefIJSTD,
DBU
International Journal of Scientific and Technical Development
Volume 1 MAY 2015
CONTENTS
Research Papers
Effect of rubbing and cell thickness on the Electro-optic properties of room temperatureferroelectric liquid crystal mixture ............1
Neeraj, Pankaj Kumar , K. K. Raina
Environmental Assessment of Hydrological and Microbiological Characteristics ofMunicipal Wastewater at Sewage Treatment Plant, Lakkar Ghat, Rishikesh(Uttarakhand) India .........12Sachin Srivastava, Dhiraj Sehgal, Piyusha SharmaEffect of Storage and Packaging Material on Quality Parameters of Garlic Flakes ...........21Jaspreet Singh Grewal, Mohammed Shafiq Alam, Shweta Goyal
Osmotic dehydration of Elephant Foot Yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius) Cubes ...........30Sangeeta, Maya Rathod, Bahadur Singh Hathan
Review Article
A survey of bioresources based Industry of Punjab ..........40Neeelima Jerath, Gurharminder Singh, Dhiraj Kumar SehgalCournot's Model of Oligopoly- A Brief introduction ..........47Bhupinder Kaur, Amanpreet Singh, Randev SandhuMedicinal Plants With Special Focus On Adulterants And Substitutes ..........52
Kundailia Neetika, Saroch Vikas, Johar Smita
TPM- A review ..........64Gurpreet Singh, Ravinder Singh, Jagdeep Singh
Structural Genomics : From Genome mapping to Genome annotation ..........73Gaurav Aggarwal
Heavy Metal Stress and Phytoremediation ..........92 Harvinder Kaur Sidhu, Kirandeep Kaur
Obesity in Menopausal Women: A New Nutritional Emergency ..........98Harmanjot Kaur, Geetakshi Grover, Roopjot Kochar
Magnetic abrasive finishing: A Review of Literature ..........106Ravinder Singh, Gurpreet Singh, Harinder Singh, Sehijpal Singh
Conventional And Smart Teaching Engineering Methods ...........112Gurinder Kaur Sodhi, Kamalkant Sharma, Mandeep Singh, Jaspreet Singh
Research News
Gentle Rehabilitation of the Building ..........116Dr. (Er.) Aman Jain
Effect of rubbing and cell thickness on the Electro-optic properties of room temperatureferroelectric liquid crystal mixture
* 1 2 3Neeraj , Pankaj Kumar , K. K. Raina1University School of Engineering, Desh Bhagat University, Mandi Gobindgarh-147301, India
2Department of Applied Science, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Patiala-140401, India3 DIT University, , IndiaDehradun, Uttarakhand- 248009
*Email addresses :[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Rubbed polyimide films have been widely used as liquid crystal alignment films for liquidcrystal displays (LCDs) as proper alignment reduces the defects and favor the enhancement ofelectro-optic properties of ferroelectric liquid crystals. We investigated the effect of rubbing andcell thickness on the physical properties of a room temperature ferroelectric liquid crystal (FLC)mixture ZLI-3651 by performing the electro optic and dielectric studies. The cells thicknesses of5µm with parallel rubbing and 10 µm with both parallel and anti parallel rubbing were used inthe experiment We found that parallel rubbed 5um cell shows higher polarization value (Ps
2 2~34.21 nC/cm ) than the parallel rubbed 10um cell (Ps ~22.15 nC/cm ) whereas without rubbing
210 um thickness cell showed the value of Ps ~18.9 nC/cm .
INTRODUCTION
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are widely
used in displays for computers, television
sets, calculators, cameras and other such
devices. Here pictures are displayed by
controlling light which is done by tuning the
molecular orientation of the liquid crystals
using applied voltage. Initial orientations of
liquid crystals (orientation when no voltage
is applied) are controlled by polymer films
ca l l ed l iqu id c rys ta l a l ignment f i lms .
Rubbed polyimide films are widely used for
this purpose. The discovery of ferroelectric
liquid crystals (FLCs) by Meyer (1975) and
detailed study by Clark (1981) broadens the
research area of liquid crystals because of
the tremendous applications in fast electro-
optic devices [Meyer et al. 1975; Clark and
Largewall 19811-2]. However, formation of
zigzag lines in FLCs results in their poor
electro-optic performance and hence is an
obstacle for their use in display applications.
These zigzag lines are optical appearance of
defects within domain walls that separate the
chevrons of opposite bending directions. By
u s i n g p r o p e r a l i g n m e n t t e c h n i q u e a n d
applying a low frequency bias field, these
z i g z a g d e f e c t s c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d o r
eliminated which definitely influence the
elec t ro opt ic proper t ies of FLCs. Thus
alignment of liquid crystal director plays an
important role in the function of liquid
crystal displays. In the last years, a number
of procedures such as Langmuir Blodgett
films, lithography micro patterned polymers,
1
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
January to May,2015
2
nano patterned surfaces using an atomic
fo rce mic roscope o r i on beam e t ch ing
surfaces, SiOx films, mechanically rubbed
polymer layers and photo a l igned l ight
sensitive polymers etc have been employed
to align the surfaces of conducting glass
substrates. We used the easiest and common
mechanical rubbing technique (Williams and
Davis 1986; Frunza et al. 2005; Yang et al.
2007; Stephanie et al. 2008) of polymer
layers in our s tudies [3-6] . I t produces
grooves on polyimide surface and breaks the
original uniformity in surface topography of
polyimide thin film and cause a preferential
d i r e c t i o n w h i c h i s p a r a l l e l t o r u b b i n g
direction on the surface. The change in
s u r f a c e t o p o g r a p h y c h a n g e s t h e o t h e r
chemicophysical properties at the polymer surface.
We h a v e c o m p a r e d t h e e l e c t r o - o p t i c
p r o p e r t i e s o f a r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e
ferroelectric liquid crystal by constructing
10 µm thickness cells with parallel and anti
parallel alignment. In parallel rubbed FLC
c e l l s b o t h t h e r u b b i n g d i r e c t i o n s o f
alignment films on two substrates are same
whereas in an t i pa ra l l e l rubbed ce l l s ,
rubbing directions of alignment films are
opposi te . Also we have used a planer
aligned parallel rubbing 5 µm thickness cell
t o s h o w t h a t h o w c e l l t h i c k n e s s
i n f l u e n c e t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f F L C s .
T h e e l e c t r o o p t i c s t u d i e s p r o v i d e
information of important physical properties
o f f e r r o e l e c t r i c l i q u i d c r y s t a l s l i k e
spontaneous polarization, response time and
rotational viscosity etc. which decided the
use of these materials in various display
devices. Different research groups have used
d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s t o m e a s u r e t h e s e
properties like pyro-electric method, Sawyer
To w e r m e t h o d , d i e l e c t r i c m e t h o d a n d
c u r r e n t r e v e r s a l m e t h o d . We m a d e
measurements of dynamics of helix winding
and unwinding by most widely used current
reversal technique.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In the present s tudy we have used the
mechanical rubbed polymer technique to
align the surfaces. A uniform coating of
polyimide (nylon/ m-cresol/ methanol) was
done using spin coating unit at a speed of
1400 rotations per minute on the ITO coated
glass substrates. Such coated substrates wereo
baked in the oven at 130 C for one hour.
Then rubbing was done in one direction
using a nylon cloth (Raina et al . 1998;
Baawa et al . 1987) on these polyamide
coated substrates [7-8]. The parallel rubbing
c e l l w a s c o n s t r u c t e d b y p u t t i n g t w o
subs t ra tes toge ther in such a way tha t
rubbing directions on each polymer surface
orient in the same direction. However anti
parallel rubbing cells were constructed by
putting these polymer surfaces orienting in
the opposite direction. The cell gap was
considered 10µm. A parallel aligned cell of
5 µm thickness was also prepared. A room
temperature short pitch ferroelectric liquid
crystal mixture ZLI-3651 FLC was filled
using capil lary action in two polyimide
r u b b e d I TO c o a t e d g l a s s p l a t e s a t i t s
isotropic temperature. The alignment and textures of the FLC material were studied by
oslow cooling at a rate of 0.1 C/min. in the
presence of an electric field at 50Hz using
t h e r m a l o p t i c a l p o l a r i z i n g m i c r o s c o p e
(OLYMPUS model BX-51P) interfaced to
IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
3
tempera ture cont ro l ler model LINKAM-
T P 9 4 a n d T H M S 6 0 0 c o u p l e d t o h o to
s t a g e a t a n a c c u r a c y o f ± 0 . 1 C .
The triangular and square wave pulses (Ffig.
3) were applied to the cells through function
generator. The frequency of the external
voltage must be lower than the inverse of the
relaxation time for the director depending on
sample thickness, defects, anchoring energy
e t c . I n p o l a r i z a t i o n c u r r e n t r e v e r s a l
technique (Kundu et al. 2003), voltage is
h igh enough to unwind comple te ly the
helical structure of FLC [9]. The voltage and
current pulses were obtained on a Digital
S t o r a g e O s c i l l o s c o p e ( T E K T R O N I X
TDS210 having 10 MHz bandwidth) across
1M standard resistor. For data acquisition
t h e w h o l e s e t u p w a s i n t e r f a c e d w i t h
computer and analysis was done using Wave
Star software.
Fe r roe l ec t r i c l i qu id c rys t a l s a r e ch i r a l
smectic C phases where the director of each
planer layer is tilted from the layer normal z
by a fixed angle, called tilt angle θ as shown
in fig.1. The projection of the director in the
smectic plane and x-axis give the azimuthal
a n g l e . W h e n t h e m o l e c u l e i s c h i r a l ,
successive smectic C layers show a gradual
change in the direction of tilt , such that the
director processes about the z-axis from
layer to layer, always lying on the surface of
a hypothetical cone of angle 2θ. Chirality
causes helical structure in the chiral smectic
C meso phase with pitch being the distance
along the z-axis and spontaneous molecular
polarization vector, which is perpendicular
to the molecule and contained in the layer
plane. Thus all possible directions for the
v e c t o r a r e t a n g e n t t o t h e c i r c l e o f
intersection of cone with the plane.
Theoretical considerations
y
?
φ
x
P: Spontaneous
Polarization
Molecule
z: Layer normal
c-
Director
Fig.1 Projection of molecule in SmC* phase
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
4
Polarization switching measurements
The polarization study of SmC* phase is based
on the equation 1و
2( ) ( )
S
dK P E t S in
d t Z
Where φ, and K are the azimuthal angle,
the rotational viscosity and mean elastic
constant respect ively. P and E are theS
magnitude of spontaneous polarization of
SmC* phase and amp l i t ude o f app l i ed
electric field. Switching time between twot
stable states of spontaneous polarization is
given by the solution of this equation in
which polar iza t ion swi tch ing impar t s a
current peak in the overall current response
and is a direct manifestation of spontaneous
polar iza t ion and response t ime. On the
application of the symmetric triangular or
squa re wave f i e ld (Ahu ja e t a l . 2000 ;
Sumana and Raina 2005), the dipoles get
reoriented between two stable polarization
states i .e. UP and DOWN [10, 11] in the
SmC* and total current response across the
standard resister (R) is given by
I(t) = I + I + I = C R P
dt
dPa
dt
tdVC
R
tV ss
)()(
(2)
Where I I and I are capacitive term, I thec , R P c
ionic conduct ion term and polar izat ion
current term in the form of polarizing hump,
r e s p e c t i v e l y . C = i s t h e c e l l
capacity, R, d , and a are the resistance,s s
thickness and area of the cell respectively.V
(t) is the voltage across the cell. The area
under the polarization hump directly gives
the measure of the spontaneous polarization
in the sample on the application of field. If
A is the area of the sample and area underS
the curve (V × t) is A (V × t) then
∏
sa
d
a.
S
SRA
tVAP
(3)
Ic
Ip
IR
I
V
Ic
Ip
IR
I
V
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
(a) (b)
Fig.2 Schematic representation of responses for (a) triangular and (b) square waveforms
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
5
The Fig.3 (a, b) shows the schematic representation of these responses for square and triangular
waveforms. The behavior of polarization reversal current shows that the polarization peak
appears far away from the time scale from square pulse edge of the applied wave. The delay in
t i m e c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
response time of switching is written as , where η, P and E are the torsional viscosity,
polarization and applied electric field respectively.EP
R.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
FLC morphology
Th e o p t i c a l t ex tu r e s o f F LC ZLI - 3 6 5 1
sandwiched between various cells have been
investigated under crossed polarizers from
its isotropic state to room temperature at theo
rate of 0.1 C/min. Since the helical pitch
(1.5μm) is smaller than the thickness of the
s a m p l e c e l l a s h o r t p i t c h g e o m e t r y i s
observed. In short pitch FLC cells, the pitch
of the liquid crystal director is less than the
c e l l g a p . M o r e o v e r , h e r e t h e s u r f a c e
anchoring is kept weak so that the helix is
retained within cel l boundaries and the
bookshe l f s t ruc ture i s genera ted where
smectic planes are oriented perpendicular to
glass plates. The transition temperature of
the sample was measured using thermal
optical polarization microscopy and further
c o n f i r m e d b y d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a n n i n g
calorimeter (DSC L63, LINSEIS). Fig.4
shows the DSC graph for ZLI 3651 FLC
material. The phase sequence of the material
can be obta ined by ident i fy ing var ious
phases of LCs as shown below:
60oC 75oC 86oC
SmC* SmA Cholesteric Isotropic
Fig. 3 DSC graph of the phase sequence for ZLI 3651 sample
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
6
a 85oC c 83
oC
d 75oC e 65oC f 60
oC
g 55
oC h 40oC i 30oC
87oC
Fig. 4 (a) Microscopic textures of ZLI 3651 obtained during cooling below isotropic temperature in 5 µm thickness cell shows (a) Isotropic phase (b) & (c) nucleation growth (d) C h o l e s t e r i c p h a s e ( e ) h a i r p i n d e f e c t s ( f ) S m A p h a s e ( g ) S m C * p h a s e ( h ) f o r m a t i o n o f d o m a i n s a n d ( i ) m i c r o s c o p i c t e x t u r e a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e .
On heating LC material to its isotropic
temperature, it was found that isotropic
op h a s e a p p e a r e d d a r k a b o v e 8 6 C . O n
cooling further cholesteric phase appeared at
o o86 C. Then appeared SmA phase at 75 C
a n d S m C * p h a s e w a s o b s e r v e d a t a
otemperature 60 C. The various microscopic
textures obtained at a magnification of 10X
a r e s h o w n i n F f i g . 4 a n d F f i g . 5 .
Fig. 4(a) shows the microscopic textures
appeared dark of an isotropic phase above
t h e t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e i n a 5 µ m
othickness cell . Nucleation started at 86 C
and i t grows as the temperature is further
decreased as shown in f ig.4 (b) and fig.4©
respectively. Fig 4(d) shows the cholesteric
phase obtained on further cooling. Hair pin
defects were observed as shown in f ig. 4(e)
in SmA phase. Fig. 4(f) show SmC* phase.
A domain formation was observed in f ig.
4(h). Fig. 4(i) shows micro texture of SmC*
ophase at 30 C. The various LC phases are
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
7
also observed in 10 µm thickness cell fromits isotropic temperature in cooling as shown
in f ig . 5 , which are more c lear ly v is ib le ascompared to 5 µm cel l .
a 85oC b 83oC c 79oC
d 66oC e 55
oC f 30
oC
Fig.5 Micrographs of FLC in 10 µm cell with anti paral lel rubbing at different temperature showing (a) Formation of nucleat ion (b) nematic phase (c) cholesteric phase (d) Sm A phase (e) focal conic texture (f) SmC* phase
Measurement of switching properties
(a) Spontaneous polarization PS
A triangular waveform of frequency 50 Hz
at different voltages (20V, 25V & 30V) was
applied to the sample. The external electric
f i e ld o r i en t s and r eo r i en t s d ipo le s and
imparts a charge impulse contributing to the
polarizing reversal peak. The oscillograph
traces of triangular wave output for 5 um
cell is shown in the Fig.6. The hump in the
output curve appears due to helix winding
and unwinding near the threshold point .
Since a short pitch mode is present in the
FLC cell , thus helix is present in the bulk
sample and on applying the electric field,
deformation of the helix results and at a
critical value of field, the unwinding of thefield takes place. This critical field (Bersneve t a l . 1989) to unwind the helix structure is [12],
S
oC
P
kqE
16
22 (4)
where k is constant and q is the hel ix pi tch. o
By changing the sign of voltage, Ps s tate
changes between two states namely UP and
DOWN. This dipole orientat ion in result
p r o d u c e s a h u m p w h i c h d i r e c t l y i s a
m e a s u r e o f t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n .
Oscil lograph traces in f ig.6 shows that area
under the polarizat ion peak decreases with
increasing temperature. The two peaks seen
oin 5 um cell at 50 C are due to bulk
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
8
switching (BS) and surface switching (SS)
phenomenon which indicates that ini t ia l ly
bulk and then surface switching takes place
due to elast ic coupling. The s ingle peak at
o3 0 C i s d u e t o h e l i x u n w i n d i n g w h i c h
c o r r e s p o n d s t o r e o r i e n t a t i o n b e t w e e n U P
a n d D O W N p o l a r i z a t i o n s t a t e s .
(c) (d)
BS
SS
o oFig. 6 Variation of Spontaneous polarization P at different temperatures (a) 30 C (b) 40 CS
o o (c) 45 C (d) 50 C at 30V in 5um thickness cell
Oscillograph traces in fig.6 shows that area
under the polarization peak decreases with
increasing temperature. The two peaks seen
oi n 5 u m c e l l a t 5 0 C a r e d u e t o b u l k
switching (BS) and surface switching (SS)
phenomenon which indicates that initially
bulk and then surface switching takes place
due to elastic coupling. The single peak at
o30 C i s due to he l ix unwind ing wh ich
c o r r e s p o n d s t o r e o r i e n t a t i o n b e t w e e n
U P a n d D O W N p o l a r i z a t i o n s t a t e s .
The variation of spontaneous polarization Ps
for various sample cells with temperature is
shown in the fig.7 (a-d). We observed that
the value of Ps decreases with increase in
t e m p e r a t u r e d u e t o t h e w e a k P - E
(polarization-electric field) coupling and P-
Ө (polarization-tilt angle) coupling in the FLC.
A comparison of spontaneous polarization
measu remen t s shows tha t FLC mix tu re
para l l e l rubbed 5um ce l l shows h igher
polarization value than the parallel rubbed
10um cell. The 5 um thickness cell posses
2Ps ~34.21 nC/cm at a constant applied
v o l t a g e 3 0 V a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a s
compared to 10 um thickness cell where Ps
2~22.15 nC/cm . However 10 um thickness
cell with anti parallel rubbing has Ps ~ 21.98
2 nC/cm whereas without rubbing 10 um
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
9
thickness cell showed the value of Ps ~18.92nC/cm . Since Ps is an alignment dependent
property, the higher value of Ps in the
mechanically rubbed cells is due to the
alignment induced by the rubbing the glass
substrates. Thus mechanical rubbing reduces
the zigzag defects by inducing the alignment
of LCs and hence enhance the value of Ps.
Also the typical influence of bias voltage on
the different sample cells is shown in fig.8.
It was found that from the observations, the
Ps increases sharply with increase in bias
voltage at a particular temperature.
30 35 40 45 50 55
10
15
20
25
30
35 5m Parallel Rubbing(a)
P(n
C/c
m2)
Temperature (0C)
20V 25V
30V
30 35 40 45 50 55
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
(b) 10m Parallel Rubbing
P(n
C/c
m2)
Temperature (0C)
20 V 25 V
30 V
30 35 40 45 50 55
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
(c) 10 m Antiparallel Rubbing
P(n
C/c
m2)
Temperature (oC)
20 V
25 V
30 V
30 35 40 45 50 55
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
(d) 10m Without Rubbing
Ps
(nC
/cm
2)
Temperature (0C)
20 V 25 V
30 V
Fig. 7 Variation of spontaneous polarization Ps with temperature for (a) 5 um cell (b) 10um cellswith (c) parallel rubbing (d) anti parallel rubbing
ھو 22 24 26 28 30
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
30 oC
P(n
C/c
m2 )
Voltage (volts)
5 um
10 um parallel rubbing 10 um antiparal lel rubbing 10 um without rubbing
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
10
oFig.8 Variation of Ps with voltage at 30 C for various cells (b) Response time ( )S
30 35 40 45 50 55
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8 5 um
10 um parallel rubbing
10 um antiparallel rubbing
10 um without rubbing
(b) 30 V
s(m
sec
)T (
oC)
20 22 24 26 28 30
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
(a) 55 oC
s(m
Se
c)
Voltage (volts)
5 um
10 um parallel rubbing
10 um antiparallel rubbing
10 um without rubbing
Fig.9 Variation of response time ( ) (a) as a function of applied voltages (b) as a function ofS
temperature, for 5 um and 10 um thickness cell with parallel, anti parallel and without rubbing
The var ia t ion of response t ime as aS
function of bias voltage and temperature is
shown in the fig.9 (a,b) for the various cells
o f d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s .
M e a s u r e m e n t s o f t i m e w e r e d o n e b y
applying a symmetric square wave to the
FLC mixture ZLI-3651. Observations have
shown that decreases with increase in the
s t r e n g t h o f b i a s v o l t a g e a t p a r t i c u l a r
tempera ture . Swi tching in mechanica l ly
rubbed sample cells was found to be faster
than the without rubbing cell. It was also
observed that parallel rubbed 5um thickness
FLC sample cell has sharp response time as
compared to parallel rubbed 10 um thickness
cell. The response of anti parallel rubbed
cel l i s s l ight ly s lower than para l le l rubbedcel l .
CONCLUSIONS
ZLI-3651 has short pi tch geometry (~1.5
um) shows var ious phases i .e . SmC*, SmA,
cholesterol and nematic phases a t d i fferent
temperatures .
Rubbing of sample cel ls enhances the Ps
value of the FLC. The 10µm paral lel and
anti paral lel rubbed cel ls posses more Ps
value as compared to without rubbed 10 um
cell . Also P increases as the cel l thicknesss
decreases.
Switching is faster in 5um cel l as compared
to 10 um cel ls . Moreover paral lel and ant i
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
11
p a r a l l e l r u b b e d c e l l s s h o w f a s t r e s p o n s e st h a n w i t h o u t r u b b e d c e l l .
REFERENCES
A h u j a J a s j i t K , , R a i n a K K ( 2 0 0 0 ) “Polarization Switching and Dielectric Relaxations in Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals.” Jpn J Appl Phys. Vol. 39:, Page 4076-4081.
Baawa SS, Biradar A M, Chandra S (1987) “Molecular reorientation processes and dynamics of polarization reversal in thin surface stabilized ferroelectric liquid c ry s t a l DBAMBC.” Fe r roe l ec t r i c s , Vol.76:, Page 69-80.
Bersnev LA, Chigrinov VG, Drgachev DI,
Poshideev EP, Funfschilling J, Schadt M
(1989) “Deformed helix ferroelectric
liquid crystal display: A new electrooptic
mode in ferroelectric chiral smectic C
liquid crystals.” Liquid Crystals Vol.5:,
Page1171-1177.
C l a r k N A , L a rg e w a l l S T ( 1 9 8 1 ) “ R e c e n t
D e v e l o p m e n t s i n C o n d e n s e d M a t t e r
P h y s i c s . ” , S p r i n g e r U S , Vo l . 4 : ,
P a g e 3 0 9 - 3 1 9 .
Frunza S, Beica T, Moldovan R, Zgura I,
Frunza L (2005) “Peculiar orientation of
nema t i c l i qu id c rys t a l s on rubbed
p o l y v i n y l i m i d a z o l e . ” , J o u r n a l o f
Optoelectronics and Advanced Materials
Vol.7:, Page 2149-2158.
Kundu K, Suzuki K, Chaudhari BK (2003)
“Dielectric relaxation behavior of a
ferroelectric l iquid crystal Felix SCE9.
" Ferroelectrics Vol.287:, Page 47-61.
Meyer RB, Liebert L, Strzelecki L, Keller P
(1975) ”Ferroelectric Liquid Crystala.”, J
de Physique Vol.36 :, Page 69-71.
R a i n a K K , J a s j i t K , A h u j a ( 1 9 9 8 )
”Dielectric Relaxations in a Short Pitch
Ferroelectric Liquid Crystal.” Molecular
C r y s t a l s L i q u i d C r y s t a l s ,
Vol.325: , Page157-171.
Stephanie M Malone, Daniel K Schwartz
(2008), “Polar and Azimuthal Alignment
o f a N e m a t i c L i q u i d C r y s t a l b y
Alkylsilane Self-Assembled Monolayers:
Effects of Chain-Length and Mechanical
Rubbing.” Langmuir, Vol .24: , Page
9790-9794.
Sumana G, Raina KK (2005) ”Electro-optic
p rope r t i e s o f a l i gned po ly s i l oxane
dispersed ferroelectric l iquid crystal
composite thin films.” Current Applied
Physics Vol.5:, Page 277-284
Williams D, Davis LE (1986) ”Alignment of
chiral smectic liquid crystals.”, J Phys D:
Appl Physics, Vol.19:, Page L37.
Yang F, Zoriniants G, Ruan L, Sambles JR
(2007) “Optical anisotropy and liquid
-crystal alignment properties of rubbed
po ly imide l aye r s L iqu id Crys ta l s . ”
Vol.34:, Page 1433-1441
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Environmental Assessment of Hydrological and Microbiological Characteristics ofMunicipal Wastewater at Sewage Treatment Plant, Lakkar Ghat, Rishikesh
(Uttarakhand) India.
*Sachin Srivastava, Dhiraj Sehgal, Piyusha Sharma
Department of Agriculture Science, Desh Bhagat University, Mandi, Gobindgarh, Distt:Fatehgarh Sahib-147301 (Punjab), INDIA
*E-mail:[email protected]
ABSTRACTT h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s c o n d u c t e d t o m o n i t o r t h e p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l a n dmicrobiological characteristics of Sewage Wastewater (SWW) at treatment plant, Rishikesh,installed under Ganga Action Plan (GAP)/National River Action Plan (NRAP) to control thepollution of river Ganga. In the present study, a significant (p<0.001) decrease was observedin the physico-chemical and microbiological parameters viz. Total Solids (TS) (-76.12%),Total Suspended Solids (TSS) (-89.21%), Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) (-67.66%), ElectricalConductivity (EC) (- 89.43%), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (-87.31%), Chemical
-Oxygen Demand (COD) (-74.74%), Chlorides (Cl ) (-49.46%), alkalinity (-88.70%),3 -hardness(-38.55%), Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) (-67.44%), phosphate (PO ) (-86.61%),4
2 -sulphate (SO ) (-84.93%), Most Probable Number (MPN) (66.14%) and Standard Plate4
Count (SPC) (60.34%) after treatment. The maximum increase in DO (+215.17%) wasrecorded in finally treated (outlet) wastewater. Thus the treatment plant had a significant rolein the control of pollution loads of wastewater installed under GAP/ NRAP at Rishikesh city.
Keywords: Oxidation pond, Sewage waste water, Microbiological characterstics
INTRODUCTION
Humans are currently confronted with oneof the greatest challenges in i ts history,thus how to adequate ly use i t s l imi tedf r e s h w a t e r r e s o u r c e s . D u r i n g t h e p a s tdecades, rapid industrial developments andUrbanisation in different countries havebeen putt ing an increasing pressure on thewater resource requirement. The demandfor quali ty water resources in the industrialand urban sectors will be difficult to meeti n t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e b e c a u s e o fdwindling supply. The imbalance in thedemand and supply of water resources willbecome a common major issue confrontingmany countries around the world as well inthe next few decades. Throughout the lastdecade municipal wastewater or sewage reuse has emerged as an important andviable means of supplementing dwindlingwater supplies in a large number of regionsthroughout the world (Webera et al . 2005).
Sewage i s runn ing was t e wa te r t ha t i s
dispose off from homes and shops which is
n o r m a l l y t r a n s p o r t e d i n f o r m o f s m a l l
l iquid with suspension of small solid in
large pipes called sewers. The waste water
may either be directed to a specific pace to
be recycled or be disposed off far away
from people as i t can lead to spread of
d i seases . Sewage i s a complex mix ture
con t a in ing nu t r i en t s , su spended so l i d s ,
pathogens, oxygen's dissolving substances
a n d o t h e r c o n t a m i n a n t s a n d e a c h h a s
different environmental impact (Ladan 2014).
Sewage d i sposa l in na tura l wa te rs i s a
common p rac t i ce among many na t i ons .
L a r g e i n p u t s o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r a n d
n u t r i e n t s f r o m r a w s e w a g e t o a w e a k
h y d r o d y n a m i c e n v i r o n m e n t p o s e s
environmental and health problems from
deterioration of water quality (Longe and
Ogundipe 2010).
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
13
Urban centres are discharging waste waterinto the water bodies and for i r r igat ion inthe agricul ture f ie lds . The major sources oforganic pol lut ion in f resh water bodies ares e w a g e . S e w a g e i n c l u d e s d o m e s t i c ,hospi ta l and small scale industr ia l wastesoperat ing under municipal area. In India ,a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d t o w n s d i d n o t h a v esewage t rea tment fac i l i t ies . Disposal ofwaste water is one of the major problemsfor eco-fr iendly environment (Dash 2012) .M a n a g e m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r i nmetropol i tan ci t ies is a diff icul t task. Theunsafe disposal of waste water generatespol lut ion of water as wel l as terrestr ia l . I tcauses var ious heal th problems, epidemicsdue to serving the contaminated water. Byadding i t eutrophicates the water bodies ,causing the mortal i ty of aquat ic biologicalr e s o u r c e s . T h u s , t h e r o l e o f t r e a t m e n tp l a n t s i s i n t h e s u s t a i n a b l e u s e o fwastewater as they make the water usablefor var ious purposes (Jamrah et a l . 2006a n d 2 0 0 8 ; K u m a r a n d C h o p r a 2 0 1 0 ;Kumar and Chopra 2012) .Water supply and sewerage is a commonlyused phrase. However, in many developingc o u n t r i e s , “ w a t e r s u p p l y ” h a s h i g h e rpriori ty over “sewage treatment”. Largenumber o f t r e a tmen t p roce s s ha s beenapplied by different t reatment plants . Oneof them is oxidation pond process, whichp r o v i d e s v e r y e c o n o m i c a l s e c o n d a r ytreatment process. Surface oxidation ponds( O P s ) a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r s m a l lcommuni t ies sewage t rea tment purpose .Inside OPs, heterotrophic bacteria degradeorganic matter as minerals . Such materialssupport the growth of algae in the Ops(Esa et al . 2013).
(a) Aerobic zone end products
Amino acids + Ammonia + O 2
Nitrites + Nitrates (1)
Organic compounds + O CO + H O 2 2 2
(2)
The fol lowing equat ions are involved in
OPs to get the end product through aerobic
and anaerobic processes .
Co + Light + H O 2 2
C H6 1 2
O + O + A l g a e ( p h o t o s y n t h e s i s ) ( 3 )6 2
b ) A n a e r o b i c z o n e e n d p r o d u c t sO r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s = O r g a n i c a c i d s +A l c o h o l s ( a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n ) ( 4 )O r g a n i c a c i d s + A l c o h o l s = C H + C o4 2
( m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n )
Rishikesh, surrounded by virgin of forests
at the toe of the Himalayas, is the first
town on river Ganga taken up under the
Ganga Action Plan Phase-I for pollution
a b a t e m e n t o f t h e r i v e r . H u n d r e d s o f
ashrams, temples, residences, hotels and
other commercial establishments dot the
banks. This immense human activity, in a
narrow band along the length of the town
on bo th the banks , gene ra t e s nea r ly 6
million litres of sewage per day into the
pristine Ganga before it emerges into the plains.
K e e p i n g t h e a b o v e v i e w t h e p r e s e n t
investigation was conducted to monitor the
p h y s i c - c h e m i c a l a n d m i c r o b i o l o g i c a l
charac ter i s t ics of munic ipa l was tewater
before and af ter t rea tment a t t rea tment
p l a n t i n s t a l l e d u n d e r G A P / N R A P a t
Rishikesh (Uttarakhand) India.
T h e O P s a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d t o t r e a tw a s t e w a t e r d u e t o i t i s c o s t e f f e c t i v e a n dr e q u i r e s m i n i m u m m a n a g e m e n t ,a n d m a i n t e n a n c e .
MATERIALS AND METHODS
M u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r c o l l e c t i o n a n danalysis: Sewage Pumping Station (SPS)is si tuated at south east corner of Rishikeshv e r y c l o s e t o n a t i o n a l h i g h w a y. T h eMunic ipa l Was tewate r (MWW) sampleswere collected from municipal treatmentplant installed under GAP at Lakkar ghatR i s h i k e s h ( 3 0 . 1 0 3 3 6 8 ° N a n d78.294754°E). The total installed capacityof the treatment plant was 6 MLD of waterper day collected in four facultative ponds.The SWW was col lected f rom differentresidential as well as industrial vicinity ofRishikesh city by Main Pumping Station(MPS) Lakkar ghat Rishikesh followed byI n t e r m e d i a t e P u m p i n g S t a t i o n ( I P S - 1 )
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14
Muni Ki re t i , ( IPS-2) Bangal i Bas t i and( I P S - 4 ) M a y a k u n d S e w a g e P u m p i n gSta t ions (SPSs) . The SWW samples werecol lec ted f rom in le t , Oxidat ion ponds ando u t l e t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t . The samples brought to the labora tory wasana lyzed for var ious phys ico-chemica l ,m ic rob io log i ca l and heavy me ta l s v i z .t e m p e r a t u r e , t o t a l s o l i d ( T S ) , t o t a lsuspended so l ids (TSS) , pH, E lec t r i ca lC o n d u c t i v i t y ( E C ) , D i s s o l v e d O x y g e n( D O ) , B i o c h e m i c a l O x y g e n D e m a n d( B O D ) , C h e m i c a l O x y g e n D e m a n d
-( C O D ) , C h l o r i d e s ( C l ) , a l k a l i n i t y ,hardness , to ta l Kje ldahl Ni t rogen (TKN),
3 - 2 -Phospha te (PO ) and su lpha te (So ) ,4 4
S tan d a r d P l a t e Co u n t ( S P C) an d M o s tP r o b a b l e N u m b e r ( M P N ) f o l l o w i n gs t a n d a r d m e t h o d s ( A P H A 2 0 0 5 ) .E f f i c i e n c y o f t h e e f f l u e n t t re a t m e n tp l a n t s : Wa s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t su s u a l l y i n c l u d e a s e r i e s o f p h y s i c a l ,chemical and b io logica l processes . Theo v e r a l l o b j e c t i v e s o f a w a s t e w a t e rt rea tment p lant a re to separa te the wastesf rom the water for d isposal e lsewhere andt o p r o d u c e a n e f f l u e n t w h i c h c a n b ed i s c h a rg e d t o a r e c e i v i n g w a t e r b o d ywithout caus ing pol lu t ion . The in le t andout le t s t reams of a l l the four indus t r ia luni t s were compared to have an idea aboutthe eff ic iency of the i r e ff luent t rea tmentp lan ts (ETPs) . The percen tage removaleff ic iency was ca lcula ted fo l lowing thes tandard method (Hurs t 1997) :
Ci = Concentration of waste material in influent
Ce = Concentration of waste material in effluent
Statistical analysis: Data were analyzed
f o r o n e w a y A n a l y s i s o f Va r i a n c e
(ANOVA) for determining the difference
b e t w e e n S W W s a m p l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
before and after treatment collected from
inlet, PST, SST and Outlet of the treatment
plant. The mean and standard deviation
Where:
w e r e a l s o c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e h e l p o fMS Excel , SPSS12.0 and Sigma plot , 2000.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Sewage was tewater character i s t i c s : TheMean±SD va lues o f phys ico -chemica l andmic rob io log ica l pa ramete r s v i z . TS , TSS ,T D S , E C , p H , D O , B O D , C O D , C l - ,
3 - 2 -a lka l in i t y, ha rdnes s , TKN, PO , So ,4 4
MPN and SPC o f SWW are p resen ted inTab le 1 and F ig .1 .The resul ts in the present s tudy revealed
that the untreated SWW has high inorganic
and organic pol lut ion load consis t ing of- 1 - 1TS (820 .00 mgl ) , TSS (475 .00 mgl ) ,
- 1 - 1TDS (346.00 mgl ) , EC (2.84 dSm ), pH- 1(7 .65) , BOD (194.00 mgl ) , COD (377.30
- 1 - - 1m g l ) , C l , ( 9 5 . 0 3 m g l ) , a l k a l i n i t y- 1 - 1(259.33 mgl ) , hardness (387.26 mgl ) ,
- 1 3 - - 1TKN (89.99 mgl ) , PO , (129.42 mgl ) ,42 - - 1S O , ( 3 4 1 . 3 9 m g l ) , M P N ( 1 2 0 . 2 64
- 1 - 1MPN100 mL ) and SPC (81.23 SPC mL )- 1and lower DO (1.12 mL ). This was in
conformity with Shivaraju (2011); Kumar
and Chopra (2012) who reported high level
contaminat ion of organic , inorganic and
b a c t e r i a l p o l l u t a n t s .
Joel e t a l . (2009) reported higher levels of
B O D ( 2 4 0 m g / l ) , T S S ( 1 1 5 m g / l ) , D O
(0.18mg/l) and MPN (350 cfu/100ml) in
the domes t i c sewage wa te r o f Niger ia .
K u s h w a h e t a l . ( 2 0 1 1 ) r e p o r t e d p H
( 8 . 4 3 / 8 . 6 2 ) , D O ( 3 . 6 / 4 . 4 m g / l ) ,
B O D ( 6 2 . 6 / 7 2 . 4 m g / l ) a n d C O D
(164.6/149.2 mg/l ) of sewage waste water
f r o m B a d w a i / K o t r a a r e a s e w a g e
treatment p lant a t Bhopal , India . Kumar
and Chopra (2012) reported higher values
of physico-chemical and microbiological- 1parameters viz . TSS 1824.42±8.46 mg L ,- 1EC2.84, pH (8.39) , DO 2.42±1.14 mg L ,
- 1BOD (620.27 mg L ) , COD (1420.54 mg- 1 - - 1L ), Cl (346.58 mg L ) , a lkal ini ty(254.33
- 1 - 1m g L ) , h a r d n e s s ( 3 8 2 . 2 6 m g L ) ,- 1 3 -TKN(84.99 mg L ) , PO (124.42 mg L4
- 1 2 - - 1) , S O ( 1 9 6 . 9 1 m g L ) , M P N4
( 2 8 . 3 6 × 1 0 8 M P N / 1 0 0 m l ) a n d S P C
(17.42×106 SPC/ml) of MWW treatment
plant a t Haridwar.
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15
In the recent s tudies , Sir ianuntapiboon etal . (2006) reported BOD (118.00 mg L-1) ,COD (173.00 mg L-1) and pH (7.1±0.3) ,TKN (38.40 mg L-1) and TP (12.00 mg L-1) in municipal wastewater in Bangkok,Thai land. The 92.00% removal of BOD,91.00% COD, 90.00% TKN and 95.00%p h o s p h o r u s w e r e o b s e r v e d b y u s i n gconstructed wetlands for domest ic water.All natural waters contain some dissolveds o l i d s d u e t o t h e d i s s o l u t i o n a n dweathering of rock and soi l . Suspendedsol ids are determined by f i l ter ing a knownvolume of water and weighing the residue.Waters with high TSS are unpalatable andp o t e n t i a l l y u n h e a l t h y .
-In the present s tudy, the TS (191.00 mg L1 - 1) , TDS (153.6 mg L ) and (TSS 37.30 mg
- 1L ) o f the t r ea ted SWW (ou t le t ) werer e c o r d e d t o b e d e c r e a s e d f r o m i n i t i a l( I n l e t ) l e v e l . I t w a s f o u n d t o b es i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) d i f f e r e n t f r o minlet , PST and SST. Jamrah et a l . (2008)reported 84 and 100% removal eff iciencyof TSS in a set t l ing tank instal led in atreatment plant . Removal levels of TSSw e r e f o u n d t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h eanox ic good se t t l i ng cha rac te r i s t i c s o fs l u d g e w e r e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t t h et r e a t m e n t a n d t h e p r o b l e m o f s l u d g ebulking or foaming was absent . Salwa andElla (2014) reported that TSS was reducedby 46.67% at the out let and l i t t le reduct ionwas also observed in TDS by 3.57% as i twas only in permissible l imit of Emtdad ElUmum drain in Eygpt using constructedw e t l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s .E C a n d p H : EC of water is a useful and easy indicatoro f i t s s a l i n i t y o r t o t a l s a l t c o n t e n t .Wastewater eff luents of ten contain highamounts of dissolved sal ts f rom domest icsewage. Sal ts such as sodium chloride andp o t a s s i u m s u l p h a t e p a s s t h r o u g hc o n v e n t i o n a l w a t e r a n d w a s t e w a t e rt r e a t m e n t u n a f f e c t e d . H i g h s a l tconcentrat ions in waste eff luents however,can increase the sal ini ty of the receivingw a t e r , w h i c h m a y r e s u l t i n a d v e r s eecological effects on aquat ic biota . The pH
of water body determines the chemicalspecies of many metals and thereby altersthe availabil i ty and toxicity in their aquaticenvironment (Ogunfowokan et a l . 2005;K u m a r a n d C h o p r a 2 0 1 2 ) .D O , B O D a n d C O D : D O i s t h e m o s timportant pollution assessment parameterof the receiving water bodies. Stabil izationo f o r g a n i c m a t t e r , w h e n d i s c h a r g e duntreated or partially treated in receivingwaters, leads to depletion of their DO. DOi s a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r u s e d f o r w a t e rq u a l i t y c o n t r o l . T h e e f f e c t o f w a s t edischarge on a sur face water source i slargely determined by the oxygen balance,b o t h t h e B O D a n d C O D t e s t s a r e ameasure of the relative oxygen-depletioneffect of a waste contaminant. Both haveb e e n w i d e l y a d o p t e d a s a m e a s u r e o fpollution effect . The BOD test measurest h e o x y g e n d e m a n d o f b i o d e g r a d a b l epollutants whereas the COD test measurest h e o x y g e n d e m a n d o f o x i d i z a b l epollutants. The COD is a determinant oft h e l e v e l o r g a n i c m a t t e r a n d c a r b o n .In the present s tudy, DO was increased
- 1maximum (+215 .17%) i . e . 3 .53 mg L
- 1from its init ial level 1.12 mg L followed- 1 - 1by 2.69 mg L with PST and 3.08 mg L
w i t h S S T. T h e m a x i m u m r e d u c t i o n i nBOD (-87.31%) and COD (-74.74%) wasrecorded with outlet samples of the treatedS W W a s c o m p a r e d t o i n l e t s a m p l e s .O l u t i o l a e t a l . ( 2 0 1 0 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t concentration of DO in sewage oxidationp o n d s A a n d B o f O b a f e m i Aw o l o w oUniversity, Nigeria increased from (8.1 to13.9 mg/l) respectively, across the pond tot h e e f f l u e n t . M a h a p a t r a e t a l . ( 2 0 1 3 )reported that algae-based sewage treatmentp l a n t s l o c a t e d i n K a r n a t a k a w i t h ar e s i d e n c e t i m e o f 1 4 . 3 d a y s r e m o v e d( C O D ) ( 6 0 % ) a n d ( B O D ) ( 8 2 % ) a ssewage travels from the inlet to the outlet .T h e D O w a s i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y(p<0.01) in finally treated (outlet) SWW incomparison to inlet , PST and SST. TheB O D a n d C O D w e r e d e c r e a s e dsignificantly (p<0.001) in treated SWW ininlet , PST and SST.
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- 2 -Cl and SO : Chloride may affect aquatic4
organisms and water quali ty i f chloridespersis t and bio-accumulate. Contr ibute tothe r e l ease o f me ta l s f rom s t r eam bed
sediments ; induce metal toxic i ty in f isha n d p l a n t s r e s u l t i n g i n d e a t h d u e t o
- 2 -asphyxiat ion. Cl and SO occur as anions42 -
i n g r o u n d w a t e r . T h e a m o u n t o f S o 4
d i scha rged f rom an th ropogen ic sou rcesinto aquat ic systems can be s ignif icant .
2 -Indeed, anthropogenic sources of SO can4
account for 20 to over 90 percent of thesu lphur found in some su r f ace wa te r s .Major anthropogenic sources of sulphatei n c l u d e i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s , m i n ewastes, smelt ing and the burning of fossi lfue ls , agr icul tura l runoff , and domest ics e w a g e . N a t u r a l s o u r c e s a s w e l l a sa n t h r o p o g e n i c s o u r c e s a n d s e r v e a si n d i c a t o r s o f w a t e r p o l l u t i o n ( D a v i e s2007). In the present s tudy the maximum
- 2 -reduct ion in Cl ( -49.46%) and SO (-4
84.93 %) was recorded in SWW of outleto f s e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t i n c o m p a r i s o n t o i n l e t , P S T a n d S S T.
Alkalinity and hardness: Alkalini ty is thec a p a c i t y t o n e u t r a l i z e a c i d s a n d t h ea lka l in i ty o f na tu ra l wa te r i s r e su l t ingmainly from the sal ts of weak acids. Thecarbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxide arethe dominant source of natural alkal ini ty.Reactions of carbon dioxide with calciumo r m a g n e s i u m c a r b o n a t e c r e a t ec o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t s o f b i c a r b o n a t e s .Organic ac ids such as humic ac id a l soform sal ts that increase alkal ini ty. Alkalinew a t e r s a r e u n p a l a t a b l e a n d c a n c a u s egastrointest inal discomfort . The maximumr e d u c t i o n i n a l k a l i n i t y ( - 8 8 . 7 0 % ) a n dh a r d n e s s ( - 3 8 . 5 5 % ) o f M W W w e r eobserved in the outlet samples of STP aftertreatment in comparison to in inlet . Kumare t a l . ( 2 0 1 2 ) r e p o r t e d r e d u c t i o n i nalkal ini ty (47.90 %) and hardness(45.07%) at Kotra Waste Water Treatment Plantbased on was t e s t ab i l i za t i on t echn iqueu s i n g a n a e r o b i c a n d f a c u l t a t i v e p o n d ss i t u a t e d i n B h o p a l , M . P. , I n d i a . T h ereduction in alkal ini ty and hardness were
f o u n d t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p < 0 . 0 0 1 )di fferent in out le t samples of SWW inc o m p a r i s o n t o i n l e t , P S T , S S T .
2 -T K N a n d P O : N u t r i e n t s s u c h a s4
phosphorous and nitrogen are essential fort h e g r o w t h o f a l g a e a n d o t h e r p l a n t s .A q u a t i c l i f e i s d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e s ephotosynthesizes which usually occur inlow leve l s in su r face wa te r. Excess iveconcentrations of nutrients, however, canover s t imula te aqua t i c p lan t and a lgaeg r o w t h . D u r i n g t h e p r e s e n t s t u d ymaximum removal eff iciency of TKN (-
2 -67 .44%) and PO were recorded a f te r4
f inal treatment in outlet samples of STP ascompared to inlet fol lowed by PST and
2 -S S T . T h e T K N a n d P O a n d w e r e4
decreased to be significantly (p<0.001) inf i n a l l y t r e a t e d ( o u t l e t ) S W W i ncompar ison to in le t , PST, SST. Beyenea n d R e d a i e ( 2 0 11 ) r e p o r t e d m a x i m u mr e d u c t i o n i n T K N ( 5 4 . 5 9 % ) a n d C l -(10.58%) after treatment of sewage waterin oxidation pond of Hawassa Universi tyR e f e r r a l H o s p i t a l , s o u t h e r n E t h i o p i a .M a h a p a t r a e t a l . ( 2 0 1 3 ) r e p o r t e d 3 6 %removal of TKN in algae based sewaget r e a t m e n t p l a n t c o n s t r u c t e d w i t hfacultat ive ponds at Mysore, India. Bandiand Dandigi (2014) reported s ignif icant
2 -removal of PO (67.00 %) from domestic4
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t ( b a s e d o nstabi l izat ion ponds) in Shahabad, India. M P N a n d S P C : B a c t e r i a l p a r a m e t e r s ,such as Fecal Coliform (FC) which serveas indicators of fecal pollution are alsovery important when human health is the prime concern. Coliform group of bacteriai n c l u d e g e n e r a E s c h e r i c h i a a n dAerobacter. Coliform bacteria have beenu s e d f o r m a n y y e a r s t o d e t e r m i n e t h equa l i ty and sa fe ty o f wa te r fo r humanconsumption. Coliform bacteria are foundi n i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t o f h u m a n b e i n g s .E s c h e r i c h i a c o l i a n d o t h e r g r o u p s o fcoliforms may be present where there hasbeen faecal contamination originating fromwarm-blooded animals . I t causes heal thhazards to the human beings. The presence of these bacteria in drinking water may
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
17
indicate contaminat ion resul t ing f rom af a i l u r e i n t h e d i s i n f e c t i o n p r o c e s s(Wohlsen et a l . 2006; Krishnan et a l . 2007;K u m a r a n d C h o p r a 2 0 1 2 ) .D u r i n g t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y m a x i m u mr e m o v a l o f M P N ( 5 4 . 9 9 % ) a n d S P C( 6 0 . 3 4 % ) w a s r e c o r d e d w i t h t r e a t e dwastewater a t out le t of STP as comparedto inle t fol lowed by PST and SST. Esa e ta l . (2013) reported MPN value in inf luento f S T P a t U n i v e r s i t i S a i n s M a l a y s i a(USM), Malaysia was ranged from 47000t o 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 i n d e x / 1 0 0 m L , w h i l e i neff luent , i t was ranged from 230 to 380000index/100mL. The removal of bacter ia wasreal ly impressive because the percentageo f r e m o v a l w a s i n b e t w e e n 5 . 7 1 t o9 9 . 9 0 % . T h e M P N a n d S P C w e r edecreased s ignif icant ly (p<0.001) in out le ti n c o m p a r i s o n t o i n l e t , P S T , S S Twastewater.
CONCLUSION
The p re sen t s tudy was conc luded tha t t het r e a t m e n t p l a n t i n s t a l l e d u n d e r G a n g aAc t ion P lan (GAP) /Na t iona l R ive r Ac t ionP lan (NRAP) i s work ing ex tens ive ly. Thes i g n i f i c a n t ( p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) r e d u c t i o n w a sobse rved in t he phys i co -chemica l and
mic rob io log ica l cha rac te r i s t i c s v i z . TS ,-T D S , T S S , E C , p H , B O D , C O D , C l ,
3 - 2 -a l k a l i n i t y, h a r d n e s s , T K N , P O , S o ,4 4
M P N a n d S P C o f t r e a t e d S W W. T h ev a r i o u s s t e p s O P i n t h e t r e a t m e n t ,s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) i n c r e a s e d t h ed isso lved oxygen in f ina l ly t rea ted SWWi n c o m p a r i s o n t o u n t r e a t e d S W W .Reduct ions were observed to be min imumin OP-I and maximum in OP-I I . The twoponds toge ther could produce e ff luen ts o fm o s t l y a c c e p t a b l e q u a l i t y a n d i t i sobserved tha t more sur face a rea has beenp r o v i d e d f o r a l l t h e t w o p o n d s . T h esecond pond i s p roved to per form wel l inremoval o f cer ta in parameters , where asthe f i r s t p roved to be min imum in removal .I t i s n o t i c e d t h a t t h e c o m b i n e dper formance of a l l the two ponds in se r iesi s p roved to be admirab le , p roduc ing theaccep tab le e ff luen t qua l i t y su i t ab le fo rd isposa l fo r on to land or o ther ac t iv i t i es .Thus i t i s he lpfu l in the cont ro l o f thepol lu t ion of r iver Ganga and there i s a l soneed for another t rea tment p lan t due togenera t ion of more SWW in Rish ikesh c i tya s i t h a s t o u r i s t a s w e l l a s r e l i g i o u s impor tance .
Fig. 1 Microbilogical Characteristics of MSW before and after treatment at STP Lakkar ghat,
Rishikesh, Uttarakhand.
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Table 1. Physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of municipal sewage water
before and after at treatment plant Lakkar ghat, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand.
Parameters Treatment Stages CD F-calculated
Inlet PST (OP-I) SST (OP-II) Outlet TS mgl-1 820.00±12.24 520.01±7.24a
(-36.58%) 223.12±6.25ab
(-45.58%) 191.00±5.35abc
(-76.12%) 14.57 1665.91***
TDS mgl-1 475.00±11.0 254.17±6.32a (-46.49%)
196.21±5.21ab
(-58.69%) 153.6ab±4.98abc
(-67.66%) 31.35 58.09***
TSS mgl-1 346.00±1.41 157.21±1.52a (-54.56%)
98.54±2.36ab
(-71.52%) 37.30±2.02abc
(-89.21%) 13.57 356.32***
EC dsm-1
2.84±0.21 1.47±0.43a
(-48.23%) 0.97±0.55
ab
(-65.84%) 0.30±0.19
abc
- (89.43%) 0.18 138.91***
pH 8.25±0.02 7.50±0.06a (-1.96%)
7.45±0.10ab (-9.69%)
7.22±0.05ab (-12.48%)
0.03 40.36***
DO mgl-1 1.12±0.33 2.69±0.47a (+140.17%)
3.08±0.54ab (-175.00%)
3.53±0.24ab (+215.17%)
0.14 244.53***
BOD mgl-1 194.00±11.17 76.24±5.03a (-60.70%)
56.21±4.02ab
(-71.02%)
24.6±2.03ab
(-87.31%)
8.51 300.38***
COD mgl-1
377.30±11.5 210.23±7.49a (-44.28%)
135.64±5.39ab (-64.04%)
95.30±3.94ab (-74.74%)
16.62 332.38***
Cl- mgl-1 95.03±0.02 70.87±0.05a (-25.42%)
67.41±0.15ab (-71.02%)
48.02±0.06ab (-49.46%)
4.24 99.69***
Alkalinity 259.33±8.85 135.25±5.56a (-47.84%)
75.49±6.02ab (-70.89%)
29.34±3.39ab (-88.70%)
9.17 475.15***
Hardness mgl-
1 387.26±7.23 302.71±5.47a
(-21.83%) 288.31±4.67ab
(-25.55%) 237.94±3.84ab
(-38.55%) 7.37 375.11***
TKN mgl-1 89.99±10.92 70.41±7.65a
(-21.75%) 50.14±6.62ab
(-25.55%) 29.30±6.06ab (-67.44%)
4.21 185.06***
PO43- mgl-1 129.42±5.52 72.25±3.22a
(-44.17%) 53.64±2.69ab
(-58.55%) 17.24±1.22ab (-86.61%)
3.52 800.13***
SO42- mgl-1 341.39±6.09 194.36±5.02a
(-43.06%) 102.85±4.65ab
(-69.87%) 51.42±3.12ab (-84.93%)
5.47 2274.32***
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Mean±SD of four values; Significant F -***p-0.01%, **p-0.1% level;% decrease in comparison toinlet given in parenthesis; a, b: Significantly different to the inlet and OP values.
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Bandi G, Dandig i MN (2014) S tudy of L o w C o s t T r e a t m e n t S y s t e m f o r Domes t ic Water Was te . In te rna t iona l Journa l fo r Sc ien t i f i c Resea rch & Deve lopment . 2 (10) :
Beyene H, Redaie G (2011) Assessment of Was t e S t ab i l i z a t i on Ponds fo r t he Treatment of Hospital Wastewater: The Case of Hawassa University Referral H o s p i t a l . Wo r l d A p p l i e d S c i e n c e s Journal 15(1): 142-150.
Con taminan t s i n Rec la imed Was tewa te r used for Irrigation. Integrated Concepts in Water Recycling , 724-734.
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Esa KS, Haque AA, Mursheed MF (2013) Performance of sewage oxidation pond in USM Engineering Campus. Caspian Journal of applied science research, 2(12): 219-225.H u r s t ( 1 9 9 7 ) Wa t e r M i c r o b i o l o g y i n Public Heath. Manual of Environmental Microbiology. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
Jamrah A, A Al-Futa i s i , S Pra thapar, A Al-Harrasi (2008) Evaluating greywater reuse potential for sustainable water r e s o u r c e s m a n a g e m e n t i n O m a n . Environ. Monit. Assess. 137: 315-327.
J a m r a h A , A A l - O m a r i , L A l - Q a s e m , N A b d e l - G h a n i ( 2 0 0 6 ) A s s e s s m e n t o f a v a i l a b i l i t y a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f g r e y w a t e r i n A m m a n . Wa t e r I n t . 3 1 : 2 1 0 - 2 2 0 .
K r i s h n a n R R , D h a r m a r a j K , K u m a r i B D R
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Kumar V, Chopra AK (2012) Monitoring o f P h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l a n d Microbio logica l Charac ter i s t ics of Municipal Wastewater at Treatment Plant, Haridwar City (Uttarakhand) India. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 5: 109-118. Kushwah RK, Mal ik S , S ingh A (2011) Water Qual i ty Assessment of Raw Sewage and Final Treated Water with Specia l Reference to Waste Water Treatment Plant Bhopal , MP, India. Research Journal of Recent Sciences. (1) :185-190.
Ladan SI (2014) Assessment of Sewage Disposal Methods and Environmental Health Impacts in Katsina Metropolis, Northern Nigeria. Journal of Life Sciences and Technologies 2(1): 38-43.
L o n g e E O , O g u n d i p e A O ( 2 0 1 0 ) Assessment of Wastewater Discharge Impact from a Sewage Treatment Plant on Lagoon Water, Lagos, Nigeria . Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology 2(3): 274- 282.
M a h a p a t r a D M , C h a n a k y a H N , a m a c h a n d r a T V ( 2 0 1 3 ) Tr e a t m e n t e f f i c a c y o f a l g a e - b a s e d s e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s . E n v i r o n M o n i t A s s e s s . , D O I 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 / s 1 0 6 6 1 - 0 1 3 - 3 0 9 0 - x .
Odetola AA, Awoniyi AI (2007) Sewage disposal facilities management through g e o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m . Environment Watch 3(1): 271–278.
O g u n f o w o k a n A O , O k o h E K , A d e n u g a A A , A s u b i o j o O I ( 2 0 0 5 ) A n assessment of the impact of point source pollution from a university sewage treatment oxidation pond on a receiving stream-A preliminary study.
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O l u t i o l a P O , Aw o j o b i K O , O y e d e j i O , Ayans ina ADV, Co le OO (2010) Relationship between bacterial density and chemical composition of a tropical sewage oxidation pond. African Journal o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e a n d Technology 4(9): 595-602.
Salwa M and Ella AE (2014) Improve the drainage water using In-stream Wetland (Case s tudy) - Egypt . Nature and Science 12(6): 96-104.
S h i v a r a j u H P ( 2 0 11 ) R e m o v a l o f o rg a n i c p o l l u t a n t s i n t h e M u n i c i p a l s e w a g e w a t e r b y Ti O b a s e d h e t e r o g e n o u s2
p h o t o c a t a l y s i s .
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S i r i a n u n t a p i b o o n S , K o n g c h u m M , J i t m a i k a s e m W ( 2 0 0 6 ) E f f e c t s o f hydraulic retention t ime and media of constructed wetland for treatment of domest ic wastewater. Afr. J . Agric . Res. 1: 27-37.
Webe ra S , Khanb S , Ho l l ende ra J ( 2005 ) Human R i sk Asses smen t o f Organ i c
Wo h l s e n T, B a t e s J , R o b i n s o n WA , Katouli M, Vesey G (2006) Evaluation o f t h e m e t h o d s f o r e n u m e r a t i n g coliform bacteria from water samples u s ing p r ec i s e r e f e r ence s t anda rds . Letters in Applied Microbiology 42: 350–356.
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Effect of Storage and Packaging Material on Quality Parameters of Garlic Flakes
* 1,2 1 1Jaspreet Singh Grewal , Mohammed Shafiq Alam , Shweta Goyal
1Department of Processing and Food Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana-141004, India2Department of Food Technology, Desh Bhagat University,
Mandi Gobindgarh-147301, India
*Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Studies were carried out to evaluate the effect of storage period and different packagingmaterial on the quality of garlic flakes dried by convective-cum-microwave (CCM) andfluidized-cum-microwave (FCM) hybrid drying. Garlic flakes were packaged and stored inhigh density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE) and laminatedaluminium foil for 3 months under ambient conditions. Samples were investigated to observefor change in rehydration ratio, colour, physiological loss in weight % and overallacceptability. Among the hybrid drying techniques adopted, the garlic flakes developed underoptimized condition of fluidized bed-cum-microwave was found better in terms of shelf lifeand quality attributes. The aluminium packaging was adjudged to be the best in retaining thequality of dried garlic flakes up to 3 months of storage. Overall, it can be concluded that thefluidized bed cum microwave dried garlic flakes packed in Aluminium package were thebest, and can be stored safely up to 3 months.
Key Words: Garlic flakes, colour, storage, quality, packaging.
INTRODUCTION
Garl ic (All ium sat ivum L.) is abulbous perennial plant of the l i ly familyl i l l i a c e a e . I t i s a r i c h s o u r c e o fcarbohydrates , proteins and phosphorous.The fresh peeled garl ic cloves contains 60-6 5 % ( w. b . ) m o i s t u r e , 6 . 3 0 % p r o t e i n ,0.10% fat , 1% mineral matter, 0 .80% fiber,29% carbohydrates , 0 .03% calcium, 0.31%phosphorous, 0.001% iron, 0.40 mg/100gnicotinic acid and 13 mg/100g vi tamin C(Brondnitz et al . 1971).These variet ies ofgar l ic are grown worldwide-Hard neck,Soft neck and Creole. Hard neck variet ieshave fewer cloves and have l i t t le or nop a p e r y o u t e r w r a p p e r p r o t e c t i n g t h ec l o v e s . S o f t n e c k v a r i e t i e s a r e w h i t e ,papery skins and mult iple cloves that areeasi ly separated. There are two types ofsoft neck variet ies: ar t ichoke and si lverskin. Creole variety has eight to twelvecloves per bulb arranged in a circular
configurat ion. Garl ic has been used ' t imememor ia l , fo r t he t r ea tmen t o f a w idev a r i e t y o f a i l m e n t s , i n c l u d i n gh y p e r t e n s i o n , h e a d a c h e , b i t e s w o r m s ,t u m o u r s e t c . I n h i s t o r y, H i p p o c r a t e s ,A r i s t o t l e a n d P l i n y c i t e d n u m e r o u stherapeutic uses for garl ic . Although garl ichas been reported to have wide range ofp h a r m a c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s ; b u t i t ' s m o s timportant cl inical uses are in the area ofcuring infections, prevention of cancer andcardiovascular disease (Lau1 et al . 1990). P r e s e n t l y c o n v e c t i v e , f l u i d i z e d b e dand sun drying of garl ic is in pract ice,which damage the sensory characterist icsa n d n u t r i t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s d u e t o t h esurface case hardening and the long dryingd u r a t i o n . M a i n d i s a d v a n t a g e s o fc o n v e c t i v e d r y i n g a r e l o n g d r y i n gduration, damage to sensory characterist icsand nut r i t iona l proper t ies of foods andsolute migrat ion from interior of the foodto the surface causing case hardening.
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S e v e r e s h r i n k a g e d u r i n g d r y i n g a l s o
reduces the rehydra t ion capaci ty of the
dehydra ted products . F lu id ized bed drying
of gar l ic c loves has a lso been t r ied but i t
was not e ffec t ive in reducing the dry ing
t ime and energy consumpt ion apprec iably
i n c o m p a r i s o n t o c o n v e c t i v e d r y i n g
p r o c e s s ( M c M i n n a n d M a g e e 1 9 9 9 ) .
Microwave drying i s regarded as
f o u r t h g e n e r a t i o n d r y i n g t e c h n o l o g y.
Microwave waves can penet ra te d i rec t ly
in to the mater ia l ; hea t ing i s volumetr ic
( f rom ins ide out ) and provides fas t and
u n i f o r m h e a t i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e
product . The quick energy absorpt ion by
w a t e r m o l e c u l e s c a u s e s r a p i d w a t e r
evapora t ion , c rea t ing an outward f lux of
r a p i d l y e s c a p i n g v a p o u r. M i c r o w a v e s
penet ra te the food f rom a l l d i rec t ion . This
fac i l i ta tes s team escape and speed up the
heat ing process (Khra isheh e t a l . 1997;
Prabhanjan 1995) . Microwave processes
offer a lot of advantages such as less s tar t
up t ime, faster heat ing, energy eff iciency
(most of the e lec t romagnet ic energy i s
converted to heat) , space savings, precise
process con t ro l and food p roduc t wi th
bet ter nutr i t ional qual i ty. Thus, to develop
h i g h q u a l i t y d r i e d g a r l i c f l a k e s w i t h
m i n i m u m d r y i n g e x p o s u r e t i m e , t h e
optimum drying process condit ions for the
s e l e c t e d h y b r i d d r y i n g t e c h n i q u e s
( m i c r o w a v e a s s i s t e d c o n v e c t i v e a n d
microwave assis ted f luidized drying) and
storage s tabi l i ty of dr ied product need to
be s tudied, which could be a s ignif icant
contr ibut ion to the garl ic drying industry.
K e e p i n g i n v i e w t h e a b o v e d i s c u s s e d
aspects , the present invest igated had been
conducted to s tudy s torage behavior of
garl ic f lakes packed in different packaging
material . MATERIAL AND METHODS
Selection of garlic
F r e s h g a r l i c w a s p r o c u r e d f r o m l o c a lmarke t , Ludhiana ( India) . The gar l ic bu lbsw e r e s o r t e d w i t h h a n d f o r i t s s i z euni formi ty and were pee led manual ly wi tht h e h e l p o f k n i v e s a n d t h e n s l i c e duni formly (Avg. s ize 3mm) wi th the he lp
Experimental design for study of dryingcharacteristics of garlic slices
T h e e x p e r i m e n t s t o s t u d y d r y i n gcharacter is t ics of gar l ic s l ices , for both thehybrid drying techniques i .e . convect ive-c u m - m i c r o w a v e ( C C M ) a n d f l u i d i z e d -c u m - m i c r o w a v e ( F C M ) d r y i n g , w e r eplanned as complete ly randomized design(CRD). The range of process parameters
Exper imenta l s e t up for convec t ive t ray dry ingThe mechanical drying of gar l ic s l ices wasconducted in a Kilburn make laboratorytray dryer which could a t ta in maximumt e m p e r a t u r e o f 2 0 0 º C . T h e d r i e r h a selectr ic heaters ver t ical ly f i t ted at the inlet
E x p e r i m e n t a l s e t u p f o r f l u i d i z e d b e dd r y i n gThe experimental set up for fluidized bed
of garlic slicer. The colour and moisturecontent (222.58 ±1 % db) of fresh garlics l i c e s w e r e n o t e d b e f o r e s t a r t e dexperiment. The samples were pretreatedwith different concentrations of KMS asper the procedure reported by Abano et al. (2011).
selected for the study of dryingcharacterist ics was:KMS Concentration: 0.1% to 0.5%
° °Process temperature: 55 C to 75 CMicrowave power level: 810 W to 1350 W Twenty seven experiments for the study ofdrying characterist ics of garl ic sl ices(CCM & FCM) were selected and eachexperiment has three replicates.
of the dryer to heat f resh a i r. A cent r i fugal
b lower c i rcula tes a i r ins ide the dryer wi th
a maximum ai r ve loc i ty of 0 .8m/s in the
drying chamber. The b lower i s powered by
0.25HP, three-phase 440V e lec t r ic motor
wi th a d i rec t onl ine s tar ter.
d r y i n g o f g a r l i c s l i c e s c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e
b a s i c p a r t s :
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23
F i g . 2 . 1 C i r c u i t d i a g r a m f o r f l u i d i z e d b e dd r y i n g a s y s t e m f o r p r o v i s i o n o f a i r , as e c t i o n f o r h e a t i n g t h e a i r a n d a d r y i n g
Experimental set up for microwavedrying
T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t u p f o rm i c r o w a v e d r y i n g o f g a r l i c s l i c e s b ymicrowave d rye r (Power range 0 -1350 Wand f requency 2450 MHz) . I t cons i s t s o f ah igh vo l t age power source , t r ans fo rmerand a cook ing chamber. Bas i ca l ly, t het rans fo rmer passes the energy to the
Determination of quality parameters
The dr ied samples were evaluatedfor rehydrat ion rat io , colour, physiologicalloss in weight % and overal l acceptabi l i tyand the procedure adopted are ment ionedbelow:R e h y d r a t i o n r a t i o : R e h y d r a t i o n r a t i o(RR) was eva lua ted by soak ing knownw e i g h t ( 5 - 1 0 g ) o f e a c h s a m p l e i ns u f f i c i e n t v o l u m e o f w a t e r i n a g l a s sbeaker (approximately 30 t imes the weightof sample) at 95°C for 20 minutes. Aftersoaking, the excess water was removedwith the help of f i l ter paper and sampleswere weighed. In order to minimize theleaching losses, water bath was used form a i n t a i n i n g t h e d e f i n e d t e m p e r a t u r e(Rangana 1986). Rehydrat ion rat io (RR) ofthe samples was computed as fol lows:
Rehydration ratio, RR =W / W ( 1)r d
Where,
W = Drained weight of rehydratedr
sample, g
W = Weight of dried sample usedd
for rehydration, g
Colour: Colour is one of the important parameters,
which is an indicative of the
chamber. A 0 .75 KW, 3 phase e l ec t r i cmoto r con t ro l l ed by a s imple gene ra l -purpose AC Drive (Model: VFD007L21A,Delta electronics , Inc. Taiwan) was usedt o d r i v e t h e b l o w e r. A i r f l o w c a n b econtrol led by varying the frequency of ACsupply to motor. Circui t diagram (Fig. 2 .1)o f A C D r i v e , P I D 5 1 8 t e m p e r a t u r econtrol ler, temperature sensor, heaters andcontactors . magnetron which converts high voltageelectr ic energy to microwave radiat ions.T h e m a g n e t r o n u s u a l l y c o n t r o l s t h edirection of the microwaves with the helpof microcontroller.
The f ina l mois ture content of th inlayer dry ing 63 .0 (±1) % db was the in i t ia lmois ture content for microwave drying . Inm i c r o w a v e d r y i n g , t h e f i n a l m o i s t u r econtent of product i s 6 (±1) % db.
c o m m e r c i a l v a l u e o f t h e p r o d u c t . T h ebas ic purpose was to ge t an idea of thecompara t ive change in co lour of f resh ,dr ied and rehydra ted mater ia l . Colour wasdetermined us ing Hunter Lab Miniscan XEPlus Colour imeter (Hunter 1975) .Colour change ΔE =
ΔL+Δa+Δb2 22 (2)
W h e r e Δ L , Δ a a n d Δ b a r e d e v i a t i o n s f r o mL , a a n d b v a l u e s o f f r e s h s a m p l e .
ΔL = L dr ied sample – L f resh sample ; +Δ L m e a n s s a m p l e i s l i g h t e r t h a n f r e s h , -Δ L m e a n s s a m p l e i s d a r k e r t h a n f r e s h .Δa = a d r i ed s amp le - a f r e sh s amp le , + Δameans sample i s redder than s tandard , - Δam e a n s s a m p l e i s g r e e n e r t h a n s t a n d a r DΔb = b dr ied sample –b f resh sample , + Δbmeans sample i s ye l lower than s tandard , -Δb means sample i s b luer than s tandard .
O v e r a l l a c c e p t a b i l i t y : O r g a n o l e p t i c
q u a l i t y o f d e v e l o p e d p r o d u c t w a s
c o n d u c t e d o n a 9 - p o i n t h e d o n i c s c a l e .
Semi- t ra ined pane ls of ten judges were
se lec ted for the eva lua t ion . The samples
were eva lua ted on the bas i s o f appearance
( c o l o u r ) , t e x t u r e , o d o u r a n d o v e r a l l
acceptab i l i ty. Overa l l acceptab i l i ty (OA)
was eva lua ted as an average of appearance
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
24
( c o l o u r ) , o d o u r a n d t e x t u r a l s c o r e a n d i se x p r e s s e d i n p e r c e n t . T h e a v e r a g e s c o r e s
of all the panellists for differene characteristicswere averaged.
Experimental des ign for opt imizat ion ofhybrid drying process parameters fordried gar l ic s l i ces
For the opt imiza t ion of hybr idd r y i n g p r o c e s s f o r g a r l i c s l i c e s , t h eexper imental p lan was chosen f rom thefamily of three level designs, as suggestedby Box and Behnken (1960). The design isa three-level incomplete factorial designfor the est imation of the parameters in asecond-order model . The process variablesfor development of dried garl ic f lakes wereoptimized by response surface
Storage of garlic flakes
Dried garlic flakes developed underoptimized process conditions of CCM andFCM under optimized process parameterswere packed in three different packagingmaterials (Aluminium, HDPE and LDPE)and were stored under ambient conditions(18˚C to 35˚C temperature, 45 to 55 %RH) for 3 months (Fig.2.2). The qualityparameters v iz . rehydra t ion ra t io (RR) ,colour (L-value), physiological loss in
methodology (RSM). In order to optimize
the process variables, only those responses
were selected for optimizat ion, which were
found to have non-signif icant lack of f i t .
The three dimensional plots and contour
p l o t s ( g r a p h i c a l m e t h o d ) w e r e d r a w n
according to the f i t ted model and f ixed
v a r i a b l e . T o l o c a l i z e a n o p t i m u m
condit ion, the superposi t ion technique was
employed fo r op t imiza t ion o f d i ffe ren t
p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s b y r e s p o n s e s u r f a c e
methodology.
weight % (PLW) and overall acceptabil i ty(OA) were evaluated at regular interval of15 days. The stat is t ical analysis of the dataw a s d o n e b y u n i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o fvariance (UNI-ANOVA) in general l inearmodel using Stat ist ical Package for SocialScience (SPSS, vers ion 11 .1) . Analys iswas done cons ider ing the main e ffec tsinteractions and test ing those at 5 % levelof significance.
LDPE) (Aluminium) (HDPE)
Fig 2.2 Dried garlic flakes in different packaging materials
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The optimum operat ing condit ions
for thin layer convect ive-cum-microwave
drying of garl ic s l ices were 0.5 % KMS,
59.41ºC and 810 W and for thin layer
f lu id ized-cum-microwave dry ing of gar l ic
s l i c e s w e r e 0 . 1 0 % K M S , 6 3 . 9 2 º C
tempera ture and 810 W, which i s fu r ther
p a c k e d i n d i f f e r e n t p a c k a g e s f o r 3
months .
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
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Physicochemical properties of dried garlicflakes under storageEffect of storage process parameters on rehydrationratio The rehydrat ion rat io of the s toredproduc t dec reased wi th the inc rease instorage per iod (Fig. 3 .1) . Ini t ia l ly the FCMproduct has comparat ively low rehydrat ionr a t i o t h a n C C M d r i e d p a c k e d s a m p l e s( T a b l e 3 . 1 a n d 3 . 2 ) . T h e m a x i m u mvariat ion (2.875 to 2 .42) in rehydrat ionrat io with s torage per iod was observed inC C M d r i e d H D P E p a c k e d s a m p l e s a n d( 2 . 6 1 . t o 2 . 4 2 ) f o r F C M d r i e d , H D P Eand LDPE packed samples . The minimum
var ia t ion (2 .875 to 2 .45) in rehydrat ionra t io was observed in ra t io CCM dr ied ,packed samples and (2 .61 to 2 .43) FCMdried, a luminium packed samples (Table3.1& 3.2) . The univar ia te ANOVA alsoc o r r o b o r a t e d t h e r e s u l t s s h o w i n g t h es torage per iod and packaging mater ia l hass ignif icant effec t on rehydrat ion ra t io a t 5% l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ( Ta b l e 3 . 3 ) .O v e r a l l t h e m i n i m u m v a r i a t i o n i nrehydrat ion ra t io wi th s torage per iod wasobserved for a luminium packed samplesthroughout s torage per iod i r respect ive ofthe hybr id drying adopted for the sampleprepara t ion.
Fig: 3.1 Variation in rehydration ratio withstorage period
Table 3.1 Quality attributes for garlic slices (CCM) packed in a)Aluminium, b)HDPE & c) LDPE bags with storage period (convective-cum-microwave)
Packaging material
ALUMINIUM
Storage period (Days)
RR COLOUR(BR)
Before rehydration
COLOUR (AR) After
rehydration
OA
PLW
(%) 0 2.88 67.41 68.83 7.0
15 2.85 63.03 64.29 6.6 0
30 2.65 61.09 61.43 6.6 0
45 2.50 56.42 61.54 6.3 0
60 2.49 55.36 61.23 6.0 0
75 2.48 55.23 60.45 6.0 0
90 2.45 54.89 60.06 6.0 0
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26
Packaging material
Aluminum Storage period (Days)
RR COLOUR(BR)
Before rehydration
COLOUR(AR) After
rehydration OA PLW
(%)
0 2.61 67.27 69.26 7.3
15 2.55 65.93 69.03 7.0 0
30 2.53 64.46 65.26 6.6 0
45 2.51 62.27 63.03 6.3 0
60 2.46 61.58 62.43 6.3 0
75 2.45 61.42 61.94 6.0 0
90 2.43 60.31 61.04 6.0 0
Packaging material
LDPE Storage period (Days)
RR COLOUR(BR)
Before rehydration
COLOUR (AR) After
rehydration
OA
PLW
(%)
0 2.88 67.41 68.83 7.0
15 2.55 64.85 65.01 6.6 0
30 2.52 63.01 64.89 6.6 0
45 2.51 62.12 63.12 6.3 0
60 2.48 60.35 62.35 6.3 0
75 2.45 59.68 61.23 6.0 0
90 2.43 59.12 61.03 6.0 0
Packaging material HDPE Storage
period (Days)
RR COLOUR(BR)
Before rehydration
COLOUR (AR) Af ter
rehydration OA
PLW (%)
0 2.88 67.41 68.83 7.0
15 2.55 65.47 66.11 6.6 0
30 2.45 61.79 62.29 6.6 0
45 2.43 58.32 59.87 6.3 0
60 2.43 57.36 58.64 6.3 0
75 2.42 57.25 58.24 6.0 0
90 2.42 54.65 58.13 6.0 0
Table 3.2 Quality attributes for garlic sl ices (FCM) packed in Aluminium, HDPE &LDPE bags with storage period (fluidized bed-cum-microwave)
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27
Packaging material
HDPE Storage period (Days)
RR COLOUR(BR)
Before rehydration
COLOUR(AR) After
rehydration OA PLW
(%)
0 2.61 67.27 69.26 7.3
15 2.55 67.13 69.15 7.0 0
30 2.53 65.89 66.75 6.6 0
45 2.50 62.98 63.06 6.6 0
60 2.48 62.46 62.78 6.0 0
75 2.45 61.78 62.12 6.0 0
90 2.42 60.45 61.45 6.0 0
Packaging material
LDPE Storage period (Days)
RR COLOUR(BR)
Before rehydration
COLOUR (AR) After
rehydration OA
PLW (%)
0 2.61 67.27 68.29 7.3
15 2.55 67.12 68.26 7.0 0
30 2.52 66.15 67.12 7.0 0
45 2.48 65.21 66.47 6.6 0
60 2.48 64.46 65.23 6.0 0
75 2.45 62.35 63.12 6.0 0
90 2.42 59.12 61.81 5.6 0
Effect of storage throughout storage periodin colour L-value
The colour (L-value) of the storedproduc t dec reased wi th the inc rease instorage period (Fig. 3.2). Initially the CCMproduct has comparatively low Colour (L-va lue) than FCM dr ied packed samples( T a b l e 3 . 1 a n d 3 . 2 ) . T h e m a x i m u mvariat ion (67.41 to 54.65) in colour (L-value) with storage period was observed inCCM dr ied , HDPE packed samples and(67.41 to 54 .65) for FCM dr ied , LDPEpacked samples . The minimum variat ion(67.41 to 59.12) in colour (L-value) waso b s e r v e d i n r a t i o C C M d r i e d , p a c k e dsamples and (67.27 to 60.31) FCM dried,a lumin ium packed samples (Table 3 .1&3 . 2 ) . T h e u n i v a r i a t e A N O VA a l s oc o r r o b o r a t e d t h e r e s u l t s s h o w i n g t h esignificant of storage period and packagingmaterial has significant effect on colour
The colour (L-value) of the stored productdec reased wi th the inc rease in s to ragep e r i o d ( F i g . 3 . 2 ) . I n i t i a l l y t h e C C Mproduct has comparatively low Colour (L-value) than FCM dr ied packed samples( Ta b l e 3 . 1 a n d 3 . 2 ) . T h e m a x i m u mvariat ion (67.41 to 54.65) in colour (L-value) with storage period was observed inCCM dr ied , HDPE packed samples and(67.41 to 54.65) for FCM dr ied, LDPEpacked samples. The minimum variat ion(67.41 to 59.12) in colour (L-value) waso b s e r v e d i n r a t i o C C M d r i e d , p a c k e dsamples and (67.27 to 60.31) FCM dried,a luminium packed samples (Table 3 .1&3 . 2 ) . T h e u n i v a r i a t e A N O VA a l s oc o r r o b o r a t e d t h e r e s u l t s s h o w i n g t h esignif icant of s torage period and packagingmaterial has signif icant effect on colour61.81) FCM dried, LDPE packed samples(Table 3.1& 3.2). The univariate ANOVA
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
28
also corroborated the results showing the
significant of storage period and packaging
material has significant effect on colour
(L-va lue) a t 5 % leve l o f s ign i f icance
(Table 3.5). Overall the minimum
va r i a t ion in co lou r (L -va lue ) w i th s to ragepe r iod was obse rved fo r LDPE packeds a m p l e s t h r o u g h o u t s t o r a g e p e r i o di r r e spec t ive o f t he hybr id d ry ing adop tedfo r t he sample p repa ra t ion .
Fig: 3.3 Variation in Colour(ARR) withstorage period
Fig: 3.2 Variation in Colour withstorage period
Effect of storage throughout storage periodin overall acceptability
The overa l l acceptabi l i ty of the
s tored product decreased wi th the increase
in s torage per iod (F ig . 3 .4) . In i t ia l ly the
C C M p r o d u c t h a s c o m p a r a t i v e l y l o w
o v e r a l l a c c e p t a b i l i t y t h a n F C M d r i e d
packed samples (Table 3 .1 and 3 .2) . The
s a m e v a r i a t i o n ( 7 . 0 t o 6 . 0 ) i n o v e r a l l
a c c e p t a b i l i t y w i t h s t o r a g e p e r i o d w a s
o b s e r v e d i n C C M d r i e d , A l u m i n u m ,
HDPE & LDPE packed samples and (7 .3
Fig: 3.4 Variation in overall acceptablitywith storage period
t o 6 ) f o r F C M d r i e d , L D P E p a c k e d
s a m p l e s . T h e u n i v a r i a t e A N O VA a l s o
c o r r o b o r a t e d t h e r e s u l t s s h o w i n g t h e
significant of storage period and packaging
material has significant effect on overall
acceptabil i ty at 5 % level of significance
( T a b l e 3 . 6 ) . O v e r a l l t h e m i n i m u m
var i a t i on i n ove ra l l a ccep t ab i l i t y w i th
s torage per iod was observed for LDPE
packed samples throughout storage period
irrespective of the hybrid drying adopted
for the sample preparation.
I t was observed that the no weight
l o s s ( Ta b l e 3 . 1 & 3 . 2 ) f o r a l l s a m p l e s
irrespective of storage period; that s tored
at room temperature in Al, HDPE & LDPE
p a c k a g i n g m a t e r i a l s f o r b o t h C C M &
FCM respectively.
Effect of storage conditions physiologicalon weight loss
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
29
CONCLUSION
I t can be conc luded f rom thepresent s tudy tha t for the gar l ic f lakes
0stored under ambient condition (18 -35 C,45-55% RH) fo r 3 months , the qua l i typarameters i .e . rehydrat ion rat io, colour(L-value) and overall acceptabil i ty reducedw i t h s t o r a g e p e r i o d i r r e s p e c t i v e o fp a c k a g i n g m a t e r i a l u s e d . A m o n g t h eh y b r i d d r y i n g t e c h n i q u e s a d o p t e d , t h egarlic f lakes developed under optimized
c o n d i t i o n o f f l u i d i z e d b e d - c u m -
microwave was found better in terms of
shelf l i fe and quali ty at tr ibutes. Among the
s e l e c t e d p a c k a g i n g m a t e r i a l s , t h e
a l u m i n i u m p a c k a g i n g p r o v e d b e s t i n
retaining the quali ty of dried garl ic f lakes.
Overall , i t can be said that garl ic f lakes
made by f lu id ized bed cum microwave
t echn ique and packaged i n A lumin ium
packs can be stored safely up to 3 months.
REFERENCES:
A b a n o E E , Q u W ( 2 0 1 1 ) E f f e c t s o f P r e -
t r e a t m e n t s o n t h e D r y i n g
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d C h e m i c a l
C o m p o s i t i o n o f G a r l i c S l i c e s i n a
C o n v e c t i v e H o t A i r D r y e r . J A g r i c F d
Te c h n o l . 5 : 5 0 - 5 8 .
B o x G E , B e h n k e n D W ( 1 9 6 0 ) S o m e n e w t h r e e l e v e l s d e s i g n s f o r t h e s t u d y o f q u a n t i t a t i v e v a r i a b l e s . Te c h n o m e t r i c s . 2 : 4 5 5 - 4 7 5 .B r o n d n i t z M H , P a s c a l e J U , Va n D L ( 1 9 7 1 ) F l a v o u r c o m p o n e n t o f g a r l i c e x t r a c t . J A g r i c F d C h e m . 1 9 : 2 7 3 - 2 7 5 .
Hunter S (1975) The measurement of appearance. J o h n W i l e y a n d S o n s , N e w York. pp 304-305.
K h r a i s h e h M A M , C o o p e r T J R , M a g e e T R A ( 1 9 9 7 ) S h r i n k a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p o t a t o e s d e h y d r a t e d u n d e r c o m b i n e d m i c r o w a v e a n d c o n v e c t i v e a i r c o n d i t i o n s . D r y i n g Te c h n o l I n t . 1 5 : 1 0 0 3 - 1 0 2 2 .
Laul HS, Padma MS, Tosk JM (1990) Allium sativum (Garlic) and cancer prevention . J Nutr Res. 10 :937-948.
McMinn WMA, Magee TRA (1999) Principles, m e t h o d s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e c o n v e c t i v e d r y i n g o f f o o d s t u f f s . F d Bioprod Proc. 77:175-193.
Prabhanjan DG, Ramaswamy HS, Raghavan
G S V ( 1 9 9 5 ) M i c r o w a v e - a s s i s t e d
c o n v e c t i v e a i r d r y i n g o f t h i n l a y e r
carrots. J Fd Engg. 25 :283-293.
Ranganna S (1986) Handbook of analysis and quality control for fruits and vegetable
n d p r o d u c t s . 2 e d i t i o n , p p 1 7 1 - 7 4 . T a t a M c G r a w H i l l p u b l i s h i n g company Ltd. New Delhi, India.
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Osmotic dehydration of Elephant Foot Yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius) Cubes
* 1 1,2 1Sangeeta , Maya Rathod , Bahadur Singh Hathan
1Department of Food Engineering and Technology,Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology, (SLIET),
Sangrur, Punjab, India, 1481062 Department of Food Technology,Desh Bhagat University,
Mandi Gobindgarh,Punjab*E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Osmotic dehydration of elephant foot yam was done in different concentration of sucrosesolution at different temperature for regular interval of time. The osmotic solution
0 0concentrations used were 40, 50, 60 Bx, osmotic solution temperatures were 35, 45, 55 C andthe process duration varied from 0 to 240 min. The fruit to solution ratio was kept constanti.e. 1:5 (w/w) during all the experiments. The experimental data of water loss and solute gainwas fitted to different empirical kinetic models viz. Peleg, Penetration, Magee, and Azuara toknow the best fitted model to the experimental data. Out of all the applied models, Mageemodel and Azuara model were the best fitted as compared to other models for water loss andsolute gain of elephant foot yam, respectively.
Keywords: Elephant Foot Yam, osmotic dehydration, kinetics, empirical models
INTRODUCTION
Elephant foot yam, Amorphophallus paeoniifoliusi s very much prevalent in Phi l ippines ,I n d i a , M a l a y s i a , I n d o n e s i a , C h i n a ,S r i L a n k a a n d m a n y o t h e r S o u t h e a s tA s i a n c o u n t r i e s ( R a v i e t a l 2 0 0 9 ) .T h e t u b e r s o f e l e p h a n t f o o t y a m a r ec o m m o n l y u s e d a s a v e g e t a b l e a f t e rcooking and in preparation of indigenousayurvedic medicines (Mishra et al 2002).T h e t u b e r s a r e c h e a p e s t s o u r c e o fcarbohydrates mainly starch and fibres,v i t a m i n s a n d m i n e r a l s ( B r a d b u r y a n dHolloway 1988) and play a importantl rolein food securi ty and are the importantstaple or subsidiary food for a large groupof population (Sreerag et al 2014). Tubershave a short shelf life because of their highmoisture content. One of the best ways top r e s e r v e t h e m m a y b e b y p r o c e s s i n gmethods l ike drying, dehydration or byobtaining flour and/or starches. Due to ther e d u c t i o n o f m o i s t u r e c o n t e n tby various means the shelf life of corms can be
increased. In recent years, for preservationo f f r u i t s a n d v e g e t a b l e s o s m o t i cd e h y d r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e i s g a i n i n gconsiderable amount of at tention due to i ts potential to keep sensory and nutr i t ionalp r o p e r t i e s s i m i l a r t o t h e f r e s h f r u i t s(Garc í a -Mar t inez e t a l 2002) . Osmot i cd e h y d r a t i o n i s t h e p r o c e s s o f w a t e rremoval by immersion of water containingcellular sol id in a concentrated aqueouss o l u t i o n o f h i g h o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e(hypertonic media) for a specif ied t ime andtempera tu re . Wate r r emova l in osmot icdehydrat ion is based on the natural andnon-dest ruct ive phenomenon of osmosisacross cel l membranes. The driving forcefor water removal from cell is potentiald i fference be tween osmot ic pressure offresh mater ia l and surrounding solut ion( C o r z o a n d B r a c h o 2 0 0 5 ) . O s m o t i cdehydra t ion i s ac tua l ly combina t ion o fsimultaneous water and solute diffusionprocess (Rahman and Lamb 1990) meansm a s s t r a n s f e r c o n s i s t s o f t w o m a j o rsimultaneous counter-current f luxes of
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
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water and solutes because complex cel lwal l s t ructure is not perfect ly select ive(Madamba 2003) . Leaching of negl igibleamount of natural solutes f rom food intosolut ion has considered as third minor f lux(Rastogi and Raghavarao 2004) . This pre-t reatment minimize color losses as wel l asreduce nutr ient losses due to drying. Theinf luence of the main process var iablessuch as concentrat ion and composi t ion ofosmotic solut ion, temperature , immersiont ime, pre- t reatments , agi ta t ion, nature offood and i ts geometry, solut ion to samplerat io on the kinet ics of mass t ransfer andp r o d u c t q u a l i t y h a v e b e e n s t u d i e de x t e n s i v e l y ( K a y m a k - E r t e k i n a n dS u l t a n o g l u 2 0 0 0 ; R a s t o g i e t a l 2 0 0 2 ;
Panades et a l 2008) . Considerable effor thas been made toward developing modelsto predict the mass t ransfer kinet ics ofo s m o t i c d e h y d r a t i o n p r o c e s s . I n t h i sregard, several equat ions based on Fick 'ssecond law have been proposed which aren o t u s e f u l p r a c t i c a l l y b e c a u s e o funreal is t ic assumptions and complexi ty of
the some equat ions (Chausi e t a l 2001) .S o m e r e s e a r c h e r s ( P e l e g 1 9 8 8 ; A z u a r a1 9 9 2 ; M a g e e e t a l 1 9 8 3 ; p e n e t r a t i o n ( R a h a m a n 1 9 9 2 ) r e c o m m e n d e d s i m p l e rempir ical equat ions including parameterswi th physical meaning. These empir ica lequat ions have been used to model the ra teof dehydra t ion o f d i ffe ren t p lan t -basedmater ia ls (Kaymak-Ertekin and Sul tanoglu2000; García-Pascual e t a l 2006; Singh eta l 2 0 0 7 ; K h i n e t a l 2 0 0 6 ; S c h m i d t e ta l . 2009 and Mercal i e t a l 2010) . However,l i te ra ture about the su i tab i l i ty of thesee q u a t i o n s t o m o d e l t h e m a s s t r a n s f e rk i n e t i c s o f o s m o t i c a l l y d e h y d r a t e delephant foot yam is very rare . So, the a imof present s tudy was to evaluate the effecto f t e m p e r a t u r e a n d s u c r o s e s o l u t i o nc o n c e n t r a t i o n o n m a s s t r a n s f e r d u r i n gosmotic dehydrat ion process and to assessthe predict ive capaci ty of Peleg, Azuara ,magee and penetra t ion equat ions dur ingosmotic dehydrat ion of e lephant foot yamcubes in sucrose solut ion.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Osmotic dehydration of Elephant FootYam cubes
Osmotic dehydrat ion Elephant Foot Yam(EFY) cubes having size 1 cm x1 cm x 1c m w a s d o n e i n o s m o t i c s o l u t i o n o fsucrose having d i ffe ren t concent ra t ions(40, 50, 60°Bx) and solut ion temperature(35, 45, 55°C). Vegetable to solut ion rat iowas kep t 1 :5 (w/w) (Mannivanan e t a l2008) during osmotic dehydrat ion for aregular interval of t ime period of (0-240m i n ) . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e o s m o t i csolut ion was maintained by hot water bathagi ta t ing @ 50 osci l la t ions per minute . Agitat ion was given during osmosis forreducing the mass t ransfer resis tance at thesurface of the frui t and for good mixingand close temperature control in osmoticm e d i u m ( K a r e l 1 9 7 6 ; B o n g i r w a r a n dSreenivasan 1977; Mavroudis et al 1998;Chopra 2001). Stain less s teel containers
( o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 0 m l c a p a c i t y )containing osmotic solution were kept inhot water bath. After attainment of desiredtemperature of the solution, known weightof EFY cubes was put in to the container.The EFY cubes from each container werer e m o v e d a t s p e c i f i e d t i m e a n d w e r eimmediately rinsed with running water toremove the solute adhered to fruit surface.The cubes were then spread on muslincloth to remove the free water from theouter surface of the EFY cubes. The cubeswere then put in the pre-weighed petri-dishfor determination of dry matter by ovenmethod. During experimentation , i t wasassumed that the amount of solid (sugars,acids, minerals, vitamins) leaching out ofproduct into the medium was consideredq u a n t i t a t i v e l y n e g l i g i b l e ( B i s w a l a n dBozorgmehr 1992; Lazarides et al 1995;Singh et al 1999).The water loss and solutegain were calculated as given below:
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
32
Let , ini t ia l dry matter of f resh vegetable = Z %
I n i t i a l w e i g h t o f v e g e t a b l e t a k e n f o ro s m o t i c d e h y d r a t i o n = W ( g )0
In i t ia l d ry mat te r of vegetab le =
ھھوoW Z
= S say)o (
Let the weight of vegetable after osmotic dehydrationfor any time t = W (g)t
And the dry matter of vegetable after osmoticdehydration for time t = S (g)t
Validation of empirical models for osmotic
d e h y d r a t i o n o f E F Y c u b e s T h e
validity of following empirical models for
Solute gain after osmotic dehydration fortime t, SG= S –S (g)t o
Water Loss, WL =WR + SG
Wa t e r l o s s i n g / 1 0 0 g f r e s h s a m p l e =
ھھو
o
WL
W (1)
So lu te ga in in g /100g f r e sh sample =
ھھو
o
SG
W (2)
wate r loss and so lu te ga in dur ing osmot ic
dehydra t ion (Table 1 ) was checked by non
l inear regress ion technique .
Table 1. Selected osmotic dehydration models
Model Name Model Reference
Penetration model WL or SG = K* t Rahaman (1992)
Peleg Model WL or SG = K1 + K2*t Peleg (1988)
Magee Model WL or SG = A + K*t1 /2 Magee et al (1983)
Azuara Model
t
tWL
t
WLtSGorWL tt
1
1
1
11
)(
Azuara et al (1992), Kaymak-Ertein et al (2000)
Azuara e t a l (1992) developed a model
f r o m m a s s b a l a n c e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o
predic t the kinet ics and f inal equi l ibr ium
point of osmot ic dehydrat ion by us ing data
obta ined dur ing re la t ively shor t per iod of
osmosis . In Azuara model , the constant 1
Adequacy of fit of empirical models
To f i t t he exper imen ta l da ta to the va r ious
empi r i ca l mode l s , r eg ress ion ana lys i s has
been ca r r i ed ou t by s t a t i s t i ca l so f tware
STATSTICA 7 .0 fo r windows (S ta t so f t ,
Inc Tu l sa OK U.SA. ) . To se lec t the bes t
equa t ion va r ious s t a t i s t i ca l pa ramete r s ,
such as r educed χ2 and roo t mean square2
e r ro r (RMSE) in add i t ion to R , were a l so
used as p r imary c r i t e r ion (S ingh e t a l .
is related to the rates of water diffusion out– 1
from the sample (min ) . For solute gain
instead of and , constant used are1 WL
2 and , otherwise the formula used is
same as that of water loss.
2 0 0 7 ) . F o r e v a l u a t i n g n o n l i n e a r
mathematical models, these parameters are
not a good criterion therefore, to select the
best equation to account for variation in
the drying curves of the dried samples, the
percent mean relative deviation modulus
(E%) that indicate the deviation of the
observed data from the predicted line was
a l so used a s r ecommended by seve ra l
authors in their drying studies (Azoubel et
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
33
a l 2004) . The re fo re , t he bes t mode l waschosen a s one wi th the h ighes t coe ff i c i en t
2o f c o r r e l a t i o n ( R ) ; a n d t h e l e a s t χ2 ,R M S E , a n d m e a n r e l a t i v e d e v i a t i o nmodu lus (E% ) .
2R is a measure of the amount of variation aroundthe mean explained by model.
N
i nN
valuepredictedValuealExperimentSquareChi
1
22
Where, n = no. of unknown and
N= Data point measured
N
i N
valuepredictedvaluealExperimenterrorsquaremeanRootRMSE
1
2
T h e m e a n r e l a t i v e d e v i a t i o n E ( % ) i s a na b s o l u t e v a l u e t h a t w a s u s e d b e c a u s e i tg i v e s a c l e a r i d e a o f t h e m e a n d i v e rg e n c eo f t h e e s t i m a t e d d a t a f r o m t h e m e a s u r e dd a t a .
N
i valuealExperiment
valuepredictedValuealExperiment
NE
1
100(%)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
D u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t s o n o s m o t i c
dehydrationof EFY cubes an increase in
w a t e r l o s s a n d s o l u t e g a i n h a s b e e n
observed with increase of osmotic solution
concen t ra t ion , p rocess t empera ture and
time. The rates of water loss and solute
gain were higher in the init ial stages and
approached to zero in the later stages. The
process variables have significant effect on
the constants and exponents of the various
empirical models fi t ted to the water loss
a n d s o l u t e g a i n d a t a o b t a i n e d d u r i n g
osmot ic dehydra t ion . The va l ida t ion of
various models for water loss and solute
gain during osmotic dehydration of EFY
cubes has been discussed below:
Validation of empirical models for water loss
T h e v a l u e s o f s t a t i s t i c a l p a r a m e t e r s ,
m o d e l s c o n s t a n t s a n d c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r
water loss dur ing osmot ic dehydra t ion a re
g iven in Tables 2 and 3 . Out o f the f i t t ed
models , the va lues of , RMSE and E%2
w e r e l o w e r f o r M a g e e m o d e l i n
compar i son to the Pe leg model and Azuara
model . There was a very good adequacy
between pred ic ted and observed da ta wi th2co r re l a t ion coe ff i c i en t 'R ' h ighe r t han
0 . 9 6 f o r w a t e r l o s s i n c a s e o f M a g e e
m o d e l . H o w e v e r , A z a r p a z h o o h a n d
Ramaswamy (2010) repor ted tha t Pe leg
model was a bes t f i t model fo r water loss
in osmot ic dehydra t ion , bu t th i s model d id
The va lues o f E l e s s than 5 .0 ind ica te anexce l l en t f i t , wh i l e va lues g rea te r than 10are ind ica t ive o f a poor f i t .not f i t to the exper imenta l da ta in thepresent s tudy because of high value of E%,
RMSE and . The Azuara model (Table2
3) indicates that the predicted values ofe q u i l i b r i u m w a t e r l o s s w e r e 4 0 . 2 3 1 ,49.786, 59.324 g/100 g of sample at 35,4 5 , 5 5 ° C , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r o s m o t i c
◦s o l u t i o n o f 5 0 B x c o n c e n t r a t i o n .Therefore, with increase of temperature ofosmotic solut ion, the values of water lossat equil ibrium have been increased. Thepredicted values of equil ibrium water losswere 57.14, 59.32, 60.24 g/ 100 g of fresh
◦frui t in 40, 50, 60 Bx, respectively, at 55◦C o f o s m o t i c s o l u t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e .
Therefore, with increase of concentrat ionof osmotic solut ion, the values of waterloss at equil ibrium have been increased.The values of indicates that the rates of1b
w a t e r l o s s w e r e h i g h e r a t h i g h e rc o n c e n t r a t i o n s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e i nc o m p a r i s o n t o t h e l o w v a l u e s o fconcentrat ion and temperature may be dueto the fact that increase in osmotic solut ionconcentrat ion increases the concentrat iongradient and in turn the driving force forosmotic dehydrat ion process (Rastogi andR a g h a v a r a o 2 0 0 4 ) a n d i n c r e a s e i ntemperature decreases the viscosi ty of theosmotic solut ion, decreases the externalresis tance to mass transfer rate at productsurface; and thus faci l i tate the outf low ofw a t e r f r o m c u b e s .The comparat ive val idi ty of the variousmodels f i t ted to the water loss data can
34
a l so be r ep resen ted f rom the p red ic t edcurves o f va r ious mode l s (F igu re 1 ) . TheF igure ind ica t e s tha t t he p red ic t ed va lues
obta ined f rom Magee model a re very c loseto the exper imenta l va lues .
Table 2. Various regression coefficient and statistical parameters of Magee and Peleg model forwater loss
Magee model (water loss) Peleg model (water loss)
Conc (°Bx)
Temp. (°C) A K R2
2 E% RMSE K1 K2 R2
2 E% RMSE
40 35 3.01677
2.5059
0.97
6.1022
11.1078
2.5723
14.78721
0.12359
0.91
16.9309
18.754
4.1147
40 45 6.2810
6.3820
0.98
1.6144
4.5476
1.3710
17.78264
0.12849
0.92
6.84894
11.119
2.61704
40 55 3.7845
3.8855
0.97
4.7640
6.4143
2.2828
20.80045
0.19062
0.90
22.1364
15.7564
4.70493
50 35 2.0695
2.0795
0.99
1.3906
4.3637
1.2793
15.54508
0.15215
0.92
10.15608
13.80795
3.1868
50 45 7.7284
7.7164
0.98
4.2946
6.6693
2.0825
21.47233
0.15069
0.88
16.8150
14.25272
4.10061
50 55 4.9950
4.8960
0.98
3.1760
4.9317
1.7724
23.45795
0.21256
0.92
20.9119
13.5888
4.5729
60 35 5.5333
5.4343
0.98
3.1847
5.6983
1.7943
20.37269
0.16658
0.90
15.7033
14.25569
3.9627
60 45 8.2063
8.1073
0.97
10.135
7.9162
3.998
25.21692
0.18684
0.85 31.79
15.0833
5.6382
60 55 4.0344
4.0234
0.99
3.1039
3.8266
1.7720
23.76347
0.23316
0.94
18.20551
11.78207
4.2667
Table 3. Various regression coefficient and statistical parameters of Auara model forwater loss
Conc (°Bx) Temp. (°C)
WL8 1 R2 2 E% RMSE
40 35 37.547 0.0114 0.99 3.0124 6.6984 0.3042
40 45 46.569 0.0135 0.98 3.2567 10.254 0.38547
40 55 57.142 0.0175 0.98 4.123 8.564 0.4587
50 35 40.231 0.0186 0.99 11.256 7.987 1.2354
50 45 49.786 0.0935 0.99 17.564 10.564 0.3154
50 55 59.324 0.0212 0.99 3.654 11.256 0.9574
60 35 42.214 0.0223 098 19.564 13.564 0.5604
60 45 52.321 0.0243 0.99 13.254 6.354 1.2635
60 55 60.245 0.0258 0.99 26.145 8.954 1.321
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35
Fig 1 . Plot for various predicted and experimental values for water loss with t ime at40°Bx at 45° C
Empirical models for Solute gain duringosmotic dehydrat ionThe so lu te ga in dur ing the p rocess o f
o s m o t i c d e h y d r a t i o n a t v a r i o u s
concentrat ions and at various temperatures
was observed at regular intervals of t ime.
T h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f s o l u t e g o e s o n
increasing with the passage of t ime and
become a lmos t cons t an t a t t he end o f
process.
There was a ve ry good adequacy be tween
p r e d i c t e d a n d o b s e r v e d d a t a w i t h2
co r r e l a t i on coe ff i c i en t 'R ' h ighe r t han
0 .96 fo r so lu te ga in (Tab le 4 and 5 ) in case
of Azuara mode l . The va lues fo r E%,
RMSE and a re l e s s a s compared to2other models and value of R² is h igh thanother models , which is the cr i ter ia used forthe adequacy of good f i t t ing of Model .Adequacy of f i t t ing of Azuara model is ingood agreement wi th the resul ts found byMundada e t a l (2010) in case of osmoticd e h y d r a t i o n o f p o m e g r a n a t e a r i l s . T h ecomparison of exper imental and predictedv a l u e s o f v a r i o u s o s m o t i c d e h y d r a t i o nmodels for solute gain could be analyzedvisual ly in the Figure 2 . The predic tedva lues o f so lu te ga in g iven by Azuaramodel were very c lose to the exper imentalv a l u e s f o r s o l u t e g a i n d u r i n g o s m o t i cdehydrat ion of EFY cubes .
Table 4 .Various regress ion coeff ic ient and stat is t ical parameters of Magee and PelegModel for solute gain
Magee model (solute gain) Peleg model (solute gain)
Conc.(°Bx)
Temp.( ° C ) A K 2R
2 E%RMSE K1 K2
2R2 E%
RMSE
40 35 1.6957 0.7824 0.98 0.2127 4.4275 0.3457 4.4329 0.03458 0.91 0.573 10.69 0.7573
40 45 2.9609 0.8472 0.99 0.0694 2.1855 0.2634 6.30406 0.04279 0.94 0.592 8.442 0.7695
40 55 3.5877 0.9240 0.99 0.1015 1.8886 0.3187 7.2927 0.04805 0.97 0.309 5.342 0.5559
36
50 35 2.2932 0.7861 0.98 0.1084 3.5912 0.3293 5.54218 0.04001 0.93 0.641 9.9769 0.8011
50 45 4.0481 0.8481 0.99 0.0529 1.9356 0.2400 7.46864 0.04399 0.97 0.282 5.4214 0.5312
50 55 4.5820 1.1402 0.99 0.1279 1.8948 0.3576 9.1689 0 .05931 0.97 0.449 4.369 0.6707
60 35 2.6721 0.8614 0.99 0.0407 1.6916 0.2018 6.20413 0.04439 0.96 0.408 6.3006 0.6392
60 45 4.0604 1.0879 0.99 0.0562 1.7448 0.2573 8.4532 0.056201 0.96 0.586 5.5548 0.7656
60 55 4.6557 1.5219 0.99 0.2668 2.6868 0.5261 10.8119 0.07781 0.94 1.984 7.8928 1.4088
Table 5. Various regression coefficient and statistical parameters of Auara model for solutegain
Conc (°Bx) Temp (°C)
SG8 2 R2 2 E% RMSE
40 35 7.521 0.0348 0.98 0.0999 5.1326 0.0356
40 45 8.654 0.0254 0.99 0.0450 6.5478 0.0645
40 55 9.123 0.0088 0.98 0.0654 8.654 0.0795
50 35 9.2654 0.0045 0.99 0.0147 9.6479 0.0214
50 45 9.641 0.00145 0.99 0.1254 11.3255 0.0145
50 55 12.864 0.0013 0.99 0.3159 8.987 0.0478
60 35 10.764 0.0064 0.98 0.2647 4.679 0.0347
60 45 11.965 0.00564 0.99 0.1345 11.255 0.0614
60 55 12.954 0.00154 0.99 0.2359 8.789 0.0874
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37
Fig 2. Plot for various predicted and experimental values for solute gain with time at 40°Bx at 45° CA c c o r d i n g t o A z u a r a m o d e l ( Ta b l e 5 ) ,predicted values of equi l ibr ium solute gainwere 9 .26, 9 .64, 12.86 g/100 g of f reshsample at 35, 45, 55°C, respect ively, for
◦osmotic solut ion of 50 Bx concentrat ion.Therefore , with increase of temperature ofosmotic solut ion, the values of solute gainat equi l ibr ium have been increased. Theva lues o f equ i l ib r ium so lu te ga in were9 . 1 2 , 1 2 . 8 6 , 1 2 . 9 5 4 g / 1 0 0 g o f f r e s hsample in 40, 50, 60°Bx, respect ively, a t55°C of osmotic solut ion temperature asp red i c t ed by Azua ra mode l . The re fo r e ,with increase of concentrat ion of osmotics o l u t i o n , t h e v a l u e s o f s o l u t e g a i n a tequi l ibr ium have been increased. The
values of indicates that the rates ofw a t e r l o s s w e r e h i g h e r a t h i g h e rc o n c e n t r a t i o n s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e i nc o m p r a s i o n t o t h e l o w v a l u e s o fconcentration and temperature. It may bedue to the fact that the low concentrationof sugar syrup may get diluted and reach the nearsaturat ion point quickly. An increase inosmotic solution concentration increasesthe concentration gradient and in turn thed r i v i n g f o r c e f o r o s m o t i c d e h y d r a t i o nprocess and high temperature decrease ther e s i s t a n c e d u e t o h i g h v i s c o s i t y b ylower ing down the v i scos i ty o f h igh lyconcentrated solution.
و
CONCLUSION
T h e o s m o t i c s o l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,
t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t i m e h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t
e ffec t on wate r loss and so lu te ga in dur ing
osmot ic dehydra t ion of EFY cubes . The
effec t o f p rocess var iab les on wate r loss
and so lu te ga in can be represen ted by the
model constants . Among di fferent appl iede q u a t i o n s , M a g e e a n d A u a r a m o d e lshowed the bes t f i t t ing to the exper imenta ld a t a f o r w a t e r l o s s a n d s o l i d g a i n ,r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e o s m o t i cdehydrat ion process of EFY cubes can besuccess fu l ly represen ted by appropr ia temodels for sca le up purposes .
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A survey of bioresources based Industry of Punjab 1 1 * 2Neeelima Jerath , Gurharminder Singh , Dhiraj Kumar Sehgal
1Member Secretary,
Senior Scientific Officer, Punjab Biodiversity Board, Chandigarh2Department of Life Sciences
Desh Bhagat University, Mandi Gobindgarh
*E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
India accounts for 7.8% of the recorded species of the world and is one of the 17mega diverse countries in terms of biodiversity. Sustainable use of our biodiversity has bothecological and economic value as it is linked to local livelihoods of millions of people andalso has the potential of becoming the core strength of Indian economy. Punjab's largeagricultural base gives it a competitive advantage in various industries such as foodprocessing, textiles, paper, leather, and other agro based industries, which are rapidly movingup in production and contributing to the state's economy. Realizing the crucial role ofbiological resources in industrial production and socio-economic development in the state, asurvey was undertaken on “Bioresources based Industry of Punjab”. The present paper isan outcome of this study, where an attempt has been made to identify and assess volumes ofmajor bioresources used in Punjab and their commercial potential. Special focus has beenaccorded to collect primary data on commercial utilization of those species (includingmedicinal plants) which are generally available in the wild and their trade is restricted tocertain parts of the state (like Majith Mandi, Amritsar). The study attempts to assess theireconomic potential in order to promote their conservation and sustainable use. For this,extensive field visits were carried out in all districts to collect first hand information on use ofbiological resources by registered herbal units/pharmacies of the State. The data has beenthoroughly categorized, critically analyzed and interpreted to draw logical conclusions.Further, this data needs to be supplemented with information on unregistered units, cottage &tiny units and use of botanicals by local hakims and voids as well.
Keywords: Bioresources, plants, Punjab, Industrialization
INTRODUCTION
T h e v a r i e t y o f g e n e s , s p e c i e s a n d
ecosystems which encompass popula t ions ,
c o m m u n i t i e s & h a b i t a t s c o n s t i t u t e
b i o l o g i c a l d i v e r s i t y . I t f o r m s t h e
foundat ion upon which human c ivi l iza t ion
depends and is essent ia l for mainta ining
the bas ic l i fe processes and for performing
e n v i r o n m e n t a l s e r v i c e s . P o p u l a t i o n
p r e s s u r e , i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , i n t e n s i v e
agr icul tura l and extensive use of natura l
resources are , however, leading to loss of
b i o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s .
Ind i a accoun t s fo r 7 .8% o f t he g loba l
recorded species and is one of the 17 mega
d i v e r s e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e w o r l d . F o u r
biodivers i ty hot spots of world (out of 35)
exist in India. The country is estimated to
h o u s e a b o u t 4 5 , 0 0 0 p l a n t s p e c i e s a n d
89,442 animal species representing 12.5%
of the world's flora and 6.6% of fauna. The
Biological Diversity Act, 2002 has been
enacted by the Govt. of India to promote
conservation and sustainable of biological
r e s o u r c e s . P u n j a b i s p r i m a r i l y a n
agricultural state with about 84% land area
u n d e r a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e s t a t e h a r b o r e d
considerable genetic variabili ty in the past,
b o t h , i n w i l d a n d c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s .
However, this has reduced over the years
d u e t o c h a n g e s i n c r o p p i n g p a t t e r n ,
extensive & intensive farming and higher
dependence on HYVs. Though the state
has only 6% area under forests, yet a large
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41
variety of f lora & fauna has been recordedf r o m S h i v a l i k s a n d w e t l a n d s . D a t aindicates the presence of 397 species ofalgae, >560 species of fungi , 21 species ofl i c h e n s , 3 4 s p e c i e s o f b r y o p h y t e s ,2 1 s p e c i e s o f g y m n o s p e r m s a n d 1 9 3 9species of angiosperms in the s tate . Faunaldiversi ty includes 112species of f ishes, 15s p e c i e s o f a m p h i b i a n s , 3 5 s p e c i e s o fr e p t i l e s , 4 4 2 s p e c i e s o f b i r d s a n d 4 3s p e c i e s o f m a m m a l s , b e s i d e s , l a r g enumber of invertebrates . Prior to the greenr e v o l u t i o n , 4 1 v a r i e t i e s o f w h e a t , 3 7variet ies of r ice, 4 variet ies of maize, 3v a r i e t i e s o f b a j r a , 1 6 v a r i e t i e s o fsugarcane, 19species/variet ies of pulses , 9s p e c i e s / v a r i e t i e s o f o i l s e e d s a n d 1 0variet ies of cot ton were reported to be inuse in Punjab. Data indicates that out of 49post green revolut ion variet ies of wheatreleased by PAU, only 3 are widely used.S i m i l a r l y, o u t o f 2 7 v a r i e t i e s o f r i c ereleased, only 9 are current ly in use. Thestate has done remarkably well in the f ieldof agricul ture and is now laying emphasison promoting industr ial growth. Present ly,t he re a r e 162 ,559 sma l l s ca l e and 373large and medium sca le indus t r ies . TheI n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n h a s m o r e t h a ndoubled in bo th , smal l sca le indus t r i es( f rom Rs .183.24 b i l l ion in 2001 to Rs .4 1 8 . 9 6 b i l l i o n i n 2 0 1 0 ) a s w e l l a smedium/large scale industr ies ( f rom Rs.265.76 bi l l ion in 2001 to Rs 583.12 bi l l ionin 2010). Various industr ial sectors l ikep r o c e s s e d f o o d , r i c e , y a r n & t e x t i l e ,hosiery, pulp & paper and sports goodsdepend upon biological resources whicha r e b e i n g c u l t i v a t e d a n d a r e n o r m a l l yt r a d e d . T h e s h a r e o f i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r( S e c o n d a r y S e c t o r ) t o S t a t e G r o s sDomestic Product has increased from 20%in 1980-81 to 29% in2009-10. There arealso 255 registered herbal uni ts operat ingin the Sta te , bes ides many unregis teredu n i t s . T h e s e a r e e x t e n s i v e l y u t i l i z i n gm e d i c i n a l p l a n t s a n d h e r b s w h i c h a r eobtained from various parts of Punjab andadjoining s tates . No systematic s tudy hasbeen carr ied out in the State to assess the
u t i l i za t ion and marke t ing o f b io log ica l
r e s o u r c e s , w h i c h a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t
normal ly t raded and are exempted f rom
provis ions of the Biologica l Divers i ty Act ,
2 0 0 2 p r o v i d e d t h e y a r e t r a d e d a s
commodi t ies , as not i f ied by Govt . of India
u n d e r s e c t i o n 4 0 o f t h e B i o l o g i c a l
Divers i ty Act , 2002 (commonly refer red to
as 'normal ly t raded commodi ty ' l i s t ) . The
present s tudy gives a br ief overview of
var ious b ioresources based indust r ies in
the s ta te wi th specia l focus on indust r ies
u s i n g m e d i c i n a l a n d a r o m a t i c p l a n t s ,
w h i c h a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e a b o v e
n o t i f i c a t i o n , t o a s s e s s t h e i r e c o n o m i c
p o t e n t i a l s o a s t o p r o m o t e t h e i r
c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d s u s t a i n a b l e u s e .
Extens ive f ie ld v is i t s were made to col lec t
pr imary as wel l as secondary data .
Bioresources based industry in Punjab
Punjab 's large agr icul tura l base gives i t ac o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e i n v a r i o u s a g r ob a s e d i n d u s t r i e s l i k e f o o d p r o c e s s i n g ,t e x t i l e s , p a p e r , l e a t h e r , e t c . F u r t h e r ,b i o r e s o u r c e s ( i n c l u d i n g m e d i c i n a l a n daromat ic p lants) are a lso being used as rawm a t e r i a l b y s o m e p h a r m a c e u t i c a l &nutraceut ical indust ry in the s ta te . Most oft h e r a w m a t e r i a l b e i n g u s e d b y t h e s eindustr ies i s e i ther being cul t ivated or i sc o v e r e d u n d e r t h e a b o v e r e f e r r e dn o t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e M i n i s t r y o fEnvironment and Fores ts , Govt . of India .The Minis t ry had exempted 190 biologicalresources including 35 medicinal p lants ,28 sp ices and 127other c rops f rom thepurview of the Biological Divers i ty Act ,2002 . P r io r pe rmiss ion o f the Na t iona lB i o d i v e r s i t y A u t h o r i t y w o u l d n o t b erequired for expor t of these 190 i tems.However, cer ta in raw mater ia ls used bythe indust ry are obta ined f rom the wi ld andare covered under the provis ions of theB i o l o g i c a l D i v e r s i t y A c t ; 2 0 0 2 . D a t ai n d i c a t e s t h a t o u t o f t h e t o t a l 3 7 3large/medium uni ts (LMU) in the s ta te ,310 uni ts (83%) are ut i l iz ing bio-resourcesas major raw mater ia l . These include 142uni ts of food products & beverages (45%),
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96 text i le uni ts of both, natural & synthet icf ibre (31%) and 33 paper & paper productsunits (11%). The maximum bioresourcesb a s e d L M U s a r e l o c a t e d i n d i s t r i c tLudhiana (77) fol lowed by distr icts Pat iala(59), and Mohali & Amritsar (32 each).Data also indicates that 13% (20,940) ofthe t o t a l Sma l l Sca l e Un i t s (SSU) a r eb i o r e s o u r c e b a s e d e n t e r p r i s e s . T h e s einclude food products &beverages (6081),leather & leather products (4263), text i les( 1 4 2 5 a p p r o x . ) , w o o d p r o d u c t s(2783) , fu rn i tu re (2621) , paper & paperp roduc t s (754) , rubbe r p roduc t s (647) ,hosiery & garments 394),pharmaceuticals& botanicals (212) and tobacco products(7 ) . Ludh iana (4292) , Amr i t sa r (2816) ,Sangrur (2803) and Jalandhar (1926) areleading dis t r ic ts for b ioresources basedS S U s i n t h e s t a t e . P u n j a b ' s f o o d a n dbeverage indus t r i a l sec to r covers g ra inp r o c e s s i n g , a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s , f r u i ta n d v e g e t a b l e p r o c e s s i n g , m e a t a n dpoultry, milk & milk products , sugar &edible oi l , soya based products , e tc . Thereare total 6223 food and beverage industr iesin s t a te cons i s t ing 142 LMUs and6081SSUs, and maximum units are s i tuated inDistr ict Sangur (841), Ludhiana (627) &Amritsar (615). Eighty one per cent uni tsare manufacturing grain/cereal based foodproducts & animal feed. The text i le sectorc o n t r i b u t e s a b o u t 1 9 % t o t h e t o t a lindustr ial production and about 38% to thetotal exports from Punjab. The sector isa l s o o n e o f t h e l a rg e s t e m p l o y m e n t a zprovider and accounts for almost 60% ofi n d u s t r i a l e m p l o y m e n t i n t h e s t a t ei n c l u d i n g t h e l a r g e s t e m p l o y m e n tproviding sec tor to women. The text i lesector is s t rong on al l aspects of the valuechain, i .e . , f rom the raw material s tage tothe f inished products s tage. Natural f ibersare being used by 45% of LMU/SSU units ,whereas 55% un i t s a r e u s ing a r t i f i c i a lf ibers , which are cheaper as compared tonatural f ibers . Out of a total of 3264 text i leunits (3168 SSU and 96 LMU) in the s tate ,over 1460 units are bioresource base. Morethan two third of text i le uni ts (76%) are
manufactur ing kni t ted and crocheted fabr ic&art ic les and remaining 24% are involvedi n s p i n n i n g , w e a v i n g a n d f i n i s h i n g .Ludhiana is one of the important centres ofh o s i e r y i n d u s t r y o f I n d i a f o r c o t t o n ,wool len and synthet ic kni twear. Ludhianahosiery industry caters to about 90% of thetota l demand of wool lens bes ides , beingl e a d i n g e x p o r t e r t o U S A , E u r o p e a n dM i d d l e E a s t . T h e l e a t h e r i n d u s t r y i nPunjab is facing a shor tage of qual i ty hideseven though cat t le head count of the s ta tes tands only second to Ut tar Pradesh in thecountry. Present ly, more than 40% of ther a w m a t e r i a l i s b e i n g p u r c h a s e d f r o mouts ide the s ta te . Leather products worthRs.2 .17 bi l l ion and Rs.2 .34 bi l l ion haveb e e n e x p o r t e d m o s t l y t o E u r o p e a ncountr ies f rom the s ta te in the years 2009a n d 2 0 1 0 r e s p e c t i v e l y. T h e r e a r e 4 2 6 8leather goods industr ies operat ional in thes ta te compris ing 5LMUs and 4263 SSUs.D a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t 6 5 3 r u b b e rmanufactur ing uni ts are operat ional in thes ta te consis t ing of 647 SSUs and only 6LMUs ( in Ludhiana) . The natural rubberaccounts for 33% of thetota l b ioresourcebase of the indus t ry. There i s an acuteshor tage of natural rubber in Kerala owingt o e v e r g r o w i n g d e m a n d l e a d i n g t oupswing in i t s pr ices . The unprecedentedhike in natural rubberpr ices in las t fewyears coupled wi th fa l l in demand of somerubber-based products has put therubberi n d u s t r y o f P u n j a b i n j e o p a r d y. A b o u t2/3rd of rubber uni ts (74%) are involved inthe manufactur ing of rubber tyres & tubes ,w h i l e r e s t s ( 2 6 % ) a r e m a n u f a c t u r i n grubber footwear. There are 797 paper uni tsin the s ta te , out of which, 33 are LMUsand 764 are SSUs. The paper industry ofthe s ta te is mainly ut i l iz ing waste paper,wood pulp , agr i - res idues l ike wheat s t rawand kana g ra s s ( s a rkanda ) , e t c . a s r awm a t e r i a l s f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g p a p e rproducts . However, the industry is qui teconcerned about the ever increas ing pr icesa n d f l u c t u a t i o n s i n s u p p l y o f r a wmater ia ls . Even though the s ta te has a verysmal l area under natural fores ts (6%) and
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agro fores t ry, s t i l l , 2783 wood productuni ts and 2621 furni ture making uni ts arefunc t iona l in the s ta te . Euca lyp tus andp o p l a r a r e b e i n g u s e d a s m a i n r a wm a t e r i a l s b y p l y w o o d i n d u s t r y . T h efurni ture uni ts extensively use Dalbergia ,Te a k , B a m b o o , C a n e , D e o d a r , M a n g o ,Neem e tc fo r making d i ffe ren t type o ff u r n i t u r e a r t i c l e s .H o w e v e r , D a l b e r g i a a n d T e a k a r egene ra l l y p re fe r r ed fo r mak ing qua l i t yfurni ture . There are 7 smal l scale tobaccomanufactur ing uni ts in the s ta te , mainlyproducing snuff , katha, chewing l ime, e tc .Most of the raw mater ia l is being broughtfrom other s ta tes though Acacia catechu i savai lable in the Shival iks . There are 268reg i s t e red un i t s o f co t t age and v i l l ageindustr ies in the s ta te with an employmentof about 1650 workers . Out of these, 121u n i t s a r e u t i l i z i n g v a r i o u s k i n d s o fbioresources as raw mater ia l . Worldwide,between 50,000 and 80,000 plants , most lyf lower ing , a re used med ic ina l ly. Abou t80%popu la t ion o f deve lop ing coun t r i e srel ies on plant based products for theirpharmaceu t i ca l and nu t raceu t i ca l needsa n d t h e r e i s a g l o b a l r e s u r g e n c e i nt r a d i t i o n a l a n d a l t e r n a t i v e h e a l t h c a r esystems, resul t ing in world herbal t rade ofabout US$ 120 bi l l ion, which is expectedto reach US$ 7 t r i l l ion by2050. India hasapproximately 17,500 species of f loweringplants . Out of these, 6000-7000 species areest imated to have medicinal usage in folkand documented systems of medicine l ikeA y u r v e d a , S i d d h a , U n a n i a n dH o m o e o p a t h y . A b o u t 9 6 0 s p e c i e s o fm e d i c i n a l p l a n t s a r e e s t i m a t e d t o b eintrade, of which, 178 species have annualconsumption levels in excess of 100 metr ictonnes . The Indian medicinal plants andtheir products account for exports of aboutRs . 10 b i l l i on . There a re nea r ly 9 ,500reg i s t e red he rba l indus t r i e s a long wi thmany un reg i s t e r ed co t t age - l eve l he rba luni ts in the country, which depend uponthe cont inuous supply of medicinal plantsf o r m a n u f a c t u r e o f h e r b a l m e d i c a lformulat ions based on Indian Systems of
M e d i c i n e . B r o a d l y n i n e c a t e g o r i e s o fproducts are being obtained by industrialp r o c e s s i n g o f m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s . T h e s einclude new drugs, phytopharmaceuticals,health and immunity enhancing productsand nutraceutical , cosmetics, intermediatesfor drug manufactur ing, galenicals , e tc .Significant quanti t ies of medicinal plantresources are also being consumed in thecount ry a t the household leve l throughtradit ional healers and practi t ioners. About800 species of medicinal plants are usedb y i n d u s t r y o u t o f w h i c h m a j o r l y 2 0species (2.5%) are being cult ivated. Over90% of the species are mainly collectedfrom the wild. Further, over 70%of thesep l a n t c o l l e c t i o n s i n v o l v e d e s t r u c t i v eharvesting practices and pose a definitethreat to the diversity of medicinal plantsin the count ry. Market ing of medic ina lplants is ineff icient , informal , secret iveand oppor tunis t ic . As a resul t , the rawm a t e r i a l s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n i s s h a k y ,unsustainable and exploitat ive. There are255 registered herbal units operat ing inPunjab, besides many unregistered herbaluni ts , which are u t i l iz ing botanica ls toprepare various product formulations (withor without the species included in the aforementioned notif ication of the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India).Herbal industry in Punjab
Out of these 180 uni ts were found to befunct ional , out of which l imited data hasbeen provided by121 uni ts only (67.2%)f rom 15 d i s t r i c t s (ou t o f 20 d i s t r i c t s ) .T h e s e 1 2 1 u n i t s a r e u s i n g 9 1 9 . 9M T / a n n u m o f r a w p l a n t m a t e r i a l s .However, no data has been provided w.r. t .a reas / s i tes of co l lec t ionand volumes ofcer ta in important species obtained fromthe wild which are current ly being usedbythe industry. The dis tr ic t wise usage ofplant species by pharmacies/herbal uni ts inP u n j a b r a n g e s f r o m 2 7 9 k g / a n n u m i ndistr ict Mansa to 527 MT/annum in dis tr ic tAmritsar, which is 57% of the total usagein t he s t a t e . O the r d i s t r i c t s w i th h ighconsumption value are Ludhiana (>153.6th. kg/annum), Sangrur (>80 th. kg/annum)
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44
and Jalandhar (>68 th . kg/annum). Thesea c c o u n t f o r 1 7 % , 9 % a n d 7 % u s a g erespect ively. Rest a l l dis t r ic ts are usingraw mater ial in the range of 3% to 1%.The maximum (28) herbal based industr ia luni ts are funct ioning in dis t r ic t Amri tsarfol lowed by 26 uni ts in dis t r ic t Ludhiana,17 uni ts in dis t r ic t Jalandhar and 14 uni tsi n d i s t r i c t S a n g r u r . D a t a a b o u t t h eharves t ing and process ing of medic ina lp l a n t s b y h a k i m s , v a i d s , S H G s a n dcommunit ies is not avai lable . None of theindus t r i es p rov ided any in format ion ondirect col lect ion s i tes . I t was informed thatraw mater ial was being procured from themarket / t raders and not col lected direct ly.Such t raders operate in Maji th Mandi a tAmri tsar, col lect ion center a t Pathankotand in other s ta tes as wel l . Maji th Mandiisknown as the t rade hub of some of thesebiological resources . Raw mater ials f romPunjab and nearby s ta tes is col lected hereand categorized for export and/or domest icconsumpt ion . F i f ty four dea le r s / t r ade r sexporters are operat ing in Maji th Mandi .An es t ima ted 22 ,000 Met r i c Tonnes o fbotanical ' s (mainly 67 species) are beingannual ly t raded from Maji th Mandi . Manystakeholders with divergent interests areinvolved in the market ing of medic inalplants in s ta te and organized market ing,s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o lpract ices are lacking. Industry wise dataindicates that the ten highest herbal rawmater ial consuming uni ts of the s ta te arel o c a t e d i n D i s t r i c t A m r i t s a r ( 8 ) ,Ludhiana(1) and Fatehgarh Sahib(1) andare col lect ively ut i l iz ing524,481 kg of rawmater ial per annum, which is about 57% oftotal herbal usage in the s ta te . Pha rma lo id s , Amr i t s a r ( 131 ,100
kg) ,Hoap Indust r ies , Ludhiana (111,170
kg)and Himachal Drug Pharma, Amri tsar
(58,151) are using maximum botanical raw
mater ia l . A total of 503 plant species are
being used in the s ta te , out of which, 334
species (66%) occur in Punjab and the res t
a re be ing brought /co l lec ted f rom o ther
s ta tes . Data reveals that of the 334 plant
species f rom Punjab, 127 are herb species ,
110 are t ree species , 63 are shrubs , and 34are c l imbers . Out of to ta l 503 species used,only 82 species are exempted f rom theprovis ions of the Biological Divers i ty Act ,2002 (as these are included in the l is t of'normal ly t raded commodit ies ' not i f ied byG o v t . o f I n d i a ) . T h e r e f o r e , p r i o rp e r m i s s i o n o f N a t i o n a l B i o d i v e r s i t yAuthori ty is required for export of res t ofthe 421 p lant species or the i r productsbeing t raded from the s ta te . The most usedm e d i c i n a l p l a n t s a r e A l o e b a r b a d e n s i s(175Tons/annum), Emblica of f ic inal is (38Tons/annum) and Terminal ia chebula (25Tons/annum). Datapoints that out of the 10maximum used plant species , s ix speciesnamely, Terminal ia chebula ,Commiphoraw i g h t i i , Ti n o s p o r a c o rd i f o l i a , Tr i b u l u sl a n u g i n o s u s , Te r m i n a l i a a r j u n a a n dTe r m i n a l i a b e l e r i c a d o n o t f a l l u n d e r 'normal ly t raded commodity l is t ' , but arev e r y i m p o r t a n t s p e c i e s u s e d b y t h eindustry. Other important species excludedfrom the normal ly t raded commodit ies l i s twhich arebeing col lected f rom the s ta teinclude Saraca asoca (11311 kg/annum),B o e r h a v i a d i f f f u s a ( 1 0 9 7 9 k g / a n n u m ) ,S e s a m u m o r i e n t a l e ( 1 0 9 5 1 k g / a n n u m ) ,Asparagus racemosus (7314 kg/annum) ,P s o r a l e a c o r y l i f o l i a ( 1 0 9 5 1 k g / a n n u m ) ,M u c u n a p r u r i e n s ( 5 2 9 0 k g / a n n u m ) ,E c l i p t a p ro s t a t a ( 5 2 9 0 k g / a n n u m ) e t c .Conservat ion of their habi ta t and regulatedharvest ing needs to be promoted to ensuret h e i r l o n g t e r m s u s t a i n a b i l i t y .Tw o p l a n t s p e c i e s , n a m e l y Te c h o m e l l aundulata and Withania coagulans , beingused by herbal uni tshave been ident i f ied asthreatened species in the s ta te . Techomellau n d u l a t a h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s a n' e n d a n g e r e d s p e c i e s ' a n d W i t h a n i acoagulans as 'vulnerable species ' as perIUCN Red Data Lis t .Only 10 kg/annum ofWithania coagulans i s used in the s ta te ,b u t t h e u s a g e o f Te c o m e l l a u n d u l a t ai squi te high (790 kg/annum).Since theseare threatened species of the s ta te , theirt r a d e a n d h a r v e s t i n g n e e d s t o b espec i f i ca l ly moni to red . Fur the r, spec ia lfocus needs to be given on conservat ion of
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
45
thehabitat of their two species. Informationabout the annual turnover was provided byo n l y 7 4 u n i t s ( 6 1 % ) . T h e t o t a l a n n u a lt u r n o v e r o f t h e s e u n i t s c o l l e c t i v e l ya m o u n t s t o a p p r o x . R s . 2 8 c r o r e ( 2 8 0million). Only 7 units had aturn over ofm o r e t h a n o n e c r o r e p e r a n n u m . T h eturnover of 10 units ranged between Rs.50lac toRs.1 crore, 32 units had a turn overranging between Rs.10 to Rs.50 lac and 25units showed annual turnover of less than10 lac. Data on product details reveals thatthese uni t s produce ayurvedic andunanim e d i c i n e s ( t a b l e t s , c a p s u l e s , p o w d e r s ,medicinal oi ls e tc . ) nutraceut icals ( teas ,syrups, tonicsand drops), cosmetics (facep a c k s , s h a m p o o s , g e l s , c r e a m s , f a c epowders , ha i r o i l , henna & herba ldyes ,soaps & toiletries, etc.) and pickles & foods u p p l e m e n t s ( j u i c e s , s h e r b a t s , e t c . ) .Twenty four units have also provided names of tradersf r o m w h e r e r a w m a t e r i a l i s b e i n gpurchased. This includes 22 traders fromP u n j a b a n d 1 0 t r a d e r s f r o m D e l h i ,U t t a r a k h a n d , H a r y a n a a n d M a d h y aPradesh. About 500 unregistered tiny andcottage units based on biological resourcesexist in the state with alarge percentageoccuring in the Shivalik area alone due toh i g h e r a v a i l a b i l i t y o f n o n - t i m b e rf o r e s t p r o d u c e ( N T F P ) , w i l d m e d i c i n a lplants, etc. These units provide livelihoodto local communities in about 300 villagesin the Shivalik area falling in five forestd i v i s i o n s n a m e l y, R o p a r, G a r h s h a n k a r,Hoshiarpur, Dasuya and Pa thankot . Thel o c a l p o p u l a t i o n a c c e s s e s t h e s e b i o -r e s o u r c e s , b o t h f r o m t h e f o r e s t s a n du n c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s a s r a w m a t e r i a l .A pilot study was got conducted under thepresent project to assess the extent of bio-resources used in such units, identify
specif ic areas from where these resourcesw e r e b e i n g c o l l e c t e d , e x t e n t o finvolvement of the local communit ies , l is tof products and production value. As perthe survey, a total of 371 Self Help Groups(SHGs) wi th about 5000 members werefound to exist in 223 vi l lages. These SHGsw e r e e n g a g e d i n v a r i o u s i n c o m egenerat ion act ivi t ies and collect ively madeearnings of about Rs .44 lac per annumd u r i n g t h e s t u d y p e r i o d . T h e s u r v e yind ica t e s t ha t ma in ly 22 ca t ego r i e s o fl ivel ihood act ivi t ies were being taken upthrough these non-registered units , out ofwhich at least 10were based on resourceswhich were not normally t raded i .e . ropemaking, leaf plate making, basket , chatai ,broom making units , medicinal plant units ,pickle making units based on wild frui ts ,c h y a v a n p r a s h m a k i n g u n i t s a n d u n i t sinvolved in t rade of wheat s traw and vermicomposting.
The way forwardThe s tudy needs to be supplemented wi th
informat ion f rom t raders on speci f ic s i tes
of col lec t ion of raw biologica l mater ia ls ,
e s p e c i a l l y p l a n t s w h i c h a r e e i t h e r
threa tened or used in la rge quant i t ies . The
e x t e n t o f p l a n t u s a g e b y c o t t a g e / t i n y
i n d u s t r y , b o t h i n t h e o r g a n i z e d a n d
unorganized sec tors and access by vaids
and hakims a lso needs to be assessed to
h e l p d e f i n e s t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e i r
conservat ion and sus ta inable u t i l iza t ion to
implement the Biologica l Divers i ty Act ,
2 0 0 2 i n t h e s t a t e . I n f o r m a t i o n o n
a s s o c i a t e d Tr a d i t i o n a l K n o w l e d g e w i l l
a lso help to s t rengthen the 'Access and
Benef i t Shar ing mechanism and help local
c o m m u n i t i e s r e c o g n i z e t h e e c o n o m i c
benef i t s of protec t ing b iodivers i ty
REFERENCES
Bhandari A K (2010) Working Paper on
Global Cris is , Environmental Volat i l i ty
and Expansion of the Indian
leatherindustry. Centre for DevelopmentStudies, Kerala, India.
C R R I D ( 2 0 0 2 ) P u n j a b D e v e l o p m e n t
R e p o r t , 2 0 0 2 P u b l i s h e d b y : C e n t r e f o r
R e s e a r c h i n R u r a l a n d
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46
I n d u s t r i a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( C R R I D ) ,C h a n d i g a r h .
Economic and Stat is t ical Advisor (2011) Stat is t ical Abstract of Punjab, various i s s u e s . P u b l i s h e d b y D i r e c t o r a t e o f E c o n o m i c s a n d S t a t i s t i c s , Government of Punjab.I U C N ( 2 0 0 7 ) I U C N S p e c i e s S u r v i v a l Commission Medicinal Plant Specialist, Why Conserve and Manage Medicinal P l a n t s ? I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i o n f o r Conservation of Nature, Swizterland
Je ra th N , Nang ia P, Kaur A Chadha , J
(2002) Strategy & Action Plan for the
Conservation of Biodiversity inPunjab.
Punjab State Council for Science &
Technology, Chandigarh. 338.
Jerath, Saxena, S K 2004 100 Medicinal
Plants of Punjab. Punjab State Council
for Science & Technology,Chandigarh.
Jerath N, Nangia P, Chadha J (eds) (2006)
Biodiversity in the Shivalik Ecoystem
of Punjab. Punjab State Council for
Science & Technology, Chandigarh
Mar ine l l i J (2005) P lan t : The Ul t imate
Visual Reference to Plants and Flowers
o f t h e W o r l d . N e w Y o r k :
DKPublishing, Inc.
M i n i s t r y o f E n v i r o n m e n t a n d F o r e s t s
(2009) India's Fourth National Report
t o t h e C o n v e n t i o n o n
BiologicalDiversity (CBD). Ministry of
Environment and Forests. Government
of India.
Planning Commision (2000) Report of the
Ta s k F o r c e o n C o n s e r v a t i o n &
S u s t a i n a b l e u s e o f M e d i c i n a l
Plants .Planning Commission, Govt of
India.
Sharma M (1990) Punjab Plants- Check List. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh Publishers, Dehra Dun.
Tiwana NS, Je ra th N, Ladhar SS , S ingh G,
Pau l R , Dua DK, Parwana HK (2007)
S ta te o f Env i ronment ,Pun jab-2007 ,
Pun jab S ta te Counc i l fo r Sc ience &
Techno logy pp . 243 .
T E E B ( 2 0 1 0 ) T h e E c o n o m i c s o f Ecosys tems and Biod ivers i ty, Repor t f o r B u s i n e s s - E x e c u t i v e Summary.UNEP,Geneva .
Ved DK, Goraya GS (2007) Demand and
Supply of Medicinal Plants in India.
N a t i o n a l M e d i c i n a l P l a n t s B o a r d
(NMPB), New Delhi & Foundation for
R e v i t a l i s a t i o n o f L o c a l H e a l t h
Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore, India.
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Cournot's Model of Oligopoly- A Brief introduction
* 1 2 3Bhupinder Kaur , Amanpreet Singh , Randev Sandhu
1Associate Professor, Govt. College for girls, sec 11,
Chandigarh (Punjab) (India)2Department of Mathematic , Sri Guru Teg Bahadur Khalsa College
Anandpur Sahib, Ropar (Punjab) India3Department of Physics, B.A.M.Khalsa College,
Garhshankar(punjab) (India) *Email Id: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Today Cournot's work is associated with a discipline called econometrics, which is the art andscience of making measurements in economic theory and applying them to realistic situations.In econometrics the goal is to recast mathematical economics into a stochastic form.Economic relationships can only be estimated based on sample observations. There are manydependent variables at work in economic relationships and also many relationshipssimultaneously generating non-experimental samples of data. Estimation of economicrelationships using methods of statistical inference is not the only approach of econometrics.Russian economist Wassly Leontief developed a departure from the statistical inference aspectof econometrics, by employing input-output analysis. It has proved to be useful indevelopment planning for merging countries and in emergency planning for developedcountries.
Keywords: Oligopoly, Cournot Model, Equilibrium.
INTRODUCTION
G e n e r a l l y w e r e a d a b o u t t w o t y p e s o f
markets which are opposi te to each other in
nature , one of them is Perfect compet i t ion
and o the r i s Monopo ly. In compe t i t i ve
m a r k e t s y s t e m w e c o m e a c r o s s l a r g e
number of f i rms and in monopoly there is
s ingle f i rm in the market . As demand of a l l
the f i rms sat isf ied by this s ingle f i rm. I t
takes a l l the benef i ts of th is th ing and
controls supply to make more prof i t . In
monopoly market system f i rm can charge
different pr ices for different categories of
c o n s u m e r s .
After monopoly there was a new market
system which is Oligopoly. Oligopoly is a
market system which is control led by few
f irms. The term Oligopoly comes from two
Greek words : Ol igo i meaning “ few”and
p o l e e i n m e a n i n g “ t o s e l l ” . O l i g o p o l y
m a r k e t r e f e r s t o a k i n d o f m a r k e t
m e c h a n i s m t h a t o n l y a f e w
manufacturers contro l product ion and
vendi t ion of product in ent i re market .
D u o p o l y i s a m a r k e t s y s t e m w h i c h i s
subcase of ol igopoly which is control led
b y t w o f i r m s o n l y . D u o p o l i s t m a k e
strategies keeping in mind s trategies of his
r ival f i rm. Antoine Cournot introduced an
impor tant c lass of mathemat ica l models
desc r ib ing compe t i t i ve behav io r i n t he
m a r k e t p l a c e . H i s l e g a c y i s s h o w i n g
e c o n o m i s t s h o w t o u s e
Mathematics to develop economic theory.
The work was not embraced during his
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
48
lifetime; in fact i t was severely criticized. Itw a s f a r t o o a d v a n c e d a t a t i m e w h e ne c o n o m i s t s s t u d i o u s l y a v o i d e dm a t h e m a t i c s . M a t h e m a t i c s w a s n o tgenerally integrated into the mainstreamlanguage and analysis of economists untilthe second half of the 20th century. Todaymany economis t s l aud h i s book a s themidwi fe o f mode rn economic ana lys i s .Cournot ' s cont r ibu t ions a re hera lded asforerunners for mathematical game theory,w h i c h i s u s e d f o r d e s c r i b i n g s t r a t e g i ci n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n b u s i n e s s f i r m s ,tacticians or diplomats.B o r n i n G r a y, H a u t e - S a ô n e , C o u r n o t
attended the Collège de Gray from 1809 to
1816. After graduation from the secondary
school he worked in an attorney's office
for four years. Inspired by the work of
Pierre de Laplace, Cournot realized that he
would have to learn mathemat ics i f he
w a n t e d t o f o l l o w h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l
aspirations. As a result , he concentrated on
mathematics at Collège Royal in Besançon
and in 1821 entered the teachers ' t raining
c o l l e g e É c o l e N o r m a l e S u p é r i e u r e .
H o w e v e r , p o l i t i c a l u n r e s t f o r c e d t h e
closure of the school. Together with fel low
s t u d e n t L e j e u n e D i r i c h l e t , C o u r n o t
t r an s f e r r ed t o t he S o rbonne , w he re he
supported himself by tutoring. In 1829 he
received his doctorate in mathematics, with
a thesis Le mouvement d'un corps rigide
par un plan f ixe , mainly on mechanics and
astronomy.
Impressed wi th Cournot , S iméon Denis
Poisson arranged for his appointment to a
posi t ion with theAcademy in Paris . I t was
at this t ime that Cournot t ranslated John
H e r s c h e l ' s A s t r o n o m y ( 1 8 3 4 ) a n d
D i o n y s u s L a r d n e r ' s M e c h a n i c s ( 1 8 3 5 ) .
Throughout his career Cournot joint ly held
posi t ions as a professor of analysis and
mechanics and high posts in the French
government . Again through the inf luence
of Poisson, he was made Inspecteur
Général des Études ( inspector general ofpubl ic educat ion) in 1838, the same yearh e w a s m a d e a K n i g h t o f t h e L é g i o nd 'Honneur (he was e levated to an Off iceri n 1 8 4 5 ) . T h i s w a s a l s o t h e y e a r h epubl ished his mathemat ical v iews in h ism a s t e r p i e c e , t h e . I n i t h e i n t r o d u c e dfunct ion and probabi l i ty to economics andb r o u g h t t o b e a r h i s b a c k g r o u n d i nmechanics to seek general pr inciples fore c o n o m i c s . H e i s c r e d i t e d w i t h t h ei n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e t h e o r y o f p r o f i tmaximizing producers , tha t i s , he assumedthat par t ic ipants in the exchange processshare the goa l o f wish ing to maximizem o n e t a r y p r o f i t . H e d e r i v e d t h e f i r s tformula for the ru le of supply and demandas a func t ion o f p r i ce . In add i t ion , heconsidered condi t ions for equi l ibr ium withm o n o p o l y , d u o p o l y , a n d p e r f e c tcompet i t ion . He a lso advanced the opinionthat the pract ica l uses of mathemat ics ine c o n o m i c s n e e d n o t i n v o l v e s t r i c tnumerical precis ion.
Courno t ' s duopo ly ma thema t i ca l mode l
c o n c e r n s t w o r i v a l p r o d u c e r s o f a
h o m o g e n e o u s p r o d u c t . E a c h p r o d u c e r
knows tha t h i s compet i to r ' s dec i s ion as to
the quan t i ty o f the p roduc t to make wi l l
a l so impac t the p r i ce he o r she faces and
t h u s t h e p r o f i t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y, e a c h
p r o d u c e r c h o o s e s a q u a n t i t y t h a t
maximizes h i s o r he r p ro f i t s sub jec t to the
quan t i ty r eac t ions o f the compet i t ion .
COURNOT'S MODELThe Model may present many ways but in
t h e o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n , i t m a k e s t h e
a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e t w o f i r m s h a v e
ident ical product and cost . Cournot in his
model takes two f i rms owning a spr ing of
mineral water, which is produced at zero
cost . Here we wil l present br ief ly the same
version and then we wil l genel ise i t to n
f i rm by using mathematical equat ions .
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
49
Cournot assumed that there are twof i rms each owning a mine ra l we l l andoperating with zero cost. In today's wordwhich is not possible. we are explainingonly his Ideas. The firm sells their output
in a market with a s traight l ine demandcurve. The f irm assumes that i ts competi torwil l not change i ts output and decides i tsown output to maximize profi t .
e’
B A O
P’
P e =1
D
P
D’
X
MR
C
A s s u m e t h a t f i r m i s f i r s t t o s t a r tproducing and sel l ing mineral water. I t wil lproduce quanti ty A at price P where profi tsa r e m a x i m u m a n d b e c a u s e M R = M C = 0f i rm has maximum prof i t a t th is point .Now firm assume that wil l keep i tsoutput f ixed (At OA) and hence considersthat i ts own demand curve is . Clearlyf i r m w i l l p r o d u c e h a l f t h e q u a n t i t y because a t th i s l eve l o f ou tpu t i srevenue and profi t is at a maximum. Firm produce half of the market which hasno t been supp l i ed by . Ou tpu t o f of total market .
1X
1X2X
DC
2X
2X
DA
2X
1X
4
1
2
1.
2
12 X
next period. So he will produce one half of
the market which is not supplied by ,
i .e . of total market. Similarly
f o r m a s s u m e t h e s a m e a n d p r o d u c e
1/2(1-3/8)=5/16 of total market.
8
3)
4
11(
2
1
2X
For Next Per iod , f i rm a s sume tha t
w i l l r e t a i n h i s q u a n t i t y
cons tan t i n t he
1X
2X
For Third per iod , In th i rd per iod f i rm
wi l l con t inue to assume tha t wi l l no t
change i t s quan t i ty and thus wi l l p roduce
one ha l f o f the remainder o f the marke t
and so on we wi l l r eached
a t equ i l ib r ium in which each f i rm produce
1 /3 o f the to ta l marke t . To ga ther they
cover the two th i rds o f the to ta l marke t .
Each f i rm maximizes i t s p rof i t in each
p e r i o d b u t t h e i n d u s t r y p r o f i t a r e n o t
maximized . Tha t i s , the f i rms would have
1X2X
32
11)
16
51(
2
1
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
50
higher joint profi ts i f the recognized their
in te rdependence , a f te r the i r fa i lu re in
forecast ing the correct react ion of their
r ival . Recognit ion of their interdependence
would lead them to act as 'a monopolist ' ,
p roducing one ha l f of the to ta l market
output , sel l ing i t at the profi t- maximizing
price P , and sharing the market equally,
that is , each producing one-quarter of the
total market( instead of one-third) .
1. The production of firm 1 in Xsuccessive periods is ;
2
1
8
3)
4
11(
2
1
8
1
2
1
32
11)
16
51(
2
1
32
1
8
1
2
1
128
43)
128
421(
2
1
128
1
32
1
8
1
2
1
Period 1 :
Period 2 :
Period 3:
Period 4:
We o b s e r v e t h a t t h e o u t p u t o f d e c l i n e1X
g r a d u a l l y. We r e w r i t e t h i s e x p r e s s i o n a s
f o l l o w s
Product of in equilibrium = X1
128
1
32
1
8
1
2
1 ...
=32
4
1
8
1
4
1
8
1
4
1
8
1
8
1[
2
1
. . . ]
T h e e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e b r a c k e t s i s a
declining geometric progression with rat io
using sum to infinity on geometric
series4
1r
i . e w e g o t .1 r
a
3
1
24
8
24
4
2
1
2
1
12
1
43
81
41
81
2. The production for the firm in successiveX2
periods is
We observe tha t ' s product ion increases ,X 2
b u t a t a d e c l i n i n g r a t e . I t m a y b e
wri t ten as
Produc t o f in equi l ib r ium = X 2
32
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
. . .
The expression in the brackets is a declining
g e o m e t r i c p r o g r e s s i o n w i t h r a t i o
using sum to infinity on geometric
series4
1r
we got3
1
1 43
41
41
41
Thus the cournot solut ion is s table . Each
f i rm suppl ies 1 /3 of the market , a t a
common pr ice which is lower than the
m o n o p o l y p r i c e , b u t a b o v e t h e p u r e
competi t ive pr ice . I t can be shown that i f
there are three f i rms in the industry, each
wil l produce one-quarter of the market and
al l of them together wil l supply of the
ent i re market .And in general , i f there
a r e n f i r m s i n t h e i n d u s t r y e a c h w i l l
p r o v i d e o f t h e m a r k e t , a n d t h e
industry output wil l be .
4
3
DO
1
1
n
1n
n
Period 2 : 4
1
2
1
2
1
Period 3 : 16
5)
8
31(
2
1
16
1
4
1
Period 4 : 64
21)
32
111(
2
1
64
1
16
1
4
1
Period.5 256
85)
128
431(
2
1
256
1
64
1
16
1
4
1
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
51
1211 )( xxxf
C o u r n o t c o n s i d e r e d t w o f i r m s s e l l i n gh o m o g e n e o u s p r o d u c t i n q u a n t i t i e s . T h e i r t o t a l s a l e w i l l b e I ft h e d e m a n d f u n c t i o n a n d i t si n v e r s e i s . R e v e n u e o ft w o f i r m s i s g i v e n b y :
21, xx .21 xxx )(yDx
)(xfy )(1 xD
2212 )( xxxf
(2)
(1)
Here Cournot disregards production cost .
I f t h e r e w e r e p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s s a y
, i t w i l l be sub t rac t ed f rom
respective revenue functions. But Cournot
r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s w o u l d m a k e a l i t t l e
difference for analysis , so he suggested the
production of mineral water direct from the
source as his case, disregarding bott l ing
costs .
)(),( 2211 xgxg
By substituting, the second 01
1
x
02
2
x,we get the equations:
0)()( 121'
21 xxxfxxf
0)()( 221'
21 xxxfxxf (4)
(3)
These a re imp l i c i t equa t ions be tween two
v a r i a b l e s . S u p p o s e w e s o l v e t h e m
exp l i c i t l y, we ge t
)( 211 xx
)( 122 xx (6)
(5)
The equa t ions (5) - (6) a re ca l led reac t ion
func t ions . They can be regarded in two
d i f f e r e n t w a y s . I t c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s
s imul taneous sys tem, and we can cons ider
them the Cournot equilibrium point
which satisfies (5)-(6). If we see (5) and
(6) as curves, this Cournot equilibrium-
point is the intersection point of the curves.
2
__
1, xx
We can cons ide r the r eac t ion func t ions
in a dynamic p rocess , a s
)( 21'1 xx
)( 12'2 xx (8)
(7)
W h e r e d a s h m e a n s a d v a n c i n g t h e m a pfrom new per iod ' t ' to another per iod ( t+1) .
CONCLUSION
Cournot actual ly regarded the re act ion
f u n c t i o n s b o t h w a y s , i n t e r m s o f
simultaneous equil ibrium, and in terms of a
recursive dynamical system. He lef t , of
c o u r s e , m a n y l o o s e e n d s a n d o b v i o u s
exposures for objections, conceming the
optimization variable, the homogeneity of
the commodity, and the implied strategy in
the adjustment process. In fact , one of the
g r e a t m e r i t s o f C o u r n o t ' s w o r k w a s
keeping scientists busy for more than 150
years
REFRENCES
Puu, · Irina Sushko (2003) “Oligopoly Dynamics
M o d e l s a n d To o l s ” P u b l i s h e d b y
Springer.
Coumot, A. , (1838), “Reeherehes sur les
Prineipes Mathematiques de la Theorie
des Riehesses” (Hachette , Paris)
Vo n N e u m a n n , J , . a n d M o r g e n s t e r n , 0 . ,
( 1 9 4 4 ) , “ T h e o r y o f G a m e s a n d
E c o n o m i c B e h a v i o u r ” ( P r i n c e t o n
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s )
Puu, T., (1991), Chaos in duopoly Pricing,
Chaos, Solitons, & Fractals 1 :573-
581
R and , D . , (1978) , "Exo t i c phenomena in
g a m e s a n d d u o p o l y m o d e l s . ” ,
J o u r n a l o f M a t h e m a t i c a l
Economics 5 :173-184
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
52
MEDICINAL PLANTS WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON ADULTERANTS AND
SUBSTITUTES* Kundailia Neetika, Saroch Vikas, Johar Smita
Dept. of Rasashastra and Bhaishajya Kalpana,
PG School of Ayurveda and Research,
Desh Bhagat University, MGG,Punjab,India*E mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Ayurveda is the fastest growing world. Increased use of Ayurvedic products day by day leads toadulteration. Adulteration and Substitution is a major treat in research field on commercialnatural products. Adulteration may be due to deforestation or extinction of many species.Unavailability and price limit also leads to adulteration and substitution. Concept of substitutecan be found in Bhavaprakasha and Yogaratnakara. This article analyses the trend ofAdulteration and Substitution in present days. Adulteration is a practice of substituting originalcrude drug partially or fully with other similar looking drug/substance which is either free fromchemical and therapeutic properties. Substitution is the replacement of one drug with anotherhaving similar therapeutic properties in non-availability of original drug. According toW.H.O.(World Health Organisation) guidelines , any batch of raw material has to be rejectedwhich has more than 5% of any other plant part of same plant whether it is derived fromauthentic plant. Even in Drugs and Cosmetics Act a motivation step regarding adulterated drugsand spurious drugs has been discussed. As the root of Sida cordifolia and the whole plant of Sidacordifolia can be considered. Root has the chemical constituents such as sitoindoside,acylsteryglycoside, while the whole plant has alkaloid, hydrocarbons, fatty acids and ephedrine.Various extracts of the whole plant showed antibacterial, antioxidant, hypoglycemic,hepatoprotective and cardio tonic activities. Though it is the root which is mentioned as officinalpart of S. cordifolia in the classics as Balya (promotes strength), Shotahara (reduceinflammation) etc. Modern researches prove that even the aerial parts are also equally effective.
KEYWORDS: Ayurveda, Adulteration, Bhavaparkasha, Drugs and Cosmetics Act, Substitution,
Yogaratnakara
INTRODUCTION
Adulteration and Substitution is a major
i s s u e o f t o d a y ' s c o m m e r c i a l n a t u r a l
products. Adulteration may be intentional or
unintentional. Intentional adulteration may
be done for enhancement of profits by using
subs t anda rd commerc ia l s , Supe r f i c i a l l y
s i m i l a r i n f e r i o r d r u g s , A r t i f i c i a l l y
manufactured substances, Exhausted drugs
or any other harmful adulterants. Unintentional
a d u l t e r a t i o n m a y b e d u e t o
Confusion in Vernacular name, Lack of
knowledge of authentic source, Similarity in
morphology, Similarity in colour or due to
careless collections. Crude drugs are also
substituted in unavailability of drug or due
to high price of original drug in market by
using totally different drug, Species
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
53
b e l o n g i n g t o s a m e f a m i l y o r d i f f e r e n tspec ies , Di ffe ren t pa r t s o f p lan t s o r p lan t swhich a re same in ac t ion . Subs t i tu t ion cana l s o b e e n h a n c e d d u e t o g e o g r a p h i c a ld i s t r ibu t ion o f d rugs o r due to adverse
Adulteration
Adul t e ra t ion i s a p rac t i ce o f subs t i tu t ingor ig ina l c rude d rug pa r t i a l ly o r fu l ly wi th
SubstitutionSubstitution is the replacement of one drug withanother having similar therapeutic
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Adulterated drugs (Angadi 2011):A drug may be deemed to be adulterated:
• If it consists, in whole or in part, of any filthy,
putrid or decomposed substance.
• If it has been prepared, packed or stored under
u n s a n i t a r y c o n d i t i o n s w h e r e b y i t
may have been contaminated with filth
or whereby it may have been rendered
injurious to health.
• If its container is composed in whole or in
part, of any poisonous or deleterious
substance that may render the contents
injurious to health.
• I f i t bears or contains , for purposes of
color ing only, a color other than one
that is prescr ibed.
• If i t contains any harmful or toxic
substance which may render it injurious
to health.• I f a n y s u b s t a n c e h a s b e e n m i x e d
therewith so as to reduce i ts qual i ty or
s t rength.
Spurious drugs (Angadi 2011):
A drug may be deemed to be spurious:
• I f i t i s i m p o r t e d u n d e r a n a m e w h i c h
b e l o n g s t o a n o t h e r d r u g .
• If it is an imitation of, or a substitute
reaction of drugs. Concept of substi tute can
b e f o u n d i n B h a v a p r a k a s h a a n d
Yogaratnakara. So, concept of Adulteration
and Substi tution is needed to be analyzed
properly.
other similar looking drug/substance which is
either free from chemical and therapeutic
properties.
p r o p e r t i e s i n n o n - a v a i l a b i l i t y o f o r i g i n a ld r u g .
for, another drug or resembles another
drug in a manner likely to deceive or
bears upon i t or upon i ts label or
container the name of another drug
unless it is plainly and conspicuously
marked so as to reveal its true character
and its lack of identity with such drug.
• If the label or the container bears the name of an individual or company purporting to be the manufacturer of the drug, which individual or company is fictitious does not exist; or if it has been subst i tute in wholly or in part by another drug or substance.
• I f i t purports to be the product of a
manufacturer of whom i t is not t ruly a
product .
TYPES OF ADULTERATION
S u b s t i t u t i o n w i t h s u b s t a n d a r d
c o m m e r c i a l - E g : - P r e s e n c e o f
S t r y c h r o u s N u x - B a n d a i n p l a c e o f
S t r y c h r o u s N u x - v o m i c a .
S u b s t i t u t i o n w i t h S u p e r f i c i a l l y
Similar Inferior Drug - Eg: - Saffron
i s a d m i x e d w i t h d r y f l o w e r s o f
Carthamus, t inctoris ; Bee wax is
substituted by Japan wax.
Substitution with Artificially
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
54
M a n u f a c t u r e d S u b s t a n c e – E g : -
P a r a f f i n w a x i s s u b s t i t u t e d w i t h b e e s
w a x .
Substitution with Exhausted Drug
This practice is more common in drugs
conta in ing vola t i le o i l s l ike Clove,
fennel, Caraway Coriander etc.
Subst i tut ion wi th Synthet ic
C h e m i c a l s t o E n h a n c e N a t u r a l
Character - Eg: - Addi t ion of Benzyl
Benzoa te to Barsam of Peru , Ci t ra l to
C i t rus o i l l ike o i l o f l emon, o range .
Presence of Vegetat ive Matter of
Same Plant - Eg: - The lower parts like
M i o s s , l i v e r w a r t s a n d e p i p h y t e s
growing on the Bark portion are mixed
with Cascara or Cinchona.
H a r m f u l A d u l t e r a n t s - E g : - T h e
a d d i t i o n o f R o d e n t f e c a l m a t t e r t o
C a r d a m u m s e e d i s a v e r y h a r m f u l
a d u l t e r a n t .
Adulteration of Powders - Eg: - The
powdered bark is frequently found to be
adulterated with Brick powder.
Types of Substitution (Om Prakash et al 2013):
U s i n g To t a l l y D i f f e r e n t D r u g -
Bharangi (Clerodendron indicum) and
Kantakari .Bharangi has bi t ter tas te;
laghu (light), ruksha(unctuous) guna
( q u a l i t y ) a n d h a s K a p h a - v a t a h a r a
property. While Kantakari (Solanum
xanthocarpam) has katu vipaka (punjent
d i g e s t i o n ) a n d u s h n a v i r y a ( h o t
potency).
Substitution of the Species Belonging
to Same Family - The Datura metal
a n d D a t u r a s t r a m o n i u m c a n b e
considered here. Chemical constituents
are alkaloids, scopalamine, atropin,
h y o c y a m i n , l y o s c i n e . T h e a l k a l o i d
p r e s e n t i n b o t h t h e s p e c i e s a r e w e l l
p r o v e n b r o n c h o d i l a t o r s a n d a l s o t h e y
i n h i b i t t h e s e c r e t i o n o f m u c o u s
m e m b r a n e o f t h e r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t .
Using Different Species - Two types of
G o k s h u r a v i z . T r i b u l u s
terrestris(Zygophylaceae) and Pedalium
m u r e x ( P e d a l i a c e a e ) o f w h i c h , T.
terrestris has the chemical constituents
l i k e c h l o r o g e n i n , d i o s g e n i n , r u t i n ,
rhamnose and alkaloids. While P.murex
has s i tosterol , ursol ic acid, vani l in ,
flavonoids and alkaloids. The clinical
conditions where Gokshura is indicated
i,e,Mutrakrcra (renal disorder), Ashmari
(urinary calculi) , Prameha (diabetes)
e t c , bo th T. t e r res t r i s and P.murex
appear to be appropriate.
Using Different Parts of the Plant -
The root of Sida cordifolia and the
whole plant of Sida cordifolia can be
c o n s i d e r e d . W h o l e p l a n t s h o w e d
a n t i b a c t e r i a l , a n t i o x i d a n t ,
hypoglycemic , hepa topro tec t ive and
cardio tonic activities.Though root is
ment ioned in the c lass ics as Balya
(promotes strength) , Shotahara (reduce
inflammation) etc. Modern researches
prove that even the aerial parts are also
equally effective .
D u e t o S a m e i n A c t i o n - B o t h
A m a l a k i { E m b e l i c a o f f i c i n a l i s } a n d
Bhal la taka{Semecarpus anacard ium}
are Rasayana ( re juvenator) drugs . In
c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e t h e R a s a y a n a
formulat ions are being employed as an
adjuvant therapy in Chronic as wel l as
Mal ignant d iseases . Amalaki can be
employed as Rasayana in Chronic
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
55
debi l i t a t ing d i seases l ike b ronch ia las thma, diabetes e tc , whi le Bhal la takawould be bet ter choice in mal ignantcondi t ions , both in sol id tumors and inleukemia .
REASON OF ADULTERATION (OmPrakash et al 2013)
1. Confusion in Vernacular Names - In
Ayurveda, Parpatta refers to Fumaria
parviflora. In Siddha, 'Parpadagam'
refers to Mollugo pentaphylla. Owing to
the similarity in the names in traditional
systems of medicine,these two herbs are
often interchanged or adulterated or
substituted.
2. Lack of Knowledge About Authentic
Source - Nagakesar's authentic source is
Mesua ferrea. However, market samples
a r e a d u l t e r a t e d w i t h f l o w e r s o f
Calophyllum inophyllum . Though the
authentic plant is available in plenty
throughout the Western Ghats and parts
of Himalayas, suppliers are unaware of it.
There may also be some restrictions in
forest collection. Due to these reasons, C.
inophyllum (which is in the plains) is sold
as Nagakesar.
3. Similarity in Morphology - Mucuna
pruriens is adulterated with other similar
Papilionaceae seeds having similarity in
morphology. M. utilis (sold as white
variety) and M. deeringiana (sold as
bigger variety) are popular adulterants.
4. Lack of Authentic Plant - Hypericum
perforatum is cultivated and sold in
European markets. In India, availability
of this species is very limited. However,
the abundant Indo-Nepal species H.
patulum, sold in the name of H.
perforatum.
5. Similarity in Colour - Eg.-Ratanjot.
According to the suppliers and non-timer
forest product (NTFP) contractors, in the
past, roots of Ventilago madraspatana
were collected from Western Ghats, as
t h e o n l y s o u r c e o f ' R a t a n j o t ' . A .
euchroma substitutes V.madraspatana.
Recently V. madraspatana is not found in
market. Whatever is available in the
market , in the name of Ratanjot is
originated from A. euchroma.
6. Careless Collections - Some of the
herbal adul tera t ions are due to the
carelessness of herbal collectors and
suppliers. Parmelia perlata is used in
Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha. It is also
used as grocery. Market samples showed
it to be admixed with other species
( P. p e r f o r a t a a n d P. c i r r h a t a ) .
Sometimes, Usnea sp. is also mixed with
them.
C O N D I T I O N S F O R
ADULTERATION(Alqasoumi e t a l 2014)
1. Inferiori ty i s a natura l substandard
condi t ion (e .g . where a crop is taken
whose natura l const i tuent i s be low the
minimum s tandard for tha t par t icular
drug) which can be avoided by more
careful se lec t ion of the p lant mater ia l .
1. Spoilage is a substandard condition
produced by microbial or other pest
infestation, which makes a product unfit
for consumption, which can be avoided
by careful attention to the drying, and
storage conditions.
3. Deterioration is an impairment of the
quali ty or value of an art icle due to
destruction or abstraction of valuable
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
56
consti tuents by bad treatment or agingor to the deliberate extraction of theconsti tuents and the sale of the residueas the original drugs
4. Admixture is the addition of one article
to another through accident, ignorance
or carelessness e.g. inclusion of soil on
a n u n d e r g r o u n d o r g a n o r t h e c o -
collection of two similar species.
5. Sophistication is the deliberate addition
of spurious or inferior material with
intent to defraud; such materials are
carefully produced and may appear at
first sight to be genuine e.g. powder
ginger may be diluted with starch with
addition of little coloring material to
give the correct shade of yellow colour.
6. Subst i tut ion i s the addi t ion of an
entirely different article in place of that
which is required e.g. supply of cheap
cottonseed oil in place of olive oil.
NEED FOR SUBSTITUTION (Poornimaet al 2010)
1. N o n - a v a i l a b i l i t y o f D r u g - E g : -
Subst i tut ion for Ashtavarga Dravyas.
2. Uncertain Identity of the Drug - Eg:-
f o r t he he rb Lakshmana d i f f e r en t
species such as Arlia quinquefolia,
Ipomea sepiaria etc are considered.
3. Cost of the Drug - Eg:- Kumkuma being
costly herb is substituted by Kusumbha.
4. Geographical Distribution of the Drug
- Eg:- As Rasna Plucia lanceolata is
u s e d i n N o r t h e r n I n d i a w h i l e i n
sou theren par t s Alp in ia ga langa i s
considered as the source.
5. Adverse Reaction of the Drug - Eg: -
Vasa is a well-known Rakta-Pittahara
drug, but due to its Abortificiant activity ]
6. I ts uti l i ty in pregnant women is l imited, instead drugs such as Laksha, Ashoka etc are substi tuted.
CRITERIA FOR SUBSTITUTION(Poornima B et al 2010)
1. Similarity in Ras-Panchakas - Eg: -
Bharangi and Kantakari.
2. Exhibit Similar Therapeutic Efect - Eg: - Ativisha and Musta.
3. I n a F o r m u l a t i o n t h e P r a d h a n a
Dravya, I.e. is the Major ingredient
should never be substituted - Eg:-
whi le p repar ing Bharangyaadi Guda
should not Substitute Bharangi with any
other with any other drug.
DETERIORATION OF HERBALDRUGS
Being adulteration of drugs, crude drugs are
a l s o p r o n e t o r i s k o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n .
Deterioration may be due to many factors
including storage conditions or stability of
secondary metabolites.
P R I M A R Y FA C T O R S F O R
DETERIORATION(Alqasoumi et a l 2014)
1.Light - Photo-decomposi t ion occurs
with santonin, the principal constituents
of wormseed, which on exposure to
light darkens and eventually becomes
black. Powdered rhubarb stored in clear
g l a s s j a r s r a p i d l y c h a n g e s a s t h e
exposed surfaces turning from yellow to
m o r e r e d d i s h c o l o u r . F o r t h e s e ,
m e d i c i n a l p l a n t m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r i n g
p r o t e c t i o n f r o m l i g h t s h o u l d b e
maintained in a light resistant container
or container maybe placed inside a
suitable light resistant (opaque)
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
57
covering and/or stored in a dark place.
2. Moisture/Humidity - Drugs stored in
non-airtight containers are termed air-
dry and contain about 10-12% of water
depend ing on the humid i ty o f t he
atmosphere. This amount of water is
su ff i c i en t t o ac t iva te the enzymes
present in some dried plant materials,
such as Digitalis and bring about the
decomposition of the active glycosides.
Such drug should therefore be stored
with a dehydrating agent or in sealed
containers immediately after drying.
Therefore strict humidity control is
necessary while storing; low moisture
may be maintained.
3. Te m p e r a t u r e - M a n y e n z y m a t i c
c h a n g e s i n t h e p l a n t s e c o n d a r y
metabolites proceed more rapidly at the
slightly raised temperature up to about
4 5 ° C , e . g . t h e p e t a l s o f r o s e a n d
chamomile all loose oil with an increase
in temperature; cotton wool, ones fully
a b s o r b e n t w i l l g r a d u a l l y b e c o m e
completely non-absorbent because of
the effect of temperature.
4. Airic Oxidation - Direct oxidation of
t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f c r u d e d r u g i s
sometime brought about by the oxygen
of the air, e .g. Linseed oil rapidly
become resinified as like the oil of
Turpentine and oil of Lemon ; cod-liver
oil, which involves the formation of
unstable peroxides, is also an oxidative
process. Thus, these types of materials
require storage in a well-filled, airtight
container.
S E C O N D A RY FA C T O R S F O R
DETERIORATION (Alqasoumi et a l 2014)
1. Bacteria and Moulds - Dried herbs are
particularly liable to be contaminated
with the spores of the bacteria and
moulds, which are always present in the
air. The effect produced by bacteria are
n o t a l w a y s v e r y v i s i b l e w i t h t h e
exception of some chromogenic species
of bacteria, e.g. Bacillus prodigious,
which produced red patches in starchy
materials. However, bacterial growth is
usually accompanied by the crude drug
by growth of moulds whose presence is
quickly evident by the characteristics
m e l l a n d b y t h e m a s s o f c l i n g i n g
par t ic les en t rapped in the myce l ia l
hyphae.
2 . M i t e s a n d N e m a t o d e W o r m s -
D i ffe ren t mi tes found usua l ly inc lude
Ty ro g l y p h c e s s i ro ( C h e e s e m i t e ) ;
A leurob ius far inae (F lour mi te ) and
G l y c y p h a g u s s p i n i p e s ( C a n t h a r i d e s
mi te ) .The bes t known examples o f
nematode worms a re "Vinegar ee l " -
Tu r b a t r i x a c e t i , A n g u i l l u l a a c e t i ,
A n g u i n a t r i t i c i w h i c h a r e f o u n d
in whea t f lour o r in the c rude d rug
con ta in ing s ta rchy mate r ia l s .
3. Insects/Moths - The moths involved
are e.g. Ephestia kuehniella (Flour
moth ) ; E. e l lu te l la (Cocoa moth ) .
B e s i d e s t h i s s o m e o t h e r i n s e c t s ,
c o c k r o a c h e s , a n t s a n d o t h e r s a r e
sometimes found to cause deterioration
to the stored products.
4. Coleoptera or Beetles - Stegobium
paniceum is one beetle, which is found
i n a m a n y d r u g s i n c l u d i n g g e n t i a n ,
l iquorice and rhubarb as well as leafy
drugs and seeds. Belonging to the same
family is Lasioderma serricorne
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
58
(tobacco or cigar beetle) which is found
in many stored crude drugs including
ginger and liquorice.
CONTROL MEASURES FOR
DETERIORATION
A. Use of air tight containers:
1. The container used for storage and i ts
closure must not interact physically or
chemically with the material within in
a n y w a y w h i c h w o u l d a l t e r i t s
composit ion.
2. A well closed container must protect the
contents from extraneous matter or from
loss of the material while handling.
3. A tightly closed container must protect
t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m e f f l o r e s c e n c e ,
del iquescence or evaporat ion under
normal condition of handling or storage.
B. Good housekeeping :
1. The principles, which apply to the
control of infestation in warehouses, are
e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o s m a l l - s c a l e
storage.
2. Good housekeeping is utmost essential.
3. E a c h s t o c k s h o u l d b e i n s p e c t e d
regularly and the material found to be
contaminated is best to be destroyed by
burning.
C. Other conditions :
1. Cool, dry condition is the most suitable
for the retardation of living organisms.
As all leaves organisms require water
for the development, perfectly dry drugs
shou ld be immune f rom secondary
deterioration.
2. Sterilized drugs should comply with an
acceptable limit for toxic residues e.g.
for Senna pods 50 ppm of ethylene oxide isthe limit.
Unintentional adulteration (S.K.Mitra et al
2007) Unintentional adulteration may be due to
following reasons.
1 . C o n f u s i o n i n v e r n a c u l a r n a m e s
between indigenous systems of medicine
and local dialects -In Ayurveda, 'Parpatta'
r e f e r s t o F u m a r i a p a r v i f l o r a .
I n S i d d h a ' P a r p a d a g a m ' r e f e r s
t o M o l l u g o p e n t a p h y l l a . O w i n g t o t h e
similarity in the names in traditional systems
of medic ine , these two herbs are of ten
i n t e r c h a n g e d o r a d u l t e r a t e d o r
substituted.Casuarina equisetifolia for Tama
rix indica andAerva lanata for Bergenia cili
a t a a r e s o m e o t h e r e x a m p l e s f o r
adulterations due to confusion in names.
2. Lack of knowledge about the authentic
p l a n t - N a g a k e s a r ' s a u t h e n t i c s o u r c e
is Mesua ferrea. However, market samples
a r e a d u l t e r a t e d w i t h f l o w e r s
of Calophyl lum inophyl lum . Though the
a u t h e n t i c p l a n t i s a v a i l a b l e i n p l e n t y
throughout the Western Ghats and parts
of Himalayas, suppliers are unaware of it.
There may also be some restrictions in forest
c o l l e c t i o n . D u e t o t h e s e
reasons, C. inophyllum (which is in the
plains) is sold as Nagakesar.
3. Non-availability of the authentic plant -
Hypericum perforatum is cultivated and sold
in European markets. In India, availability of
this species is very limited. However, the
abundant Indo-Nepal species H. patulum ,
sold in the name of H. perforatum.
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
59
4. Similarity in morphology and or aroma
-Eg:-Mucuna pruriens is adulterated with
other similar papilionaceae seeds. M. utilis (sold
as white variety) and M. deeringiana (sold
as bigger variety).
5. Careless col lect ion - Some of the herbal
adul terat ions are due to the carelessness of
h e r b a l c o l l e c t o r s a n d
s u p p l i e r s . P a r m e l i a p e r l a t a i s u s e d
in Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha. I t is a lso
used as grocery. Market samples showed i t
t o b e a d m i x e d w i t h o t h e r s p e c i e s
( P . p e r f o r a t a a n d P . c i r r h a t a ) .
Sometimes, Usnea sp . is a lso mixed with
them.
6. Other unknown reasons -Eg:-Vidari's
authentic source is Pueraria tuberosa and its
substitute is Ipomoea digitata . However,
market samples are not derived from these
two. Rather an endangered gymnosperm
C y c a s c i r c i n a l i s i s s o l d i n
plenty as Vidari. The adulterated materials
originated from Kerala, India. Though both
the authentic plant and its substitute are
a v a i l a b l e i n p l e n t y t h r o u g h o u t I n d i a ,
how C. circinalis became a major source for
this drug is unknown.
DETECTION OF ADULTERATION
(Wallis T.E.2005)
Detection of adulteration is the necessity of
modern era and can be done by following
ways:
1. Establish the identity of the adulterant.
2. Determine the quality of the drug.
To e s t a b l i s h i d e n t i t y s e v e r a l m e t h o d s o fa p p r o a c h m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d :
a. The Gross Morphology will give definite information about unground
d r u g s s u c h a s I n d i a n s e n n a p o d ssubstituted for Alexandrian pods; coniumfruit adulterating anise.
b. Histology and Microscopical
M o r p h o l o g y i s v a l u a b l e f o r b o t h
p o w d e r s a n d u n g r o u n d d r u g s . F o r
e x a m p l e , R e c o g n i t i o n o f m a n y
adulterants of belladona herb by the
palisade ratio, by the stomach index or by
trichomes; Japanese chillies and fruits of
Capsicum annuum in powdered cayenne
pepper by the cells of the epidermis of
the pericarp.
c. Microscopical Linear measurements:
The length of the stomata in leaves of
Barosma betulina will exclude leaves of
other species of Barosma.
d. So lubi l i ty ' s , espec ia l ly excep t iona l
behavior towards solvents, are useful for
the examination of many oils, oleo-resins
etc. For example, solubility of castor oil
in half its volume of light petroleum.
e. Qualitative chemical tests - The copper
acetate test for colophony which occurs
as an adulterant for balsams, resins and
waxes.
f. Physical constants such as specific
g rav i ty, op t i ca l ro ta t ion , v i scos i ty,
refractive index are especially valuable
for oils and fats, oleo-resins, balsams and
similar substances.
g. Ultra-violet l ight - Drugs such as
hydrastis, calumba, viburnum and wild
cherry bark show brilliant effects in
ultra-violet light, and these also may be
used to aid in identification and to
detect certain adulterants which do not
exhibit a similar florescence.
h. Processes of assay for alkaloid, resin,
volatile oil, glycoside, vitamins or other
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
60
const i tuent .Examples are the assay of
to ta l a lkaloid in bel ladonna herb, the
res in in ja lap, the cardiac ac t iv i ty in
digi ta l i s and the v i tamins in cod- l iver
oi l .I Yield to solvents - For example, the
amount of insoluble matter will indicate
the presence of an unreasonable amount
of woody matter or pieces of bark or of
vegetable debris in drugs such as myrrh,
balsam of tolu, catechu etc.
j. Ash - The determination of ash is useful
fo r de tec t ing low grade p roduc t s ,
exhausted drugs and excess of sandy or
earthy matter; it is more especially
appl icable to powdered drugs . For
example, one can obtain evidence of the
presence of excessive earthy matter,
which is likely to occur with roots and
rhizomes and with leaves which are
d e n s e l y p u b e s c e n t , l i k e t h o s e o f
foxglove, or are clothed with abundant
trichomes secreting resin, as in henbane,
and tend to retain earthy matter splashed
on to them during heavy rainstorms.
k. Crude fibre - For example, it is useful to
determine the presence of clove stalks in
cloves.
l. Quantitative microscopy - For example,
Starches or starchy drugs, when used as
a d u l t e r a n t s , c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y
counting the number of starch grains per
milligramme and calculating the amount
from the known number of starch grains
per milligramme of the pure starch or
starchy material. Thus, if spent gi nger is
the adulterant, one knows that ginger
con ta in s 286 ,000 s t a r ch g ra in s pe r
milligramme and the amount used as an
adulterant can be calculated by using this
f i g u r e ; C a s s i a i s s u b s t i t t u e d f o r
cinnamon, either wholly or in part, one
c a n u s e t h e e s t a b l i s h e d d a t a t h a t
powdered cinnamon has a mean length of
2 6 5 m . o f f i b r e s p e r g r a m m e , a n d
powdered cassia has a mean length of
only 40m. of fibres per gramme
R E S U LT S
Table 1: Commonly used substitute drugs in Ayurveda(Mishra Nadan 2011)
S.NO. Common name Latin name Substitute drug Latin name
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Svarna
Svarnamakshika
Mulethi
Draksha
Shitalchini
Sweta Punarnava
White Sarson
Auru
Copper pyrite
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Vitis vinifera
Piper cubeba
Boerhaavia verticillata
Brassica campestris
Svarnamakshika
Svarnagairika
Dhataki pushpa
Gambhari phala
Javitri
Rakta Punarnava
Yellow or Red Sarson
Copper pyrite
Ochre/Haematite
Woodfordia fruticosa
Gmelina arborea
Myristica fragrans
Boerhaavia diffusa
Brassica campestris
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
61
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Chavya/Gajpiper
Pushkarmula
Rasanjana
Vaiduryadi ratna bhasma
Kantlauhabhasma
Jivaka
Kakoli
Lauha
Daruhaldi
Sona-Chandi
Samundra lavana /
Saindhava lavana
Prishanparni
Kesar
Mukta
Jeera
Meda
Piper retrofractum/
Piper chaba
Inula racemosa
Antimony ore
Beryllium aluminate
Magnetic iron ore/Magnetite
Microstylis wallichii
Roscoea procera
Ferrum
Berberis aristata
Auru-Argentinum
Sea salt/Rock salt
Uraria picta
Crocus sativus
Pearl
Cuminum cyminum
Polygonatumverticillatum
Piperamula
Kustha
Daruhaldikvatha
Mukta bhasma
Tikshanalauhabhasma
Guduchi
Shatavari
Mandur
Haldi
Lauha
Vidlavana
Shalparni
Haldi
Shukti churna
Dhaniya
Asvagandha
Piper longum
Saussurea lappa
Berberis aristata
Pearl
Wrought iron
Tinospora cordifolia
Asparagus racemosus
Iron oxide
Curcuma longa
Ferrum
Ammonium chloride
Desmodiumgangeticum
Curcuma longa
Pearl oyster
Coriandrum sativum
Withania somnifera
Table 2: List of substitutes (Asha et al 2010)
Drug Substituted drug
Citraka (Plumbago zeylanica)
Tagara (Valeriana wallichi)
Kamala (Nelumbo nucifera)
Nilotpala (Nymphea stellata)
Jatipatra (Myristica fragrans)
Latex of Arka (Calotropis procera)
Pauskara (Inula racemosa)
Apamarga (Achyranthes aspera)
Kustha (Saussurea lappa)
Kamalaksa (Nelumbo nucifera)
Kumuda (Nymphea nouchali)
Jatiphala (Myristica fragrans) /Lavanga (Syzygium aromaticum)
Juice of Arka (Calotropis procera)
Eranda (Ricinus communis)
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
62
Saurastri (Alum/Alunite)
Bhargi (Clerodendrum serratum)
Madhuyasti (Glycyrrhiza glabra)
Kasturi
Rakta candana (Pterocarpus santalinus)
Musta (Cyperus rotundus)
Haritaki (Terminalia chebula)
Meda (Polygonatum verticillatum)
Jivaka (Microstylis wallichii)Kakoli (Roscoea procera)
Rddhi (Habenaria edgeworthii) / Vrddhi
(Habenaria intermedia)
Honey
Svarna bhasma (Auru)
Parada bhasma (Hydragyrurum)
Cow milk
Kankola (Piper cubeba)
Sphatika (Potash alum)
Root of Kantakari (Solanum surrattense)
Dhataki (Woodfordia fruticosa)
Kankola (Piper cubeba)
Jatipuspa/Malati(Jasminum
officinale/Myristica fragrans)
Fresh Usira (Vetiveria zizanioides)
Ativisa (Aconitum heterophylum)
Karkatasrngi (Pistacia integerrima)
Vari
Asvagandha (Withania somnifera)
Varahi (Dioscorea bulbifera)
Old Jaggery
Rasa-sinndura (Red sulphide of Mercury)
Goat milk
Vidari (Pueraria tuberosa)
Lauha bhasma (Ferrum)
DISCUSSION
Adul te ra t ion and subs t i tu t ion i s an o ld
criteria of using another drugs in place of
authentic ones for enhancement of profits or
in non-availabil i ty of drug. Adulterat ion
m a y b e i n t e n t i o n a l o r u n i n t e n t i o n a l .
Substitution can be done due to non-
avai labi l i ty of drug or to reduce or ig ina l
drugs cos t . I t g ives a choice of drugs to
phys ic ian to use . Due to increased demand
o f a y u r v e d i c p r o d u c t s d a y b y d a y
adul tera t ion had increased which has to be
regula ted .
CONCLUSION
Due to increase in demand of ayurvedic
products day by day adulteration has been
increased for enhancement of profit. So, to
regulate adulteration, manufacturing has to
be standardized. Drugs should be uniform in
q u a l i t y , b o t h a s r e g a r d s o r i g i n a n d
cleanliness and also with respect to the
c o n t e n t o f t h e r a p e u t i c a l l y a c t i v e
constituents. Such uniformity is necessary to
ensure an expected effect when a particular
dose is prescribed and also to assist the
pharmacis t in making ga len ica l s which
always be of uniform strength (Wall is T.E
2005) .According to W.H.O. (World Heal th
Organizat ion) guidel ines , any batch of raw
mater ia l has to be rejected which has more
than 5% of any other plant par t of same
plant whether i t i s der ived from authent ic
plant . Same therapeut ic effect as that of
or iginal drug promotes subst i tut ion. So,
Standardizat ion, Detect ion of adul terat ion
a n d W . H . O . g u i d e l i n e s a r e t h e
r e g u l a t o r y m e t h o d s o f a d u l t e r a t i o n .
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
63
REFERENCES
A d u l t e r a t i o n o f H e r b a l D r u g s , R e t r i e v e d o n 2 0 1 4 J a n u a r y 2 5
D r. K u m a r i A s h a , D r. Te w a r i P r e m v a t i ,
( 2 0 1 0 ) , c o m p l e t e t r e a t i s e o n
Ayurveda Yogara tnakaraChaukhamba
Visvabhara t i , 1 ,191-195.
O m P r a k e s h e t a l / J o u r n a l o f M e d i c i n a l
P l a n t s S t u d i e s ( 2 0 1 3 ) , I S S N : 2 3 2 0 -
3 8 6 2 1 , I s s u e : 4 1 2 7 - 1 3 2 .
Poornima B. Adulteration and substitution in
herbal drugs a critical analysis, IJRAP
2010; 1(1): 8-12. Retrieved on 2014 June
25
P r o f . M i s h r a N a n d a n S i d d h i , e d i t o r .
Bhaisajya Ratnavali of Kaviraj Govind
Das Sen; 2011,Verse 1-44. Varanasi:
Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan,4/70
-72.
R a v i n d r a A n g a d i ( 2 0 11 ) , A t e x t b o o k o f
B h a i s a j y a K a l p a n a V i j n a n a
( P h a r m a c e u t i c a l s c i e n c e ) ,
Chapter-49,,Varanasi:ChaukhambaSurbharati Prakashan Pg.No. 457.
R a v i n d r a A n g a d i ( 2 0 11 ) , A t e x t b o o k o f B h a i s a j y a K a l p a n a V i j n a n a ( P h a r m a c e u t i c a l s c i e n c e ) , Va r a n a s i : C h a u k h a m b a S u r b h a r a t i P r a k a s h a n . 4 9 - 4 5 7 , 4 5 8 .
S.K.Mitra and R.Kannan(2007) A Note on
U n i n t e n t i o n a l A d u l t e r a t i o n i n
Ay u r v e d i c H e r b s R & D C e n t e r ,
T h e H i m a l a y a D r u g C o m p a n y ,
Bangalore-562123. India. 23 January
Wallis T.E., Text book of Pharmacognosy
(2005), New Delhi:CBS publishers and
distributors Pvt. Ltd.;19,564.
Wa l l i s T. E . , Te x t b o o k o f P h a r m a c o g n o s y
2 0 0 5 , N e w D e l h i : C B S p u b l i s h e r s a n d
d i s t r i b u t o r s P v t . L t d . ; . 1 9 / 5 5 8 - 5 6 3 .
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
64
TPM- A review1 1 2*Gurpreet Singh , Ravinder Singh , Jagdeep Singh
1Assistant Professor, Desh Bhagat University,
Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab, 1473012Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Punjabi University Patiala, Punjab
*Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACTTPM is the management approach focused on achieving major enhancement in operations
through small incremental changes in the manufacturing system processes. Research is stil l
lacking to identify different strategies involved in implementing TPM approach. This study
attempts to identify useful contributions in this field and present a review of li terature on
TPM systematically. Different concepts, need for this approach, benefits and case studies
related to this field have been discussed.
Keywords: TQM (Total Quality Management), JIT (Just in Time) and TPM (Totalproductive maintenance)
INTRODUCTION
Total Product ive Maintenance (TPM) is a
v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o o l f o r e q u i p m e n t
intensive manufactur ing sectors . I t i s a key
means for increasing machine avai labi l i ty,
and a vi ta l s tep in l inking machines to
c r e a t e b e t t e r f l o w. To t a l P r o d u c t i v e
Maintenance is the combinat ion of three
words: Total implies a comprehensive
look at all activities that relate to
maintenance of equipment and the
impact each has upon availability.
Productive relates to the end goal
o f t h e e f f o r t i . e . e f f i c i e n t
product ion not mere ly eff ic ient
maintenance as is often mistakenly
assumed. Maintenance signifies the directional
thrust of the program in ensuring
reliable processes and maintaining
production. (Ljungberg 1998).
T h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y h a sexperienced an unprecedented degree of
change in the las t three decades , involvingd r a s t i c c h a n g e s i n m a n a g e m e n ta p p r o a c h e s , p r o d u c t a n d p r o c e s st e c h n o l o g i e s , c u s t o m e r e x p e c t a t i o n s ,suppl ier a t t i tudes as wel l as compet i t ivebehaviour. In today 's highly dynamic andrapidly changing environment , the globalcompet i t ion among organizat ions has leadto higher demands on the manufactur ingorganizat ions . The global marketplace hasw i t n e s s e d a n i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e f r o mc u s t o m e r s a n d c o m p e t i t o r s i nmanufactur ing as wel l as service sector(Ahuja and Khamba, 2008) . Manufacturershave to offer a great var ie ty of products inthe leas t amount of t ime on a high qual i tylevel for an acceptable pr ice . Beside theseaspects some authors s t ress the importanceof f lexibi l i ty (Upton, 1994) . As a resul t ,manufactur ing organizat ions are deployingsuch s t ra tegies . This paper reviews a largenumber of papers in this f ie ld and presentst h e o v e r v i e w o f v a r i o u s T P Mimplementat ion pract ices demonstra ted bymanufactur ing organizat ions global ly.
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The essence o f TPM was deve loped inDenso a t ier one automotive suppl ier in theTo y o t a g r o u p o f s u p p l i e r s d u r i n g t h e1 9 6 0 ' s a n d 7 0 ' s i n J a p a n . T h e c e n t r a lt h r u s t o f t h e p r o g r a m i s t h e c o m p l e t eel iminat ion of what are ca l led the “s ixmajor machine losses” i .e . breakdowns, setu p t i m e , c y c l e t i m e l o s s e s , m i n o rstoppages, scrap and rework, and yield ors tar t up losses . In response to maintenanceand support problems in the commercialf a c t o r y, t h e J a p a n e s e d e v e l o p e d a n dintroduced the concept of TPM in 1971.Manufactur ing organizat ions s t r iving forworld class performance have shown thatt h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a n e f f e c t i v emaintenance s t rategy can be s ignif icant inproviding competi t ive advantage throughi t s to ta l product ive main tenance (TPM)program. The emergence of TPM is
i n t e n d e d t o b r i n g b o t h f u n c t i o n s(product ion and maintenance) together bya combinat ion of good working pract ices ,t e a m w o r k i n g a n d c o n t i n u o u simprovement . Firs t developed in Japan in1971 by the Japanese Inst i tute of PlantMaintenance (JIPM) and widely adoptedin Japanese f i rms today, TPM is a not iont a k e n f r o m t h e T Q M c o n c e p t o f z e r op r o d u c t i o n d e f e c t s a n d a p p l y i n g i t t oequipment where the a im is to have zerob r e a k d o w n s a n d m i n i m a l p r o d u c t i o nlosses (Taj i r i , 1992) .TPM is def ined by( N a k a j i m a ( 1 9 8 8 ) a s t h e c o m b i n a t i o nbetween the involvement of tota l employeeand Japanese thought of managing totalq u a l i t y a n d “ A m e r i c a n p r e v e n t i v emaintenance”. This approach is der ived byJ a p a n t o s u p p o r t t h e s y s t e m o f l e a nmanufactur ing.
Literature review related to conceptualframework
(Gall imore and Penlesky (1988) defined
total productive maintenance (TPM) as an
aggressive strategy that focuses on actually
improving the function and design of the
production equipment . Maintenance may
participate in these improvements through
i n v o l v e m e n t i n e ! o r t s t o i m p r o v e t h e
design of new and exist ing equipment.( M a c a u l a y ( 1 9 8 8 ) d e f i n e d T P M i s aphi losophy of main tenance managementd e v e l o p e d i n J a p a n e s e m a n u f a c t u r i n gplants to support the implementat ion ofj u s t - i n - t i m e m a n u f a c t u r i n g , a d v a n c e dmanufactur ing technologies and to supporteffor ts a t improving product qual i ty. TPMact iv i t ies focus on e l iminat ing the `s ixm a j o r l o s s e s . T h e s e l o s s e s i n c l u d eequipment fa i lure , se t -up and adjustmentt ime, id l ing and minor s toppages , reduceds p e e d , d e f e c t s i n p r o c e s s a n d r e d u c e dyield .( R h y n e ( 1 9 9 0 ) i n t r o d u c e s T P M a s acol labora t ion between product ion funct iona n d c o m p a n y m a i n t e n a n c e t o i n c r e a s eproduct qual i ty, reduce waste , reduce thecost of manufactur ing, increase equipment
access ib i l i ty, and enhance the s ta te of the
organiza t ion regard ing main tenance .
Ts u c h i y a , ( 1 9 9 2 ) d e f i n e d T P M a s as t r a t e g y t o m a x i m i z e e q u i p m e n teffec t iveness improving overa l l e ff ic iencyb y e s t a b l i s h i n g a c o m p r e h e n s i v eproduct ive-maintenance sys tem cover ingthe ent i re l i fe of the equipment , spanningal l equipment- re la ted f ie lds p lanning, use ,m a i n t e n a n c e , e t c . a n d , w i t h t h epar t ic ipa t ion of a l l employees f rom topmanagement down to shop-f loor workers ,t o p r o m o t e p r o d u c t i v e m a i n t e n a n c et h r o u g h m o t i v a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t o rvoluntary smal l -group ac t iv i t ies .(Blanchard e t a l . (1995) sugges t tha t TPMconcept can be def ined as a compet i t ion ofa c t i v i t i e s t o i m p r o v e t h e s t r u c t u r e o fc o m p a n i e s b y m e a n s o f i m p r o v i n g t h eequipment and the employee ' s ta len t in thecompany. Based on th is concept , TPM isc l a s s i f i e d i n t o a n i n d e p e n d e n tp r e s e r v a t i o n , q u a l i t y p r e s e r v a t i o n , a nindiv idual ' s improvement , an envi ronmentsafe ty, a p lanned reserva t ion , an ac t iv i tysuppor t ing a bus iness and educa t ion &tra in ing .Wi t t (2006) saw TPM as a communica t ion ,in which the re i s an
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o p p o r t u n i t y t h a t e n a b l e s o p e r a t o r s , a n d
m a i n t e n a n c e e n g i n e e r s a n d p e o p l e
c o m m u n a l l y c o o p e r a t e a n d d e d u c e e a c h
o t h e r ' s l a n g u a g e .
(Ahuja (2009) re fe r s to TPM as g rea t lyknown and ac t ing as a weapon of s t ra tegyfor enhanc ing manufac tur ing per formanceb y i m p r o v i n g p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e se ffec t ive ly. The au thor a l so p roposes tha tTPM is a co l lec t ion o f methodolog ies andprac t i ces which improve manufac tu r inge q u i p m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d w a sdeve loped towards ex tens ive e ffo r t s t omaximize manufac tur ing produc t iv i ty.
(Endrenyi (2001) define TPM as a managementp h i l o s o p h y w h i c h r e c o g n i s e s t h a tc u s t o m e r s a t i s f a c t i o n , p l a n t a n dp e o p l e ' s h e a l t h , s a f e t y, e n v i r o n m e n t a lconsiderations and business objectives arem u t u a l l y d e p e n d e n t . T h e p r i n c i p l e s o fTotal Productive Maintenance (TPM) havebeen around for some time and much hardwork has been done on the subjec t byvarious organisations. TPM is about
h a r n e s s i n g h u m a n a n d m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e
i n t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e w a y t o a c h i e v e a n
o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s o b j e c t i v e s .
( K e u n g ( 2 0 0 3 ) c l a i m s t h a t T P M i s a l l
a b o u t To t a l P l a n t M a i n t e n a n c e . T h e
u n d e r l y i n g c o n c e p t i s , i f y o u p r o p e r l y
m a i n t a i n p l a n t m a c h i n e r y t h e r e w i l l s e e a
s h a r p d e c l i n e i n m a c h i n e b r e a k d o w n s ,
s a f e t y a n d q u a l i t y p r o b l e m s . U n d e r T P M ,
m a c h i n e o p e r a t o r s c a r r y o u t r o u t i n e
m a i n t e n a n c e s u c h a s c h e c k i n g w a t e r, o i l ,
c o o l a n t , a n d a i r l e v e l s . T h i s m a y i n v o l v e
s o m e t r a i n i n g o f m a c h i n e o p e r a t o r s .
(Bernste in (2005) suggests that TPM isbeing design as a method to improve thea v a i l a b i l i t y o f m a c h i n e s t h r o u g h t h euti l izat ion of maintenance. Some peoplemight th ink tha t TPM is “de te r io ra t ionprevention”, which means is what happensnatural ly to anything that is not “taken careof”. For this reason many people refer toTPM as "total productive manufacturing"or "total process management"
Literature review related to casestudies/ Surveys
( M c K o n e e t a l . ( 2 0 1 2 ) e x p l o r e s t h econtextual differences of plants to bet terunderstand what types of companies haveadopted TPM programs. They propose atheoret ical framework for understandingthe use of TPM and how i t depends onmanagerial factors such as Just- in-Time(JIT), Total Quali ty Management (TQM)and Employee Involvement (EI) . as well asenvironmental and organizat ional factorssuch as country, industry and companyc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e a u t h o r t e s t t h i sframework using data from 97 plants inthree different countries to determine whattypes o f companies a re mos t l ike ly toaggressively pursue TPM practices. Thea u t h o r c o n d u c t e d t h i s s t u d y t o b e t t e runderstand what types of companies haveadopted TPM programs. The contextualv a r i a b l e s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c he x p l a i n b e t w e e n 2 5 % a n d 6 3 % o f t h evariance in the perceptual TPM measures.
This indicates that TPM is dependent on contextual
differences between companies.
(Hassan (2012) presents a model for to ta lproduct ive maintenance for an e lec t r ica lmaintenance sys tem in a dr i l l ing r ig . Thework in t roduces an overview on one of themodel ing techniques ca l led causa l loopdiagram in conjunct ion wi th applying thet o t a l p r o d u c t i v e m a i n t e n a n c e s y s t e mdynamics for improving the avai labi l i ty ofthe o i l dr i l l ing equipment . The model hasb e e n d e v e l o p e d u s i n g t h e c a u s a l l o o pdiagrams (CLD) s imula t ion technique andhas showed that applying TPM improvesthe e lec t r ica l maintenance sys tem throughi m p r o v e d e q u i p m e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y a n dreduced downt ime. Simula t ion saves cos ta n d t i m e t o p r e d i c t t h e a c t u a limplementa t ion model outputs . Also i t hasf l e x i b i l i t y i n t r a c k i n g t h e e f f e c t o fchanging any var iable through the modelruns .(Mokashi (2002) identified specific problemsl i k e l y t o b e e n c o u n t e r e d i nendeavour of implementing reliability-
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cen t red main tenance (RCM) on sh ips . A
sub jec t ive qua l i t a t ive approach has been
proposed to overcome the l imi ta t ions o f
the de f in i t ive log ic used by the dec i s ion
t r e e s a n d t h e d e m a n d f o r f a i l u r e d a t a
imposed by quan t i t a t ive methods . A fue l
o i l pur i f i ca t ion sys tem has been used as a
t e s t c a se t o demons t r a t e i t s u se . I t i s
c o n c l u d e d t h a t R C M i s a m a i n t e n a n c e
methodology may be cons idered by some
t o b e d i f f i c u l t t o i m p l e m e n t , a s a
ph i losophy i t s sa l i en t po in t s can eas i ly be
u s e d b y t h e s e a f a r e r s t o m a k e t h e i r
main tenance p lans o r dec i s ions .
K o c h e r e t a l . ( 2 0 1 2 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h ec o n t r i b u t i o n o f t o t a l p r o d u c t i v emaintenance in i t ia t ives to manufactur ingindustr ies in India . The s tudy is carr ied outa t case company Leader Valves Ltd . inIndia that has in i t ia ted the TPM st ra tegies .T h e O E E f o r C N C Tu r n i n g i s 3 1 . 9 7 %against the des i red level of 85%. In thecase s tudy f i rm, there have been a t temptsb y m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e m a i n t e n a n c eworkers to involve the product ion peoplein bas ic maintenance work.
OH e t a l . (2008) presen t a theore t i ca lmodel f rom the re la t ionship between theact ive factors of the TPM program andmanagement resul ts for a product ivi ty andqual i ty increase , and to invest igate thed i r e c t a n d i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s o n t h em a n a g e m e n t o f a c o m p a n y t h r o u g h aparametr ic s tudy. A quest ionnaire surveyof 300 companies that present ly ut i l ize theTPM program has been conducted. Resul tindicated that TPM act ive factors exceptfor an independent preservat ion have aposi t ive effect on equipment ' s eff ic iencya n d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d p e r s o n n e lmanagement .(Swanson (2001) repor ts the resul t s of as t u d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e nmaintenance s t ra tegies and per formance .Based on the responses f rom a survey ofp l a n t m a n a g e r s a n d m a i n t e n a n c em a n a g e r s , t h e a n a l y s i s s h o w s s t r o n gpos i t ive re la t ionships be tween proact iveand aggress ive maintenance s t ra tegies andperformance . The in tent of th is paper was
to explore different maintenance s trategies
and their re la t ionship with maintenance
and plant performance. The resul ts of the
exploratory factor analysis are consis tent
w i t h t h e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t m a i n t e n a n c e
strategies described in the l i terature.
( M c K o n e ( 2 0 0 1 ) i n v e s t i g a t e t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n To t a l P r o d u c t i v e
Main tenance (TPM) and manufac tu r ing
p e r f o r m a n c e ( M P ) t h r o u g h S t r u c t u r a l
Equat ion Model ing (SEM). The resu l t s o f
t h e a n a l y s e s i n d i c a t e t h a t T P M , a s
m e a s u r e d f o r t h i s p a p e r, h a s a s t r o n g
pos i t ive impac t on mul t ip le d imens ions of
M P. W h i l e T P M d i r e c t l y i m p a c t s M P,
there i s a l so a s t rong ind i rec t re la t ionsh ip
be tween TPM and MP through J IT.(Bon and Karim (2011) ident i fy factorswhich contr ibute to product defects andp r o p o s e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f T P M i nr e d u c i n g t h e d e f e c t s . A c c o r d i n g t oresearch, there are four major factors thatc a u s e d e f e c t s , h u m a n n e g l i g e n c e , l e s squal i ty of raw mater ia ls , machines thatneed maintenances and work procedures .Based on the f indings of the data col lectedand the analys is made, i t can be ident i f iedthat the fac tors of engine damage is as t rong factor affect ing the qual i ty of thep r o d u c t i o n o f r u b b e r g l o v e s . E n g i n em a i n t e n a n c e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e i s a ni m p o r t a n t i s s u e i n q u a l i t y c o n t r o lproduct ion of la tex gloves in a factory TopGlove. To opt imize and reduce productdefects engine damage occurs , the plantshould be focused on the maintenance ofmachinery to ensure qual i ty product ion a ta s a t i s f a c t o r y l e v e l . R e g u l a r e n g i n emaintenance can reduce the occurrence ofa major engine damage affects the ra te ofdefects .(Mugwindrir i e t a l . (2013) seeks to showthat the longer product ion cont inues withno interrupt ions , the higher the product ionwil l be . By looking at the maintenancesignif icant i tems or machines out of the 27l is ted i t has been possible to detai l some ofthe per t inent and at tendant problems andthen to proffer unique solut ions to each ofthese problems for the cr i t ical machines .
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The r e sea rch sough t t o a sce r t a in t he l eve l
o f commi tmen t and invo lvemen t o f t he
managemen t i n t he imp lemen ta t ion and
sus t a in ing o f con t inuous improvemen t a s
we l l a s i nvo lvemen t i n s t r a t eg i c changes
s u c h a s t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f To t a l
P r o d u c t i v e M a i n t e n a n c e ( T P M ) f o r a l l
e m p l o y e e s . T h e p a p e r c o n c l u d e s b y
a f f i r m i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g t h e
ho l i s t i c TPM approach wh ich i s peop le
cen t r ed .
Need for TPM in contemporarymanufacturing scenario
T h e r e i s e m e r g i n g n e e d f o r T P Mimplementation in the Industry and need todevelop TPM implementation practice andprocedures. The successful implementationof TPM in the industry is a function ofabi l i ty of an indus t ry to approach andPractice TPM; support and improvement,providing empowerment and incent ives ,promot ing cross funct ional i ty and teamw o r k . T P M i s a n e x c e l l e n t w o r kphilosophy that really produces gain in thep r o d u c t i v e p r o c e s s . To t a l P r o d u c t i v eMaintenance (TPM) is a methodology thataims to increase the availabil i ty of existing
( B o r i k a r ( 2 0 1 4 ) p r o p o s e d a m e t h o d o l o g y
t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o c o m p a r e t h e
m a n a g e m e n t m e t h o d s a n d d e t e r m i n e a
m e t h o d t h a t c a n o p t i m i z e m a i n t e n a n c e o f
T P P s t o m a k e t h e p l a n t s o p e r a t e
e c o n o m i c a l l y b y u s i n g T P M a t . T h e r m a l
p o w e r p l a n t . T h e e f f i c i e n c y w a s
i m p r o v e d f r o m 7 7 . 7 7 % t o 8 4 . 2 7 % .
e q u i p m e n t a n d r e d u c i n g t h e n e e d f o rf u r t h e r c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t . A f t e r t h ei m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f T P M m o d e l , b o t htangible and intangible benefi ts are shownt o b e o b t a i n e d f o r e q u i p m e n t a n demployees respectively. These intangibleb e n e f i t s r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e c h a n g e o forganizat ional cul ture, change of paradigmfo r p roduc t ion peop le i n r ea l i z ing t heimportance of maintenance act ivi t ies andt h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a i n t e n a n c e ,p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d q u a l i t y . M o r e o v e r ,s t ra teg ic TPM implementa t ion can a l sof a c i l i t a t e a c h i e v i n g t h e v a r i o u so rgan iza t iona l manufac tu r ing p r io r i t i e sa n d g o a l s a s d e p i c t e d i n T a b l e I(source: Ahuja and Khamba, 2008).
Table 1 Organizational manufacturing priorities and goals realized through CI
Manufacturing priorities CI considerations
Productivity
Reduced unplanned stoppages and breakdown improving equipment availability and productivity Provide customization with additional capacity, quick change-over and design of product
Quality
Reduce quality problems from unstable production Reduced in field failures through improved quality Provide customization with additional capacity, quick change-over and design of product
Cost Life cycle costing Efficient improvement procedures Supports volume and mix flexibility Reduced quality and stoppage-related waste
Delivery Support of CI efforts with dependable improvement Improves efficiency of delivery, speed. and reliability Improved line availability of skilled workers
Safety Improved workplace environment
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Realizing zero accidents at workplace Eliminates hazardous situations
Morale Significant improvement in kaizen and suggestions
Increase employees' knowledge of the process and product
Improved problem-solving ability
Increase in worker skills and knowledge
Employee involvement and empowerment
The recent compet i t ive t rends and everincreasing business pressures have beenput t ing main tenance func t ion under thespot l ight as never before . The maintenancefunct ion in an organizat ion is confrontedw i t h t h e c h a l l e n g i n g t a s k o f a f f e c t i n gsignif icant reduct ions in cycle t ime; set -upt ime, cost ; faci l i ta t ing qual i ty
improvements; capaci ty expansions, andaffect ing improvements in organizat ionalworking environment . Thus, an effect ivemaintenance program can make s ignif icantc o n t r i b u t i o n s t o w a r d s e n h a n c i n gproduct ion eff ic iency, plant avai labi l i ty,rel iabi l i ty and organizat ional prof i tabi l i ty(Maggard and Rhyne, 1992) .
Benefits of implementing TPM Strategy
Tota l p roduc t ive main tenance (TPM), aresource-emphasized approach moves thep a r a d i g m o f m a i n t e n a n c e b y p u t t i n gemphasis on total employee involvementin the maintenance act ivi t ies . Operatorsa n d a l l e m p l o y e e s s h o u l d b e a c t i v e l yinvolved in a maintenance programme thate n a b l e t o a v o i d a n y d i s r u p t i o n s ,breakdowns, s toppages , fa i lures , and soforth in order to improve manufacturingp e r f o r m a n c e . T h e r e f o r e , i n t h e h i g h l ycompeti t ive manufacturing industr ies , theabi l i ty and rel iabi l i ty of equipment thatwell-maintained is very important in ordert o a c h i e v e d e s i r e d m a n u f a c t u r i n gperformance namely cost reduct ion, highqua l i ty p roduc t s , on- t ime de l ive ry, andf l e x i b i l i t y ( L a z i m e t a l . , 2 0 1 3 ) Amanufactur ing fac i l i ty has been s tudieda n d a n a l y z e d t o s t u d y T P Mi m p l e m e n t a t i o n i s s u e s , t h e r o a d m a pfol lowed and the key benef i t s achievedf r o m O E E a s a r e s u l t o f T P Mimplementat ion. OEE has been improvedf r o m 7 0 . 3 5 % t o 8 0 . 2 3 % ( Wa k j i r a a n dSingh, 2012) , The main purpose of thes tudy i s to f ind ou t a p roper p lann ings y s t e m f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g T P M a t t h eini t ia l s tage in the organizat ion. This s tudydiscusses the important key performanceindicators or KPIs of TPM, which are
Machine Breakdown t ime, Mean Time toFa i lu re (MTBF) , Mean Time to Repa i r( M T T R ) a n d S e t u p t i m e ( A z i z e t a l . ,2 0 1 2 ) . T h e a u t h o r c r e a t e d t h e m o d e lprocess for this new approach, with fourlevels and each s tep durat ion is around s ixmonths with planning, t ra inings, execut iona c t i v e s a n d a u d i t s . T h e a c c o m p l i s h e dr e s u l t s s h o w g a i n s a r o u n d 3 0 % i nm a n u f a c t u r i n g e f f i c i e n c y m e a s u r e d b yO v e r a l l E q u i p m e n t E f f i c i e n c y, To t a lProduct ive Maintenance knowledge levelincrease and Operators promotions (Sauzoa n d S i l v a , 2 1 0 1 3 ) . C o m p a n y a c h i e v e da b o u t 9 3 % i n a v e r a g e q u a l i t y r a t e o foveral l equipment effect iveness equat ionand about 87% in avai labi l i ty in October2 0 1 2 w h e r e i n a v e r a g e p e r f o r m a n c eeff ic iency in October 2012 i t ach ievedabout 87.5 %. The comparison between theworld class s tandard and company resul tsi s ca r r i ed ou t and the company i s no ta c h i e v e d t h e w o r l d c l a s s a v a i l a b i l i t y,performance eff ic iency, qual i ty rate andovera l l equipment e ffec t iveness (Afefy,2013). In order to possess highly rel iablem a c h i n e s t o m a k e s u r e s m o o t hm a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s , m a n yo rg a n i z a t i o n s h a v e i m p l e m e n t e d To t a lP r o d u c t i v e M a i n t e n a n c e ( T P M ) a s t h ee n a b l i n g t o o l t o m a x i m i z e t h eeffect iveness of equipment by set t ing and
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m a i n t a i n i n g t h e o p t i m u m r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n p e o p l e a n d t h e i r m a c h i n e s .
Overa l l Equipment Effec t iveness (OEE) i s
u s e d a s a m e a s u r e w h e n e v a l u a t i n g t h er e s u l t o f T P M ( B o n e t a l . , 2 0 1 1 ) .
CONCLUSIONS
From the l i terature survey described here,i t c an b e s een t h a t t h e r e i s a g en e r a lconsensus tha t TPM St ra tegy i s a veryeffect ive manufacturing phi losophy. Thiss t r a t e g y i s u n i v e r s a l i n n a t u r e a n dencompasses al l aspects of manufacturing.These also include the generat ion of anappropr ia te cul tura l environment , whichincludes total commitment at a l l levels ofmanagement and within the workforce. I tcan be concluded that there is reasonablyvast l i terature avai lable on TPM strategy,which gives a broad view of past pract icesand researches carr ied over the globe. Butas s t rategy is a widely accepted phi losophyin manufacturing organizat ions, so moreresearch work is required in this f ie ld. Thel i terature highl ights the contr ibut ions of
var ious TPM implementat ion s t ra tegies foraccruing different types of benefi ts l ikeincreased product ivi ty, qual i ty, cost , sa lesand safety etc . for meet ing the chal lengesposed by g loba l compet i t ion . TPM hasemerged as a key compet i t ive s t ra tegy forb u s i n e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t h e g l o b a lm a r k e t p l a c e . A n e f f e c t i v e T P Mi m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o g r a m c a n f o c u s o naddressing the organizat ion 's maintenancerelated issues and ideas , with a view too p t i m i z e e q u i p m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e . T P Mhas become a new management paradigmin a l l types of organizat ions . In recenty e a r s , m a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v ed e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t s i g n i f i c a n timprovements in business can be achievedthroughTPM
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Structural Genomics : From Genome mapping to Genome annotationGaurav Aggarwal
Dept. of Food Technology,
Desh Bhagat University, Mandi Gobindgarh
E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACTGenomics is the study of the genomes of organisms. The field includes intensive efforts to
determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping efforts.
The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis,1pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome. Genome
projects are scientific endeavours that ultimately aim to determine the complete genome
sequence of an organism (be it an animal, a plant, a fungus, a bacterium, an archaean, a
protist or a virus). The genome sequence for any organism requires the DNA sequences for
each of the chromosomes in an organism to be determined. For bacteria, which usually
have just one chromosome, a genome project will aim to map the sequence of that
chromosome. Humans, with 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes, will require 462separate chromosome sequences in order to represent the completed genome . Mapping
involves (1) dividing the chromosomes into smaller fragments that can be propagated and3
characterized and (2) ordering (mapping) them to correspond to their respective locations on4
the chromosomes . After mapping is completed, the next step is to determine the base5
sequence of each of the ordered DNA fragments . The ultimate goal of genome research is to
find all the genes in the DNA sequence and to develop tools for using this information in the
study of human biology and medicine.
Keywords: DNA sequencing, gene mapping, chromosome, genomics
INTRODUCTIONGenomics i s the s tudy of the genomes oforganisms . The f ie ld inc ludes in tens ivee f f o r t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e n t i r e D N As e q u e n c e o f o r g a n i s m s a n d f i n e - s c a l egene t ic mapping e ffor t s . The f ie ld a l soi n c l u d e s s t u d i e s o f i n t r a g e n o m i cphenomena such as he te ros i s , ep is tas i s ,p le io t ropy and o ther in te rac t ions be tweenloc i and a l l e l es wi th in the genome. Incont ras t , the inves t iga t ion of the ro les andfunc t ions o f s ing le genes i s a p r imaryf o c u s o f m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y a n d i s ac o m m o n t o p i c o f m o d e r n m e d i c a l a n db io log ica l r esea rch . Research o f s ing legenes does no t fa l l in to the def in i t ion ofgenomics un less the a im of th i s gene t ic ,p a t h w a y, a n d f u n c t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o nana lys i s i s to e luc ida te i t s e ffec t on , p lacein , and response to the en t i re genome 'sne tworks .
F o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e sEnv i ronmenta l P ro tec t ion Agency, " theterm "genomics" encompasses a broaders c o p e o f s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y a s s o c i a t e dt ech n o lo g i e s t h an w h en g en o mics w asini t ia l ly considered. A genome is the sumtotal of a l l an individual organism's genes.Thus, genomics is the s tudy of a l l thegenes of a cel l , or t issue, a t the DNA( g e n o t y p e ) , m R N A ( t r a n s c r i p t o m e ) , o rprotein (proteome) levels ." Genome projects are scientifice n d e a v o u r s t h a t u l t i m a t e l y a i m t odetermine the complete genome sequenceof an organism (be it an animal, a plant, afungus, a bacterium, an archaean, a protistor a virus). The genome sequence for anyorganism requires the DNA sequences foreach of the chromosomes in an organismt o b e d e t e r m i n e d . F o r b a c t e r i a , w h i c hu s u a l l y h a v e j u s t o n e c h r o m o s o m e , agenome project will aim to map the
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s e q u e n c e o f t h a t c h r o m o s o m e . H u m a n s ,
w i t h 2 2 p a i r s o f a u t o s o m e s a n d 2 s e x
c h r o m o s o m e s , w i l l r e q u i r e 4 6 s e p a r a t e
c h r o m o s o m e s e q u e n c e s i n o r d e r t o
r e p r e s e n t t h e c o m p l e t e d g e n o m e .
Mapping and Sequencing the Genome
A p r i m a r y g o a l o f t h e G e n o m e
Project is to make a series of descript ive
d i a g r a m s m a p s o f e a c h h u m a n
c h r o m o s o m e a t i n c r e a s i n g l y f i n e r
resolutions. Mapping involves (1) dividing
the chromosomes into smaller fragments
that can be propagated and characterized
a n d ( 2 ) o r d e r i n g ( m a p p i n g ) t h e m t o
correspond to their respective locations on
t h e c h r o m o s o m e s . A f t e r m a p p i n g i s
completed, the next step is to determine
the base sequence of each of the ordered
D N A f r a g m e n t s . T h e u l t i m a t e g o a l o f
genome research is to f ind al l the genes in
the DNA sequence and to develop tools for
us ing th i s in fo rmat ion in the s tudy o f
human biology and medicine. Improving
t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d t e c h n i q u e s
required for mapping and sequencing a
major focus of the genome project wil l
increase efficiency and cost- effectiveness.
Goa l s inc lude au tomat ing methods and
o p t i m i z i n g t e c h n i q u e s t o e x t r a c t t h e
maximum useful information from maps
and sequences.
A genome map descr ibes the orderof genes or o ther markers and the spacingb e t w e e n t h e m o n e a c h c h r o m o s o m e .G e n e t i c i s t s h a v e a l r e a d y c h a r t e d t h eapproximate pos i t ions of over 2300 genes ,and a s tar t has been made in es tabl ish ingh i g h - r e s o l u t i o n m a p s o f t h e g e n o m e .More- prec ise maps are needed to organizesys temat ic sequenc ing e ffo r t s and p lannew research d i rec t ions .Mapping StrategiesGenetic Linkage Maps
A g e n e t i c l i n k a g e m a p s h o w s t h erela t ive locat ions of specif ic DNA markersalong the chromosome. Any inher i ted
physical or molecular character is t ic thatdi ffers among individuals and is eas i lydetectable in the laboratory is a potent ia lgenet ic marker. Markers can be expressedDNA regions (genes) or DNA segmentsthat have no known coding funct ion butwhose inheri tance pat tern can be fol lowed.DNA sequence differences are especial lyuseful markers because they are plent i fuland easy to character ize precisely.
Markers must be polymorphic to beuse fu l i n mapp ing ; t ha t i s , a l t e rna t iveforms must exis t among individuals so thatt h e y a r e d e t e c t a b l e a m o n g d i f f e r e n tm e m b e r s i n f a m i l y s t u d i e s .P o l y m o r p h i s m s a r e v a r i a t i o n s i n D N Asequence that occur on average once every300 to 500 bp . Var ia t ions wi th in exonsequences can lead to observable changes,such as differences in eye color, b loodt y p e , a n d d i s e a s e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y. M o s tvar ia t ions occur within introns and havel i t t l e o r n o e f f e c t o n a n o r g a n i s m sa p p e a r a n c e o r f u n c t i o n , y e t t h e y a r edetectable a t the DNA level and can beused as markers . Examples of these typesof markers include (1) res t r ic t ion fragmentl e n g t h p o l y m o r p h i s m s ( R F L P s ) , w h i c href lect sequence var ia t ions in DNA si testhat can be cleaved by DNA restr ic t ione n z y m e s , a n d ( 2 ) v a r i a b l e n u m b e r o ftandem repeat sequences , which are shortrepeated sequences that vary in the numberof repeated uni ts and, therefore , in length(a charac te r i s t i c eas i ly measured) . Thehuman genet ic l inkage map is constructedby observing how frequent ly two markersare inher i ted together.
Tw o m a r k e r s l o c a t e d n e a r e a c h
other on the same chromosome wi l l tend to
be passed together f rom parent to chi ld .
Dur ing the normal product ion of sperm
and egg ce l l s , DNA s t rands occas ional ly
break and re jo in in d i fferent p laces on the
same chromosome or on the o ther copy of
t h e s a m e c h r o m o s o m e ( i . e . , t h e
homologous chromosome) . This process
(ca l led meiot ic recombinat ion) can resul t
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in the separat ion of two markers or ig inal ly
o n t h e s a m e c h r o m o s o m e ( F i g . :
Construct ing a Genet ic Linkage Map ) . The
closer the markers are to each other the
m o r e t i g h t l y l i n k e d t h e l e s s l i k e l y a
recombinat ion event wi l l fa l l between and
separate them. Recombinat ion f requency
thus provides an es t imate of the dis tance
between two markers .
O n t h e g e n e t i c m a p , d i s t a n c e s
be tween markers a re measured in te rms of
c e n t i m o r g a n s ( c M ) , n a m e d a f t e r t h e
A m e r i c a n g e n e t i c i s t T h o m a s H u n t
Morgan . Two markers a re sa id to be 1 cM
a p a r t i f t h e y a r e s e p a r a t e d b y
recombina t ion 1% of the t ime . A gene t ic
d is tance of 1 cM is roughly equa l to a
phys ica l d i s tance of 1 mi l l ion bp (1 Mb) .
The cu r ren t r e so lu t ion o f mos t human
gene t ic map reg ions i s about 10 Mb.
T h e v a l u e o f t h e g e n e t i c m a p i s t h a t a n
i n h e r i t e d d i s e a s e c a n b e l o c a t e d o n t h e
m a p b y f o l l o w i n g t h e i n h e r i t a n c e o f a
D N A m a r k e r p r e s e n t i n a f f e c t e d
i n d i v i d u a l s ( b u t a b s e n t i n u n a f f e c t e dindividuals) , even though the molecularb a s i s o f t h e d i s e a s e m a y n o t y e t b eu n d e r s t o o d n o r t h e r e s p o n s i b l e g e n eident i f ied. Genet ic maps have been used tof ind the exact chromosomal locat ion ofseveral important disease genes , includingcyst ic f ibrosis , s ickle cel l d isease, Tay-Sachs disease, f ragi le X syndrome, andmyotonic dystrophy.
One short- term goal of the genome project
is to develop a high- resolution genetic
map (2 to 5 cM); recent consensus maps of
some chromosomes have averaged 7 to 10
c M b e t w e e n g e n e t i c m a r k e r s . G e n e t i c
mapp ing re so lu t ion has been inc reased
through the appl ica t ion of recombinant
D N A t e c h n o l o g y , i n c l u d i n g i n v i t r o
r a d i a t i o n - i n d u c e d c h r o m o s o m e
fragmenta t ion and ce l l fus ions ( jo in ing
human cells with those of other species to
form hybrid cells) to create panels of cells
w i t h s p e c i f i c a n d v a r i e d h u m a n
chromosomal components.
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Restriction Enzymes: MicroscopicScalpels
I s o l a t e d f r o m v a r i o u s b a c t e r i a ,restr ict ion enzymes recognize short DNAsequences and cut the DNA molecules atthose specif ic s i tes . (A natural biologicalfunction of these enzymes is to protectb a c t e r i a b y a t t a c k i n g v i r a l a n d o t h e rforeign DNA.) Some restr ict ion enzymes( r a r e - c u t t e r s ) c u t t h e D N A v e r yinfrequently, generat ing a small number ofvery large fragments (several thousand to amill ion bp). Most enzymes cut DNA morefrequently, thus generat ing a large numberof small fragments ( less than a hundred tomore than a thousand bp).
On average, restriction enzymes with
4-base recognition sites will yield
p i e c e s 2 5 6 b a s e s l o n g ,
6-base recognition sites will yield
p ieces 4000 bases long, and
8-base recognition sites will yield
pieces 64,000 bases long.
Since hundreds of different restrictionenzymes have been charac ter ized , DNAc a n b e c u t i n t o m a n y d i f f e r e n t s m a l lfragments.
Physical Maps
Di ffe ren t types o f phys ica l maps
vary in the i r degree of reso lu t ion . The
lowes t - r e so lu t ion phys ica l map i s t he
c h r o m o s o m a l ( s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d
cytogenet ic ) map, which i s based on the
dis t inc t ive banding pa t te rns observed by
l ight microscopy of s ta ined chromosomes .
A c D N A m a p s h o w s t h e l o c a t i o n s o f
expressed DNA reg ions (exons ) on the
c h r o m o s o m a l m a p . T h e m o r e d e t a i l e d
cosmid cont ig map depic ts the order of
over lapping DNA fragments spanning the
genome. A macrores t r ic t ion map descr ibes
the order and d is tance be tween enzyme
c u t t i n g ( c l e a v a g e ) s i t e s . T h e h i g h e s t -
reso lu t ion phys ica l map i s the comple te
elucidation of the DNA base- pair
s e q u e n c e o f e a c h c h r o m o s o m e i n t h e
h u m a n g e n o m e . P h y s i c a l m a p s a r e
described in greater detail below.
Low-Resolution Physical Mapping
C h r o m o s o m a l m a p . I n a
c h r o m o s o m a l m a p , g e n e s o r o t h e r
identifiable DNA fragments are assigned
to t he i r r e spec t i ve ch romosomes , w i th
distances measured in base pairs. These
markers can be physically associated with
particular bands (identified by cytogenetic
staining) primarily by in situ hybridization,
a technique that involves tagging the DNA
marker with an observable label (e.g. , one
tha t f l uo re sces o r i s r ad ioac t ive ) . The
l o c a t i o n o f t h e l a b e l e d p r o b e c a n b e
d e t e c t e d a f t e r i t b i n d s t o i t s
complementary DNA strand in an intact
chromosome.
A s w i t h g e n e t i c l i n k a g e m a p p i n g ,c h r o m o s o m a l m a p p i n g c a n b e u s e d t ol o c a t e g e n e t i c m a r k e r s d e f i n e d b y t r a i t so b s e r v a b l e o n l y i n w h o l e o r g a n i s m s .B e c a u s e c h r o m o s o m a l m a p s a r e b a s e d o ne s t i m a t e s o f p h y s i c a l d i s t a n c e , t h e y a r ec o n s i d e r e d t o b e p h y s i c a l m a p s . T h en u m b e r o f b a s e p a i r s w i t h i n a b a n d c a no n l y b e e s t i m a t e d .
U n t i l r e c e n t l y, e v e n t h e b e s t
chromosomal maps could be used to loca te
a DNA fragment only to a reg ion of about
10 Mb, the s ize of a typica l band seen on a
c h r o m o s o m e . I m p r o v e m e n t s i n
f luorescence in s i tu hybr id iza t ion (FISH)
m e t h o d s a l l o w o r i e n t a t i o n o f D N A
sequences tha t l ie as c lose as 2 to 5 Mb.
M o d i f i c a t i o n s t o i n s i t u h y b r i d i z a t i o n
methods , us ing chromosomes a t a s tage in
ce l l d iv is ion ( in terphase) when they are
less compact , increase map resolu t ion to
a r o u n d 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 b p . F u r t h e r b a n d i n g
r e f i n e m e n t m i g h t a l l o w c h r o m o s o m a l
b a n d s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s p e c i f i c
a m p l i f i e d D N A f r a g m e n t s , a n
improvement tha t could be usefu l in
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analyzing observable physical t rai ts
a s s o c i a t e w i t h c h r o m o s o m a l
abnormalit ies.
cDNA map . A cDNA map showsthe posi t ions of expressed DNA regions(exons) re la t ive to par t icular chromosomalregions or bands . (Expressed DNA regionsare those t ranscr ibed in to mRNA.) cDNAis synthesized in the laboratory us ing them R N A m o l e c u l e a s a t e m p l a t e ; b a s e -pair ing rules are fol lowed ( i .e . , an A on themRNA molecule wi l l pai r wi th a T on thenew DNA st rand) . This cDNA can then bemapped to genomic regions .
Because they represent expressedgenomic regions, cDNAs are thought toident i fy the par ts of the genome with themost biological and medical s ignif icance.A c D N A m a p c a n p r o v i d e t h echromosomal loca t ion fo r genes whosef u n c t i o n s a r e c u r r e n t l y u n k n o w n . F o rdisease- gene hunters , the map can alsosuggest a set of candidate genes to tes twhen the approximate locat ion of a diseasegene has been mapped by genet ic l inkagetechniques.
High- Resolution Physical Mapping
T h e t w o c u r r e n t a p p r o a c h e s t o
h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n p h y s i c a l m a p p i n g a r e
t e r m e d t o p - d o w n ( p r o d u c i n g a
m a c r o r e s t r i c t i o n m a p ) a n d b o t t o m - u p
( resu l t ing in a con t ig map) . Wi th e i the r
s t r a t e g y ( d e s c r i b e d b e l o w ) t h e m a p s
represen t o rde red se t s o f DNA f ragment s
tha t a r e gene ra t ed by cu t t i ng genomic
D N A w i t h r e s t r i c t i o n e n z y m e s ( s e e
p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d R e s t r i c t i o n
E n z y m e s ) . T h e f r a g m e n t s a r e t h e n
ampl i f i ed by c lon ing o r by po lymerase
cha in r eac t ion (PCR) me thods ( see DNA
A m p l i f i c a t i o n b e l o w ) . E l e c t r o p h o r e t i c
t e c h n i q u e s a r e u s e d t o s e p a r a t e t h e
f ragment s accord ing to s i ze in to d i ff e ren t
bands , wh ich can be v i sua l i zed by d i r ec t
DNA s ta in ing o r by hybr id iza t ion wi th
DNA probes o f i n t e res t . The u se o f
pur i f ied chromosomes separa ted e i ther by
f low sor t ing f rom human ce l l l ines or in
h y b r i d c e l l l i n e s a l l o w s a s i n g l e
chromosome to be mapped (see Separa t ing
Chromosomes be low) .
A number of s t rategies can be used
to reconstruct the original order of the
D N A f r a g m e n t s i n t h e g e n o m e . M a n y
approaches make use of the ab i l i ty o f
s ing le s t r ands o f DNA and /o r RNA to
h y b r i d i z e t o f o r m d o u b l e - s t r a n d e d
segments by hydrogen bonding between
c o m p l e m e n t a r y b a s e s . T h e e x t e n t o f
s e q u e n c e h o m o l o g y b e t w e e n t h e t w o
strands can be inferred from the length of
t h e d o u b l e - s t r a n d e d s e g m e n t .
Fingerprint ing uses restr ict ion map data to
determine which fragments have a specif ic
sequence ( f inge rp r in t ) i n common and
therefore overlap. Another approach uses
l inking clones as probes for hybridizat ion
to chromosomal DNA cut with the samerestr ict ion enzyme.
M a c r o r e s t r i c t i o n m a p s : To p -down mapping . In top- down mapping, asingle chromosome is cut (with rare- cutterr e s t r i c t ion enzymes) in to l a rge p ieces ,which a re o rdered and subdiv ided ; thesmaller pieces are then mapped further.T h e r e s u l t i n g m a c r o - r e s t r i c t i o n m a p sdepict the order of and distance betweensites at which rare- cutter enzymes cleave( F i g . : P h y s i c a l M a p p i n g S t r a t e g i e s :M a c ro re s t r i c t i o n M a p ) . T h i s a p p r o a c hy i e l d s m a p s w i t h m o r e c o n t i n u i t y a n dfewer gaps between fragments than contigmaps, but map resolution is lower and maynot be useful in f inding part icular genes; inaddit ion, this s trategy generally does notproduce long stretches of mapped si tes.C u r r e n t l y, t h i s a p p r o a c h a l l o w s D N Apieces to be located in regions measuringabout 100,000 bp to 1 Mb.
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p u l s e d - f i e l d g e l
( P F G ) e l e c t r o p h o r e t i c m e t h o d s h a s
imp r o v ed t h e map p in g an d c lo n in g o f
large DNA molecules . Whi le convent ional
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g e l e l e c t r o p h o r e t i c m e t h o d s s e p a r a t e
pieces less than 40 kb (1 kb = 1000 bases)
in s ize , PFG separa tes molecules up to 10
M b , a l l o w i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f b o t h
convent ional and new mapping methods to
larger genomic regions . C o n t i g m a p s : B o t t o m - u p
m a p p i n g . T h e b o t t o m - u p a p p r o a c h
i n v o l v e s c u t t i n g t h e c h r o m o s o m e i n t o
s m a l l p i e c e s , e a c h o f w h i c h i s c l o n e d a n d
o r d e r e d . T h e o r d e r e d f r a g m e n t s f o r mc o n t i g u o u s D N A b l o c k s ( c o n t i g s ) .Current ly, the resul t ing l ibrary of c lonesvar ies in s ize f rom 10,000 bp to 1 Mb (Fig.: Phys i ca l Mapp ing S t ra t eg i e s : Con t igMaps ) . An advantage of th is approach i sthe access ib i l i ty of these s table c lones toother researchers . Cont ig cons t ruc t ion canb e v e r i f i e d b y F I S H , w h i c h l o c a l i z e sc o s m i d s t o s p e c i f i c r e g i o n s w i t h i nchromosomal bands .
Contig maps thus consist of a linked
l i b r a r y o f s m a l l o v e r l a p p i n g c l o n e s
representing a complete chromosomal
s e g m e n t . W h i l e u s e f u l f o r f i n d i n g g e n e s
l o c a l i z e d t o a s m a l l a r e a ( u n d e r 2 M b ) ,
c o n t i g m a p s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o e x t e n d o v e r
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l a rg e s t r e t c h e s o f a c h r o m o s o m e b e c a u s e
a l l r e g i o n s a r e n o t c l o n a b l e . D N A p r o b e
t e c h n i q u e s c a n b e u s e d t o f i l l i n t h e g a p s ,
b u t t h e y a r e t i m e c o n s u m i n g . Technological improvements nowmake possible the cloning of large DNAp i e c e s , u s i n g a r t i f i c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e dc h r o m o s o m e v e c t o r s t h a t c a r r y h u m a nDNA fragments as large as 1 Mb. Thesevectors are maintained in yeast cel ls asart if icial chromosomes (YACs). (For moree x p l a n a t i o n , s e e D N A A m p l i f i c a t i o nbelow) Before YACs were developed, thelargest cloning vectors (cosmids) carr iedi n s e r t s o f o n l y 2 0 t o 4 0 k b . YA Cm e t h o d o l o g y d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e s t h enumber o f c lones to be o rde red ; manyYACs span ent i re human genes. A moredetai led map of a large YAC insert can bep r o d u c e d b y s u b c l o n i n g , a p r o c e s s i nwhich fragments of the original insert arec l o n e d i n t o s m a l l e r - i n s e r t v e c t o r s .Because some YAC regions are unstable,large- capacity bacterial vectors ( i .e . , thosethat can accommodate large inserts) arealso being developed.
Separating Chromosomes
Flow sorting
F l o w s o r t i n g e m p l o y s f l o wcytomet ry to separa te , accord ing to s ize ,chromosomes i so la ted f rom ce l l s dur ingce l l d iv i s ion when they a re condensed ands tab le . As the chromosomes f low s ing lypas t a l ase r beam, they a re d i ffe ren t ia tedby ana lyz ing the amount o f DNA presen t ,and ind iv idua l chromosomes a re d i rec tedto spec i f ic co l lec t ion tubes .
Somatic cell hybridization
In somat ic cel l hybr idizat ion,
human cel ls and rodent tumor ce l ls are
fused (hybr id ized) ; over t ime, a f ter the
chromosomes mix , human chromosomes
are preferent ia l ly los t f rom the hybrid cel l
unt i l only one or a few remain. Those
individual hybrid cel ls are then propagated
and maintained as cel l l ines containing
specif ic human chromosomes.
I m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h i s t e c h n i q u e h a v e
generated a number of hybrid cel l l ines,
e a c h w i t h a s p e c i f i c s i n g l e h u m a n
chromosome.
Sequencing Technologies
T h e u l t i m a t e p h y s i c a l m a p o f t h e
h u m a n g e n o m e i s t h e c o m p l e t e D N A
sequence the de te rmina t ion of a l l base
pairs on each chromosome. The completed
map wil l provide biologis ts with a Roset ta
s tone fo r s t udy ing human b io logy and
enable medica l researchers to beg in to
u n r a v e l t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f i n h e r i t e d
diseases . Much effor t cont inues to be spent
locat ing genes; i f the ful l sequence were
k n o w n , e m p h a s i s c o u l d s h i f t t o
de te rmin ing gene func t ion . The Human
Genome Project is creat ing research tools
for 21st- century biology, when the goal
wil l be to understand the sequence and
funct ions of the genes residing therein.
Achieving the goals of the HumanGenome Project will require substantialimprovements in the rate, efficiency, andr e l i a b i l i t y o f s t a n d a r d s e q u e n c i n gprocedures. While technological advancesare leading to the automation of standardD N A p u r i f i c a t i o n , s e p a r a t i o n , a n ddetection steps, efforts are also focusing ont h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e n t i r e l y n e wsequencing methods that may el iminates o m e o f t h e s e s t e p s . S e q u e n c i n gp r o c e d u r e s c u r r e n t l y i n v o l v e f i r s tsubcloning DNA fragments from a cosmido r b a c t e r i o p h a g e l i b r a r y i n t o s p e c i a ls e q u e n c i n g v e c t o r s t h a t c a r r y s h o r t e rpieces of the original cosmid fragments( F i g . : C o n s t r u c t i n g C l o n e s f o rSequencing). The next step is to make thesubcloned fragments into sets of nestedf r a g m e n t s d i f f e r i n g i n l e n g t h b y o n enucleotide, so that the specific base at theend of each successive fragment is
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detectable after the fragments have been separated by gel electrophoresis.
Fig. : Constructing Clones for SequencingDNA Amplification: Cloning and
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Cloning (in vivo DNA amplification)
Cloning involves the
use of recombinant DNA technology to
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sui table host cel ls , the DNA fragments can
then be reproduced along with the host cel l
D N A . Ve c t o r s a r e D N A m o l e c u l e s
o r ig ina t ing f rom v i ruses , bac te r i a , and
yeas t ce l l s . They accommodate var ious
sizes of foreign DNA fragments ranging
f r o m 1 2 , 0 0 0 b p f o r b a c t e r i a l v e c t o r s
(plasmids and cosmids) to 1 Mb for yeast
vec to r s (yeas t a r t i f i c i a l ch romosomes) .
C l o n i n g p r o c e d u r e s p r o v i d e u n l i m i t e d
mater ia l for exper imental s tudy. A random
(unordered) set of c loned DNA fragments
is cal led a l ibrary. Genomic l ibrar ies are
s e t s o f o v e r l a p p i n g f r a g m e n t s
e n c o m p a s s i n g a n e n t i r e g e n o m e . A l s o
a v a i l a b l e a r e c h r o m o s o m e - s p e c i f i c
l i b r a r i e s , w h i c h c o n s i s t o f f r a g m e n t s
der ived from source DNA enriched for a
par t icular chromosome. (See Separa t ing
Chromosomes, above.)
PCR (in vitro DNA amplification)
D e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g t o g e n e s w h a t
Gu tenbe rg ' s p r i n t i ng p r e s s was t o t he
wri t ten word, PCR can amplify a desired
D N A s e q u e n c e o f a n y o r i g i n ( v i r u s ,
bacter ia , p lant , or human) hundreds of
mil l ions of t imes in a matter of hours , a
task that would have required several days
w i t h r e c o m b i n a n t t e c h n o l o g y. P C R i s
especial ly valuable because the react ion is
h igh ly spec i f i c , eas i ly au tomated , and
capable of amplifying minute amounts of
sample. For these reasons, PCR has also
had a major impact on cl inical medicine,
g e n e t i c d i s e a s e d i a g n o s t i c s , f o r e n s i c
science, and evolut ionary biology.
( Figure: PCR (in vitro DNA amplification) )
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PCR is a process based on a
special ized polymerase enzyme, which can
synthesize a complementary s t rand to a
given DNA strand in a mixture containing
the 4 DNA bases and 2 DNA fragments
( p r i m e r s , e a c h a b o u t 2 0 b a s e s l o n g )
f lanking the target sequence. The mixture
is heated to separate the s t rands of double-
s t r a n d e d D N A c o n t a i n i n g t h e t a r g e t
sequence and then cooled to al low (1) the
primers to f ind and b ind to their
complementary sequences on the separated
strands and (2) the polymerase to extend
t h e p r i m e r s i n t o n e w c o m p l e m e n t a r y
s t r ands . Repea t ed hea t i ng and coo l ing
c y c l e s m u l t i p l y t h e t a r g e t D N A
e x p o n e n t i a l l y, s i n c e e a c h n e w d o u b l e
strand separates to become two templates
for further synthesis . In about 1 hour, 20
PCR cycles can amplify the target by a
mil l ionfold.
Current Sequencing Technologies
T h e t w o b a s i c s e q u e n c i n gapproaches, Maxam- Gilber t and Sanger,differ pr imari ly in the way the nested DNAfragmen t s a r e p roduced . Bo th me thodswork because gel e lectrophoresis producesvery high resolut ion separat ions of DNAmolecules; even fragments that differ insize by only a s ingle nucleot ide can ber e s o l v e d . A l m o s t a l l s t e p s i n t h e s esequencing methods are now automated.Maxam- Gilber t sequencing (also cal ledthe chemica l degrada t ion me thod) useschemicals to cleave DNA at specif ic bases ,resul t ing in fragments of different lengths .A r e f i n e m e n t t o t h e M a x a m - G i l b e r tmethod known as mul t ip lex sequenc ingenables invest igators to analyze about 40clones on a s ingle DNA sequencing gel .Sanger sequencing (also cal led the chainterminat ion or dideoxy method) involvesu s i n g a n e n z y m a t i c p r o c e d u r e t osynthesize DNA chains of varying lengthin four different react ions, s topping the
Sequencing Technologies Under
DevelopmentA m a j o r f o c u s o f t h e H u m a nGenome Projec t i s the development ofautomated sequencing technology that cana c c u r a t e l y s e q u e n c e 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 o r m o r ebases per day at a cost of less than $.50 perb a s e . S p e c i f i c g o a l s i n c l u d e t h edevelopment of sequencing and detectionschemes that are faster and more sensit ive,accura te , and economica l . Many nove lsequencing technologies are now beingexplored, and the most promising ones will
DNA replication at positions occupied by
o n e o f t h e f o u r b a s e s , a n d t h e n
determining the resulting fragment lengths.
These f i r s t -genera t ion ge l -basedsequenc ing technolog ies a re now be ingused to sequence small regions of interesti n t h e h u m a n g e n o m e . A l t h o u g hinvestigators could use exist ing technologyto sequence whole chromosomes, t ime andc o s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m a k e l a rg e - s c a l es e q u e n c i n g p r o j e c t s o f t h i s n a t u r ei m p r a c t i c a l . T h e s m a l l e s t h u m a nc h r o m o s o m e ( Y ) c o n t a i n s 5 0 M b ; t h elargest (chromosome 1) has 250 Mb. Thel a r g e s t c o n t i n u o u s D N A s e q u e n c eo b t a i n e d t h u s f a r , h o w e v e r , i sapproximately 350,000 bp, and the bestava i lab le equ ipment can sequence on ly50,000 to 100,000 bases per year at anapproximate cost of $1 to $2 per base. Atthat rate, an unacceptable 30,000 work-years and a t leas t $3 b i l l ion would berequired for sequencing alone.
e v e n t u a l l y b e o p t i m i z e d f o r w i d e s p r e a du s e .
Second- generat ion ( inter im) sequencing
t e c h n o l o g i e s w i l l e n a b l e s p e e d a n d
a c c u r a c y t o i n c r e a s e b y a n o r d e r o f
magnitude ( i .e . , 10 t imes greater) while
l o w e r i n g t h e c o s t p e r b a s e . S o m e
important disease genes wil l be sequenced
with such technologies as (1) high- vol tage
capi l lary and ul t ra thin electrophoresis to
increase fragment separat ion rate and (2)
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use of resonance ionization spectroscopy
to detect stable isotope labels.
T h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n g e l - l e s ssequenc ing t echno log ies , which a im toincrease eff iciency by several orders ofmagnitude, are expected to be used forsequencing most of the human genome.These developing technologies include (1)e n h a n c e d f l u o r e s c e n c e d e t e c t i o n o findividual labeled bases in flow cytometry,(2) direct reading of the base sequence ona DNA strand with the use of scanningtunnel ing or atomic force microscopies ,(3) enhanced mass spectrometric analysisof DNA sequence, and (4) sequencing byhybridization to short panels of nucleotideso f k n o w n s e q u e n c e . P i l o t l a rg e - s c a l es e q u e n c i n g p r o j e c t s w i l l p r o v i d eo p p o r t u n i t i e s t o i m p r o v e c u r r e n ttechnologies and wi l l reveal chal lengesinves t i ga to r s may encoun te r i n l a rge r-scale efforts.
Partial Sequencing To Facilitate Mapping,
Gene Identification C o r r e l a t i n g m a p p i n g d a t a f r o m
di ffe ren t l abora tor ies has been a p rob lem
b e c a u s e o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n g e n e r a t i n g ,
i so la t ing , and mapping DNA f ragments . A
c o m m o n r e f e r e n c e s y s t e m d e s i g n e d t o
m e e t t h e s e c h a l l e n g e s u s e s p a r t i a l l y
sequenced un ique reg ions (200 to 500 bp)
t o i d e n t i f y c l o n e s , c o n t i g s , a n d l o n g
s t re tches o f sequence . Ca l l ed sequence
tagged s i t es (STSs) , these shor t sequences
h a v e b e c o m e s t a n d a r d m a r k e r s f o r
phys ica l mapping .
Because coding sequences of genes
represent most of the potent ia l ly useful
information content of the genome (but are
only a fract ion of the total DNA), some
i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e b e g u n p a r t i a l
sequencing of cDNAs instead of random
genomic DNA. (cDNAs are der ived from
m R N A s e q u e n c e s , w h i c h a r e t h e
transcr ipt ion products of expressed genes.)
In addi t ion to providing unique markers ,
these par t ia l sequences [ te rmed expressed
s e q u e n c e t a g s ( E S Ts ) ] a l s o i d e n t i f y
expressed genes . This s t ra tegy can thus
prov ide a means of rap id ly iden t i fy ing
most human genes . Other appl ica t ions of
t h e E S T a p p r o a c h i n c l u d e d e t e r m i n i n g
locat ions of genes a long chromosomes and
i d e n t i f y i n g c o d i n g r e g i o n s i n g e n o m i c
sequences .
End Games: Completing Maps and
Sequences; Finding Specific Genes
S t a r t i n g m a p s a n d s e q u e n c e s i s
r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e ; f i n i s h i n g t h e m w i l l
require new s t ra tegies or a combinat ion of
e x i s t i n g m e t h o d s . A f t e r a s e q u e n c e i s
determined us ing the methods descr ibed
above, the task remains to f i l l in the many
l a r g e g a p s l e f t b y c u r r e n t m a p p i n g
m e t h o d s . O n e a p p r o a c h i s s i n g l e -
chromosome microdissect ion, in which a
p i e c e i s p h y s i c a l l y c u t f r o m a
chromosomal region of par t icular in teres t ,
b r o k e n u p i n t o s m a l l e r p i e c e s , a n d
ampli f ied by PCR or c loning (see DNA
Ampl i f i ca t ion above) . These f r agment s
can then be mapped and sequenced by the
methods previously descr ibed.
Chromosome walking, one s t ra tegy forf i l l ing in gaps , involves hybr id iz ing aprimer of known sequence to a clone froma n u n o r d e r e d g e n o m i c l i b r a r y a n dsynthesizing a short complementary strand(called walking along a chromosome). Thecomplementary strand is then sequencedand i ts end used as the next primer forfurther walking; in this way the adjacent,previously unknown, region is identif iedand sequenced. The chromosome is thussystematically sequenced from one end tot h e o t h e r . B e c a u s e p r i m e r s m u s t b esynthesized chemically, a disadvantage ofth i s t echn ique i s t he l a rge number o fdifferent primers needed to walk a longdis tance . Chromosome walk ing i s a l sou s e d t o l o c a t e s p e c i f i c g e n e s b ysequenc ing the ch romosomal segmen t sbetween markers that f lank the gene of
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
84
in te res t (Fig . : Clon ing a Disease Gene byChromosome Walk ing ) .
The current human genet ic map has
about 1000 markers , or 1 marker spaced
every 3 mi l l ion bp; an es t imated 100 genes
l ie between each pai r of markers . Higher-
resolut ion genet ic maps have been made in
regions of par t icular in teres t . New genes
can be located by combining genet ic and
physica l map informat ion for a region. The
g e n e t i c m a p b a s i c a l l y d e s c r i b e s g e n e
o r d e r. R o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t g e n e
locat ion is somet imes avai lable a lso , but
t h e s e d a t a m u s t b e u s e d w i t h c a u t i o n
b e c a u s e r e c o m b i n a t i o n i s n o t e q u a l l y
l ikely a t a l l p laces on the chromosome.
Thus the genet ic map, compared to the
physical map, s t re tches in some places and
compresses in others , as though i t were
drawn on a rubber band.
Fig.: Cloning a Disease Gene by Chromosome Walking
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
85
The degree of difficulty in finding a
disease gene of interest depends largely on
what information is already known about the
gene and, especially, on what kind of DNA
alterations cause the disease. Spotting the
disease gene is very difficult when disease
results from a single altered DNA base;
sickle cell anemia is an example of such a
case, as are probably most major human
inheri ted diseases. When disease resul ts
f r o m a l a rg e D N A r e a r r a n g e m e n t , t h i s
a n o m a l y c a n u s u a l l y b e d e t e c t e d a s
alterations in the physical map of the region
or even by direct microscopic examination
of the chromosome. The location of these
alterations pinpoints the site of the gene.
Identifying the gene responsible for a
specific disease without a map is analogous
to finding a needle in a haystack. Actually,
f inding the gene is even more difficult ,
because even close up, the gene sti l l looks
like just another piece of hay. However,
maps give clues on where to look; the finer
the maps resolution, the fewer pieces of hay
to be tested.
Once the neighborhood of a gene of
i n t e r e s t h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d , s e v e r a l
strategies can be used to find the gene itself.
An ordered library of the gene neighborhood
can be constructed if one is not already
a v a i l a b l e . T h i s l i b r a r y p r o v i d e s D N A
fragments that can be screened for additional
polymorphisms, improving the genetic map
of the region and further restricting the
possible gene location. In addition, DNA
fragments from the region can be used as
probes to search for DNA sequences that are
e x p r e s s e d ( t r a n s c r i b e d t o R N A ) o r
conserved among individuals. Most genes
will have such sequences. Then individual
gene candidates must be examined. For
example, a gene responsible for liver disease
is likely to be expressed in the liver and less
likely in other tissues or organs. This type of
e v i d e n c e c a n f u r t h e r l i m i t t h e s e a r c h .
Finally, a suspected gene may need to be
sequenced in both heal thy and affec ted
individuals. A consistent pattern of DNA
v a r i a t i o n w h e n t h e s e t w o s a m p l e s a r e
compared will show that the gene of interest
has very likely been found. The ultimate
proof i s to cor rec t the suspec ted DNA
alteration in a cell and show that the cells
behavior reverts to normal.
Nanopore sequencing
It is a method under development since 1995
f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h
nucleotides occur on a strand of DNA. A
nanopore is simply a small hole, of the order
of 1 nanometer in internal diameter. Certain
t r ansmembrane ce l lu l a r p ro t e ins ac t a s
nanopores, and nanopores have also been
made by etching a somewhat larger hole
(several tens of nanometers) in a piece of
silicon, and then gradually filling it in using
ion-beam sculpting methods which results in
a much smaller diameter hole: the nanopore.
T h e t h e o r y b e h i n d n a n o p o r e
sequencing has to do with what occurs when
the nanopore is immersed in a conducting
fluid and a potential (voltage) is applied
across it: under these conditions a slight
electric current due to conduction of ions
through the nanopore can be observed, and
the amount of current is very sensitive to the
size and shape of the nanopore. If single
bases or strands of DNA pass (or part of the
D N A m o l e c u l e p a s s e s ) t h r o u g h t h e
nanopore, this can create a change in the
m a g n i t u d e o f t h e c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e
nanopore.
DNA could be passed through the
nanopore for various reasons. For example,
e l ec t rophores i s migh t a t t r ac t t he DNA
t o w a r d s t h e n a n o p o r e , a n d i t m i g h t
eventually pass through i t . Or, enzymes
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
86
attached to the nanopore might guide DNA
towards the nanopore. The scale of the
nanopore means tha t t he DNA may be
forced through the hole as a long string, one
base at a time, rather like thread through the
e y e o f a n e e d l e . A s i t d o e s s o , e a c h
n u c l e o t i d e o n t h e D N A m o l e c u l e m a y
o b s t r u c t t h e n a n o p o r e t o a d i f f e r e n t ,
characteristic degree. The amount of current
which can pass through the nanopore at any
given moment therefore varies depending on
whether the nanopore is blocked by an A, a
C, a G or a T. The change in the current
through the nanopore as the DNA molecule
passes through the nanopore represents a
d i r e c t r e a d i n g o f t h e D N A s e q u e n c e .
Alternatively, a nanopore might be used to
identify individual DNA bases as they pass
through the nanopore in the correct order.
The potential is that a single molecule of
DNA can be sequenced directly using a
n a n o p o r e , w i t h o u t t h e n e e d f o r a n
intervening PCR amplification step or a
chemical labell ing step or the need for
op t i ca l ins t rumenta t ion to iden t i fy the
c h e m i c a l l a b e l . A s o f O c t o b e r 2 0 0 8 ,
information available to the public indicates
that nanopore sequencing is st i l l at the
proof-of-concept experimental stage, with
some laboratory-based data to back up the
different components of the sequencing
method, but not yet parallelized, routineized,
nor cost-effective enough yet to compete
wi th ou t "nex t genera t ion sequenc ing"
methods. Nanopore-based DNA analysis
techniques are being industrially developed
by Oxford Nanopore Technologies (direct
label-free exonuclease sequencing), NabSys
(using a library of DNA probes and using
nanopores to detect where these probes have
hybridized to single stranded DNA) and
Sequenom (using nanopores in combination
with fluorescent labels). One challenge for
the 'strand sequencing' method is in refining
the method to improve its resolution to be
ab le to de tec t s ing le bases . In the ea r ly
papers methods , a nuc leo t ide needed to be
repea ted in a sequence about 100 t imes
s u c c e s s i v e l y i n o r d e r t o p r o d u c e a
measurab le charac te r i s t i c change . More
recen t ly e ffec t s o f s ing le bases due to
secondary s t ruc ture o r r e leased
mononuc leo t ides .
Shotgun sequencing
it is also known as shotgun cloning, is a
method used for sequenc ing long DNA
strands. It is named by analogy with the
rap id ly -expand ing , quas i - r andom f i r i ng
pattern of a shotgun.
Since the chain termination method of DNA
sequencing can only be used for fairly short
s t rands (100 to 1000 basepai rs ) , longer
sequences must be subdivided into smaller
fragments, and subsequently re-assembled to
give the overall sequence. Two principal
methods are used for th is : chromosome
walking, which progresses through the entire
s t r a n d , p i e c e b y p i e c e , a n d s h o t g u n
sequencing, which i s a fas ter but more
complex process, and uses random fragments.
In shotgun sequencing, DNA is broken up
randomly in to numerous smal l segments ,
w h i c h a r e s e q u e n c e d u s i n g t h e c h a i n
t e r m i n a t i o n m e t h o d t o o b t a i n r e a d s .
Mul t ip le over lapping reads for the target
DNA are obta ined by performing severa l
r o u n d s o f t h i s f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n d
sequencing. Computer programs then use
the over lapping ends of d i fferent reads to
assemble them into a cont inuous sequence.
G e n o m e a s s e m b l y r e f e r s t o t h e
process of taking a large number of short
D N A s e q u e n c e s , a l l o f w h i c h w e r e
generated by a shotgun sequencing project ,
and put t ing them back together to create a
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
87
representation of the original chromosomesf r o m w h i c h t h e D N A o r i g i n a t e d . I n ashotgun sequencing project, all the DNAfrom a source (usually a single organism,anything from a bacterium to a mammal) isfirst fractured into millions of small pieces.These pieces are then "read" by automatedsequencing machines, which can read up to900 nucleotides or bases at a t ime. (The fourbases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, andthymine, represented as AGCT.) A genomeassembly algorithm works by taking all thepieces and aligning them to one another, anddetecting all places where two of the shorts e q u e n c e s , o r r e a d s , o v e r l a p . T h e s eoverlapping reads can be merged together,and the process continues.
Genome assembly is a very difficult
computational problem, made more difficult
b e c a u s e m a n y g e n o m e s c o n t a i n l a r g e
numbers of identical sequences, known as
repeats . These repeats can be thousands of
n u c l e o t i d e s l o n g , a n d s o m e o c c u r i n
thousands of different locations, especially
in the large genomes of plants and animals.
T h e r e s u l t i n g ( d r a f t ) g e n o m e
sequence is produced by combining the
information sequenced cont igs and then
employing l inking information to create
scaffolds. Scaffolds are positioned along the
physical map of the chromosomes creating a
"golden path".
Assembly software
Or iginal ly, most large-scale DNA
sequencing centers developed their own
software for assembling the sequences that
they produced. However, this has changed
as the software has grown more complex
and as the number of sequencing centers has
increased.
Among the list of available assemblers are:
Phred/Phrap by Phil Green was one
of the first successful assemblers,
widely used in the 1990s and early
2000s , e spec ia l ly fo r smal le r
genomes.
AMOS (A Modular, Open-Source
assembler) is a well-known open
source project intended to bring
together the efforts of leading
genome assembly code developers.
The home of AMOS is currently
http://amos.sourceforge.net/. AMOS
was initiated at The Institute for
Genomic Resea rch by S teven
Salzberg , Mihai Pop, and Art
Delcher, who are now at the The
University of Maryland.
The Celera Assembler was the a s semble r deve loped by Gene Myers, Granger Sutton, Art Delcher, and others at Celera Genomics from 1998 until approximately 2002. It was moved to SourceForge and continues to be developed by the original scientists and others, at http://sourceforge.net/projects/wgs- assembler.
The Arachne assembler began in
2000 as the doctoral thesis of
Serafim Batzoglou, now at Stanford
University. Since that time, it has
been developed by a team lead by
David B. Jaffe at the Broad Institute,
formerly part of the Whitehead
Institute. It is available for download
at
http://www.broad.mit.edu/wga/arach
newiki/. cox
Genome annotation
Genome annota t ion i s t he p roces s o f
a t t a c h i n g b i o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n t o
sequences . I t cons i s t s o f two ma in s t eps :
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
88
1. Identifying elements on the genome, a process called Gene Finding, and 2. Attaching biological information to these elements.
Automatic annotat ion tools t ry to
perform al l th is by computer analysis , as
o p p o s e d t o m a n u a l a n n o t a t i o n ( a . k . a .
curat ion) which involves human expert ise .
Idea l ly, t he se app roaches co -ex i s t and
c o m p l e m e n t e a c h o t h e r i n t h e s a m e
annotat ion pipel ine.
The basic level of annotation is using
BLAST for finding similarities, and then
annotating genomes based on that. However,
n o w a d a y s m o r e a n d m o r e a d d i t i o n a l
in fo rmat ion i s added to the anno ta t ion
platform. The additional information allows
m a n u a l a n n o t a t o r s t o d e c o n v o l u t e
discrepancies between genes that are given
the same annotation.
For example, the SEED database uses
genome con tex t in fo rmat ion , s imi la r i ty
scores, experimental data, and integrations
o f o t h e r r e s o u r c e s t o p r o v i d e g e n o m e
a n n o t a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e i r S u b s y s t e m s
approach. The Ensembl database relies on
both curated data sources as well as a range
of different software tools in their automated
genome annotation pipeline.[2]
Structural annotation consists in the identification
of genomic elements.
ORFs and their localisation
gene structure
coding regions
location of regulatory motifs
Functional annotation consists in attaching
biological information to genomic elements.
biochemical function
biological function
involved regulation and interactions
expression
These steps may involve both biological
experiments and in silico analysis.
A va r i e ty o f so f tware too l s have been
deve loped to permi t sc ien t i s t s to v iew and
share genome annota t ions .
G e n o m e a n n o t a t i o n i s t h e n e x t m a j o r
challenge for the Human Genome Project,
now that the genome sequences of human
and several model organisms are largely
complete. Identifying the locations of genes
and other genetic control elements is often
described as defining the biological "parts
list" for the assembly and normal operation
of an organism. Scientists are still at an early
stage in the process of delineating this parts
list and in understanding how all the parts]"fit together"
Genome annotat ion is an act ive area of
invest igat ion and involves a number of
different organizations in the life science
community which publish the results of their
e ffo r t s in pub l ic ly ava i l ab le b io log ica l
databases accessible via the web and other
electronic means. Here is an alphabetical
l i s t ing of on-going projects re levant to
genome annotation:
Encyclopedia Of DNA Elements
(ENCODE)
Entrez Gene
Ensembl
Gene Ontology Consortium
GeneRIF
RefSeq
Uniprot
Vertebrate and Genome Annotation
Project (Vega)
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
89
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HEAVY METAL STRESS AND PHYTOREMEDI1ATION
* 1 2 Dr.Harvinder Kaur Sidhu , Prof. Kirandeep Kaur Hundal
1Deptt. Of Botany,Desh Bhagat University,
Mandi Gobindgarh2Associate Professor, P.G. Department of Botany,
Khalsa College, Amritsar
E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACTHeavy metals like lead, arsenic, chromium, zinc, cadmium, copper and mercury arecontaminating our soil and even underground water. These pollutants are directly or indirectlycausing significant damage to the environment and human health as a result of their mobilitiesand solubilities. The selection of most appropriate soil and sediment remediation methoddepends on the site characteristics, concentration, type of pollutants to be removed and the enduse of contaminated medium. Cheaper and effective technologies are needed to protect theprecious natural resources and biological lives. The main techniques involved are bioleachingand phytoremediation. Bioleaching involves use of Thiobacillus sp. bacteria which can reducesulphur compounds under aerobic and acidic conditions at temperature between 15º and 55ºCwhereas phytoremediation involve use of plants like Chenopodium, Utrica and Alyssum that cantake up and accumulate toxic metals in their leaves where they can be disposed off easily. Withthe recent advancement in biotechnology, the capabilities of hyperaccumulators may be greatlyenhanced through specific metal gene identification and its transfer in certain species, which playa significant role in the extraction of heavy metals from the polluted soils.
Keywords: Heavy metals, Remediation technologies, Bioleaching and Phytoremediation
INTRODUCTION Large areas of agricultural lands, are
contaminated by heavy metals that mainly
originate due to burning of fossil fuels,
indus t r ia l manufac tur ing and munic ipa l
wastes, and application of fertilizers, and
sewage sludge to land. Heavy metals like
lead, arsenic, chromium, zinc, cadmium,
copper and mercury are contaminating our
so i l and even unde rg round wa te r. The
excessive uptake of these metals from the
soil results in entry of heavy metals in our
food supply and also reduces yield (Bala and
Setia 1990; Hall 2002). Heavy metals poses
a great potential threat to the environment
a n d h u m a n h e a l t h
A large number of studies have led
the way in understanding plant activities
a g a i n s t t o x i c c o m p o u n d s l i k e
trichloroethylene and carbon tetrachloride.
In order to maintain good quality of soil and
w a t e r a n d k e e p t h e m f r e e f r o m
contamination, continuous efforts have been
made to develop technologies that are easy
to use and sustainable.
P h y t o r e m e d i a t i o n , i s t h e u s e o f
p l a n t s t o c l e a n u p p o l l u t i o n i n t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t . P l a n t s c a n t a k e u p a n d
accumulate toxic metals in their leaves
where they can be d isposed off eas i ly.
Phytoremediation is an energy efficient ,
cost-effective, aesthetically pleasing method
of remediating sites with low to moderate
levels of contamination (Schnoor 1997; Salt
e t a l . 1 9 9 8 ) . T h e t e c h n i q u e o f
phytoremediation exploits the use of either
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93
naturally occurring metal hyperaccumulator
p lan t s o r gene t i ca l ly eng ineered p lan t s
(Cunningham et al. 1997; Flathman and
Heavy metal uptake, Translocation and
Accumulation T h e u p t a k e , t r a n s l o c a t i o n a n daccumulation of heavy metals in plants ism e d i a t e d b y i n t e g r a t e d n e t w o r k o fphysiological, biochemical and molecularmechanisms. The transfer of heavy metalsfrom soils to plants depend on total amountof potentially available or the bioavailabilityof the metal, the activity as well as the ionicratios of elements in soil solution, and rateof element transfer from solid to liquid
Mechanisms of phytoremediation
There are several ways by which
plants clean up the contaminated s i tes . The
uptake of contaminants in plants occurs
primari ly through the root system, in which
the principle mechanisms for preventing
toxici ty are found.
The root system provides an enormous
surface that absorbs and accumulates the
Phytoextraction
P h y t o e x t r a c t i o n a l s o c a l l e dPhytoaccumulation, refers to the uptake andtranslocation of metal contamination in thesoil by plant roots into the above groundportion of the plants. Certain plants calledhyperaccumulators adsorb large amounts of
Lanza 1998). This review give a broad
overview of processes involved in
phytoremediationphases and to p lant roots (Brummer e t a l .
1986) . P lants may loca l ize se lec ted meta ls
most ly in roots or shoots , or they may
accumula te and s tore o ther meta ls in non-
toxic te rms for la ter d is t r ibut ion and use .
The t ransport of heavy metals f rom
root to shoot takes place through xylem via
special ized membrane t ransport processes
(Sal t e t a l . 1995) . In leaf cel ls , metals are
taken up by specif ic membrane t ransporter
protein.
water and nutrients essential for growth
along with other non-essential contaminants.
Plant roots cause changes at the soil-root
i n t e r f a c e a s t h e r e l e a s e o r g a n i c a n d
inorganic exudates in the rhizophers. These
root exudates affect the number and activity
of microorganisms, the aggregat ion and
stability of the soil particles around the root
and the availability of the contaminant. Root
exudates by themselves can increase or
decrease the availability of the contaminants
in the root zone of the plant through changes
in soil characteristics, release of organic
s u b s t a n c e s , c h a n g e s i n c h e m i c a l
composition and/or increase in plant assisted
microbial activity. There are five different
technologies for the remediation of metal
polluted soils , sediments or water. They
i n c l u d e p h y t o r e m e d i a t i o n ,
p h y t o s t a b i l i z a t i o n , r h i s o f i l t e r a t i o n ,
phytovolatization and phytotransformation
metals in comparison to other plants. Plants
are selected at a particular site based on the
type o f me ta l s p re sen t and o the r s i t e
conditions. After the growth period of the
p l a n t s , t h e y a r e h a r v e s t e d a n d e i t h e r
incinerated or composted to recycle the
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metals . I f the plants are incinerated, ash is
disposed off in a hazardous waste landf i l l .
The volume of ash wi l l be less than 10% of
the volume tha t i s c rea ted , i f the
contaminated so i l i t se l f were dug up for
t rea tment . Meta ls such as n icke l , z inc and
cooper a re the bes t candida tes for removal
by phytoext rac t ion .
Tr a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d s t h a t a r e u s e d f o rcleaning up heavy metal contaminated soild i s r u p t s o i l s t r u c t u r e a n d r e d u c e s o i lproductivity, whereas phytoextraction canclear up the soil without causing any kind ofharm to soil quality. It is less expensive thanany clean up process. As this process iscontrolled by plants, it takes more time thananthropogenic soil clean up methods.
Table 1: Plants with Metal Concentration
Plants Metal Concentration (mg metal/kg dry matter)
Eichhornia crassipes Fe 14400 Minuartia verna Cu (roots)
Pb (roots) Cd (leaves)
1850 26300 348
Jasione Montana As (leaves) 3100 Mechovia grandiflora Mn (leaves) 7000 Acrocephalus robertii Co (leaves) 1490 Psychotria douarrei Ni (roots) 92000 Pearsonia metallifera Cr (roots) 1620 Astragalus preussi U (leaves, roots) 70 Astragalus acemosus Se (leaves) 1500 Alyssum bertholonii Ni (shoots) 13400 Miconia lutescens Al (shoots) 6800
Phytostabilization
Phytostabilization is the use of
c e r t a i n p l a n t s p e c i e s t o i m m o b i l i z e
contaminants in the soil and ground water
through absorption and accumulation by
roots, adsorption onto roots, or precipitation
with in the root zone of plants. This process
reduces the mobility of the contaminant and
prevents; migration to the ground water, and
it reduces bio-availability of metal into the
food chain. This technique can also be used
to reestablish vegetation cover at sites where
natural vegetation fails to survive due to
high metals concentrations in surface soils
or physical disturbances to surface materials.
Metal tolerant species is used to restore
vegetation at contaminated sites, thereby
d e c r e a s i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l m i g r a t i o n o f
p o l l u t a n t s t h r o u g h w i n d e r o s i o n a n d
transport of exposed surface soils and
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
95
teaching of soil contamination to ground water
Thus, phytoremediation is a low cost, solar
e n e r g y d r i v e n a n d n a t u r a l c l e a n u p
technique, which are most useful at sites
Rhizofilteration
Rhizofilteration is the adsorption or
precipitation onto plant roots or adsorption
of contaminants in the solution surrounding
the root zone.
Phytovolatization
Phytovolatization refers to the uptake
and transpiration of contaminants, primarily
o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s , b y p l a n t s . T h e
contaminant, present in the water taken up
Phytotransformation
Phytotransfromation, also referred to
as phytodegradation, is the breakdown of
organic contaminants sequestered by plants
via:
1. Metabolic processes with in theplant, or
with shallow, low levels of contamination.They are useful for treating a wide varietyof env i ronmenta l con taminan ts and a reeffective with or in some cases, in place ofm e c h a n i c a l c l e a n u p m e t h o d s .Environmentally sound technologies (ESTs)e n c o m p a s s t e c h n o l o g i e s t h a t h a v es i g n i f i c a n t l y i m p r o v e d e n v i r o n m e n t a lperformance release to other technologies.ESTs pro tec t the envi ronment , a re lesspolluting, use resources in a sustainablemanner, recycle more of their wastes andproducts, and handle all residual wastes inan environmentally sustainable manner.
R h i z o f i l t e r a t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o
phytoextraction, but the plants are used
primarily to address contaminated ground
water rather than soil. The plants to be used
for cleanup are raised in green houses with
their roots in water rather than in soil. To
acclimatize the plants, once a large root
system has been developed, contaminated
water i s co l lec ted f rom was te s i t e and
brought to the plants where it is substituted
for their water source. The plants are then
planted in the contaminated area where the
roots take up the water and the contaminants
also with it. As the roots become saturated
with contaminants, they are harvested.
by the plant , passes through the plant or isreleased to the atmosphere. Resul ts of onestudy confirmed that popular t rees volat ize90% of the t r ichloroethylene (TCE) theyextracted from the ground.
2. The effect of compounds. Such as enzymes produced by the plant.
The o rgan ic con taminan t s a r edegraded into simpler compounds that areintegrated with plant tissue, which in turn,foster plant growth. Remediation of a site byphytotransformation is dependent on directuptake of contaminants from the media and
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
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accumula t i on i n t he vege t a t i on . D i r ec tuptake of chemicals into plant t issue via ther o o t s y s t e m i s d e p e n d e n t o n u p t a k ee f f i c i e n c y , t r a n s p i r a t i o n r a t e , a n dconcentration of the chemical in soil water.Uptake efficiency depends on chemical
speciation, physical/chemical properties, and
plant characteristics, whereas transpiration
r a t e d e p e n d s o n p l a n t t y p e , l e a f a r e a ,
nutrients, soil moisture, temperature, wind
conditions and relative humidity.
Genetic Engineering and
Phytoremediation
Natural metal hyperaccumulators
such as Thalaspi spp. Can accumulate and
tolerate high concentration in their tissues
t h a t t h o s e u s u a l l y f o u n d i n n o n -
accumulators without any visible toxicity
symptoms . However, mos t o f he meta l
hyperaccumulators have a limited potential
phytoremediation because of their small size
and slow growth (Lasat 2002). Thus, to
overcome this limitations and to improve the
potential for metal phytoextraction, Brown
et al. (1995) proposed the transfer of the
hyperaccumulator phenotype from small and
slow growing hyperaccumulator species to
f a s t g r o w i n g , h i g h b i o m a s s p r o d u c i n g
n o n a c c u m u l a t o r p l a n t s . R e s e a r c h d a t a
indicates that tolerance to toxic metals is
regulated by one or few major genes. The
most important application of biotechnology
h a s b e e n t h e b i o e n g i n e e r i n g o f p l a n t s
capable of removing methyl-mercury from
the contaminated soil. Methyl-mercury, is
biosynthesized in Hg-contaminated soil, and
to detoxi fy th is compound, Arabidopsis
thaliana plants were genetically manipulated
to express bacterial genes mer A and mer B
(Rugh et al. 1996).
CONCLUSIONS
The contamination of heavy metals
to the environment, i.e. soil, water, plant and
air is of great concern due to its potential
i m p a c t o n h u m a n a n d a n i m a l h e a l t h .
Cheaper and effec t ive technologies a re
needed to p ro tec t the p rec ious na tu ra l
resources and biological lives. Substantial
efforts have been made in identifying plant
species and their mechanisms of uptake and
hyperaccumulation of heavy metals in the
last decade. There are genetic variations
among plant species and even among the
c u l t i v a r o f t h e s a m e s p e c i e s . T h e
mechanisms of metal uptake, accumulation,
exclusion, translocation, Osmoregulation
and compartmentation vary with each plant
species and determine its specific role in
phytoremediation.
Variations exist for hyperaccumulation of
different metals among various plant species
and within populations. These variations do
n o t c o r r e l a t e w i t h e i t h e r t h e m e t a l
concentration in the soil or the degree of
metal tolerance in the plant. In order to
develop new crop species /plants having
capabilities of metal extraction from the
polluted environment, traditional breeding
t e c h n i q u e s , h y b r i d g e n e r a t i o n t h r o u g h
p r o t o p l a s t f u s i o n s , a d p r o d u c t i o n o f
mutagens through radiation and chemicals
are all in progress. With the development of
b i o t e c h n o l o g y t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f
hyperaccumulators may be greatly enhanced
through specific metal gene identification
and its transfer in certain promising species.
This can play a s igni f icant ro le in the
extraction of heavy metals from the polluted
soils
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f a c t o r s ( o n l i n e ) . A v a i l a b l e a t
http://www.gwrlac.org/pdf/phyto-e-pdf.
Ground Water Remediation Technologies
Analysis Center. Pittsburgh
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Obesity in Menopausal Women: A New Nutritional Emergency
* 1 2 3Harmanjot Kaur , Geetakshi Grover , Roopjot Kochar1 Associate Professor, School of Hotel Management, Desh Bhagat University
2Dietician, IVY Hospital, Khanna
3 Medical Officer, 78/13 Near Triveni Mandir, Khanna
*E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACTs t
Obesity in India has reached epidemic proportions in the 21 century and is following a
trend of other developing countries that are steadily becoming more obese. It is a complex
multifactorial disorder affecting 20 per cent to 40 per cent of adults in India. The prevalence of
obesity is more among women. The prevalence of being overweight and obesity is higher among
postmenopausal women. Menopause is associated with several alterations in fat deposits, leading
to changes in the distribution of body fat from gynoid to android pattern. Menopause affects the
quality of life of a woman and besides causing commonly reported symptoms including hot
flushes, night sweats, sleep disturbances, urinary frequency, vaginal dryness, poor memory,
anxiety and depression. A balanced diet rich in calcium, iron, fiber, soybeans, vitamin B, vitamin
E, potassium, omega 3 fatty acids and phytoestrogens can relief menopausal symptoms including
obesity.
Keywords: Obesity, Menopause, Balanced diet, Calcium, Phytoestrogens.
INTRODUCTION
O b e s i t y i s t h e m o s t p r e v a l e n tn u t r i t i o n a l d i s o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e r e i sexcessive storage of energy in the form offat as per height, weight, race and gender(WHO 2006). Just over 10,000 years ago,o b e s i t y w a s n o n e x i s t e n t i n h u m a npopula t ion . In the span o f t ime i t has
s tbecome pandemic of 21 century (Chowbey2009). Now, this pandemic is so great thatthe new word is coined to cover this i .e.“Globesity” or World Wide Obesity. WHO(2000) describes obesity as one of the majoryet most neglected public health problemsthat threatens to overwhelm both developedand under developed countries. Globally,obesity has reached epidemic proportionswi th more t han 1 b i l l i on adu l t s be ingoverweight and at least 3000 million areclinically obese (WHO 2003).
The prevalence data from individual
national studies collected by the
In t e rna t iona l Obes i ty Task fo rce (2005)suggested that obesity ranges from 10 to 20per cent for men and 10 to 25 per cent forw o m e n . T h e r e h a d b e e n a w o r l d w i d eincrease in obesity among people of all ages.I n m o r e a f f l u e n t c o u n t r i e s , o b e s i t y i scommon not only in the middle-aged, but isalso becoming increasingly prevalent amongyounger adults and children (Bindah andOthman, 2011). Pi-Sunyer (2002) states thato b e s i t y c a n o c c u r a t a n y a g e , o l d e rindividuals are more likely to become obese.It has been found that obesity reaches itspeak at around 55-64 years of age anddecreases afterwards. Mohsen and Warsy(2002) also found significant increase inprevalence of obesity and overweight withage in both males and females of Saudipopulation. In all age groups, obesity wassignificantly more in females compared tomales. Overweight was more prevalent infemales 20-29 years of age as compared to
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
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males but the 30-49 years old males had a
higher prevalence of overweight. Males and
females aged more than 50 years had almost
an equal prevalence of overweight.
malnutrition has become a double-headed
monster. It is not uncommon to find under
nutrition co-existing with obesity, especially
in urban settings. It is estimated that at the
beginning of this century, more people will
die from complications of over nutrition
than of starvation.
Ironically, developing countries,w h i c h h a v e b e e n s a d d l e d w i t hcommunicable diseases and under-nutri t ionfor generations, are now facing an upsurgeo f o b e s i t y a n d i t s a d v e r s e h e a l t hc o n s e q u e n c e s . A f r i d i a n d K h a n ( 2 0 0 4 )r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e su n d e r g o i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f e c o n o m i cmodernization demonstrate rapid increasesin prevalence of obesity. I t has been notedthat one consequence of nutri t ion transit ionin developing countries is decline in undernutri t ion in associat ion with increase inobesity (Popkin et al . 2001). El Rhazi et al .(2011); Guerrero et al . (2008) found that inlow and middle-income countries,
W H O n o w a c c e p t s a b o d y m a s s2 index (BMI) of 25.0 kg/m or higher as
abnormal and overweight category is now
classified as obese. With the new Asian BMI
criteria of overweight at a lower cut off of223.0 kg/m , the number i s even h igher
reaching 1.7 billion people (Haslam and
James 2005; James et al. 2004). So, the
obesity is not restricted to industrialized
societies rather this increase is often faster in
developing countr ies than in developed
world.
Obesity and its association with
Menopause
M e n o p a u s e i s d e f i n e d a s f i n a l
menstruation. It is the final stoppage of
menses in a middle aged woman. Normally
wi th age , the ovar ies s tar t to s low the
p r o d u c t i o n o f h o r m o n e l i k e e s t r o g e n ,
progesterone and testosterone. Menopause
occurs due to decline in female hormone
levels during their late 40's or early 50's,
signaling the end of the fertile phase of a
woman's life. Menopause occurs naturally,
o r i t c a n b e c a u s e d b y s u r g e r y ,
chemotherapy or radiation. The average age
of the natural menopause is 47.8 yrs in India
and 51.4 yrs in western countries (Pathak
and Prashar 2010) . The t rans i t ion f rom
regular menst rual cycle to cessa t ion of
menstrual period is sudden phenomenon.
Natural menopause is recognized to have
occurred after 12 consecutive months of
amenorrhea without any pathological and
physiological causes. Induced menopause is
the cessation of menstruation through either
surgical removal of both ovaries with or
wi thout hys te rec tomy or by the use of
med ic ine . P rema tu re menopause i s t he
menopause occurring before the age of 40.
The menopause is such a striking event in
the life of a woman that tends to overshadow
all other aspects of l ife associated with
reproductive decline because it marks the
termination of woman's reproductive cycle.
In other words, fertility in woman ends with
o n s e t o f m e n o p a u s e w h i c h i n v o l v e s a
process of complex changes that occur in
body with aging. Menopause affects the
quali ty of l ife of a woman and besides
c a u s i n g c o m m o n l y r e p o r t e d s y m p t o m s
including hot flushes, night sweats, sleep
disturbances, ur inary frequency, vaginal
dryness, poor memory, anxiety, depression
(Aaron et al. 2002) and psychological and
rheumatic complaints (Bairy et al. 2009), it
proves as major cause of obesity in post-
menopausal women (Sharma et al. 2008).
According to recent report (Unni
2010) which is based on third consensus
meeting of Indian Menopausal society, in
India where population figures has already
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
100
crossed over 1 billion with 71 million peopleo v e r t h e a g e o f 6 0 , t h e n u m b e r o fmenopausal women is 43 million and it isfurther predicted that by year 2026, where
the to ta l popula t ion wi l l be 1 .4 b i l l ionpeople over 60 yrs wil l be 172 mil l ion, themenopausal populat ion wil l be 103 mil l ion.
Menopause and Leptin LevelL e p t i n , a p r o t e i n h o r m o n e p r o d u c e d
mainly by the adipose tissue, is involved in
body weight regulation and energy balance.
Leptin is believed to be an anti-obesity
hormone. The primary physiological role of
leptin is to communicate to the CNS about
the abundance of available energy stores and
t o c h e c k f o o d i n t a k e , i n d u c e e n e r g y
expenditure and decrease weight (Yang and
B a r o u c h 2 0 0 7 ) . T h e a b s e n c e o f l e p t i n
therefore results in increased appetite and
food intake that causes morbid obesi ty.
Leptin also influences follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH),
Adreno Cortico Trophic Hormone (ACTH),
c o r t i s o l a n d G r o w t h H o r m o n e ( G H )
s e c r e t i o n ( L i c i n i o e t a l . 1 9 9 8 ) .
Significant differences have been
r e p o r t e d i n l e p t i n l e v e l s b e t w e e n
premenopausal and post-menopausal
w o m e n . K o n u k o g l u ( 2 0 0 0 ) r e p o r t e d
significantly higher plasma leptin levels in
p r e m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n a s c o m p a r e d t o
p o s t m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n . O b e s e
premenopausal women had s ignif icant ly
higher plasma leptin levels in comparison
w i t h t h e l e v e l s o f t h e n o n - o b e s e
p r e m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n a l t h o u g h n o
significant difference was observed in the
plasma leptin levels between obese and non-
obese post-menopausal women. Barrios et
al. (2010); Jaleel et al. (2006) have also
observed higher plasma leptin levels among
obese post-menopausal women as compared
t o n o n - o b e s e p o s t m e n o p a u s a l a n d
premenopausal women. Ayub et al. (2006)
suggested that the menopausal status was a
more significant determinant of leptin levels.
In pos tmenopausa l women , dec rease in
estrogen level leads to increase in body fat
and BMI.
Menopause and Estrogen
M e n o p a u s e i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
d e c r e a s e i n e s t r o g e n l e v e l s w h i c h i s
responsible for heart disease, osteoporosis,
d i a b e t e s , h y p e r t e n s i o n a n d o b e s i t y i n
menopausal women are important public
health concerns. It causes an increase in
tendency to gain weight. There are several
changes in the deposition and distribution of
body fat from a gynoid to android pattern
(Rosano et al. 2007). Reduction in ovarian
hormones at the menopause leads to diverse
functional and endocrinological disturbances
resulting in decrease in basal metabolism
and greater weight gain (Mastorakos et al.
2010) The prevalence of obesity increases
significantly in American women after they
reach 40; the prevalence reaches 65 per cent
between 40 and 59 years and 73.8 per cent
in women over age 60 (Flegal e t a l . 2007) .
Accord ing to WHO (2002) repor t s , the
preva lence o f obes i ty i s g rowing mos t
rapidly in post -menopausal women. The
prevalence of obesi ty in post -menopausal
women wi th a fami ly h is tory of breas t
cancer was observed as 37 per cent wi th 40
per cent being overweight (Begum et a l .
2009) .
The endocrine changes associatedwith menopause such as low plasma levelso f e s t r o g e n a n d m a r k e d i n c r e a s e i nluteinizing and follicle stimulating hormonelevels exer t a s ignif icant effect on them e t a b o l i s m o f p l a s m a l i p i d s a n dl i p o p r o t e i n s ( U s o r o e t a l . 2 0 0 6 ) . I nmenopausal women, hormonal imbalance inthe body leads to elevated levels of
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
101
triglycerides and total cholesterol due tos i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n i n c i r c u l a t i n gc o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e s t r a d i o l r e s u l t i n g i nincrease in heart diseases and atherosclerosisafter menopause (Javoor et al. 2008). Igweh
et al. (2005) had also reported that such
changes in the lipid profile after menopause
are not friendly for the cardiovascular health
of the women.
Nutrition during MenopauseMenopause is not a disease, i t s end of
reproductive or fertile phase of life of a
woman. So, there is no specific treatment of
this phase. It's the condition to be managed
by HRT (Hormone Replacement Therapy),
multivitamin doses and dietary management.
Nutrition of menopausal women is major
concern to overcome var ious secondary
d i s e a s e s l i k e o s t e o p o r o s i s i n c r e a s e
cholesterol levels and obesity. The treatment
of postmenopausal obesity is very simple
logically but incredibly difficult- eat less and
exercise more. Recent studies suggest that
being active and fit is more important than
l o s i n g w e i g h t , h e n c e , a m a j o r
recommenda t ion i s main ta in ing hea l thy
b a l a n c e d d i e t . A s t u d y o n o b e s e
postmenopausal women shows that diet and
exercise has positive affect on health rather
that die t or exercise a lone (Pathak and
Prashar 2010).
In i t i a l goa l o f we igh t loss the rapy fo r
overweight patients is a reduction in body
weight of about 10 per cent . Combined
t h e r a p y w i t h l o w c a l o r i e d i e t ( L C D ) ,
increased physical activity and behavior
t h e r a p y p r o v i d e t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l
in te rven t ion fo r we igh t loss and wa te r
m a i n t e n a n c e . A y e a r l o n g , 4 a r m
randomized trial among 439 overweight to
obese postmenopausal sedentary women to
determine the effect of calorie reduced, low
fat diet (D), a moderate intensity, facility
based aerobic exercise programme (E) or
combination of both interventions (D+E)
versus no lifestyle change control (C) On the
change in body weight and composition.
Group based die tary in tervent ion had a
weight reduction goal of less than 10 per
cent and excessive intervention consisted of
a gradual esca la t ion to 45 min aerobic
exercise 5 days a week. This study shows
t h a t a m o n g p o s t m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n ,
lifestyle changes combined diet and exercise
over one year improves weight and adiposity
(Karen et al. 2012).
O b e s i t y i n m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n c a n b e
managed by modifying diet. Adjustments of
diet will be required to reduce calorie intake.
Dietary Guidelines for Obese Menopausal
Women
Many of the menopausal symptoms can be
managed by using appropriate diet. During
menopause, eating variety of foods rich in
calcium, iron, fiber, water and containing
fewer amounts of fats and salt can help in
relieving the menopausal symptoms and also
in reducing weight.
F o o d s t h a t n e e d t o b e e n c o u r a g e d i n t h e
m e n o p a u s e d i e t a r e :
Soya products: soybean has natural female
hormones.
Nuts: Almonds are rich in calcium and
omega 3 fatty acid.
Sesame seeds: rich in calcium and
omega 3 fatty acid.
Whole grains: rich in vitamin B and
dietary fiber.
L e g u m e s ( s o y a b e a n s , l e n t i l s ,
c h i c k p e a s ) : r i c h i n v i t a m i n B ,
I s o f l a v o n e s
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
102
Vegetables: dark leafy greens, bean
sprouts
Potassium rich fruits: pomegranate,
lemon, lichi, melon, amla, bel,
guava, tomato, sweet lime
Coconut water: rich in potassium, have
cooling effect
Green coriander juice: for cooling
effect and insomnia
Ghia / lauki juice: insomnia
Mulethi: rich in female hormone
Plenty of water
Use salt in moderation - avoid sauce, pickles, bakery products, papad etc
Phytoestrogens
Estrogen plays an important role not only in
reproductive system but also in functioning
of cardiovascular, central nervous, immune
and skeletal system. Estrogen also appears
to he lp con t ro l in weigh t ga in . Fa l l in
e s t r o g e n s a f t e r m e n o p a u s e l e a d s t o
detr imental effects . With lower estrogen
levels, one tends to eat more and be less
physically active leading to lower metabolic
ra te . To avoid these de t r imenta l e ffec ts
phytoestrogens can be included in diet. The
phytoestrogen rich foods include soybeans,
garl ic, apples, pumpkin, wheat, cabbage,
oats, black cohosh, flax seeds, peanut and
walnuts . Phytoes t rogens can contro l the
symptoms of menopause such as headache,
hot flushes, mood changes, sleep disorders,
heart palpitation, night sweats and vaginal
dryness (Poluzzi et al . 2014; Khajuria et al .
2008).
cardiovascular disease compared with lowcalcium intake (Sigal et al. 2007; Melanie etal. 2003). Foods rich in calcium includedairy products, almonds, sesame seeds, fish,egg, ragi, soya milk, soya paneer, Bengalgram dal, soy bean sprouts, horse gram dal,amaranth , caul i f lower greens , co locas ialeaves (dried), turnip greens, radish, lotusstem, groundnut and coconut.
CarbohydratesCarbohydrates provide us with energy and
fuel. A healthy and balanced diet should
include whole grain cereals, whole meal
pasta and bread. Intake of refined cereals
should be restricted .Complex carbohydrates
from different vegetables, fruits, and whole
g r a i n s a r e g o o d s o u r c e s o f v i t a m i n s ,
minerals and fiber. A diet high in all types of
fibers may also aid in weight management
by promoting sat iety at lower levels of
calorie and fat intake (Swinburn 2004).
Calcium
When a woman enters menopause, due to
es t rogen def ic iency which subsequent ly
increases the risk of osteoporosis, i t leads to
thinning and weakening of bones. Low daily
calcium intake is associated with greater
adiposity particularly in women. In both
sexes a high calcium intake is associated
wi th improved p lasma l ipopro te in l ip id
profile predictive of lower risk of
CONCLUSION
Fats
Reducing intake of saturated fats can really
help to protect against heart disease. Full fat
milk should be swapped for semi skimmed
or skimmed. Instead of using butter low fat
spread should be used. Also limit saturated
fat to less than 7% of total daily calories .
S a t u r a t e d f a t r a i s e s c h o l e s t e r o l a n d
increases risk for heart disease. Saturated fat
is found in fat ty meats, whole milk ice
creams and cheese (Swinburn 2004).
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O b e s i t y i s m o s t p r e v a l e n t n u t r i t i o n a l
disorder in India and one of major problem
associa ted wi th menopause . Menopausa l
women are at high risk for obesity due to
decrease in es t rogen leve l s . Obes i ty in
menopausa l women can be managed by
modifying diet . Diet modification can prove
to the bes t way to con t ro l a l l med ica l
emergencies that r ise due to menopause. A
diet r ich in calcium, i ron, f iber, omega 3
f a t t y a c i d s , w a t e r , v i t a m i n B a n d
phytoestrogens is highly recommended in
managing menopause re la ted symptoms.
Soya products , dark leafy greens, almonds,
coconut water, sesame seeds, f lax seeds,
oats and potassium rich frui ts should be
included in diet to get maximum benefi ts .
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W H O ( 2 0 0 2 ) N a t i o n a l C a r d i o v a s c u l a r Database http://www.whoindia.org/ Link Files/ N M H _ R e s o u r c e s _ N a t i o n a l _ C V D _ d a tabase-Final_Report. pdf. Retrieved on 2015 J anuary, 02.
WHO (2003) Diet, nutrition and prevention of chronic diseases: report of a joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series number 916. Geneva.
WHO (2006) Obes i ty and Overweight . Global Infobase, Fact Sheet No. 311 <h t tp : / /www.who. in t /mediacen t re / fa ctsheet/fs311/en/index.html>. Retrieved on 2014 J anuary, 05.
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Magnetic abrasive finishing: A Review of Literature
* 1 1 2 3Ravinder Singh Gurpreet Singh , Harinder Singh , Sehijpal Singh
1Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Desh Bhgat University, Amloh – 141006.2Department of Production Engineering,
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana – 141006.3Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana – 141006.
*E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACTMachining of hard materials with precision and superior surface characteristics is always adifficult task. Traditional machining processes like filing, grinding, lapping etc. are capable tomachine the materials but also results into surface defects like cracks. Also, these processesremove the material at macro level and uses more cutting forces results into more heatproduced that leads to the different surface characteristics than the parent metal. Later in the1940, Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (MAF) process was introduced that is capable to removethe material at micro/nano level with less cutting forces as compared to traditional machiningprocesses. The mixture of ferromagnetic and abrasive particles forms a flexible magnetic brushthat is capable to finish the cylindrical, plain and complex shapes work pieces. This Process hasfound its application in different industries like aerospace, medical, electronics, dies andmoulds. This review provides the working principle, machining parameters of the MAF processand their fundamental effects on the work piece characteristics with the objective to select theoptimum parameters during the finishing of different materials used in manufacturing practices.
Keywords: Magnetic abrasive finishing, Non-traditional machining, optimum parameters.
INTRODUCTION-MAGNETICABRASIVES
There i s h igh demand fo r f i ne su r f ace
f in i sh i n a mode rn i ndus t r i a l wor ld . The
c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d s a v a i l a b l e f o r
f i n i sh ing such a s g r ind ing , debu r r i ng and
po l i sh ing e t c . a r e no t c apab l e t o p roduce
f i n e s u r f a c e w i t h o u t a n y s u r f a c e a n y
damage t o t he su r f ace . To f i n i sh t he work
p i ece w i th h igh accu racy, su r f ace f i n i sh
and ye t w i th min imum su r f ace damage , a
low l eve l o f con t ro l l ed fo r ce i s r equ i r ed .
The Magne t i c Abra s ive F in ing i s a non -
conven t iona l f i n i sh ing p roces s wh ich i s
capab l e t o mach ine t he work su r f ace w i th
l o w c o n t r o l l e d f o r c e s r e s u l t s i n f i n e
f in i sh ing w i th min imum su r f ace de fec t s
l i ke a s c r acks .
The processes such as cleaning, burnishingand deburring are being explored with theu s e o f M a g n e t i c f i e l d a s s i s t e dm a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s e s . A m a g n e t i cabrasive f inishing (MAF) process whichwas conceived in 1938.The countries suchas U.S.A, France, Germany and Japan areinvolved in the further development of thep r o c e s s . M A F c a n p r o d u c e v e r y h i g hquali ty surfaces at nano/micro level on themechanical and opt ical components andthere are very less chances of any surfacedefects . I t can be used for f ine f inishing ofb e a r i n g s , p r e c i s i o n a u t o m o t i v ecomponents . Both in ternal and externalsurfaces of tubes can be f inished with goods u r f a c e q u a l i t y b y u s i n g t h i s p r o c e s s(Yamaguch i and Sh inmura 1999) . A l sodue to the self - adaptabil i ty and self-
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sharpening ability of the magnetic brush, itis capable to machine complex shapes.
The method can machine ferromagnet ic
and non-ferromagnetic materials . The non-
ferromagnetic materials which have been
finished with this process are s teel , brass
and aluminum. The magnetic abrasives are
used in th i s p rocess i s the mix ture o f
f e r r o m a g n e t i c p a r t i c l e s a n d a b r a s i v e
part icles (s i l icon carbide, diamond etc .)
and are mixed by d i fferent techniques .
T h e m a g n e t i c f l u x d e n s i t y , s i z e o f
abrasives, method of mixing (s inter ing) ,
rat io of abrasive/ferromagnetic part icles ,
machining t ime, rota t ional / reciprocat ing
speed of work piece etc are the machining
parameters that affect the performance of
the MAF process.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ( S h i n m u r a e t a l . 1 9 8 5 ) c o n d u c t e d a n
e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y o n p l a n e w o r k
p i e c e s u s i n g t h e M A F p ro c e s s . I t wa s
observed that the surface f in ish value
decreased with increase in the surface
finish t ime up to a certain l imit , beyond
w h i c h t h e r e w a s n o s u r f a c e f i n i s h
i m p r o v e m e n t . A d d i t i o n o f m a c h i n i n g
fluid (such as stearic acid, straight oi l
t y p e ) t o u n b o u n d e d M A P s o f a l u m i n a
b a s e d s h o w e d a re m a r k a b l e e f f e c t o n
s t o c k r e m o v a l a n d s u r f a c e f i n i s h o n
S U S 3 0 4 w i t h P I S F o f 7 6 . 9 2 % .(Shinmura e t a l . 1987) concluded that them a x i m u m p e r c e n t a g e i m p r o v e m e n t i nf in ishing of external surface of SS304 was6 1 % u s i n g a l u m i n a b a s e d m a g n e t i ca b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e s ( M A P s ) . W i t h t h ec h a n g e i n t h e d i a m e t e r o f m a g n e t i cabras ive par t ic le both s tock removal andsurface f in ish was affec ted , whereas thef in ishing pressure depended only on themagnet ic f lux densi ty and was independentof the s ize of the abras ive par t ic le andm a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e s i z e .(Shinmura and Aizawa 1989) developed ab e n c h t y p e p l a n e m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v ef in ishing appara tus us ing a s ta t ionary
(Kha i ry 2001) deve loped an expe r imen ta lappa ra tus t o f i n i sh p rec i s ion s i l ve r s t ee lma te r i a l u s ing f ine a lumina powder baseds in t e red ab ras ives o f ave rage s i ze 50µm.
T h e y r e p o r t e d t o i m p r o v e t h e s u r f a c ef i n i s h o f S S 4 1 m a t e r i a l b y 9 0 % b ym a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s ( A l O a n d F e ) o f t h e2 3
m e a n d i a m e t e r o f 1 6 0 μ m .
e lec t romagne t . A suff ic ien t quan t i ty o fm a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s w a s p a c k e d i n t h em a c h i n i n g r e g i o n s o a s t o a c t u a t e a nabrasion pressure P related to the magnet icf ie ld s t rength of the machining region.
(Shinmura and Yamaguchi 1995) preparedsintered magnet ic abrasives for internalf inishing of SUS 304 s teel tubes. Theyfound that magnitude of magnet ic forcei n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e i n t h e m i x e dweight percentage of i ron part ic les but thenumber of cut t ing edges got reduced. Theo b t a i n e d m a x i m u m p e r c e n t a g ei m p r o v e m e n t f o r f i n i s h i n g o f S s 3 1 6m a t e r i a l w a s 3 0 % u s i n g WA s i n t e r e dgrains of mean diameter 80 µm.
( K r e m e n e t a l . 1 9 9 6 ) c a r r i e d o u texperiments on ceramic cyl indrical par tsus ing d i ffe ren t g ra in s i ze o f magne t icabrasives . The author s tudied that with thevariat ion in the grain s ize of diamond,there has been no effect on the surfacef i n i s h , h o w ev e r ma t e r i a l r emo v a l r a t eincreased with the increase in the diamondgrain s ize of the magnet ic abrasives .( Ya m a g u c h i & S h i n m u r a 2 0 0 0 ) u s e dloosely bounded magnet ic abrasives (2.4gm iron of s ize 510μm, 0.6 gm Al O of2 3
size 80μm and 0.36 ml s t raight oi l typegrinding oi l ) for internal f inishing of tubesusing pole rotat ion system. They reportedthat with the weaker magnet ic f ie ld on thea b r a s i v e s a n d w i t h t h e o v e r s u p p l y o fabrasives in the machining area resul t inj u m b l i n g o f a b r a s i v e s . T h e j u m b l i n gresul ted in increased mater ial removal butp o o r s u r f a c e f i n i s h . T h i s w a s c a u s e dbecause of the aggressive contact of theabrasives against the surface. The obtainedm a x i m u m p e r c e n t a g e i m p r o v e m e n t f o rf inishing of brass mater ial was reported tobe 21%.
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(Yamaguchi e t a l . 2004) f in ished a luminaceramic tubes ( in ternal ) us ing mechanica lm i x t u r e o f i r o n p a r t i c l e s , d i a m o n dabras ives and soluble type barre l f in ish ing
T h e s t u d y w a s f o c u s e d t o g e n e r a t e an o r m a l d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e s u f f i c i e n t t or e f i n e t h e s u r f a c e . T h e m a x i m u mp e r c e n t a g e i m p r o v e m e n t w a s f o u n d t o b e6 5 % .(Jain et al . 2001) carried out experimentson nonmagnetic s tainless steel with the useof loose ly bounded ab ras ives by MAFprocess. The loosely bounded powder wasobtained by the homogeneous mixing ofthe magnetic powder (Fe powder of 300mesh size) , abrasive powder (Al O of 6002 3
mesh size) and lubricant cal led servo spin-12 oil . They concluded that the workinggap and the circumferential speed of thew o r k p i e c e a r e t h e p a r a m e t e r s t h a ts i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e t h e m a t e r i a lremoval and the percentage surface f inishimprovemen t . The max imum PISF wasfound to be 87.83 %.
(Chang et al . 2002) described the processprinciple and the f inishing characterist icso f u n b o n d e d m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s o nc y l i n d r i c a l w o r k p i e c e . A m e c h a n i c a lmixture of SiC abrasive and ferromagneticpart icles with a SAE30 lubricant was used.Experimental results indicate that s teel gri ti s more su i t ab le fo r magne t ic abras ivefinishing because of i ts superior hardnessand the polyhedron shape.(Mori et al . 2003) studied different typesof forces i .e . normal and tangential forcesacting on the work piece during f inishingof nonmagnet ic SUS 304 mater ia l . Thealumina based magnet ic abrasives wereused during the process and the polishingmechanism was explained for the magneticabrasive f inishing of f lat work pieces. Am a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e b r u s h w a s f o r m e dbetween a magnetic pole and a work piecematerial , in which the summation of threek i n d s o f e n e r g y n e c e s s a r y f o rmagnetizat ion of abrasives, i .e . repulsionbetween bundles (Faraday Effect) and l inet e n s i o n o f o u t e r c u r v e d b u n d l e w a sconsidered to be minimum.
(Mul ik e t a l . 2011) des igned a se tup whichused d i fferent des igns of e lec t romagnethaving a l te rna te nor th and south poles . Int h e s t u d y m e s h n u m b e r , r p m o fe lec t romagnet and percentage weight ofabras ive were found to be the s igni f icant
compound . They r epo r t ed t ha t ma te r i a lr emova l and su r f ace roughnes s bo th werea ff ec t ed by quan t i t y o f f i n i sh ing l i qu id ,s i ze o f i r on pa r t i c l e , s i ze o f d i amondp a r t i c l e a n d t i m e . T h e m a x i m u mpercen t age improvemen t i n t he su r f acef in i sh o f SS304 was r epo r t ed t o be 61%.( L i n e t a l . 2 0 0 7 ) c o n d u c t e d f r e e - f o r ms u r f a c e a b r a s i o n o f s t a i n l e s s S U S 3 0 4m a t e r i a l . T h e o p e r a t i o n s w e r edemons t ra ted us ing a permanent magne t icf in i sh ing mechanism ins ta l l ed a t the CNCmachin ing cen t re . The bes t su r face f in i shof about 60% was ob ta ined a t a work inggap of 2 .5 mm, a feed ra te o f 10 mm/min ,and a lumina based abras ive mass o f 2grams .(Wang e t a l . 2009) s tudied the Magnet icf in ish ing wi th ge l abras ive (MFGA) topol i sh the cyl indr ica l rod of mold s tee l .T h e r e s u l t s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t s u r f a c eroughness reduct ion in MFGA was 3 t imesof sur face roughness reduct ion in MAFusing the un-bonded magnet ic abras ive asm e d i u m . T h e m a x i m u m p e r c e n t a g eimprovement in the sur face f in i sh wasfound to be 85 .22% us ing ge l based SiCmagnet ic abras ives .( S i n g h e t a l . 2 0 1 0 ) h i g h l i g h t e d m a j o rexis t ing technologies tha t were used tomanufac ture the magnet ic abras ives . Theys ta ted tha t the s in tered magnet ic abras ivesgive h ighes t sur face f in ish on most of thework mate r i a l s . They repor ted tha t thepercentage improvement in sur face f in ishwas s igni f icant ly affec ted by the magnet icf l u x d e n s i t y , q u a n t i t y o f a b r a s i v e s ,in terac t ions be tween ro ta t ional speed oft h e w o r k p i e c e a n d t h e m a g n e t i c f l u xdens i ty, ro ta t iona l speed and g r i t s i ze ,ro ta t ional speed and quant i ty of abras ives ,m a g n e t i c f l u x d e n s i t y a n d g r i t s i z e ,m a g n e t i c f l u x d e n s i t y a n d q u a n t i t y o fabras ives .
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( M i s r a e t a l . 2 0 1 3 ) i n v e s t i g a t e dt e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n d u r i n g M A Foperation at the interface of work piecea n d f l e x i b l e m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e b r u s h(FMAB) interface. In this analysis, f initeelements based ANSYS software was usedt o m o d e l a n d s i m u l a t e m a g n e t i c f i e l dd i s t r i b u t i o n , m a g n e t i c p r e s s u r e a n dtempera tu re d i s t r ibu t ion a t work -b rushinterface during the process. In this workthe maximum magnetic f lux density wassimulated of the order of 0.223 T at 0.91 Aof current in electromagnet coil . Magneticpressure on MAPs due to magnetic f ield ofelectromagnetic coil has been calculated toevaluate the frict ional heat f lux generateda t t h e w o r k - b r u s h i n t e r f a c e . Tr a n s i e n tthermal analysis of work piece domain hasbeen performed to predict the temperaturer i s e d u e t o f r i c t i o n a l h e a t f l u x . T h epredicted temperature on work-brush
p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s a f f e c t i n g s u r f a c eq u a l i t y . T h e y f i n i s h e d h i g h c a r b o nant i f r ic t ion bear ing s teel work piece (AISI52100) having hardness value of 61 HRCus ing unbounded MAPs and conc ludedthat the possible mechanism of f inishing ismicrochip format ion by shear ing and alsobri t t le f racture to some extent .
interface was found in the range of 34–51◦C.
CONCLUSIONSFrom the l i t e ra ture , i t can be conc ludedtha t t he re i s r ea sonab ly vas t l i t e r a tu reava i lab le on Magnet ic abras ive f in i sh ingprocess which revea ls the exper imenta t ioncar r ied ou t for the op t imum parameters ,f in i sh ing of d i ffe ren t shape mater ia l s .
1. MAF process removes the material
at micro/nano level with precision
c o n t r o l o n s u r f a c e q u a l i t y .
2. I t i s p o s s i b l e t o m a c h i n e t h e
complex/odd shape work-pieces.
3. The sintered magnetic abrasives
give highest finishing among all
other techniques of the preparation
o f M a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s .
4. T h e p r e d i c t e d t e m p e r a t u r e o n
work-brush interface is in the range
o f 3 4 – 5 1 ◦ C d u r i n g M a g n e t i c
a b r a s i v e f i n i s h i n g .
5. M a g n e t i c a n d N o n - m a g n e t i c
materials can be finished with the
h e l p o f t h e M a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e
finishing process.
REFERENCES
Chang HY, Tzong H (2002) S tudy on
cylindrical magnetic abrasive finishing
using unbounded magnetic abrasives.
International Journal of Machine Tools
& Manufacture (42):575-583.Jain VK, Kumar P, Behra PK, Jayswal SC (2001) Effects of working gap and c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l s p e e d o n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e f in ishing process . Wear 250: 384–390.
Kang J George A, Yamaguchi H (2012) H i g h - s p e e d I n t e r n a l F i n i s h i n g o f Capillary Tubes by Magnetic Abrasive Finishing . Junmo Kang et al. / Procedia CIRP 1: 414 – 418
Kha i ry AB (2001) Aspec t s o f su r f ace and edge f i n i sh ing by magne to ab ra s ive p a r t i c l e s . J o u r n a l o f M a t e r i a l s P roces s ing Techno logy 116 :77 -83 .
Kim JD (2003) Polishing of ultra-clean inner surfaces using magnetic force. I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f A d v a n c e d Manufacturing Technology (21):91–97.
Kremen GZ, Elsayed EA, Rafalovich VI (1996) Mechanism of material removal in the magnetic abrasive process and accuracy of machining. International Journal of Production Engineering. 34: 2629-2638.K w a k J S ( 2 0 0 9 ) E n h a n c e d M a g n e t i c Abras ive Po l i sh ing o f Non-Fer rous Metals Util izing A Permanent Magnet. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 49:613–618.
Lin YD, Chow (2007) Study of magnetic abrasive finishing in free-form surface operations using the Taguchi method. I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f A d v a n c e Manufacturing Technology 34:122-130.
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(Yamaguchi e t a l . 2004) f in ished a luminaceramic tubes ( in ternal ) us ing mechanica lm i x t u r e o f i r o n p a r t i c l e s , d i a m o n dabras ives and soluble type barre l f in ish ing
T h e s t u d y w a s f o c u s e d t o g e n e r a t e an o r m a l d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e s u f f i c i e n t t or e f i n e t h e s u r f a c e . T h e m a x i m u mp e r c e n t a g e i m p r o v e m e n t w a s f o u n d t o b e6 5 % .(Jain et al . 2001) carried out experimentson nonmagnetic s tainless steel with the useof loose ly bounded ab ras ives by MAFprocess. The loosely bounded powder wasobtained by the homogeneous mixing ofthe magnetic powder (Fe powder of 300mesh size) , abrasive powder (Al O of 6002 3
mesh size) and lubricant cal led servo spin-12 oil . They concluded that the workinggap and the circumferential speed of thew o r k p i e c e a r e t h e p a r a m e t e r s t h a ts i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e t h e m a t e r i a lremoval and the percentage surface f inishimprovemen t . The max imum PISF wasfound to be 87.83 %.
(Chang et al . 2002) described the processprinciple and the f inishing characterist icso f u n b o n d e d m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s o nc y l i n d r i c a l w o r k p i e c e . A m e c h a n i c a lmixture of SiC abrasive and ferromagneticpart icles with a SAE30 lubricant was used.Experimental results indicate that s teel gri ti s more su i t ab le fo r magne t ic abras ivefinishing because of i ts superior hardnessand the polyhedron shape.(Mori et al . 2003) studied different typesof forces i .e . normal and tangential forcesacting on the work piece during f inishingof nonmagnet ic SUS 304 mater ia l . Thealumina based magnet ic abrasives wereused during the process and the polishingmechanism was explained for the magneticabrasive f inishing of f lat work pieces. Am a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e b r u s h w a s f o r m e dbetween a magnetic pole and a work piecematerial , in which the summation of threek i n d s o f e n e r g y n e c e s s a r y f o rmagnetizat ion of abrasives, i .e . repulsionbetween bundles (Faraday Effect) and l inet e n s i o n o f o u t e r c u r v e d b u n d l e w a sconsidered to be minimum.
(Mul ik e t a l . 2011) des igned a se tup whichused d i fferent des igns of e lec t romagnethaving a l te rna te nor th and south poles . Int h e s t u d y m e s h n u m b e r , r p m o fe lec t romagnet and percentage weight ofabras ive were found to be the s igni f icant
compound . They r epo r t ed t ha t ma te r i a lr emova l and su r f ace roughnes s bo th werea ff ec t ed by quan t i t y o f f i n i sh ing l i qu id ,s i ze o f i r on pa r t i c l e , s i ze o f d i amondp a r t i c l e a n d t i m e . T h e m a x i m u mpercen t age improvemen t i n t he su r f acef in i sh o f SS304 was r epo r t ed t o be 61%.( L i n e t a l . 2 0 0 7 ) c o n d u c t e d f r e e - f o r ms u r f a c e a b r a s i o n o f s t a i n l e s s S U S 3 0 4m a t e r i a l . T h e o p e r a t i o n s w e r edemons t ra ted us ing a permanent magne t icf in i sh ing mechanism ins ta l l ed a t the CNCmachin ing cen t re . The bes t su r face f in i shof about 60% was ob ta ined a t a work inggap of 2 .5 mm, a feed ra te o f 10 mm/min ,and a lumina based abras ive mass o f 2grams .(Wang e t a l . 2009) s tudied the Magnet icf in ish ing wi th ge l abras ive (MFGA) topol i sh the cyl indr ica l rod of mold s tee l .T h e r e s u l t s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t s u r f a c eroughness reduct ion in MFGA was 3 t imesof sur face roughness reduct ion in MAFusing the un-bonded magnet ic abras ive asm e d i u m . T h e m a x i m u m p e r c e n t a g eimprovement in the sur face f in i sh wasfound to be 85 .22% us ing ge l based SiCmagnet ic abras ives .( S i n g h e t a l . 2 0 1 0 ) h i g h l i g h t e d m a j o rexis t ing technologies tha t were used tomanufac ture the magnet ic abras ives . Theys ta ted tha t the s in tered magnet ic abras ivesgive h ighes t sur face f in ish on most of thework mate r i a l s . They repor ted tha t thepercentage improvement in sur face f in ishwas s igni f icant ly affec ted by the magnet icf l u x d e n s i t y , q u a n t i t y o f a b r a s i v e s ,in terac t ions be tween ro ta t ional speed oft h e w o r k p i e c e a n d t h e m a g n e t i c f l u xdens i ty, ro ta t iona l speed and g r i t s i ze ,ro ta t ional speed and quant i ty of abras ives ,m a g n e t i c f l u x d e n s i t y a n d g r i t s i z e ,m a g n e t i c f l u x d e n s i t y a n d q u a n t i t y o fabras ives .
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( M i s r a e t a l . 2 0 1 3 ) i n v e s t i g a t e dt e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n d u r i n g M A Foperation at the interface of work piecea n d f l e x i b l e m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e b r u s h(FMAB) interface. In this analysis, f initeelements based ANSYS software was usedt o m o d e l a n d s i m u l a t e m a g n e t i c f i e l dd i s t r i b u t i o n , m a g n e t i c p r e s s u r e a n dtempera tu re d i s t r ibu t ion a t work -b rushinterface during the process. In this workthe maximum magnetic f lux density wassimulated of the order of 0.223 T at 0.91 Aof current in electromagnet coil . Magneticpressure on MAPs due to magnetic f ield ofelectromagnetic coil has been calculated toevaluate the frict ional heat f lux generateda t t h e w o r k - b r u s h i n t e r f a c e . Tr a n s i e n tthermal analysis of work piece domain hasbeen performed to predict the temperaturer i s e d u e t o f r i c t i o n a l h e a t f l u x . T h epredicted temperature on work-brush
p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s a f f e c t i n g s u r f a c eq u a l i t y . T h e y f i n i s h e d h i g h c a r b o nant i f r ic t ion bear ing s teel work piece (AISI52100) having hardness value of 61 HRCus ing unbounded MAPs and conc ludedthat the possible mechanism of f inishing ismicrochip format ion by shear ing and alsobri t t le f racture to some extent .
interface was found in the range of 34–51◦C.
CONCLUSIONSFrom the l i t e ra ture , i t can be conc ludedtha t t he re i s r ea sonab ly vas t l i t e r a tu reava i lab le on Magnet ic abras ive f in i sh ingprocess which revea ls the exper imenta t ioncar r ied ou t for the op t imum parameters ,f in i sh ing of d i ffe ren t shape mater ia l s .
1. MAF process removes the material
at micro/nano level with precision
c o n t r o l o n s u r f a c e q u a l i t y .
2. I t i s p o s s i b l e t o m a c h i n e t h e
complex/odd shape work-pieces.
3. The sintered magnetic abrasives
give highest finishing among all
other techniques of the preparation
o f M a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s .
4. T h e p r e d i c t e d t e m p e r a t u r e o n
work-brush interface is in the range
o f 3 4 – 5 1 ◦ C d u r i n g M a g n e t i c
a b r a s i v e f i n i s h i n g .
5. M a g n e t i c a n d N o n - m a g n e t i c
materials can be finished with the
h e l p o f t h e M a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e
finishing process.
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Lin YD, Chow (2007) Study of magnetic abrasive finishing in free-form surface operations using the Taguchi method. I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f A d v a n c e Manufacturing Technology 34:122-130.
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Mulik RS, Pandey PM (2011) Magnetic
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(55): 501-515.Shinmura T, Aizawa T (1989) Study of magnetic abrasive finishing process – D e v e l o p m e n t o f p l a n e f i n i s h i n g a p p a r a t u s u s i n g a s t a t i o n a r y t y p e electromagnet. Bulletin of Japan society of Precision Engineering, 23(3):236- 239.
Shinmura T, Aizawa T (1989) Study on I n t e r n a l F i n i s h i n g o f a N o n - Fer romagnet ic Tubing by Magnet ic Abrasive Machining Process. Bulletin, J a p a n S o c i e t y f o r P r e c i s i o n Engineering, 23(1): 37-41.
S h i n m u r a T, Ta k a z a w a K , H a t a n o E (1985) S tudy of magnet ic abras ive process- Application to plane finishing. Bulletin of Japan Society of Precision Engineering, (19)4:289-291.
S h i n m u r a T, Ta k a z a w a K , H a t a n o E (1985) Study on magnet ic abrasive process. Bull Japan Society of Precision Engg. 19(5):218-220.
S h i n m u r a T, Ta k a z a w a K , H a t a n o E (1987) Study of magnet ic abras ive process- effects of various types of abrasives on f inishing characterst ics . Bullet in of Japan Society of Precis ion Engineering,20 (2):79-84.
Sh inmura T, Takazawa K, Ha tano E , Aizawa T (1984) Study on Magnetic Abrasive Process. Bull Japan Society of Prec. Engg. 18(4):347–348.
Shinmura T, Takazawa K, Hatano E, Aizawa T (1985) Study On Magnet ic Abras ive Process – Process Pr inciple And Finishing Poss ib i l i ty. Bul le t in J a p a n S o c i e t y f o r P r e c i s i o n Engineer ing, 19(1) : 54-55.Shinmura T, Takezawa K, Hantano E
(1987) S tudy on magnet ic abras ive
process. Bull Japan Society of Precision
Engg, 21(2):139-141.
Shinmura T, Wang F, Aizawa T (1994) S tudy on a New Finish ing Process of F ine Ceramics by Magnet ic Abras ive Machining . Japan Socie ty of Prec . Engg, (28)2: 99–104.Shinmura T, Yamaguchi H (1995) Study On A New Internal Finishing Process B y T h e A p p l i c a t i o n o f M a g n e t i c A b r a s i v e M a c h i n i n g . J S M E I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l , S e r i e s C , 38(4)798-804
Singh L, Singh S, Mishra PS (2010)
Per formance of abras ives used in
magnetically assisted finishing: a state
of art review. International Journal of
Abrasive Technology 3(3):215-227.
Wang AC, Lee SJ (2009) Study of the
characteristics of magnetic finishing
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49:1063-1069.
Wang Y, Hu D (2005) Study on The Inner
S u r f a c e F i n i s h i n g o f Tu b i n g B y
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& Manufacture 45: 43–49.Ya m a g u c h i H , H a n a d a K ( 2 0 0 8 )
Development of Spherical Magnetic
A b r a s i v e M a d e b y P l a s m a S p r a y .
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Engineering (130)031107-1-9Yamaguchi H, Shinmura T (1999) Study of the Surface Modification Resulting from an Internal Magnetic Abrasive Finishing Process Wear 225–229: 246– 255.Yamaguchi H, Shinmura T (2004) Internal
finishing process for alumina ceramic
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28:135–142
Yamaguchi H, Shinmura T (2004) Internal
Finishing Process For Alumina Ceramic
C o m p o n e n t s B y A M a g n e t i c F i e l d
Assisted Finishing Process. Precision
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Yamaguchi H, Shinmura T, (2000) Study
o f A n I n t e r n a l M a g n e t i c A b r a s i v e
F inishing Using A Pole Rotat ion
S y s t e m . J o u r n a l o f I n t e r n a t i o n a lSocieties for Precision Engg. And NanoTechnology (24):237-244.
Ya m a g u c h i H , S h i n m u r a T, I k e d a R
(2007) Study of Internal Finishing of
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CONVENTIONAL AND SMART TEACHING ENGINEERING METHODS
* 1 2 1 3Gurinder Kaur Sodhi KamalKant Sharma Mandeep singh Jaspreet singh
1Dept. of ECE, Desh Bhagat University ,
Mandi Gobindgarh2Department of EE, Chandigarh University,
Gharaun (Punjab)3Department of Food Technology,
Desh Bhagat University, Mandi Gobindgarh
*Email : [email protected]
ABSTRACTFrom the very beginning of software engineering we have some pre defined steps tod e v e l o p i n g s o f t w a r e w h i c h i s t e r m e d a s C o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d s f o r s o f t w a r ee n g i n e e r i n g w h i c h i n c l u d e a l l f r o m a n a l y z i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s , d e s i g n i n g ,implementing the software and last ly test ing i t for bugs. But such software used to havesome weak points concerning the quali ty, originating from the method i tself so now somenew steps were defined called as Clean room software engineering method which givesmore preference to the quali ty and reliabil i ty factor as compared to the previous one buthas st i l l not been accepted by all software developers due to i ts diff icult approachand high resource requirement. So both the methods are used but at some specific placeaccording to the need of the software and i ts developer. In this paper we will comparethem on some basic yet important parameter to decide which approach is effective forwhich scenario.
Keywords: IBM, COBOL, Testing, Clean room.
INTRODUCTION
C o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d s f o r s o f t w a r eengineering in general have the followingsteps-: analysis , design , implementation ,, testing and then maintenance . but theses t e p s w e r e c h a l l e n g e d b y t h e n e we m e r g i n g m e t h o d f o r s o f t w a r ed e v e l o p m e n t i . e C l e a n r o o m s o f t w a r ee n g i n e e r i n g w h i c h u s e s t h e i n c r e m e n tprocess model for i ts working. Here thes t e p s m a y b e b i t d i f f i c u l t a n d t i m econsuming but the software we get fromthis method are very high on quality andresultantly less on errors . In this paper wewill be giving a short comparison betweenthe two methods which in usual si tuationput a software engineer in a dilemma ofw h i c h o n e t o c h o o s e . W e w i l l b ecompar ing them on the parameters l ikereliabili ty , code correctness proof , qualityof the product and lastly why clean room
i s n o t u s e d c o m m o n l y f o r s o f t w a r e
development . Then the paper i s d ivided
i n t o 3 p a r t s
Fi rs t ly we wi l l g ive a br ief on methods and
t h e i r s t e p s t h e n s e c o n d w e w i l l g i v e
c o m p a r i s o n o n p a r a m e t e r s a s d e f i n e d
above and then conclus ion .
Conventional Methods for Software
EngineeringT h i s i s a m e t h o d t h a t h a s b e e n m a yb e t h e v e r y f i r s t a p p r o a c h t os o f t w a r e e n g i n e e r i n g w i t h f e w o ft h e v e r y s e q u e n t i a l a n d p r e d i c t a b l es t e p s . H e r e w e f i r s t l y a n a l y z e t h er e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e s o f t w a r e h a st o s a t i s f y a n d s t a r t w i t h t h ed e s i g n i n g a n d t h e c o d i n g p r o c e s sw i t h o u t p a y i n g e m p h a s i s o nc o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e c o d e a s i t i s
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c h e c k e d w h e n d e s i g n i n g s t e p i so v e r a n d w e m o v e t o t e s t i n g o fs o f t w a r e [ 1 ] . M o s t o f t h e s o f t w a r e sa r e t e s t e d u s i n g t h e t e s t c a s ea p p r o a c h w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b ee f f e c t i v e u n d e r c o n v e n t i o n a la p p r o a c h w h e r e w e m a k e a s e t o fs t a n d a r d i n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h w h i c hw e c o m p a r e t h e c o d e a n d t e s t c o d eo n s o m e p a r a m e t e r s a n d s o m e t i m e sw e m u t a t e t h e c o d e t o s e e i t sb e h a v i o u r i n s o m e r a n d o ms i t u a t i o n s t o m a k e t h e t e s t i n ga p p r o a c h m o r e p r a c t i c a l . A f t e r t h et e s t i n g i s o v e r s t i l l t h e s o f t w a r e i sn o t c o n s i d e r e d e r r o r f r e e s o i t i sp u t i n m a r k e t a s a b e t a v e r s i o nw h i c h h a s e r r o r s a n d w h e n t h e y g e tf e e d b a c k s f r o m c u s t o m e r s t h e ym a k e s o m e f i n a l c h a n g e s a n ds o f t w a r e i s l a u n c h e d a n d i s s t i l lf o u n d t o b e h a v i n g t h e b u g s . I nt h i s f i g u r e b e l o w w e s e e h o ws o f t w a r e i s d e v e l o p e d u s i n gC o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o s o f t w a r ed e v e l o p m e n t . W h e n w e m a d e s a m es o f t w a r e f r o m b o t h t h e m e t h o d s t h es o f t w a r e d e v e l o p e r o f c l e a n r o o ms a i d t h a t t h e y d o m i s s t h es a t i s f a c t i o n o f p r o g r a m e x e c u t i o nof Conventional method after test ing butconventional software had less quali ty thenclean room [2]
Fig. 1. Explaining the path to software
d e v e l o p m e n t i n a c o n v e n t i o n a l
approach using a flow graph
Clean Room Software Engineering
T h i s a p p r o a c h i s n o t n e w i t ' s b e e n t h e r ef r o m m i d 8 0 s a n d f o u n d u s e i n m i l i t a r yp r o j e c t s i n 1 9 9 0 s . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i sm e t h o d w a s d e f e c t p r e v e n t i o n t h e nd e f e c t r e m o v a l . A s t o l d ' D o i t r i g h t t h ef i r s t t i m e [ 1 ] . T h e m a i n e m p h a s i s i s o nt h e p r e v e n t i o n o f a n y k i n d o f e r r o r t h e nr e m o v i n g i t l a t e r o n . T h i s m e t h o d i su s e f u l i n s i t u a t i o n s l i k e s p a c e p r o g r a m sw h e r e l a rg e a m o u n t o f i n v e s t m e n t a n dh u m a n l i v e s a r e a t s t a k e t h e n w e n e e d am e t h o d t h a t w i l l a v o i d a n y k i n d o f e r r o ra s w e c a n ' t t e s t i t b e f o r e u s e . I n s u c hs i t u a t i o n c l e a n r o o m p r o v e s t o b ee x t r e m e l y u s e f u l . N o w i n c l e a n r o o mw e u s e i n c r e m e n t p r o c e s s m o d e l w h e r el i n e a r c o l l e c t i o n o f s m a l l s t e p s g i v e s o u tc o m p l e t e s o f t w a r e b u t e a c h i n c r e m e n tb e f o r e i n t e g r a t i o n t o t h e w h o l e g o e st h r o u g h a s e t o f s t e p s .
Fig. 2. Increment process model
Firstly we plan the size of each increment
then we make the sequence in which those
inc remen t s wi l l be added fo l lowed by
introducing the customer level requirement
f o r t h a t i n c r e m e n t . T h e n u s i n g b o x
structure the formal design is made. After
t h a t w e u s e m a t h e m a t i c a l ( f o r m a l )
methods to check the design thoroughly
a n d w e p a s s a t h e o r e t i c a l p r o o f o f
verification of its correctness [5] [4]. Then ,
we conduct statistical use testing where
the increment is tested using some finite
test cases depending on the requirement
that increment is satisfying . Once the
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inspect ion , ver if icat ion and test ing is donethe increment is added to the whole [1]This way there is very less probabil i ty thatany bug or error is s t i l l there and we gethigh qual i ty products .
Fig. 3. Explaining the steps in the clean
room software engineering method.
The above d iag ram exp la ins the s t eps o f
c l ean room so f tware eng inee r ing and how
the so f tware i s compi l ed in th i s me thod
Clean Room Versus ConventionalNow we wil l compare these two methods
on some basic yet important parameters on
w h i c h s o f t w a r e d e v e l o p e r c h o o s e s a
method for sof tware deve lopment . We
wil l judge them on these parameters and
see which one is bet ter for which s i tuat ion.
ReliabilityAs we have exp la ined above when weare ta lk ing about re l iab i l i ty there i s nocompar ison wi th c lean room method[6] .I t has proven i t s level of re l iab i l i ty and i t si n c r e m e n t p r o c e s s d e c r e a s e d t h e e r r o rra te to one tenth of usual and tha t was thefac tor which made c lean room a prefer reda p p r o a c h f o r s p a c e p r o g r a m s a n dm i l i t a r y p r o j e c t s b e c a u s e i n t h e s ep r o j e c t s w e h a v e a l o t o f r e s o u r c e sinvo lved i nc lud ing t he re a r e l i ve s a ts t a k e w h i c h m a k e s n o p l a c e f o r a n ymis take . So we use c lean room there andthere wouldn ' t be any doubt in sayingt h a t c l e a n r o o m i s f a r m o r e r e l i a b l et h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l d u e t h e a c c u r a c y i tprovides .
Correctness Proof
N o w w h e n w e t a l k a b o u t t h e c o r r e c t n e s s
p r o o f w e m e a n w h a t w e h a v e t o c o n v i n c e
u s t h a t t h e s o f t w a r e i s c o r r e c t o r t h e c o d e
u s e d i s c o r r e c t f o r t h a t m a t t e r [ 5 ] . S o w e
m i g h t w a n t t o t a k e a c l o s e r l o o k a t t h e
c l e a n r o o m m e t h o d a b o v e w h e r e w e h a v e
e x p l a i n e d t h a t e a c h i n c r e m e n t b e f o r e
b e i n g i n t e g r a t e d i n t h e w h o l e i s f i r s t l y
v e r i f i e d f o r c o r r e c t n e s s a f t e r f o r m a l
d e s i g n i n g u s i n g m u l t i p l e m e t h o d s l i k e
m a t h e m a t i c a l ( f o r m a l ) m e t h o d s w h i c h
g i v e t h e p r o o f i n t h i s p o i n t . B e c a u s e t h i s
p r o c e s s o f v e r i f i c a t i o n i s c o m p l e t e l y
t h e o r e t i c a l s o w e c a n s a y a t t h e l e v e l o f
c o r r e c t n e s s p r o o f c l e a n r o o m p r o v i d e s
i t w h i l e c o n v e n t i o n a l d o e s n ' t .
Increment approach
T h i s a p p r o a c h o f u s i n g i n c r e m e n t a lp r o c e s s m o d e l i s a l l t h a t m a d e t h ed i ff e rence . C lean room i s so d i f f e ren tb e c a u s e i t m a k e s a l m o s t a l l i t sprocesses occur a t the increment level [4] .The inc remen t s a r e t he bas i c bu i ld ingblocks in th is method. The f i rs t s tep i sto p lan the increments of the sof twarea n d t h e i r s i z e . I n c r e m e n t p r o c e s sincreases eff ic iency of the product as wet e s t e a c h i n c r e m e n t a b o u t 4 t i m e s a td i fferent levels before adding i t to thewhole . So increment approach is a b igd i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a lapproach and the c lean room method.
Quality of product
When we ta lk about the qual i ty of productor sof tware we are ta lking about minimumno of errors or bugs and less execut iont ime and to be f lexible in a l l s i tuat ions .And we have received such qual i t ies f roms o f t w a r e d e v e l o p e d u s i n g c l e a n r o o msoftware engineer ing [4] .This method is avery accurate and as explained above thep r o b a b i l i t y o f e r r o r i s o n e t e n t h o fconvent ional method i t wi l l not be wrongto say that products f rom clean room aref a r m o r e h i g h e r i n q u a l i t y t h e n t h eproducts f rom convent ional . For eg. IBMCOBOL/SF res t ructur ing tool (85000 l ines
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of PL/ I code [3 ] . Th is app l ica t ion when
d e v e l o p e d b y c l e a n r o o m h a d t e n f o l d
reduc t ion in to ta l de fec t s pe r thousand
l ines o f code found dur ing t es t ing . And
tha t i s why we a re pay ing emphas i s on use
of c lean room in sof tware indus t ry now.
c o n c l u d e f r o m t h e o u r s u r v e y t h a ta c c o r d i n g t o t h e p a r a m e t e r s u s e d f o rc o m p a r i s o n ( r e l i a b i l i t y , q u a l i t y o fproduct , correc tness proof e tc) c lean roomi s i n d e e d f a r b e t t e r o p t i o n t h a nc o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d b u t u s i n g i tn e e d s a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g t o t h eengineer ing wi th use of some addi t ionaltools and ext reme disc ip l ine in sof twaredevelopment . So c lean room might f indi t s p l a c e a s t h e f u t u r e a p p r o a c h t os o f t w a r e e n g i n e e r i n g b u t i n t h epresen t wor ld convent iona l methods o fs o f t w a r e e n g i n e e r i n g i s p r e f e r r e dapproach to sof tware engineer ing.
Why clean room is not as common asconventional methods?
Well there wil l be no fault in saying thate v e r y i n d u s t r y r e q u i r e s p r o f i t f o r i t se x i s t e n c e a n d t h i s i s t h e f a c t w h e r econventional method goes over clean roomm e t h o d . T h i s i s b e c a u s e c l e a n r o o mr e q u i r e s e x t r e m e e x c e l l e n c e i n a l l t h em e t h o d s u s e d i n t h e p r o c e s s s oexperienced and highly ski l led people areneeded for using this method and i t is tootheoret ical and mathematical for real worlduse (Richard W 1987) . And the industry isst i l l operat ing on adhoc level and cleanroom needs r i go rous u se o f l i f e cyc l ephases so industry is not yet ready forclean room and the techniques used in i t . I talso requires the change in view point ofsoftware being a creat ive art or craft of anengineer 's mind to a discipl ined act ivi ty .Using i t in the industry requires addit ionaltools and special t raining to the engineers .S o a l l t h e d r a w b a c k m e n t i o n e d a b o v em a k e c l e a n r o o m a n a v o i d a b l e o p t i o nins tead of be ing a re l iab le and qual i typroducing method .That is why clean roomsoftware engineering is not as common asconventional methods .
Conclusion
According to our l i t e ra ry survey, we can
c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e r e i s n o d o u b t t h a t
convent iona l method i s a very sequent ia l
a n d c o m p a r a t i v e l y a e a s y o p t i o n f o r
sof tware development . But when i t comes
to qua l i ty be ing pr ior i ty and accuracy in
f i r s t a t t e m p t t h e n c l e a n r o o m h a s n o
compet i t ion . There i s no doubt in say ing
tha t c lean room i s a fa r more re l iab le
m e t h o d a n d c a n f i n d i t s p l a c e a s t h e
fu ture of sof tware development . But c lean
room is too theore t ica l , mathemat ica l and
radica l fo r rea l wor ld use . So , we
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Software engineering a practitioner's approach
6th edition by Pressman.
Richard W. Selby, “cleanroom sof tware d e v e l o p m e n t : A n e m p i r i c a l evaluat ion”. member, IEEE and Victor R. Basi l i , senior member, IEEE and F . T e r r y B a k e r , 1 9 8 7 , i n I E E E t ransact ions on sof tware engineer ing Chae lynne M. Wolak , “Tak ing the Ar t
o u t o f S o f t w a r e D e v e l o p m e n t : A n
I n - D e p t h R e v i e w o f C l e a n r o o m
S o f t w a r e E n g i n e e r i n g ” . S c h o o l o f
Compute r and In fo rma t ion Sc iences
Nova Sou theas t e rn Un ive r s i ty, DISS
725 Apr i l 2001
Wa l t S c a c c h i , “ P r o c e s s M o d e l s i n S o f t w a r e E n g i n e e r i n g ” . I n s t i t u t e f o r S o f t w a r e R e s e a r c h , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , I r v i n e F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 1 R e v i s e d V e r s i o n , M a y 2 0 0 1 , O c t o b e r 2 0 0 1 , F i n a l Ve r s i o n t o a p p e a r i n , J . J . M a r c i n i a k ( e d . ) , E n c y c l o p e d i a o f S o f t w a r e
n d E n g i n e e r i n g , 2 E d i t i o n , J o h n Wi l e y a n d S o n s , I n c , N e w Yo r k , D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 1 H o n g , M . M . , “ C l e a n r o o m S o f t w a r e E n g i n e e r i n g f o r I m p r o v i n g S o f t w a r e P r o c e s s Q u a l i t y, ” 1 9 9 8 .
Cleanroom Sof tware Engineer ing , Inc . , “ A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o C l e a n r o o m Software Engineering for sManagers”, 1990.
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
116
GENTLE REHABILITATION OF THE BUILDING
Dr. (Er.) Aman Jain
Department of Civil Engineering,
Desh Bhgat University, Mandi Gobindgarh Amloh – 141006.
Gentle rehabilitation of the building refers to all rehabilitation, up-gradation or renovationaspects of the building or the structure to be dealt gently i.e with utmost care and planningfollowing compassionate approach. Sympathetic modification or alterations are to bepromoted so that the old distressed buildings rejuvenate with new lease of life. Evenotherwise, in all types of buildings whether new or old, the sympathetic alteration withappropriate understanding & implementation involving minimum violence, pollution, etc.help in re-modeling the building. Every movement from conceptualization to the actualconstruction of the building should necessarily be the sympathetic one. The repair,maintenance cum up-gradation project related to the building should involve 'gentle' and'righteous' attitude and framework as regards to the technicality, economics, psychology,sociology and other miscellaneous factors following compassionate way. Sometimes, abuilding is to be remodeled / rehabilitated for the new standards of the design and theprevailing loads following compassionate strategy. Simplicity and high thinking should bethe essence of such sympathetic considerations. The new era buildings should meet theenergy efficiency demand in gentle manner. e.g. optimum usage of electricity with energyand cost saving techniques, better insulated devices, etc. is the gentle contemplation andeffort towards replacing old electric wiring system in the building with the new one. Globalwarming effects are minimized in such buildings. The repair, maintenance and rehabilitationaspects are to be dealt gently with utmost care following optimal levels of being polite,generous and courteous in mannerism especially, when one is engaged in rehabilitation duty.The financial aspects of rehabilitation should be acceptable to the masses. The demolition /dismantling of the structural part of the building should be done with minimum amount ofviolence. Haphazard demolition should be avoided. Gentle rehabilitation of the buildingincludes usage of such materials and practices that are humble / compassionate in Nature.Usage of such building materials, etc. is advocated which have vegetarian content and thosewhich have been manufactured with gentle approach. Gentle rehabilitation includes gentleand righteous advancement (innovation) in building design / rehabilitation. This will dealwith the following:
Gentle construction practices as regards to deep excavations & foundations construction. Thisalso includes gentle brick masonry construction, gentle stone masonry construction, gentleaffixation and arrangement of scaffolding, shoring and underpinning, gentle proceduralpractice of damp proofing & termite proofing, gentle aspects of structural engineering, gentleconstruction and arrangement of partitions, gentle cement concrete construction, gentleconstruction of arches, lintels, doors & windows, carpentry & Joinery, stairs, roofs, floors &floorings. Advanced building construction rehabilitation deals with compassionate way todevelop and construct pile foundations, acoustics arrangement, gentle ways for fire protectionin buildings, gentle way to deal with cofferdams, caissons, mechanical and constructionequipments, formwork, pointing, plastering, painting, varnishing, distempering, etc. includinggentle planning like gentle HVAC ( Heating, ventilation and air conditioning). Advancedbuilding rehabilitation planning includes noble planning as related to the CPM (Critical PathMethod) and the PERT (Programme Evaluation Review technique) that covers different
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
117
stages of the building repair, maintenance and upgradation. This is the gentle network
planning dealing with the rehabilitation aspect of the building. Thus the scope includes
'Rehabilitation management & aptitude in gentle manner' . Bar charts or Gantt charts ,
milestone charts etc. are useful applications of PERT and CPM techniques to elaborate the
progress of rehabilitation of the building in gentle manner.
January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015
University School of Engineering Desh Bhagat University
Mandi Gobindgarh, Fatehgarh Sahib-147301 (Punjab), India
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