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INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICSINTERNATIONAL ECONOMICSLecture 2 | Carlos Cuerpo | Why do countries trade? Some early answersLecture 2 | Carlos Cuerpo | Why do countries trade? Some early answers
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICSINTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS
• International Trade: focuses on the real transactions
– Physical movement of goods– Tangible commitment of economic
resources– Micro side: individual nations
treated as single units, relative price issues.
A. International Trade Theory: basis and gains from trade
B. International Trade Policy: reasons for and effect of trade restrictions
• International Finance: focuses on the monetary side
– Financial transactions– Macro side: deals with aggregate
variables, such as output and the general price index.
A. Balance of Payments: summary statement of all the international transactions of the residents of a nation with the rest of the world, during a particular period of time.
B. Foreign Exchange Markets: Framework for the exchange of one national currency for another.
INTERNATIONAL TRADEINTERNATIONAL TRADE• International Trade Theory: Why do countries trade?A. Classical Theory
– Adam Smith– David Ricardo– John Stuart Mill– Gottfried Haberler
B. Neoclassical Theory – Factor Endowments Model– Extensions of the Hecksher-Ohlin model– Empirical evidence and fallacies
C. New Trade Theory – Inter and intra industry trade.– Imperfect competition, economies of scale, and product diversification.– Geography and Trade.
MERCANTILISMMERCANTILISM
• Bankers, Merchants, Government officials,…[XVIIth and XVIIIth]
• Key Assumptions:– Trade Balance Surplus is necessary– Wealth associated to precious metals (gold and silver to finance
war)– Protectionism: limited imports/defend national production– Zero-sum game, national interests were in conflict.
• Great Criticism: • Money is not wealth• Free-Trade as a first best
MERCANTILISMMERCANTILISM
• Economic Policy: Neo-Mercantilism– Intuition: Provide incentives in order to shape trade– Empirical evidence for Britain:trade networks and profits from
early mercantilism fostered Industrialization– Dangers:
• Rent-Seeking• Trade conflicts
– Advantages:• Feedback between the private sector and Government.• National Champions, globally competitive. [Gov't collaborating with large
businesses]. Examples: energy, transportations, communications
CLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITHCLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITH• Who was Adam Smith? The Wealth of Nations
(1776)• Trade Pattern: Absolute Advantage (AA)
– Definition: When a nation is more efficient than (or has an AA over) another in the production of one commodity but is less efficient than (has an absolute disadvantage with respect to) the other nation in producing a second good, then both nations can gain by each specializing in the production of its AA and engaging in trade.
– Intuition: International implications of the theory of division of labour.
• Trade Benefits: – Broader markets: Room for specialisation and increased
productivity.– Greater Output: increased potential supply and capital stock
accumulation.– Resources are utilized more efficiently.– Output of both commodities will rise.
CLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITHCLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITH• How to measure AA?
– Real costs of production.• How to measure real costs of production?
– Labor Theory of Value
i) Labor is the only factor of production.ii) It determines goods' relative price.iii) No reference to money or gold.iv) It moves freely from one industry to another.
Within a single country, competition ensures exchange in proportion to L costs.
v) Internationally immobileIf L requirements differ, prices will differ as well
Table 1. Absolute Advantage
Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.
Days of L Italy Scotland
WineCloth
20100
12030
CLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITHCLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITHTable 1. Absolute Advantage
Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.
Different national relative prices ensure gains from trade at an intermediate ratio
Table 2. Efficiency Gains by shifting 600 days of labor
Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.
• Empirical Evidence: it accounts for important segments of trade: Brazil (coffe), Florida (oranges)
Days of L required Italy Scotland
Wine (barrels)Cloth (bolts)
20100
12030
Italy Scotland Total
Wine (barrels) 30 -5 25
Cloth (bolts) -6 20 14
1Bwine/4bcloth
1Bwine/0.2bcloth
1Bwine/1bcloth
CLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDOCLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDO
• David Ricardo Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817)
• Trade Pattern: Comparative Advantage (CA)– Definition: Low relative cost of a good compared to
other countries in autarky. Every country will have a CA in some good.
– Intuition: – Terms of Trade.– Differences in Technology (output per unit of labor) as the
source of CA.
CLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDOCLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDO
• Trade Benefits: – Broader markets, greater supply, higher welfare.– Overcomes Smith’s limitations: There is scope for mutually
beneficial trade between the two countries, if both specialize according to their pattern of CA, even when one of them has an AA in every commodity.
Table 3. Comparative Advantage
Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.
Days of Labor Portugal England
Wine (1 barrel) 3 2
Cloth (1 bolt) 10 41Bwine/0.3bcloth
1Bwine/0.5bcloth
CLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDOCLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDOTable 3. Comparative Advantage
Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.
England is more efficient at the production of both goods
Table 4. Efficiency Gains shifting 60days in Portugal and 36 in England
Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.• Portugal must shift more days than England because of less efficiency in absolute terms• Price ratios will converge (unless there are additional costs) Intermediate Equilibrium
ToT
Days of L required Portugal England
Wine (barrels)Cloth (bolts)
310
24
Portugal England Total
Wine (barrels) 20 -18 2
Cloth (bolts) -6 9 3
Arbitrage
CLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDOCLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDOIf we look at it horizontally:
Table 3. Comparative Advantage
Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.
England is more efficient at the production of both goods
However Portugal has a CA in Wine: 1.5<2.5
Days of L required Portugal England
Wine (barrels)Cloth (bolts)
310
24
Pr 31
Pr 2
PWEW
Pr 10
1Pr 4
PCEC
CLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDOCLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDO
• Trade Benefits: – Broader markets, greater supply, higher welfare.– Real Income increases because of specialization– Overcomes Smith’s limitations: There is scope for mutually
beneficial trade between the two countries, if both specialize according to their pattern of CA, even when one of them has an AA in every commodity.
• Economic Policy: Laissez-faire. Any intermediate ToT is mutually beneficial (No zero-sum game)
• Limitations:– What if relative costs are equal?– ToT indetermination (Barone)
CLASSICAL THEORY: J.STUART MILLCLASSICAL THEORY: J.STUART MILL
• J.S. Mill• Reciprocal Demand Theory
– Definition: Equilibrium barter ToT (ratio of exchange) will equate Exports Supply with Imports Demand internationally.
– Intuition: Demand elasticity is crucial due to the shape of the Supply curve [due to the L-theory of value and constant productivity]. Let’s see the cloth market:
England World Trade Germany
Se Sx,e Sg
2
1.7
De Dm.g Dg
1.5
C* C* C*Everything is imported
X
CLASSICAL THEORY: J.STUART MILLCLASSICAL THEORY: J.STUART MILL
• Trade Benefits: – The closer the equilibrium ToT to your original relative price, the
smaller the benefits from international trade.– Small country vs. Large country (its supply will exceed the small
country’s Demand and therefore trigger the prices down).
CLASSICAL THEORY: LIMITATIONSCLASSICAL THEORY: LIMITATIONS
• Strong assumptions (despite Friedman's irrelevance)– No trade barriers: transportation costs, information costs,…
• If they fall relative to the value of the good being transported, more goods are likely to become available.
– Just one Input: L. Labor Theory of Value.– Labor is internationally immobile.– Only two goods: What happens in a more realistic set-up?
• Consider a rank ordering: relative marginal costs
– We could introduce more countries: influence of transport costs.– Constant costs of production.– Fixed amount of inputs: Vertical Aggregate Supply .
( )A A AC C
LMC w
Q
( )
( )
A ACA
CB
B BCC
Lw
MC QLMC wQ
( )B B BC C
LMC w
Q
CLASSICAL THEORY: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCECLASSICAL THEORY: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
• It predicts an extreme degree of specialization.• It assumes away effects of International Trade on the
distribution of income within countries.• Allows no role for differences in resources among countries
as a cause of trade.• Neglects the possible role of economies of scale as a cause
of trade.• Countries should tend to export those goods in which their
productivity is relatively high.– Relative productivity must be high compared with other sector's
relative productivity.– Chinese surge as an export powerhouse
CLASSICAL THEORY: LIMITATIONSCLASSICAL THEORY: LIMITATIONS
• Competitiveness via ULC:
- There are 3 ways to affect it:
I. Wages
II. Productivity
III. Exchange rate
( ) ( )A A A B B BC C C C
L LULC w ULC w E
Q Q