International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling 8:279-296 (1985). © Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht. Printed in the Netherlands.

I N T E R C U L T U R A L P O S T G R A D U A T E L E A R N I N G T H E A C Q U I S I T I O N OF STUDY SKILLS: AN I N S T I T U T I O N A L RESPONSE TO T H E RESULTS OF T H E RESEARCH*

JEAN WRIGHT University of Reading, United Kingdom

Abstract

The need for research into inter-cultural postgraduate, post experience learning stems f rom changing educational, political and social policies which affect higher education in the United Kingdom.

The British Government ' s policy concerning the financing of overseas students and their encouragement of continuing education students; the research boards ' policy concerning postgraduate students; the changing role of University Coun- selling Services in a time of financial constraint, are shown as the background to the development of systematically conducted research into postgraduate overseas students.

The Author decided to carry out an exploratory rather than a confirmatory study, using an ecological theoretical model f rom developmental psychology, She considered cognitive tasks as interactive settings, and using this methodology, in- vestigated how the students acquired the study skills required for their academic course.

The results o f the pilot study are presented and these have already resulted in institutional changes.

The Author is now involved in a three year research project to further in- vestigate this subject.

Introduction

The United Kingdom Government has in the last few years substantially increased the fees paid for courses by overseas students which has resulted in a drop in stu- dent numbers. Whilst acknowledging that finance is severely curtailed, the policy

*Paper presented at the International Round Table for the Advancement of Counselling Conference, University of Aarhus, Denmark.

280

of the Government and the Higher Education Institutions, is to attract and in- crease the numbers of overseas students.

It is accepted that in this climate, United Kingdom Universities~ whilst not

lowering academic standards may have to accept students whose language/study skills will be found to be inadequate for their academic courses.

It is important that steps should be taken to identify quickly and provide remedial help for those students who, after their University courses have started, are still having problems.

University Counsellors can understand the complex interaction between language problems, inadequate study skills and cultural /emotional problems, and are key figures in the carrying out of this needs analysis of the individual student.

Improving the learning ability and the academic success of overseas students:

a) alleviates much human misery for the students; b) avoids the United Kingdom Government funding academic failures; c) increases the possibility of overseas Governments selecting United Kingdom

Universities.

Therefore, the development of student services with an interest and expertise in the learning difficulties of overseas students is as crucial to attracting applications f rom overseas students as the marketing of existing Higher Educational courses and the designing of new courses tailored to the needs of the developing countries.

Students who are postgraduate and also post experience are a growing popula- tion in United Kingdom Universities. This policy is encouraged by official educa- tional bodies.

As the admission rates of mature post experience students is likely to continue to grow in United Kingdom Universities it is important to study the present stu- dent body in order to learn f rom their experience.

For many years research bodies in the United Kingdom have been concerned that research students they have funded have not submitted their thesis within a ' reasonable ' period. It has now been decided that the first year of the PhD should be a one year taught course of research skills, and departments at Universities have been asked to submit their proposed curricula to the E.S.R.C. (Economic Science Research Council). The curriculum is likely to reflect the experience and knowledge of the academic s taff but it will not have been based on a proper 'needs analysis. ' The teaching staff may welcome the idea of the development and establishment of a research skills assessment of each student at the commence- ment of his course, which, set against the perception of the research skills required for the course, can form the basis of such a 'needs analysis. '

Initially University Counselling Services focussed on 'crisis intervention' and dealt with the 'occupat ional ' risks of the students. They have now been con- solidating their work in the Universities to include a developmental role; helping

281

students to develop a sense of their own identity and to learn how to learn at University, and become aware of the links between these activities. In order to maximise the impact of the Counselling provision in this University, general study

skills workshops are now run and the Counsellor works closely with academic s taff who develop Departmental workshops.

Evaluation of these workshops can often produce little more than justification for the manner in which they are run. It is arguable that, with a growing interest in the development of study skills in the United Kingdom and abroad, it is impor- tant to carry out a 'needs analysis' of the individual student on his individual course, so that assistance with study or research skills can be based on more pro- fessional understanding of the issues involved.

The present research was conceived f rom this background.

The background

The previous learning experience of many overseas students at undergraduate level would have been dependent on a very limited range of teaching methods. It can best be described as based on an Unitary Learning Source, characterised by a heavy dependence on the Lecturer and his recommended textbooks. The absence of dissonance resulting f rom this strongly directed learning may cause a lack of critical thinking and therefore a lack of development of Higher Intellectual skills. The skills needed in this learning system are primarily those based on memorisation.

This can be contrasted with the Multiple Learning Sources available to postgraduate students in a University Department in the United Kingdom, which creates a complex learning network. These interactive settings encourage dissonance, develop critical thinking, and ultimately the higher intellectual skills that are fundamental to intellectual independence and maturity. But in the same way that a certain amount of intellectual loneliness (but not isolation) is necessary for the development of au tonomy and creativity, the dissonance and the necessity to plan ones own time can at first lead to frustration and confusion.

Many researchers notably Gibbs (1978) and Beatty (1978) and Phillips (1983) have used Kelley's (1955) personal construct theory as the theoretical basis for their research. 'A Construct system is a way of seeing what is determined by our attitude and experiences. '

This implies a world of static objects waiting to be operated upon. But the 'o ther person' in a one to one teacher/learner interaction is not a static object but a person in his own right with his own perceptions based on his own construct theory. It is this conceptual basis that leads to problems between supervisor and student. We should instead focus on the relationship, and the demands this makes on both parties, in terms of relationship skills such as awareness and sensitivity.

282

+ +

\

21

~l I AR[ NOT

/ / \ \ , / \

c=l.-

ck Q~

i

i

I

/ ' ~ \ \

.

o .

. , 5 J ~

°~ lb.

"! m

283

As Shotter (1981) comments, 'The Interactional nature of mental activities is such that . . . it only ever occurs in relation to something other than itself. ' Such a relationship is a dynamic interaction between two parts of the total which implies reciprocity and mutuality.

In the environment where the postgraduate student is learning there is con- tinuous interaction between all the students, s taff and materials that make up the whole and they, like him, are interacting with one another, and developing at dif- ferent rates. This concept can be expressed in a diagrammatical representation of the postgraduate student in his learning environment (see Fig. 1). By implication, the teacher also continues to learn.

During the years of formal education (7 -18 years) the child learns in a unitary manner, but the postgraduate student, like the pre-school child, learns from everything around him, as he interacts with his effective environment using multi- ple learning sources. Therefore one looks for the theoretical basis for this research not in the realm of education but in developmental psychology.

Shotter and Newson (1982) defined an ecological approach to cognitive development; ' the strength of a thorough-going ecological approach is, we feel, that it emphasises the interfittedness of things . . . the individual is in her own env i ronmen t - fo r - ac t ion . . , as such it is known to her as a whole with every part of it related in some way to every other par t . '

Piaget (1971) refers to this as 'operat ional structuralism' and Harvey (1973) uses it as a model to define a theoretical concept for URBANISM.

In the fields of educational psychology in 1972, Liam Hudson defined a new concept for psychology 'a notion of human acquaintanceship. ' This is a model in which the investigator is denied any special authority and in which (as in life) the elements interact and are interdependent.

Cognitive tasks as interactional settings

Educational research, like research in so many fields, has turned 'Learning f rom psychosometric towards active part icipatory research. ' (Laurillard, 1981), i.e. f rom the laboratory to the lecture theatre.

Other disciplines have expressed disquiet over work which has resulted in analysis f rom artificial experimental settings, such as Masters and Johnson 's (1970) work on human sexuality.

Taking cognitive tasks in postgraduate education as ' Interactual settings' made it possible to explore the postgraduate students ' interaction with:

a) one to one situations, e.g. the supervisor; b) group situations, i) a leader group, e.g. the seminar; ii) a peer group, e.g. an

informal student group; c) learning material, e.g. books and articles.

284

Rationale for the methodology

The way in which postgraduates tend to study has not been examined to any great degree nor is there any established theory. It was decided, therefore, that the first year of the research would be a pilot study which would establish what study skills are needed for the dissertation, by looking at each of the cognitive tasks as an in- teraction. The important thing at this stage was to obtain systematic data from a real life setting.

Relevant previous research

Very little research has been published on the learning processes of postgraduate students. The focus of educational research in higher educational institutions has been on an exploration of the approaches, styles and strategies adopted by undergraduate students in their learning behaviour. The terminology adopted for the analysis of the results, however, has not been rigorously defined nor are there universally agreed criteria for the assessment of learning. Fransson (1977) Pask (1976a/1976b), Marton and Saljo (1976a), Svensson (1977), Laurillard (1979).

In a literature review for the years 1955-81, Phillips (1983) found that the items which had been computerised consisted of only one paper (based on American research), and four articles consisting of supervisors' individual perception of the postgraduate learning process.

Phillips 0983) studied seven PhD students and their supervisors, during dif- ferent research programmes at two Universities over a three year period.

The results of Phillip's work highlighted:

a) the relationship between the student 's degree of dependence on the Supervisor and the student 's ability to evaluate his own work.

b) the importance of writing as a learning activity, and c) the lack of improvement in the student 's ability to estimate accurately what

work they could achieve in any given period during the three years of their work.

Rudd (1975) estimated that some one quarter of the 695 United Kingdom postgraduate students that he studied were dissatisfied with their supervisor, but did not ask the supervisor 's opinion of how they perceived the supervisory rela- tionships. He obtained no data on the students' acquisition of research skills, but made a generalised comment that ' about half would have liked more instruction'.

Welsh carried out a four year investigation into postgraduate education at Aberdeen starting in 1974. Commenting on the new methods of teaching and lear- ning she says that 'For most, the transition f rom one stage of education to the next

285

is relatively trouble free, and the individual readily adapts to his new situation' but later comments , ' that after one year half the 77 students reported difficulties with their supervisors and 48 of the students had personal problems. ' Welsh (1978).

Rather than blaming poor supervision it seems to be more profitable to look at the effect of the lack of self-confidence and personal maturi ty of many 26 year old United Kingdom postgraduate students. This effect would inhibit the develop- ment of the higher intellectual skills that lead to intellectual independence.

Educational research in the last 7 years has established the correlation between ' lack of a mature out look ' in the first year and degree failure. This accounted for half the sample in Entwistle's research at Aberdeen (1977).

Sexton (1965) has also linked failure and immaturi ty in attitude, outlook and operation. Immatur i ty manifested itself either in over-demanding dependence or rebellion and resistance to study.

In order to have the capacity to change, and to learn the operational skills and develop higher intellectual skills and academic maturity, it is necessary first to have self-confidence and personal maturity. The overseas student may be much more mature personally in these terms but the cultural change removes him from the environment which reaffirms his personal maturi ty and sense of identity. On starting his postgraduate course he may initially be facing the same lack of self- confidence as an undergraduate student who could be nine years his junior.

Phillips (1983) showed in her thesis the causal links between self-confidence and determination and the ability to write the thesis. She stated that whereas the super- visors recognised those characteristics as important f rom the commencement of the course, it was three years before the postgraduate student began to understand that qualities such as self-confidence and persistence were as important for them as the ability to take notes.

The first educational researchers to look at the student learning network, or the learning environment, were Ramsden and Entwistle (1981) who in the analysis of their five year study of 2,208 undergraduate students in sixty six departments in United Kingdom Universities established the causal links between the students perceptions of their learning environment and their approaches to learning.

Ramsden (1983) reports that 'depar tments perceived to have "good teaching" and " f r eedom in learning" and " a n avoidance of overloading" were more likely to have, but did not necessarily have, students scoring highly on the "meaning or ientat ion" .'

'Meaning orientat ion' as defined by Ramsden has a commonal i ty with 'deep understanding' and 'higher intellectual skills.'

The results of Welsh and Rudd, like many other researchers, seem to focus on a 'want ' rather than a 'needs ' analysis. It focusses on the student and on his perception of the 'quality of supervision' rather than on the objective assessment of the relationship between supervisor and student.

286

Neither Welsh, Rudd nor Phillips have shown evidence of a comprehensive analysis of the skills required for the postgraduate courses under investigation, and there was no correlation of the initial problems of adjustment to postgraduate studying with a deficiency in the required research skills.

Postgraduate students are admitted to their courses on p roof of their intellec- tual attainments in first degree courses, and reports of their referees, and are not required to produce a skills assessment profile based on their previous learning experience.

Chang (1979) reported to an European Conference of Educational Researchers on a method that he had devised to teach the cognitive skills of 'critically analysing historical articles' to history students in the University of Leyden.

The special interest in this research project is that it was concerned with specifically teaching higher intellectual skills, rather than facilitating their development by the creation of a suitable learning environment and supervisory relationship.

The report of this skills project demonstrated clearly that the background knowledge acquired f rom the students previous learning experiences, is the sieve through which all new learning has to pass. Therefore, it is important to study what students have learnt and the skills they have used in previous learning situa- tions, and to acknowledge that these will affect the outcome of skills training on their present courses.

Whilst educational researchers such as Gibbs (1977), in writing about learning to learn workshops, talks about starting f rom where the student is AT, neither, he nor Phillips (1983) in her thesis on the PhD as a learning process, appear to have produced a skills assessment profile of the student at the commencement of his course, based on systematic research.

Ramsden and Entwistle (1981) find 'a rather weak relationship between 'A ' level grades and University grades . . . the raw correlation between admission grades and academic progress show remarkable similarity to those found between ' A ' level grades and degree results in several previous studies. '

This seems to be cause for concern and provided another reason for the present

research. Previous research on overseas students, whilst not confined to postgraduate

students in Higher Education in the United Kingdom, does highlight the dif- ferences that stem from cultural factors and a very different concept of learning.

Edwards (1978) drew attention to the difficulties this may cause in terms of non- participation in group discussion and problems arising out of self-teaching.

Singh (1983) drew attention to excessive deference to staff. It would seem that many overseas students have been taught to venerate their teachers, to speak only when spoken to or not answering for fear of losing face.

Edwards cited previous exposure to didactic teaching methodology. Singh mentions previous training by rote methods as a factor influencing the

287

students' preference for being told what to do, rather than organising their own studies. But while the cultural and language difficulties exacerbate the problems faced by overseas postgraduate students, it is arguable that many United Kingdom undergraduates progress into postgraduate courses without having acquired in- tellectual skills such as originality, creativity, and 'criticism of sources' , that are essential for postgraduate work, may not be encouraged by the teachers of undergraduates. It is, therefore, highly likely that some United Kingdom students who have performed well as undergraduates may have as profound a shock as the mature students at the commencement of their postgraduate courses.

Snyder (1967) noted that 'a t undergraduate level very bright students are always asking questions. These students are regarded by the s taff as a nuisance. '

Phillips (1983) who had no overseas students in her sample has shown how dif- ficult it is for United Kingdom postgraduate students to acquire the research skills necessary for their postgraduate courses.

The setting up in United Kingdom Universities of the one year taught courses for PhD students, made it a matter of vital importance and urgency that a more empirical investigation into the acquisition of research skills should be carried out.

Aims of the research

In the first year of research it was decided to explore how the students acquired the study skills for one fundamental part o f the course, namely, the dissertation.

Definition of a dissertation

The term 'dissertation' generally applies to a lengthy report written as an examina- tion requirement in a taught postgraduate course. Its nature obviously varies f rom one course to another. In this study, it refers to the report, in about 15,000 words, of a piece of detailed analysis carried out by the students with the guidance of a Supervisor. It may be an empirical study involving the design and conduct of a small scale survey. It may also be (more commonly) based on a literature review of an aspect of the course work, with application to the situation in the student 's own country and field of work.

Sample

A pilot study was made of the 95 postgraduate students in the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development at the University of Reading. 91.5% were overseas students who had previously studied in 42 different countries and 95.5°7o were post experience.

288

Table 1. Breakdown of sample by course.

Course Number of students

M.A. 17 M.Sc. 55 Diploma in Agricultural Extension 15 Diploma in Rural Development 8

Total 95

Method

A combination of in-depth interviews and questionnaires were used to monitor changes over time, and to identify and isolate specific areas of importance to the postgraduate students.

In 1977 the Department carried out a survey of the Teaching and Learning Methods and Materials in selected University courses in the United Kingdom, for overseas students (Parish, 1977). The discussion raised issues that needed to be researched further and the Depar tment saw that this present research was directed towards these issues.

There were discussions to establish the academic staffs ' and students' percep- tion of the study skills necessary for the dissertation. The skills were then divided between higher intellectual skills and operational skills.

It was found that:

a) The student emphasis was on the operational skills whereas the staff put more emphasis on the higher intellectual skills.

b) The students more frequently referred to skills needed in relation to qualities and characteristics such as motivation, self-confidence, anxiety and relation- ships with other students.

Interview bias

It was decided not only to acknowledge but to investigate interview bias, In action research, where one is needing to collect pr imary information in a

systematic manner, the in-depth interview is an important method of data collec- tion. However, one has to exercise extreme caution when interpreting interview data as has been exposed by various researchers, such as Matarozzo (1965), Kahn and Cannell (1957).

A short questionnaire was sent to the 80 students immediately after the follow

289

up interviews and replies were received f rom a total of 41 students (51°70). By questioning the subjects immediately after the interview on their perception

of the interview, one is openly acknowledging the participants role as observers as well as subjects.

A definit ion o f dependency

Dependency as it is defined in the analysis and the discussion was based on the students ' exclusive relationship with his supervisor and his need for direct advice, guidance and feedback.

The ' A ' grade students show that dependency is not necessarily a bad thing as it can, in some cases have a positive application. While at first wanting direct ad- vice, information and guidance, they subsequently develop a close, but not ex- clusive, relationship with their supervisor. As they developed their higher in- telligence skills they used the supervisory relationship for personal academic sup- port, criticism and feedback. I feel that, in these cases the relationship provided the opportuni ty for intense academic discussion which furthered their studies, as well as the personal security which increased their self confidence.

Descriptive analysis

The analysis was designed to answer the following questions:

1) In what ways were the students ' present multi learning source environments different f rom their previous unitary learning environments?

2) What use if any were students able to make of the multi learning experiences provided on this course?

3) What development occurs in the individual student as he progresses through the course on the dissertation?

4) Is postgraduate orientation to studying associated with any particular course perception?

5) What factors affect the actual writing of the dissertation?

Discussion

Interaction on a 1.'1 Basis

Changing f rom a unitary to a multiple learning source appears to be resisted by a quarter of the students, right through the year. Despite any suggestion f rom their superiors, tutors and lecturers, they continued in an exclusive supervisory rela-

290

tionship. They did not, however, choose to consult widely with other members of staff. This includes the university s taff both inside and outside the department and staff in other universities and research institutes. They did, however, work effec- tively in private study.

It may be that the student is satisfied that he can write an acceptable dissertation using these resources, together with any material he may have brought from home. I f he sees the acquisition of a M.Sc. as vital to career promot ion he is more likely to behave in a way that will, he thinks achieve that goal. Further research will investigate the effects that language problems, lack of self-confidence and self-esteem have on the students' interaction outside the security of the department.

The students' experience of a Tutor, in previous learning situations was for 43 %o an academic Tutor running large seminar groups. Only 12.5% met him regularly on a face to face basis, so the majori ty had no experience of a typical British University tutorial relationship.

It did appear, f rom the evidence, that more than half of the students wanted direction and advice all through their work on the dissertation. It would appear that despite the regular, or perhaps because of the regular, supervisory contact and the satisfactory supervisory relationship, more than half of the students do not learn to interpret and evaluate their own work, or develop a self-analytic ap- proach. They appear to rely on constant feedback from their supervisors until completion of the dissertation. They do not develop the ability to compare what has happened in their work with what they expected would happen. It can be argued, however, that to take students with such disparate learning experiences, where a student (although personally mature and independent as a person in his own country) is likely to have been studying in a learning environment that en- courages and rewards academic dependence, and expect academic independence within nine months is unrealistic. However, several of the United Kingdom students lacked self-confidence and showed no evidence of using higher intellec- tual skills in their previous undergraduate courses.

These students, unlike students in other research studies, Welsh (1979) and Phillips (1983) recognised, at the start of the course, the importance of personal 'skills' such as self-confidence, self-esteem and lack of anxiety. The initial cultural shock, coupled with the change f rom a unitary to multiple learning sources can initially change a personally mature and intellectually able person to an anxious, insecure, student lacking in self-esteem and self-confidence.

It may be interesting to note that the only commonal i ty between the students repatriated by the British Council in 1980 because psychological factors prevented completion of their academic studies, was that they were mature Moslem males who had suffered 'culture shock. '

Other research has shown that self-confidence, self-esteem and determination, are pre-requisites for completion of a successful thesis; as they are for a good

291

dissertation. It is only when students acquire confidence in their own ability that they are able to relax sufficiently to give it form by writing. It would seem that initially there is a fundamental 'counselling' component in the supervisory rela- tionship, helping the students to develop or regain his sense of identity, so that with good self-esteem and self-confidence he can develop his higher intellectual skills.

Interaction with material

The research showed that the initial fear of writing relates to the students' previous lack of experience in writing academic English, in an integrated course. Although approximately half the students had written either a long or a short essay and near- ly half had written some form of dissertation, this previous writing has usually been on a numerical or factual basis, often written in their own language. Their wide professional experience had reinforced this limited experience.

Language problems, which were perceived by 64°7o of the students as affecting their understanding of lectures and note taking and 56°70 of the students as affec- ting their comprehension of the texts; contributed to this fear of writing.

It has already been pointed out that a quarter of the students are still needing their supervisor to correct their language after nine months in this department despite the fact that 29.5°70 of the students had taken a pre-sessional language course.

The pre-sessional language courses and remedial classes are not able to fully use course related material, because of the students' backgrounds in different academic disciplines. Students only learn to write by writing departmental essays and getting feedback, when the writing becomes a learning process.

One of the major problems caused by the present system of admitting students whose English is not adequate - they often have no time to concentrate on im- proving it once they are here and have to try and improve 'on the job . '

The elevation of indigenous language in many countries to the status of medium of instruction in schools and other educational institutions and their use in govern- ment business in the developing world will probably result in a lowering of the standard of English among future students and an aggravation of the situation.

Much of what is commonly presented to the University Counsellor as exam phobia or, at least, extreme examination anxiety is due to the inability to write an essay type answer with a time constraint.

As Ramsden and Entwistle's (1981) research results showed, the students were more likely to develop a meaning orientation when the workload was not ex- cessive. There is a fine balance between increasing the writing on the course and creating an excessive workload, thereby inhibiting the development of higher in- tellectual skills.

292

Students who started writing their dissertation earlier than average did not pro- duce an academically superior dissertation. In fact, 17% of the students who had been 'doing nothing' or ' thinking' during the Christmas vacation, had results that were academically above average.

The greatest change in study skills seems to come in the acquisition of opera- tional skills such as 'note taking. ' Despite the language problems already referred to, the 15% students who started the course with effective note taking skills had increased after nine months to 69%. A large proport ion of the students had at- tended the counselling 'learning to learn' workshops in the Autumn Term. The new operational skills were then reinforced by their observation of the way that academic staff operated in their teaching. The exposure to a new operational skill alone would probably not have fundamentally changed the students' study habits; it was seeing the new operational skill constantly used by academic staff, that gave it value.

When students interact with books and articles there appears to be far less change. In their previous learning experience, 68% of the students had studied the text in order to memorise it for examinations and they were usually directed towards a small number of set books. Paraphrasing, acquiring a personal index system, using extensive library systems, and taking notes f rom the text may all be new operational skills which can be learnt despite language problems. But rapid reading, i.e. ' sk imming ' , cannot be practised by a student sitting with the text in one hand and a dictionary in the other. Another source of inhibition in thinking was a reverence for the written word which is part of the culture of many of the overseas students in this sample. It is thus not so surprising that only 36% of the students showed evidence of using higher intellectual study skills in what is a very private activity with no opportunity to model on other students or staff.

Interaction in groups

Evidence f rom both seminars and informal peer study groups showed that these groups became an effective learning method for a large number of students. Despite the fact that previously only a quarter of the students had experienced small group discussion and that, initially, dissonance caused confusion and frustration, 63%o of the students, by the end of the academic year, were very satisfied and 12.5% were partly satisfied with the small group teaching in the department.

47% of the students found that language problems affected the formation of informal study groups which have proved to be an effective source of learning and support. 19.5% of the students whose language problems affected their note tak- ing were helped by these informal study groups.

293

Further research

The analysed results of the pilot study showed that the varied skills assistance, and even the learning to learn workshops, have only a limited effectiveness without the academic s taff ' s acknowledgement of the place of skills within the curriculum.

The Author has now started a three year research project with the aim of developing and establishing a routine methodology so that any department in any University can obtain a research skills assessment of each student at the com- mencement of his postgraduate studies. This will be in addition to the knowledge that departments already have of a new student 's intellectual standard, which is supplemented by reports f rom referees. This will produce a profile of the students proven research skills which will be set against the s taff and students ' perception of the skills that the individual student needs to acquire for their postgraduate research. The analysed results should show the students individual and collective strengths and weaknesses in research methods at the commencement of the course. It is then possible to see whether curriculum reflects the skills as well as the content of a course. This should also make it possible for the overseas students learning difficulties to be identified early and remedied so that their experience of learning in a culture other than their own can be personally rewarding and academically successful.

Appendix

A n institutional response to the results o f the research

Circulation of the results of the pilot study has raised the awareness of these issues amongst academic colleagues and this has resulted in an invitation to carry out a three year research project in the Department of Economics, Psychology, Agricultural Extension and Rural Development and the Tropical Crop Produc- tion course. This research project aims to develop and establish a routine methodology so that any department in any University can obtain a research skills assessment of each student at the commencement of his postgraduate studies.

The author was invited by the U.J .C. at the suggestion of the Working Par ty on the learning difficulties of overseas students to provide a document to help overseas students understand the characteristics of teaching and learning in the United Kingdom and this will be distributed to overseas students before they com- mence their academic course.

The author has continued to develop methods for detecting and dealing with overseas students learning difficulties.

In particular, in the course of a joint investigation with the Head of Department and Course Director in the Department of Food Technology, she was able to iden- tify five facets of the problem.

294

a) Inability to write academic English with a time constraint. b) Personal problems affecting revision. c) A different concept of learning based on previous study. d) Inadequate note taking in the first term due to:

i) poor comprehension of lectures in English ii) reliance on previous studies, on hand-outs and blackboard

lecturers. notes by

The joint investigation by the Head of Department, Course Director, Counsellor and student - (12 students were interviewed in less than five hours) showed the complex interaction between language problems, inadequate study skills and cultural /emotional problems that a simple language test would not have revealed.

Students have benefited f rom ten 1.5 hour sessions of remedial teaching in the Department using Food Technology text with close collaboration between the Course Director and remedial English teacher, arranged by the Counsellor and funded by the Head of Department.

This invitation was reported by the department to the Faculty Board and has resulted in the Faculty of Agriculture and the School of Education setting up a pilot scheme with the Author to develop a programme of identification and remedial help to all their overseas students commencing, October, 1984. As a result of discussions that the Author has had with the British Council, they have agreed that they will financially assist the funding of course based remedial English classes to be run within departments for Technical Co-operat ion students and they will urgently seek agency approval where they administer funding. It is hoped that in subsequent years this project can be widened to include all courses attended by overseas students in both Reading and other institutions of higher education.

The Author will continue to be closely involved with academic staff who are concerned to develop improved support services for overseas students and, in par- ticular, with the working party on the overseas students ' learning difficulties.

REFERENCES

Beatty, L. (1978). The Student Study Contract_ Lancaster 4th International Conference in Higher Education, also "Higher Education Bulletin' No. 8 (1979) as quoted in Gibbs, Morgan and Taylor, p. ll_

Chang, T.M. (1979). A Method o f A nalysing Cognitive Skills. Paper presented to the European Con- ference of Educational Research.

Edwards, P.J. (1979). The Problems o f Communication Facing Overseas Nurses in Training in England and Wales. Unpublished Thesis. University of London.

Entwistle, N.J. and Wilson, J.D. (1977). Degrees o f Excellence. Hodder an_d Stoughton, Sevenoaks, Kent. pp. 49, 52, 75 and l 11.

295

Fransson, A. (1977). On Qualitative differences in learning IV. Effect of intrinsic motivation and ex- trinsic test anxiety on process and outcome. British JournalEducationalPsychology, 47,244-257.

Gibbs, G. (1977). Can Students be Taught how to Study? Higher Education Bulletin, 5 (2): 107-8. Gibbs, G. and Nortledge, A. (1977). Learning to Study - A Student Centred Approach in Teaching

at a distance 8: 3-9. Gibbs, G. (1978). Intervention in Student Learning - A Practical Strategy. 4th International Con-

ference in Higher Education, Lancaster, England. Hudson, L. (1972). The Cult o f the Fact. Jonathon Cape, London, p. 98. Hudson, L. (1979). Contrary Imagination. Penguin, London, p. 125. James, D. (1979). 'Counselling the Mature Student' in Hills, P.J. (Ed.). Study Courses and Counsell-

ing S.R.H.E. Guildford, Surrey. pp. 106-7. Kahn, R.L. and Cannell, C.F. (1957). The Dynamics o f Interviewing Theory, Technique and Cases.

Wiley, New York. Kelly, G. (1955). A Theory o f Personality." The Psychology o f Personal Constructs. Narten, New

York. Kintz, B.L., Delptrato, D.J., Mettee, D.R., Persons, C.E. and Scappe, R.H. (1965). The Ex-

perimenter Effect. Psychological Bulletin, 63, (4): 223-232. Laurillard, D. (1979). Research methods in Student Learning. Institute of Educational Technology.

University of Surrey, Paper for Conference at the European Association for Research and Develop- ment in Higher Education in Klagenfurt, pp. 11-12.

Laurillard, D. (1981). Trends in Educational Research. Paper presented at Conference on Research in Design Education. Open University, Milton Keynes.

Marton, F. and Saljo, R. (1976). On Quantative Differences in Learning: 1. Outcome and Process. British Journal o f Educational Psychology, 46: 4-11.

Masters, W.H. and Johnson, V.E. (1970). Human Sexual Inadequacy. Churchill, London. Matarazzo, J.D. (1965). 'The Interview.' Chapter in B.B. Wolman (Ed.). Hard Look at Clinical

Psychology. New York, McGraw-Hill. Parish, C.M. (1977). Teaching and Learning Methods and Materials in Selected University Course for

Overseas Students. Pask, G. (1976), Styles and Strategies of Learning. British Journal o f Educational Psychology, 46:

128-148. Phillips, E. (1983). The PhD. as a Learning Process. Unpublished Thesis. University of London. Piaget, J. (1971). Structuralism Translated and edited by Chaninah Maschler. Routledge and Kegan

Paul, London. Pierce, A.H. (1908). The Subconscious Again. JournalPhil. PsychologicalScient. Meth. 5: 264-271. Ramsden, P. and Entwistle, N.J. (1981). Effects of Academic Departments on Students' Approaches

to Studying. British Journal o f Educational Psychology 51 :. 368-383. Rosenthal, R. (1983). On the psychology of the psychological experiment. The experimenters

hypothesis as unintended determinant at experimental results. American Scientist, 51: 268-283. Rudd, E. (1975). The Highest Education. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London. Sexton, V.S. (1965). Factors Contributing to Attrition in College Populations; Twenty-five years of

Research. Journal o f General Psychology 72: 301-326. Shotter, J. (1981)_ 'Quality of Structure' and 'intentionality' in an ecological Psychology towards a

Science of Individuality. Journal f o r Theory o f Social Behaviour. Shotter, J. and Newson, J. (1982). An Ecological Approach to Cognitive Development Implicate

Orders, Joint Action and lntentionality in Social Cognition. Edited by George Butterworth and Paul Light. Harvestar Press.

Singh, A.K. (1983). Indian Students in Britain. Asia Publishing House, New York. Snyder, B.R. (1967). 'Creative' students in Science and Engineering. University Quarterly, March, pp.

205-218. Snyder, B.R. (1971). The Hidden Curriculum M.I.T. Press.

296

Svensson, L. (1977). Symposium: Learning processes and Strategies - III on Qualitative Differences in Learning: III Study Skill and Learning. British Journal o f EducationaI Psychology. 47: 238-243_

Welsh, J.M. 0978). The Supervision of Postgraduate Research Students. Research Education, 19: 77-86_

Wright, J.E. (1982). Learning to Learn in Higher Education series. New Patterns o f Learning (Ed.) Hills, P.J. Croom Helm, London.