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In-state tuition for undocumented immigrants debated
Concerns raised about methods of natural gas recovery from shale
Interim NewsNumber 81-6 December 15, 2010
AdvancesindrillingtechniqueshaveincreasednaturalgasproductionfromshalerockformationsinTexasandotherstates,butalsohaveledtoconcernsabouttheeffectstheextractionmethodsmayhaveonwaterandairqualityandonpublicsafety.
NaturalgasdrillingintheBarnettShaleformationinNorthTexashasincreasedsignificantlyinthelastdecade.Whilethishasbeenaboontotheoilandgasindustryandtocities,counties,andlandownersinNorthTexas,asdrillinghasmovedintourbanneighborhoodsdisputesalsohavearisenoverpipelineroutesandthedistancebetweenwellsandsurroundinghomes.
Concernshavebeenraisedaboutpotentialdrinkingwatercontaminationcausedbythehydraulicfracturingusedtoextractnaturalgasfromshaleandaboutairqualitydegradationfrompotentiallyharmfulsubstancesemittedbywellsandequipment.Unusualseismicactivity,thoughttobecausedbyextensivedrillingandwellfracturinginthearea,alsohasbeenreported.SomehavecalledforamoratoriumongasdrillingaroundFortWorthuntiltheseissuescanbefurtherstudied.
Since2001,whenthe77thLegislatureenactedHB1403byNoriega,TexashastreatedcertainlongstandingresidentundocumentedimmigrantslivinginTexasasin-statelegalresidentsforadmissiontopubliccollegesanduniversitiesandeligibilityforin-statetuitionrates.
Nationwide,debatepersistsoverwhethertoadmitundocumentedimmigrantstopubliccollegesanduniversitiesandwhethertochargethemin-stateorout-of-statetuition.Whilefederallawdoesnotprohibitundocumentedimmigrantsfromattendingpubliccollegesanduniversities,individualstateshavevaryingpoliciesonwhethertodosoandhowmuchtuitiontocharge.
IntheUnitedStates,anychild,regardlessofimmigrationstatus,isentitledtofreepublicprimaryandsecondaryeducation.In1982,theU.S.SupremeCourt,inPlyler v. Doe,457U.S.202,heldthataTexasstatutethatprohibitedchildrenwhowereillegalimmigrantsfromreceivingafreepubliceducationviolatedtheEqualProtectionClauseofthe14thamendment.
TheUrbanInstituteestimatesthatbetween50,000and65,000undocumentedimmigrantstudentsgraduatefromhighschoolsintheUnitedStateseachyear.TheTexasLegislaturemayrevisitinthe2011regularsessionofthe82ndLegislaturewhetherornottopermit
thesestudentstoremaineligibleforin-statetuition.
In-state tuition in Texas
In2001,Texasbecamethefirststatetoallowundocumentedimmigrantstoestablishstateresidencyandpayin-statetuitionatitspubliccollegesanduniversities.TheTexaslawdoesnotspecificallyaddressimmigrationstatus,butitdefineseligibilityforin-statetuitionwithrequirementsthatsomeundocumentedstudentsmay
satisfy,includinglivinginTexaswithaparentorguardianforthreeyearsimmediatelyprecedinghighschoolgraduationorreceiptofanequivalencydiploma(GED).
StatelawallowsthoseclassifiedasTexasresidentstopayresident,orin-state,tuition.Asresidents,studentsalsoareeligibleforstatefinancialaid.TexaslawdoesnotstipulateU.S.citizenshipasaprerequisiteforTexasresidencyandmakesresidencyrequirements
(See Tuition, page 2)
(See Shale, page 7)
Tuition, from page 1
page 2
HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
Interim News
uniformforallstudents,regardlessoftheirlegalstatus.Asaresult,someundocumentedstudentsmayqualifyforin-statetuitionandfinancialaid.
Theaverageundergraduate,out-of-statetuitioninTexascanbemorethantwicethatoftheaverageresidenttuition.Forexample,forfiscalyear2010-11,theaveragetuitionandfeesfor30semestercredithoursattheUniversityofTexasatElPasois$6,504forin-statetuitionand$15,804forout-of-statetuition.
Texaslawpermitscitizens,permanentresidents,andcertainindividualsintheUnitedStatesoneligiblevisasseveralwaystoestablishresidentstatusandeligibilitytopayresidenttuitionrates.TheymaypaytheresidentrateiftheyestablishandmaintainadomicileinthestateforoneyearbeforeenrollingincollegeoriftheygraduatefromaTexashighschooloracquiretheequivalentofadiploma,havingmaintainedacontinuousresidenceinthestateforatleastthreeyearsleadinguptograduationortheGED.Studentsalsomustresideinthestatetheyearimmediatelybeforeenrollingincollege.UnderTexasHigherEducationCoordinatingBoard(THECB)rules,adomicilemaybeestablishedbybuyingandmaintainingrealpropertyinthestateforoneyearbeforeenrollingincollege,buyingandmanagingaTexasbusinessforoneyearbeforeenrollingincollege,orbeinggainfullyemployedinthestateforoneyearbeforeenrolling.
SomeonewhoisnotacitizenorpermanentU.S.residentorwhodoesnotholdlegalimmigrationstatuscanbeclassifiedasaTexasresidentandbeeligibletopayin-statetuitiononlyby graduatingfromaTexashighschoolafterlivinginthestateforatleastthreeyearsimmediatelyprecedinggraduation.Inaddition,thosewhoarenotcitizensorpermanentU.S.residentsmustpromisetoseekpermanentresidentstatusassoonastheyareabletoapply. TheresidencystatutesforhighereducationinTexashaveevolvedsincetheLegislatureenactedHB1403in2001.HB1403allowedstudentswhohadlivedinTexas
withtheirparentorlegalguardianandwhoattendedhighschoolforatleastthreeyearsbeforegraduatingorreceivingaGED,butwholackedlegalimmigrationstatus,toestablishresidencyforin-statetuitionpurposes.Studentshadtosignaffidavitspromisingtoapplyforpermanentresidentstatusassoonastheywereabletodoso.TheaffidavitrequirementlimitedthispathtoresidencytostudentswhowerenotcitizensorpermanentU.S.residents,includingundocumentedstudents.
Thelawwasamendedin2005bySB1528byZaffirini.Before2005,manyU.S.citizenswereinadvertentlypreventedfromobtainingTexasresidencystatusforhighereducationpurposes.Theseincluded
studentstooyoungtoestablishadomicileontheirownwhomayhavelivedinthestatewithagrandparentinsteadoftheirparentsorlegalguardianandstudentswhoseparentsmovedoutofstatebeforethestudentenrolledincollege.Thesestudentspreviouslywereclassifiedasnonresidents,
eventhoughtheymayhavebeeninthestatetheirentirelives.
Nowallstudents, regardlessoftheircitizenshiporimmigrationstatus, whograduatefromhighschoolinTexasundertherequiredconditionsmaybeclassifiedasresidentsforhighereducationpurposes,allowingthemtoenrollandpayin-statetuitionrates.Undocumentedstudentsstillmustpromisetoseeklegalstatus.
AccordingtoTHECB,thenumberofnon-citizensandnon-permanentresidents–amajorityofwhomarethoughttobeundocumentedstudents–whowerepermittedtopayin-statetuitioninfiscal2009was14,292,or0.9percentoftotalenrollment.THECBestimatesthatthestateallocatedabout$23.6millionindirectaidforthesestudentsinfiscal2009,includingfundingallocatedtoinstitutionsandfinancialaid.Thesestudentspaidabout$27.2millionintuitionandfeesduringthesametimeperiod.Whenallstate,institutionalandprivatefinancialaidisconsidered,thesestudentspaidanettotalof about$9.5millionoutofpocketfortheirhighereducationinfiscal2009.
The average undergraduate, out-of-state tuition in Texas can be more than twice that of the average resident tuition.
December 15, 2010
HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
page 3
States allowing in-state tuition
AccordingtotheNationalConferenceofStateLegislatures,since2001,whenTexasenactedthefirstsuchlaw,10additionalstateshaveenactedlawsallowinglong-termundocumentedimmigrantswhowerebroughttotheUnitedStatesaschildren,whograduatefromhighschoolinthestate,andwhomeetcertainothercriteriatopayin-statetuitionratesatpubliccollegesanduniversities.Ingeneral,studentsmustliveinthestateandattendhighschoolforaspecifiedtimeperiod,graduateorreceiveaGED,beacceptedtoapubliccollegeoruniversity,andpromisetofileforlegalimmigrantstatus.
California,Utah,Washington,Oklahoma,NewYork,Illinois,Kansas,NewMexico,Nebraska,andWisconsinhaveenactedsimilarlaws.Whilemostofthesestatesdonotallowundocumentedimmigrantstoreceivestatefinancialaid,NewMexico,Oklahoma,andTexasdo.UndocumentedimmigrantsinTexaswhoareclassifiedasTexasresidentsareeligibleforstatefinancialaidunderthesameconditionsasotherstudents,exceptthattheyspecificallycannotqualifyforworkstudyprogramsorthe“B-on-Time”loanprogram.Studentswithoutlegalimmigrationstatusalsoarenoteligibleforfederalfinancialaid.
In2007,Oklahomalawmakersmadeundocumentedimmigrantstudentsineligibleforin-statetuitionandstudentfinancialaidunlesstheOklahomaStateRegentsforHigherEducationadoptedapolicyallowingit.Thestateregentssubsequentlyadoptedsuchapolicy,whichbecameeffectiveNovember1,2007.ThepolicyallowsundocumentedstudentsinOklahomatopaythelowerresidenttuitionandbeeligibleforfinancialaidifcertainconditionsaremet,includinggraduatingfromapublicorprivatehighschoolinthestateandlivingwithaparentorguardianfortwoyearsimmediatelyprecedinghighschoolgraduation.Topayresidenttuition,undocumentedstudentsmustaffirmtheirintentiontolegalizetheirimmigrationstatus.Toreceivefinancialaid,theymustalreadyhaveappliedtolegalizetheirimmigrationstatus.Studentswhohadbeeneligibletopayin-statetuitionandreceivefinancialaidbeforethechangetostatelawweregrandfatheredandremaineligibleundertheprevioussystem.
States denying in-state tuition
Georgiaallowsundocumentedimmigrantstoattendsomeofthestate’spubliccollegesbutchargesthemthehigherout-of-staterate.GeorgiahighereducationofficialsapprovedmeasuresinJunetoensurethatundocumentedstudentsdidnotpaythelowerin-statetuitionratesatanyoftheschoolsoftheUniversitySystemofGeorgia.ThedecisionfollowedacontroversyatKennesawStateUniversityaboutanundocumentedstudentwhowasfoundtobepayingin-statetuitioninsteadofthehigherout-of-statetuitionrequiredbylaw.
InOctober2010,Georgia’sboardofregentsvotedtobanillegalimmigrantsfromattendingthestate’smostselectivepublicinstitutions.Thepolicyrequirescollegestocheckthelegalresidencyofanyapplicantadmittedandprohibitsillegalimmigrantsfromenrollingatanycollegewithaselectiveadmissionsprocessthathasrejectedacademicallyqualifiedapplicantsforthepasttwoacademicyearsbecauseofspaceorotherissues.Fiveinstitutionscurrentlyfallintothiscategory.Thepolicywilltakeeffectinfall2011.
ArizonaandColoradoalsospecificallydenyin-statetuitionbenefitstoundocumentedimmigrants.In2008,SouthCarolinabecamethefirststatetobansuchstudentsfromitspubliccollegesanduniversities.
TheNorthCarolinaStateCommunityCollegeBoardhasbeenwranglingwiththisissuefornearlyadecade,changingitsadmissionspolicyforundocumentedstudentsfivetimes.Inthefallof2009,theboardvotedtoadmitundocumentedimmigrantsiftheyhavegraduatedfromaU.S.highschool,payout-of-statetuitionrates,anddonotdisplaceaNorthCarolinaorU.S.resident.Undocumentedstudentsarenoteligibleforstatefinancialaid.Thisreversedanearlierdecisiontobanthemaltogether.ThedecisioncameaftertheU.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecurityissuedastatementin2008totheNorthCarolinaattorneygeneralaffirmingthatfederallawdoesnotbartheadmissionofundocumentedstudentsandthatitisuptoeachstatemakeitsowndeterminationonthisissue.
HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
page 4 Interim News
Federal law
Disagreementcontinuesoverthemeaningofa1996federallawthatprohibitsstatesfromgrantingundocumentedimmigrantscertainpostsecondaryeducationbenefitsonthebasisofstateresidenceunlessthesamebenefitsareavailabletoallU.S.citizens.Sec.505ofthelaw,knownastheIIRIRA(IllegalImmigrationReformandImmigrantResponsibilityAct),8U.S.C.sec.1623,saysthatunauthorizedaliens“shallnotbeeligibleonthebasisofresidencewithinastate(orapoliticalsubdivision)foranypostsecondaryeducationbenefitunlessacitizenornationaloftheUnitedStatesiseligibleforsuchabenefitwithoutregardtowhetherthecitizenornationalissucharesident.”AccordingtotheCongressionalResearchService,legalscholarsdisagreeabouttheprecisemeaningoftheprovision,whichdoesnotdefine“postsecondaryeducationbenefit”or“residence.”
Withoutfederalregulationsorcongressionallanguageforguidance,theprovisioniscommonlyunderstoodtomeanthatstatesmaynotgrantin-stateresidencystatustoundocumentedimmigrantsfortuitionpurposes.SomehavearguedthatCongressexceededitsauthoritybylegislatinghowstatesmaydispensestatebenefits,whileothersbelievethefederalgovernmenthassettledtheissuewiththeenactmentoftheIIRIRA.Sincethe1996enactmentofsec.505,debatehascontinuedonwhetherstatesandlocalitiesmayofferin-statetuitiontoundocumentedimmigrantstudentsonsomebasisotherthanresidency,suchasin-statehighschoolattendanceandgraduation,inordertoavoidviolatingthelaw.
Debate on offering in-state tuition
Supporters of making undocumented students eligible for in-state tuitionsaysuchlaws,includingtheTexaslaw,arebasedonhighschoolattendanceandgraduation,notlegalresidencyorimmigrationstatus,sotheydonotconflictwithIIRIRA.Theysayitisunjustto
denyundocumentedstudentstheopportunitytopayin-statetuitionratesbecausethesestudentshavequalifiedforadmissionandmostwouldnotbeabletoaffordthemoreexpensiveout-of-staterate.TheysaymanyofthesestudentshavegrownupintheUnitedStatesandcanmakeeconomicandsocialcontributionsifprovidedwithlesscostlyaccesstohighereducation.
Ifthesestudentsareunabletoattendcollegebecausetheycannotaffordtheout-of-statetuition,supporterssay,itwouldmeanthestatewasfailingtocapitalizeon
itsinvestmentinthesestudents’K-12education.Becausein-statetuitionlawsrequirestudentstoseeklawfulpermanentresidency,theypromoteresponsiblebehaviorandprovideanincentiveforhighschoolgraduation.Ittakesout-of-statecitizensonlyoneyeartoestablishresidencywithout
havingtograduatefromaTexashighschool.Supporterssayin-statetuitionisnotahandout,butanopportunityforqualified,butnotdocumented,Texasresidenthighschoolgraduates, regardlessoftheircitizenshiporimmigrationstatus,toattendacollegeoruniversityinthestate.
Opponents of making undocumented students eligible for in-state tuition sayitisaviolationoffederallawandthatthehighschoolattendanceandgraduationrequirementsinappropriatelyfunctionasaproxyforresidencyrequirements.Theysayofferingin-statetuitiontoundocumentedstudentsisunfairtoout-of-stateU.S.citizensandotherswhoareinthestatelegallybutarenoteligibleforthelowertuitionrates.
OpponentssaystateeducationdollarsshouldbespentonmakingcollegemoreaffordableonlyforU.S.citizensandlegalresidents,notillegalimmigrants.TheypointoutthatgrantingresidenttuitionratestoillegalimmigrantstakesopportunitiesawayfromU.S.citizensbyputtingthemindirectcompetitionforadmissiontopublicuniversities.ItalsoprovidesincentivesforpeopletoimmigrateillegallytotheUnitedStatesortoremainaftertheirvisashaveexpired.Someopponentsalsoquestionthepurposeofeducatingundocumentedstudentswhoseimmigrationstatuswillpreventthemfromlegallyworkingaftercollege.
Disagreement continues over the meaning of a 1996 federal law.
page 5
HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
December 15, 2010
Legal challenges
In2004,opponentsoftheKansaslawallowingundocumentedstudentstopayin-statetuitionratessuedthestate,sayingthelawviolatedsec.505oftheIIRIRA.Theysaidthefederallawwasdesignedtoensurethatanystateofferingdiscounted,in-statetuitionratestoundocumentedimmigrantsmustofferthosesamediscountedtuitionratestoallU.S.citizensandnationals,includingthoseinotherstates.
In2005,theU.S.CourtofAppealsfortheTenthCircuitupheldafederaldistrictcourtdeterminationinDay v. Sibelius,376F.Supp.2d(D.Kan.2005),thattheplaintiffslackedstandingtosuebecausetheycouldnotshowtheywereharmed,giventhattheirownnon-residentstatuswouldnotchange,regardlessofwhetherillegalimmigrantswereallowedtopayresidenttuition.Thedistrictcourtdeterminedthatasprivateindividuals,theplaintiffshadnoauthoritytoseektoenforcefederalimmigrationlaw,whichisundertheexclusivejurisdictionoftheU.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecurity(DHS).TheU.S.SupremeCourtdeclinedtohearthecase. In2006,asimilarlawsuitwasfiledinCalifornia–Martinez v. Regents of the University of California, 83Cal.Rptr.18(Cal.App.3Dist.2008) – claimingtheCalifornialawgrantingin-statetuitiontoundocumentedimmigrantstudentsviolatedsec.505oftheIIRIRAbygivingeducationalbenefitsbasedonresidencytoillegalimmigrantsbutnottoallU.S.citizens.InNovember2010,theCaliforniaSupremeCourtunanimouslydecidedthattheCalifornialawdoesnotconflictwithfederallaw.Thecourtconcludedthatthelawthatprovidestheexemptionfromnonresidenttuitionforcertainstudents,includingthosenotlawfullyinthiscountry,isnotbasedonresidenceinCalifornia.Rather,itisbasedonothercriteria,specificallythatthoseexemptedfromnonresidenttuitionmustpossessaCaliforniahighschooldegreeorequivalent;thatiftheyareunlawfulalienstheymustseektolegalizetheirimmigrationstatus;andthattheymusthaveattendedhighschoolinCaliforniaforthreeormoreyears.ThecaseisexpectedtobeappealedtotheU.S.SupremeCourt.
Rep.LeoBermanhadrequestedanopinionfromthe Texas attorneygeneralonwhetherTexascouldcontinuetograntin-statetuitiontoundocumentedstudents.Atty.Gen.GregAbbottsaidinhisopinion(GA-0732)issuedinJuly2009,beforethedecisionbytheCaliforniaSupremeCourt,thattherewasnotenoughlegalprecedenttoanswerthequestionwithcertainty.TheopinionstatedthattheTexasstatutesthatpermitillegalimmigrantstopayresidenttuitionatstatecollegesanduniversitiescouldconflictwithfederallawbutgiventhescarcityofjudicialprecedent,“wecannotpredictwithcertaintythatacourtwouldsofind.”ItstatedthatafederalorstatecourtinTexaslikelywouldconcludethatthestatutesdonotfaciallyviolatetheequalprotectionclausebecausethestatutoryprerequisitesforin-statetuitionarereasonablerequirementsthatservethestate’slegitimateinterestinassuringthatonlybonafideresidentsthatgraduatefromstatehighschoolsorreceiveaGEDfromastatehighschoolareeligibleforin-statetuition. In2009,opponentsofTexas’in-statetuitionlawfiledastatecourtlawsuit,Immigration Reform Coalition of Texas v. Texas, et al., No. 2009-79110, claimingthattheTexaslawthatallowsundocumentedimmigrantstopaydiscountedin-statetuitionandreceivestatestudentfinancialaidconflictswithfederallawthatmakesillegalimmigrantsineligibleforpost-secondaryeducationbenefitsatpublichighereducationinstitutions.Thelawsuitcurrentlyispendinginthe281stdistrictcourtinHarrisCounty.ThechallengerssaythestateshouldnotgivebenefitstoundocumentedstudentsthatU.S.citizensfromotherstatesdonotreceive.Especiallyinthecurrentbudgetclimate,itmakessense,theysay,torestrictlimitedstatedollarstolegalTexasresidents.
UniversityofHoustonlawprofessorMichaelA.OlivassaysthatthelegalclaimsofthosechallengingtheTexaslawarebasedonaflawedreadingofthe1996federalimmigrationlaw,whichhesaysexplicitlyallowsstatestoenacttheirownlawsregardingthisissueiftheychoose.Olivassaystheimmigrationlawinquestion“doesnotprohibitstatesfromallowingin-statetuitionforundocumentedstudentsbutrathersaysstatescannotmakeiteasierforundocumentedstudentstoattainresidencystatusthansomeonewhoisfromanotherstate.” Hesaysastatelawextendingin-state
Interim News
HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
page 6
tuitiontoundocumentedstudentsbyrequiringin-statehighschoolattendanceaswellasalongerdurationofresidencyfortheundocumentedthanforU.S.citizenswhoareresidentsofotherstatesisincompliancewiththefederallaw.
Path to citizenship
LawmakersinCongresshaveproposedrepealingthe1996federalprovisiontospecificallyallowstatestoofferillegalimmigrantsin-statetuitionrates.ProposedlegislationalsowouldprovideapathtoU.S.citizenshipforthosewhocametotheUnitedStatesasdependentchildren.
TheproposedDREAMAct(Development,ReliefandEducationforAlienMinorsAct),S.729byDurbin,wouldrequireundocumentedstudentstohavebeeninthecountryatleastfiveyears,havegraduatedfromaU.S.highschoolorobtainedaGED,andbeofgoodmoralcharacter.StudentswouldnotqualifyiftheyhadcommittedcrimesorwereinadmissibleorremovablefromtheUnitedStatesoncertainothergrounds.Thebillwouldallowforasix-yearconditionalresidencyduringwhichundocumentedimmigrantswouldhavetoearnatleastatwo-yeardegreeorservetwoyearsintheU.S.military.Theywouldnotbeeligibleforfederalcollegegrantsbutcouldapplyforstudentloansandworkstudy.AsimilarbillintheHouseofRepresentatives,H.R.1751byBerman,iscalledtheAmericanDreamAct.OnDecember8,2010,theHouseofRepresentativesapprovedH.R.1751,buttheSenatehasnottakenuptheissue.
SimilarbillshavebeenintroducedinCongresssince2001.AccordingtotheImmigrationPolicyInstitute,CaliforniahasthelargestnumberofpotentialbeneficiariesoftheDREAMAct,with553,000,whileTexashasroughly258,000possiblebeneficiaries.
Supporters of allowing undocumented students to pay in-state tuition and have a path to citizenshipsaythatthosewhocametotheUnitedStatesasminorsunderthecareoftheirparentsarenotguiltyofanycrime.Formany,theUnitedStatesistheonlyhometheyknow.Ifallowedtopursuetheirpotentialthroughacademics,thesestudentscouldcontributefullytosociety,butlargenumberswillbeunabletodosounlesstheyareeligibleforthelowerin-statetuitionratesattheirstatecolleges.Thesestudentsshouldhavelegalstatussotheycanlegallyworkaftergettingacollegedegree.Byincreasingthenumbersofeducatedworkers,moretaxeswillbepaid,morejobscreated,andmoregoodspurchased.Itwouldbeasolidinvestmentinthecountry’scollectivefuture.OtherssupportthegoalofapathwaytoU.S.citizenshipforillegalimmigranthighschoolgraduatesbutsayrequirementsshouldbemorestringentthanthoseproposedintheDREAMAct.Requiringpublicserviceinadditiontocompletingatleasttwoyearsofhighereducationormilitaryservicewouldbemoreappropriate,theysay.
Opponentsof allowing undocumented students to pay in-state tuition and have a path to citizenshipsayitwouldbetantamounttograntingamnestytomillionsofillegalimmigrantsandprovidingspecialprivilegestoundocumentedstudentsattheexpenseofAmericanstudents.Theysayundocumentedimmigrantstudentsandtheirfamiliesareinthecountryillegally,andtaxpayermoneyshouldnotbeusedtosubsidizetheeducationofindividualswhoareintheUnitedStatesinviolationofthelaw.Morebroadly,opponentssay,grantingbenefitstoillegalimmigrantstudentsunderminestheU.S.immigrationsystemandwouldencouragemoreillegalimmigrationintothecountry.
— by Rita Barr
HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
page 7December 15, 2010
HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
NaturalgasproductionalsoisbeingdevelopedintheEagleFordShaleinSouthTexasandtheHaynesvilleShale,whichismostlyinLouisianabutextendsintoseveralcountiesineastTexas(see Shale gas fields, page 9).Asdrillinginshalerockformationsexpandstootherareasofthestate,theresolutionofissuesraisedintheBarnettShaleareamayinfluencehowsuchissuesarehandledelsewhere.
The Barnett Shale
Texasisthenation’sleadingnaturalgasproducer,accountingforaboutthree-tenthsoftotalU.S.naturalgasproduction,accordingtotheU.S.EnergyInformationAdministration.TheBarnettShale,agiantnaturalgasformationthatliesbeneathFortWorthand23surroundingcounties,accountsfor25percentofthenaturalgasproducedinTexas.
TheBarnettShalerockformationliesmorethan7,000feetbelowthesurface,withshaleabout400to500feetthick.WhentheBarnettShalewasdiscoveredin1981,onlyafewofthethickersectionsnearFortWorthwereexpectedtobeprofitabletodrill,butadvancesinhorizontaldrillingandhydraulicwellfracturingtechnologyincreasedtheareaoftheBarnettShaleconsideredpotentiallyprofitable.Significantdrillingactivitydidnotbeginuntilgaspricesincreasedinthelate1990s.Since2002,gasproductionintheareahasgrownsignificantly,andtheamountofdrillingthatisoccurringinurbanareasisunprecedented.
MostBarnettShalewellsareinsixcountiesaroundFortWorth—Tarrant,Denton,Wise,Parker,Hood,andJohnson.TheBarnettShaleformationhadmorethan14,401producinggaswellsasofSeptember22,2010,withmorethan1,000inFortWorth.Inaddition,3,175locationshavepermitspending.
Horizontal drilling, hydraulic fracturing
Unlikeshallownaturalgasprojects,theproducibleportionsofdeepshalegasformationsaremanythousandsoffeetbelowthesurfaceinshalerockwith
lowpermeabilityandlowporosity.Producershavelongknownthatdeepshaleformationscontainednaturalgasdeposits,buttheywerethoughttobeunrecoverable.Throughtheuseofhydraulicfracturing,combinedwithhorizontaldrilling,extraordinaryamountsofnaturalgasnowarebeingproducedfromdeepshaleformationsacrosstheUnitedStates(see page 9).
Withhydraulicfracturing,commonlycalled“fracking,”awellisdrilledverticallymorethanamiledeep,thenextendedhorizontallyintothetargetedrockformation.Fracturingfluids,consistingofwater,sand,andchemicaladditives,arepumpedatextremelyhighpressuredownthewellbore.Thefracturingfluidsflowthroughperforatedsectionsofthewellboreandintothesurroundingformation,fracturingtherockandinjectingsandintothecrackstoholdthemopen.Thisprocessisrepeatedmultipletimestoreachmaximumareasofthewellbore.Thewaterpressurethenisreducedandfluidsarereturnedupthewellborefordisposalorfortreatmentandre-use,leavingthesandinplacetopropopenthecracksandallowthegastoflowandbecollectedatthesurface.
Water quality and consumption
Withtheincreaseduseofhydraulicfracturinginshalegasproduction,concernshaveincreasedaboutpotentialgroundwatercontaminationforthoselivingnearshalegasfieldsacrossthecountry,aswellasaboutthelargeamountofwaterrequiredtofrackawell.
Water quality. Concernsaboutgroundwatercontaminationfromhydraulicfracturinghaveresultedinintensedebate.Ithasbecomethesubjectofmultiplestudies,atleastfourdocumentaryfilms,andtownhallmeetingsfromNewYorktoTexas.
ThefederalCleanWaterActregulatesthedischargeintosurfacewaterofoilandgaswastewaterfromhydraulicfracturingoperations.TheSafeDrinkingWaterAct(SDWA)generallyregulatestheundergroundinjectionoffluids.However,thefederalEnergyPolicyActof2005amendedtheSafeDrinkingWaterActtoexcludefromfederalregulationtheundergroundinjectionoffluidsorcertainproppingagentsinhydraulicfracturingforoil,gas,orgeothermal
Shale, from page 1
HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
Interim Newspage 8
production.Thisamendment,referredtobysomeasthe“Halliburtonloophole”becausetheextractiontechniquesweredevelopedbyHalliburton,effectivelyexemptedhydraulicfracturingfromfederalwaterqualityregulationandgavejurisdictionandauthorityovertheseoperationstothestates.TheuseofdieselfuelduringhydraulicfracturingisstillregulatedundertheSDWA.BillswereintroducedinCongressin2009torepealtheexemptionandreturnregulatoryjurisdictiontothefederalgovernment.Noactionhasbeentakenonthesebills.
Ina2004study,thefederalEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)didnotfindanyincidenceofcontaminationofdrinkingwaterbyhydraulicfracturingandconcludedthatitposeslittleornothreattoundergroundsourcesofdrinkingwater.TheInterstateOilandGasCompactCommissionmemberstates,includingTexas,havesaidnocaseshavebeenidentifiedinwhichhydraulicfracturingcanbeverifiedtohavecontaminateddrinkingwater.
Sincethe2004EPAstudy,complaintsfromlandownersofwellcontaminationimmediatelyaftergaswellsontheirpropertieswerefrackedhavecroppedupacrossthenationinplaceswithsubstantialdeepshalegasdrilling.TheEPAisagaininvestigatingthepossiblerelationshipsbetweenhydraulicfracturinganddrinkingwater,andstudyresultsareexpectedbylate2012.
Thewaterthatflowsbackfromfracturingprojectsisanotherconcern.Itmaybetreatedandreused,butinmanycasesisdisposedofinsaltwaterdisposalinjectionwells,whichtypicallyareabandonedoilandgaswells.Useofthesewellsiscausingconcernaboutwhethertheystillareproperlycasedandadequatelycementedtopreventleakageandpotentialgroundwatercontaminationandiftheyarebelowaquiferlevels.
TheTexasRailroadCommission(RRC),whichregulatesoilandgasexplorationinTexas,requireswellstoincludemultiplelayersofprotectivesteelcasingsurroundedbycementinordertoprotectfreshwateraquifers.Gaugesmonitorthewellborecasingsatthesurface.Beforedrillingcanbegin,oilandgascompaniesmustregisterwiththeTexasCommissiononEnvironmentalQuality(TCEQ)theirplansforinstallingthesurfacecasingofthewellinordertoensurethat
thecasingsareadequatetopreventseepageintothewatertable.Thesurfacecasingisasteelpipeencasedincementthatextendsfromthesurfacetobelowthegroundwater.Cementissetbetweenthecasingandthesidesofthewellboretosealitfromtheaquifer.TCEQidentifiesthedepthatwhichgroundwatermustbeprotectedfromcontaminationbycementandsteelateachdrillsiteforwellswherehydraulicfracturingwillbeused.Thisdictatestherequireddepthofeachwell’ssurfacecasing.
RRCinspectorstrytowitnessthepluggingofallabandonedanddrywells,whichcanposeathreattogroundwaterifnotpluggedcorrectly.Unplugged,inactivewellsarerequiredtobepressuretestedannuallytoidentifyanyintegrityproblemsinthecasing.
Water consumption. Inadditiontoconcernsaboutgroundwatercontamination,concernsaboutwateravailabilityhavebeenraisedbecauseofthelargeamountofwaterrequiredinhydraulicfracturingawell.Frackingahorizontaldeepshalegaswellrequiresanaverageof4.5milliongallonsofwaterperwell,accordingtoChesapeakeEnergy,oneofthetopproducersintheBarnettShaleformation.ConcernsarethatasgasproductionintheBarnettShalecontinuestogrow,thewaterresourcesintheareawillbeoverstretchedandthewaterneedsofothersintheregionwillbeaffected.
Potential legislation. The82ndLegislaturemayseeproposedlegislationaimedatprotectingwaterqualityandreducingitsconsumptioninfrackingoperations.Billsmayproposeincreasedoversightofwelldesign,includingcementingandcasing,andofthewastehandlingoffracturingfluids.Requiringfulldisclosureofchemicalsusedinfrackingmaybediscussed,aswellasrequiringuseofnon-pollutingsubstitutesfortoxicfracturingchemicals.Otherbillsmayrequireorseektoincentivizetherecyclingofwaterusedinthefrackingprocess.OneproposalmaybetotransferregulatoryauthorityforgroundwaterprotectionduringoilandgasactivitiesfromTCEQtotheRRC.
Supporters of hydraulic fracturinghavesaiditisunlockingvastdomesticnaturalgasreservesoncethoughtunattainable,strengtheningAmerica’senergyindependence,andreducingcarbonemissions.
HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
page 9December 15, 2010
Hydraulicfracturinghasbeenakeytechnologyinmakingshalegasaffordableandhasproventobeaneffectivetechnique.Useofhydraulicfracturingalsorequireslesssurfaceareaandfewerwells.Anaveragewellthathasbeenfrackedcanaccessupto60timesmorebelow-groundarea.Also,operatorscandrillasfewassixtoeightwellsonasinglesitetoaccessthesamenaturalgasthatoncerequired16ormorewellsdrilledinseparatelocations.
Supporterssaythathydraulicfracturinghasbeendonesafelyformorethan60yearswithnoincidenceofgroundwatercontaminationdirectlyattributabletothisprocess.Also,thechemicalsusedinfrackingawellmakeuplessthan1percentofthefracturingfluid.Theriskofgroundwatercontaminationfromfrackingisextremelyremote,especiallyinareasliketheBarnettShale,wheremorethanamileofdenserockseparatesshallowfreshwateraquifersfrompetroleumdeposits.ThegeologyinTexas,combinedwithsafeguardsrequiredbytheRailroadCommission(RRC),whichregulatesoilandgasexplorationandproductioninTexas,wouldpreventwaterusedinhydraulicfracturingfrommigratingtoawatertable.
Frackingadvocatessaythereislittleevidencethathydraulicfracturinghasbeenadirectcauseofgroundwatercontamination.Pollutionoffreshwateraquifersismorelikelytobecausedbypoorcementing
andcasingofwells.Anew EPAstudylikelywillidentifyriskstopublichealthnotfromfrackingitself,butfromsloppydrillingpractices.
Supporterssaythatwhilewatermanagementandavailabilityareachallengebecauseoftheamountofwaterrequiredforhydraulicfracturing,innovativeregionalsolutionsareemergingthatallowshalegasdevelopmenttocontinuewhileensuringthatthewaterneedsofotherusersarenotaffectedandthatsurfaceandgroundwaterqualityisprotected.Whilethe2007StateWaterPlandidnotfactorinwaterusefromhydraulicfracturing,thecurrentroundofregionalwaterplanningforthe2012StateWaterPlandoesfactorinwaterusefromhydraulicfracturinginNorthTexas.Also,whiletheamountofwaterrequiredforhydraulicfracturingmayseemlarge,itissmallincomparisontosomeotherusesofwater,suchasagriculture,electricpowergeneration,andmunicipaluse.Also,thewateruseistemporary,occurringonlyduringthedrillingandcompletionphasesofeachwell.Somecompanieshaveinstitutedwaterrecyclingprogramsthatcaptureasignificantvolumeofwaterrequiredforthehydraulicfracturingprocessforreuseinfutureoperations.
Opponents of hydraulic fracturinghavesaidprivatecitizensinareasofshalegasproductionhavereportedmanycasesacrossthecountryofdrinkingwaterthattookonafoultasteandodorandbeganto
BesidestheBarnettShaleinNorthTexas,threeotherareasintheUnitedStateshavesignificantshalegasfieldscurrentlyinproduction.ThelargestistheMarcellusShale,whichcovers95,000squaremilesandincludescentralandwesternPennsylvania,southernNewYork,andnorthernWestVirginia.ThenaturalgasresourcesoftheMarcellusShalewerethoughttobeexhausted,buttheareaisnowestimatedtohold168to516trillioncubicfeetofrecoverablenaturalgaswiththeuseofhorizontaldrillingandhydraulicfracturing.ThesecondlargestareaistheHaynesvilleShale,encompassingabout9,000squaremilesinnorthernLouisianaandeasternTexasandthoughttocontain251trillioncubicfeetofrecoverablenaturalgas.TheFayettevilleShaleinnorthernArkansasisestimatedtohold20trillioncubicfeetofnaturalgas.
Althoughstillintheearlystagesofdevelopment,theEagleFordShaleinSouthTexas,whichbeginsneartheMexicoborderandsweepseastbelowSanAntonio,isbeingcalledthebiggestoilandgasdiscoveryin40yearsbysomeintheindustry.Naturalgashasbeenfoundinalmost20countiesinSouthTexas,withmoretobeaddedascompaniesextendtheiracreageanddomorewelltesting.Recentlyannouncedinfrastructureinvestments,includingpipelines,indicatethattheEagleFordShalecouldbecomealeadingplayerforbothnaturalgasandcrudeproductionoverthenextfewyears.
Shale gas fields being developed around the United States
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HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
fizzandbubbleimmediatelyaftergaswellsonorneartheirpropertieswerefracked.Theygiveexamplesofgroundwaterusersnearfrackingoperationshavingflammablewaterrunningfromtheirtap,anindicationthatnaturalgashadseepedintothewatersource. TheEPArecentlyorderedaFortWorthnaturalgascompanytosupplyhomeownersnearaParkerCountydrillingsitewithgasmonitorsanddrinkingwaterafterhighlevelsofmethanewerefoundinresidents’tapwater.ThecompanyalsomustidentifyandremediateanypotentialgasflowpathwaystotheTrinityAquifer.
Currentoversightisinadequatetoprotectwatersourcesfromeffectsofhydraulicfracturing,criticssay.Forexample,thechemicaladditivesusedinfracturingfluidsarenotfullydisclosedtothepublic,butinsteadremainproprietarytradesecrets.Someoftheadditivesaretoxic.Evenasmallamountofatoxicsubstancewouldbeunacceptableifleakedintoadrinkingwatersupply.Whiletheindustrysayshydraulicfracturinghasbeendonesafelyformorethan60years,ithasnotbeendoneatsuchhighpressureandnotwithrecentadvancesindrillingmethods,suchashorizontaldrilling.Complaintsofrecurrenthealthproblemshavecomefrompreviouslyhealthypeopleandarethoughttostemnotonlyfromdrinkingcontaminatedwater,butalsofrombreathingcontaminatedair.Suchhealthcomplaintsincludeheadaches,upsetstomachs,asthma,dizziness,disorientation,ringingintheears,lossofsenseoftasteandsmell,andinsomeinstancesneurologicalproblems.
Opponentssayitisnotsurprisingthatevidencethathydraulicfracturinghasbeenadirectcauseofgroundwatercontaminationismostlyanecdotalthusfarbecauseitisdifficulttopinpointthesourceofnaturalgaspollution.Also,neitherindustrynorgovernmenthasconductedadequatescientifictestingtodeterminewhetherfrackinghascontaminatedgroundwater.Toomanylandownersalloverthecountryaredescribingthesamescenarios,sosomethingiswrong.
Also,waterconsumptioningasdrillingoperations,evenwhileshortinduration,issignificantandposesarisktowateravailabilityinNorthTexas.Whilethecurrentroundofregionalwaterplanningforthe2012StateWaterPlandoesfactorinwaterusefromhydraulicfracturing,thewateruseprojectionsforgasdrillingsarehighlyuncertainanddependentonthepriceofgas,requiringmultipleplanningscenarios,opponentssay.
Air quality
Oncegaswellshavebeendrilledandareoperating,activitiessurroundingactivewellscanresultinemissionsofavarietyofairpollutants,includinggreenhousegases,ozoneandfineparticlesmog-formingcompounds,andairtoxicchemicals.Thegreenhousegasesofgreatestconcernarecarbondioxide,methane,andnitrousoxide,whichareemittedfromoilandgassourcesintheBarnettShalearea.
ThefederalCleanAirActlimitsairemissionsfromengines,gas-processingequipment,andothersourcesassociatedwithdrillingandproduction.Thefederallawgrantsprimacytothestates,allowingstateagenciestoimplementairqualityprogramswithfederaloversight.
Oncedrillingiscompleteandawellisbeingtestedorhasstartedproducing,TCEQwillissueanairpermitforanystationarysources,suchasavalveonawellhead,thatmayemitanaircontaminant.
Duetoairqualityconcerns,TCEQconductedairqualitytestsin2009at94sitesacrosstheBarnettShalearea.Thetestsrevealedtwositeswithhighlevelsofbenzene,aknownhumancarcinogen,and19morewithelevatedlevels.Mostsiteshadeithernoharmfulemissionsorsmallamounts.Thereadingsatthetwoworstsiteswerecausedbymechanicalproblemsthatwerefixedbythecompanies.TCEQreportednoimmediatehealthconcernbasedonsamplestakeninFortWorth.However,aninternalTCEQauditlatershowedthatfouroftheeightsamplestakeninFortWorth hadconcentrationsofbenzenehigherthanwhatTCEQinitiallyreported,butwerenotatlevelsindicatinganimmediatehealthconcern,accordingtoTCEQ.FortWorthofficialshavecommissionedtheirownairqualitystudy,whichbeganinlatesummerandincludespoint-sourcetestingforleaksatdrillingandproductionsitesand24-hourambientairtesting.ThefinalreportisduetothecityinMarch.
AirqualitytestscommissionedlastsummerbythecityofDishinDentonCountyandaprivatecitizenfromFortWorthreportedhighlevelsofbenzeneandothertoxiccompoundsintheairneargaswells,compressorstations,andotherfacilities.
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HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
NinecountiessurroundingFortWorthandDallasdonotmeetthefederalozonestandardsandhavebeendesignatedbytheEPAastheD-FWozonenonattainmentarea:Tarrant,Denton,Parker,Johnson,Ellis,Collin,Dallas,Rockwall,andKaufman.Fourofthesecounties(Tarrant,Denton,Parker,andJohnson)havesubstantialoilandgasproductionthatcanemitpollutantstotheatmospherethatcontributetoozoneandfineparticulatemattersmog.
TCEQisinstallingsevenair-qualitymonitorsintheBarnettShaleregionthatwilloperatearoundtheclockandprovideemissionsdatathatthepubliccanaccess.Themonitorswilltestfor45volatileorganiccompounds,includingbenzene.MonitorscurrentlyareoperatinginDish,theEagleMountainLakeArea,FortWorth,Dallas,andmorerecently,DecaturandFlowerMound.AnairmonitorinSoutheastTarrantCounty,eitherinFortWorthorEverman,willbeoperationalbytheendoftheyear.TCEQrecentlypartneredwiththeUniversityofTexasatArlingtontoinstallfouradditionalairqualitymonitorsintheBarnettShaleregion.Thelocationsforthosemonitorswillbedeterminedwithstakeholderinput.Also,sevenairinspectorshavebeenaddedinTCEQ’sFortWorthregionalofficetorespondtocomplaints.
TCEQ proposed rule changes. TCEQhasproposednewrulestoreplacethecurrentstandardpermitforconstructionand/ormodificationofoilandgasproductionfacilitieswithanewstandardpermit.Thenewruleswouldrequireasinglesite-wideemissionsauthorizationratherthanindividualemissionsauthorizationsforeachpieceofequipment.
Theproposedruleswouldcreatetieredrequirementsbasedontheamountofpollutantemittedandwould,forthefirsttime,considertherateofemissionandthedistancefromareceptor,suchasahome,school,daycare,church,orhospital.Facilitieswouldhavetobeatleast50feetfromreceptors.Operationalmonitoring,suchasleakdetectionandairpollutantsampling,wouldberequired,aswouldmorespecificrecord-keeping.
ExceptforrequirementsforTCEQtobenotifiedaboutcertainsitedetailsandtoauthorizemaintenance,start-up,andshutdownactivities,thenewruleswouldnotapplytoexistingfacilitiesunlesstherewasa
modificationatthefacility.AdoptionoftheproposedrulesisexpectedonJanuary26,2011.FacilitieswillbephasedinstartingintheBarnettShaleareaearly2011,followedbytherestofthestatestartingearly2012.
SupportersoftheproposedTCEQruleshavesaidtheyareastepintherightdirectionofprotectinghealthandsafety.Theserulescontaininnovativeimprovementsandenhancements,includingatieredapproachthatwouldplacethemoststringentregulationsonthehighestemittersofaircontaminants.Aset-backrequirementof50feetfromhomes,schools,andotherpublicareas,althoughstillclose,wouldhelptoensurethesafetyofresidentsinareasofurbandrilling.Theproposedrulesshouldnotputastrainonindustrybecausemanyoftherequirements,suchasrecord-keeping,shouldhavebeendoneallalong.
Opponentsoftheproposedruleshavesaidthattheyareoverreachingandwouldcreateanunnecessaryburdenonindustry.Theserules,whichwouldbeimplementedstatewide,wouldforceproducerstocollectdata,analyzesamples,andcompilepaperworkfortensofthousandsofwells,includingwellsinruralareaswherenoseriousemissionsproblemsexist.Complyingwiththerequirementscouldcostgasproducersasmuchas$100,000perfacility.Theserulesshouldbelimitedtoheavilypopulatedareasthathavecurrentairqualityissuesandareinviolationoffederalozonestandards.
Other opponentshavesaidthatwhiletheserulechangesarealong-overduestepintherightdirection,theydonotgofarenoughtoprotectresidentsinareasofurbandrilling.Theywouldapplyonlytonewoilandgasfacilities,leavingmostcurrentwellsunderthelessstringentrules.WithproductionoftheBarnettShalecontinuingtoincrease,andproductionoftheEagleFordShaleinSouthTexas,whichisnearSanAntonioandBexarCounty,beginningtotakeshape,urbandrillingislikelytobecomemorecommonplaceinTexas.
Health and safety
HealthandsafetyconcernshavebeenraisedaboutwellsintheBarnettShaleareabeingdrilledandoperatingnearhomes,schools,andotherpublicareas.Alongwithcomplaintsaboutthenoiseandvisual
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Staff:Tom Whatley, Director; Laura Hendrickson, Editor; Rita Barr, Office Manager/Analyst; Catherine Dilger, Kellie Dworaczyk, Tom Howe, Andrei Lubomudrov,Blaire Parker, Research Analysts
John H. Reagan BuildingRoom 420P.O. Box 2910Austin, Texas 78768-2910
(512) 463-0752
www.hro.house.state.tx.us
Steering Committee:
Bill Callegari, Acting Chairman Drew Darby Harold Dutton David Farabee Dan Gattis Yvonne Gonzalez Toureilles Susan King Jim McReynolds Jose Menendez Geanie Morrison Elliott Naishtat Rob Orr Joe Pickett Todd Smith
HOUSE RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
nuisanceofthewellsrightoutsideresidents’backyards,especiallyduringthedrillingprocess,arefearsofbreathingtoxicairemissionsandaccidentsthatcouldresultinexplosions.
TheRRCdoesnotregulatehownearahouse,school,orpublicareaanoilorgaswellmaybedrilled,butacitymayenactordinancesregulatingwellswithincitylimitsthatgoverntheirproximitytodwellingsorotherstructures.Forexample,FortWorthallowsdrillingnocloserthan300feettohomes,schools,parksandothersensitiveuses,butascloseas200feetifthesitewasacquiredbefore2008.Manymineralleasesalsocontainclausesthatgovernhowclosetoexistingstructuresawellmaybedrilled.
Potential legislation.Billsmaybeproposedduringthenextregularsessiontoprovideastandardset-backrequirementforalloilandgasdrillingandpipelinesnearhomesandplacesusedbythepublic.Anotherproposalwouldincreasepenaltiesforviolatingthedamagepreventionprogram,whichallowsanyonediggingnearapipelinetocallacentralclearinghousesothatcrewscanmarkundergroundfacilitiestopreventtheunintendedpiercingofanaturalgasline.
Landowner rights
LandownerconcernsaboutoilandgasdrillingarenotuniquetotheBarnettShalearea,buttheyhavebeenamplifiedbytheunprecedentedamountofurbandrillinginthearea.Suchissuesincludeleasesofsurfaceandmineralrights,eminentdomainauthoritytodrillonprivateproperty,andplacementofwellsandpipelinesnearhomes,schools,business,andotherpublicareas.
Potential legislation.Severallandownerprotectionbillsmaybeconsideredbythe82ndLegislature,includingonetoprotectlandownerswhodidnotsignamineral-rightsleasefrombeingforciblyincludedinadrillingunit,calledforcedpoolingorunitization.Anotherproposalwouldcreateapublicprotectionofficetohelpresidentsindrillingareaswithissuesrelatingtomineralinterests,eminentdomainauthority,spacingofwellsandpipelines,andforcedpooling.Anotherproposalwouldmakepipelineroutingmoresimilartoroutingofelectrictransmissionlines,includingsubmittingalternateroutesandallowingpublicparticipationinroutingdecisionsaffectinglandowners.
— by Blaire D. Parker