Computers and the Humanities 29: 375-387,1995. 375 © 1995 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Learning: A Bibliography

A l a n B a i l i n * Effective Writing, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, N6A 3K7, Canada e-mail: abailin@uwo.ca

Key words: intelligent computer-assisted language learning, intelligent computer-assisted language instruction, ICALI, ICALL, computer-assisted language learning, computer-assisted language instruction, CALL, CALI, language learning, second language learning, foreign language learning, writing instruction, computer-aided writing, artificial intelligence, intelligent tutoring systems, ITS

Abstract

This bibliography focuses on works discussing intelligent computer-assisted language learning (ICALL). It includes over 200 entries divided into three sections: (1) collections, special issues and bibliographies, (2) general/theoretical works, (3) specific applications.

1. Introduction

A new discipline has no history, no literature, nothing of its own to refer back to. In order to discuss the significance of its research, it must, at its incep- tion, borrow from other domains. As the discipline develops, however, the discourse becomes increas- ingly self-referential. The shift is not only perfectly natural, but also desirable. How else to know whether research makes a new contribution to a field except to compare it to other research? How else to judge the particular nature of the contribution?

In the early 1980s, there were few articles discus- sing intelligent computer-assisted language learning (ICALL). Research in the area by necessity referred primarily to works in neighboring fields: natural lan- guage processing, educational technology, and CALL without the "I" - that is, computer-assisted language learning which does not attempt to use so-called "artificial intelligence" techniques. The last fifteen years, however, have seen a steady growth in research projects and theories. ICALL research today must

* Alan Bailin (Ph.D., McGill) is Associate Editor of Computers and the Humanities. He has participated in the field of Intelli- gent Computer-Assisted Language Learning as a writer, editor, and researcher. He has also published in the areas of linguistics and semiotics.

reference ICALL literature, and increasingly these references are becoming the primary context.

Nevertheless, finding the relevant research is often difficult. True, Computers and the Humanities, The CALICO Journal, and System have printed m~ny ICALL articles, but the articles are scattered and find- ing relevant studies can be a time-consuming, hit-and- miss affair.

Bibliographies can therefore be of substantial importance. Still, prior to the present compilation, there have been only two other attempts. The first was published in the back of the 1989 CHum special issue devoted to ICALL. More recently Clive Matthews has compiled a bibliography for the Centre for Modem Languages in England. An examination of these com- pilations demonstrates the progression of the field.

The CHum bibliography simply gathered together the reference lists of the various articles in the special issue. Even a cursory perusal of the entries makes clear that most are not, in fact, ICALL articles at all, but rather relevant works from related fields. The focus of the Matthews bibliography is considerably sharper. The present compilation attempts to sharpen the focus further, while at the same time extending the scope substantially by including both works overlooked in the Matthews bibliography and a considerable number of new entries. Indeed, the very size of the present

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bibliography clearly indicates that ICALL has come of age, that the body of work is now substantial enough to stand by itself.

The maturity of the field can also be seen within the bibliography, particularly in the developing dis- tinction between the specific and the general, that is between discussions which focus primarily on one or more specific research and development projects and those which are concerned with more general theoret- ical issues. The division itself is significant because it indicates that the individual initiatives which consti- tute the vast majority of ICALL literature are slowly but surely giving rise to more general theoretical perspectives.

Nevertheless, the reader should beware of putting too much trust in the classifications. Bibiliographical categorization is hardly an exact science, and in a bibli- ography of this size it is well nigh impossible to peruse every work thoroughly. Moreover, even if such an intimate knowledge were possible, there is still a sub- jective element. The intent here is only to make it easier for researchers who need to distinguish between works which are more general and/or theoretical and those which are more bound to specific applications. It is hoped that this bibliography will further both kinds of endeavors.

Acknowledgements

This work could not have been completed without the help of two intelligent and capable research assistants: Dianne Jamieson and Corinne Marshall. I would like to thank them here for their invaluable assistance.

2. Collections, Special Issues and Bibliographies

"A Bibliography of Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Instruction." 1989. Computers and the Humanities 23, 1: 85-90.

Bailin, A (ed). 1991. "ICALI Research." A Special Issue. CALICO Journal 9, 1.

Bailin, A. and L. Levin (eds). 1989. "Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Instruction." A Special Issue. Computers and the Humanities 23, 1: 1-90.

Holland, V. M., J.Kaplan and M. Sams (eds). 1995. Intelligent Language Tutors: Theory Shaping Tech- nology. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Matthews, C. Intelligent CALL (ICALL) Bibliog- raphy. 1992. Hull, England: University of Hull, CTI Centre for Modern Languages.

Swartz, M. L. and M. Yazdani (eds). 1992. Intelli- gent Tutoring Systems for Foreign Language Learning: The Bridge to International Communication. NATO ASI Series F: Computer and System Sciences 80. New York: Springer Verlag.

Thompson, J. and C. Zahner (eds). 1992. Proceed- ings of the ICALL Workshop, UMIST, September 1991. Hull, England: University of Hull, CTI Centre for Modern Languages.

3. General/Theoretical Works

Atwell, E. 1986. "Beyond the Micro: Advanced Software for Research and Teaching from Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence." In: G. Leech and C. Candlin (eds). Computers in English Language Teaching and Research. London: Longman. Pp. 168- 83.

Bailin, A. 1988. "Artificial Intelligence and Computer-Assisted Language Instruction: A Perspec- tive." CALICO Journal 5, 3: 25-45.

Bailin, A. 1990. "CALI, Artificial Intelligence, and the Representation of Social Roles." In: M. L. Craven, R. Sinyor and D. Paramskas (eds). CALL: Papers and Reports. La Jolla: Athelstan. Pp. 173-79.

Bailin, A. 1991. "ICALI Research: Investigations in Teaching and Learning." CALICO Journal 9, 1: 5- 8.

Bailin, A. 1995. "AI and Language Learning: Theory and Evaluations." In: V. M. Holland, J. Kaplan and M. Sams (eds). Pp. 327-44.

Bailin, A. and L. Levin. 1989. "Introduction: Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Instruction." Computers and the Humanities 23, 1: 3-11.

Barrutia, R. 1985. "Communicative CALL with Artificial Intelligence: Some Desiderata." CALICO Journal 3, 1: 37-42.

Bolt, P. 1993. "Grammar Checking Programs for Learners of English as a Foreign Language." In: M. Yazdani (ed). Multilingual Multimedia: Bridging the Language Barrier with Intelligent Systems. Oxford, England: Intellect. Pp. 140-97.

Bowerman, C. 1990. "ICALL: An Underview of the State of the Art." Computer Assisted Language Learning 3: 45-54.

Brierley, W. 1991. "Natural Language Processing." In: W. Brierly and I. R. Kemble (eds). Computers as a Tool in Language Teaching. New York: Ellis Horwood. Pp. 71-85.

Carbonell, J. and P. J. Hayes 1983. "Recovery Strategies for Parsing Extragrammatical Language." American Journal of Computational Linguistics. 9, 3- 4: 123-46.

Chanier, T., M. Pengelly, M. Twidale and J. Self. 1992. "Conceptual Modelling in Error Analysis in Computer-Assisted Language Learning Systems." In: M. L. Swartz and M. Yazdani (eds). Pp. 125-50.

Chapelle, C. 1989. "Using Intelligent Computer- assisted language learning." Computers and the Humanities 23, 1: 59-70.

Coleman, D. 1988. "Conversational Simulation in Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Potential and Reality." Simulation/Games for Learning 18, 1: 77- 87.

Cook, V. J. 1988. "Designing CALL Programs for Communicative Teaching." ELT Journal 42, 4: 262- 71.

Cook, V. J. and D. Fass. 1986. "Natural Language Processing by Computer and Language Teaching." System 14, 2: 163-70.

Coughlin, J. 1989. "Artificial Intelligence and Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Present Developments and Future Prospects." The French Review 63, 3: 560-65.

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Coughlin, J. 1990. "Perspectives on Natural Language Processing." The French Review 64, 1: 172- 79.

Covington, M. A. and K. B. Weinrich. 1991. "Unification-based Diagnosis of Language Learners' Syntax Errors." Literary and Linguistic Computing 6, 3: 149-54.

Farghaly, A. 1989. "A Model for Intelligent Computer Assisted Language Instruction (MICALI)." Computers and the Humanities 23, 3: 235-50.

Farrington, B. 1989. "AI: 'Grandeur' or 'Servi- tude'?" In: K. Cameron (ed). Computer Assisted Language Learning: Program Structure and Princi- ples. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Pp. 67-80.

Garrett, N. 1987. "A Psycholinguistic Perspec- tive on Grammar and CALL." In: W. Flint Smith (ed). Modern Media in Foreign Language Education: Theory and Implementation. Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Textbook Company. Pp. 169-96.

Garrett, N. 1995. "ICALL and Second Language Acquisition." In: V. M. Holland, J. Kaplan and M. Sams (eds). Pp. 345-58.

Ginsburg, R. B. 1989. "Implications for Intelligent Tutoring Systems for Research and Practice in For- eign Language Learning." NFIC Occasional Papers. Washington: John Hopkins University.

Goodfellow, R. 1992. "Lexical CALL: An Approach to Vocabulary Processing and Retrieval." In: J. Thompson and C. Zahner (eds). Pp. 28-41.

Hamburger, H. 1990. "Evaluation of L2 systems: Learners and Theory." Computer Assisted Language Learning 1: 19-27.

Handke, J. 1989. Computer Assisted Language Learning und Kunstliche Intelligenz." Die Neuren Sprachen 88: 21-32.

Hart, R.S. 1987. "Current Trends in Computer Based Language Instruction." Ideal 2: 63-74.

Higgins, J. 1982. "How Real is a Computer Simu- lation?" ELTDocuments 113: 102-109.

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Holland, V. M. 1995. "Introduction: The Case for Intelligent CALL." In: V. M. Holland, J. Kaplan and M. Sams (eds). Pp. vii-xvi.

Matthews, C. 1991. "Review of Artificial Intelli- gence Techniques in Language Learning by Rex Last." Computer Assisted Language Learning 4:117-20.

Jamieson, J. and C. Chapelle. 1984. "Prospects in Computer Assisted Language Learning." CATESOL Occassional Papers 10: 1-22.

Matthews, C. 1992. "Fundamental Questions in ICALL." In: J. Thompson and C. Z~ner (eds). Pp. 77-89.

Kossuth, K. C. 1985. "Using the Adventure For- mats for CALI." CALICO Journal 3, 2: 13-17.

Matthews, C. 1993. "Grammar Frameworks in Intelligent CALL." CALICO Journal 11, 1: 5-27.

Kwasny, S. C. 1982. "Relaxation Theories for Parsing Ill-formed Input." American Journal of Com- putationalLinguistics 7, 2: 99-108.

Last, R. 1986. "The Potential of Artificial- Intelligence-Related CALL at the Sentence Level." Literary and Linguistic Computing 1, 4:197-201.

Last, R. 1987. "Artificial Intelligence- The Way Forward for CALL?" In: G. Chesters and N. Gardner (eds). The Use of Computers in the Teaching of Language and Languages. Bath, England: Teaching Initiative Support Service. Pp. 61-66.

Last, R. W. 1989. Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Language Learning. New York: Halsted Press (John Wiley & Sons).

Leech, G. 1986. "Automatic Grammatical Analysis and Its Educational Applications." In: G. Leech and C. Candlin (eds). Computers in English Language Teach- ing and Research. London: Longman. Pp. 205-14.

Matthews, C. and J. Fox. 1991. "Foundations of ICALL: An Overview of Student Modelling." In: H. Savolainen (ed.) EUROCALL 1991. Helsinki: The Helsinki School of Economics and Business Adminis- tration. Pp. 163-70.

Menzel, W. 1990. "Anticipation-free Diagnosis of Structural Faults." Proceedings of COLING 90. 13th International Conference on Computational Linguis- tics. Helinski: University. Pp. 422-24.

Menzel, W. 1992. "Constraint-based Diagnosis of Grammatical Faults." In: J. Thompson and C. Zahner (eds). Pp. 89-101.

Mulford, G. 1989. "Semantic Processing for Com- municative Exercises in Foreign-Language Learning." Computers and the Humanities 23, 1: 31-44.

Neuwirth, C. 1989. "Intelligent Tutoring Systems: Exploring Issues in/.,earning and Teaching Writing." Computers and the Humanities 23, 1: 45-57.

Lian, A. 1991. "Intelligence in Computer-aided Language Learning." In: M. Pennington and V. Stevens (eds). Computers in Applied Linguistics. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Pp. 66-76.

Ney, J. W. and B. A. Pearson. 1990. "Connec- tionism as a Model of Language Learning: Parallels in Foreign Language Teaching." Modern Language Journal 74, 4: 474-82.

MacWhinney, B. 1992. "The Competition Model and Foreign Language Acquisition." In: M. L. Swartz and M. Yazdani (eds). Pp. 39-50.

MacWhirmey, B. 1995. "Evaluating Foreign Lan- guage Tutoring System." In: V. M. Holland, J. Kaplan and M. Sams (eds). Pp. 317-26.

Manning, P. 1992. "Teaching Strategies in ICALL." In: J. Thompson and C. Zahner (eds). Pp. 60-76.

Nyns, R. 1988. "Is Intelligent CALL Possible?" MUESLI News (April): 10-11.

Nyns, R. 1989. "Is Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Learning Possible?" System 17, 1: 35- 47.

Oxford, R. L. 1995. "Linking Theories of Learning with Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Learn- ing (ICALL)." In: V. M. Holland, J. Kaplan and M. Sams (eds). Pp. 359-70.

Page, E. B. 1966. "The Imminence of Grading Essays by Computer." The Phi Delta Kappan 47: 238- 43.

Paramskas, D. 1986. "Artificial Intelligence in Computer Assisted Language Instruction." Canadian Modern Language Review 42, 3: 619-28.

Paramskas, D. 1986. "The Role and Place of CAI in the Teaching of Second Languages." Bulletin of the CAAL 8, 1: 33-38.

Phillips, M. 1985. "Intelligent CALL and the QWERTY Phenomenon: A Rationale." System 13: 1- 8.

Philips, M. 1987. "Potential Paradigms and Possi- ble Problems For CALL." System 15, 3: 275-87.

Ruschoff, B. 1986. "The 'Intelligence' of Intel- ligently Programmed Adaptive CALL: Materials for Self-Study." System 14, 2: 205-10.

Ruschoff, B. 1988. Self-Directed Learning and New Technologies: Computers as Language Learning Tools. Materials for Language Learning and Teaching. Anthology Series 22.

Sampson, G. 1986. "Transition Networks for Computer-Assisted Language Learning." In: G. Leech and C. Candlin (eds). Computers in English Language Teaching and Research. London: Longman. Pp. 150- 66.

Sanders, A. and R. Sanders. 1989. "Syntactic Parsing: A Survey." Computers and the Humanities 23, 1: 13-30.

Schreck, R. 1986. "Artificial Intelligence (AI) CALL: A New Solution or An Old Problem?" TESOL Newsletter (supplement no.3) 20, 1: 22-23.

Schroder, N. 1991. Verarbeitung natuerlicher Spracher in ComputerIinguistik kuenstlicher InteUi- genz und CALL. CCL-UMIST Report 91/7.

Schroder, N. 1991. ICALL: Probleme und Perspek- tiven. CCL-UMIST Report 91/8.

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Schuster, E. 1985. "Grammars as User Models." Proceedings of lJCAI-85. Pp. 20-22.

Schuster, E. 1986. "The Role of Native Grammars in Correcting Errors in Second Language Learning." Computationallntelligence 2: 93-99.

Schwind, C. 1990. "Review of Artificial Intelli- gence Techniques in Language Learning by Rex Last." Computational Linguistics 16, 4: 242-44.

Swartz, M. L. 1992. "Introduction" In: M. L. Swartz and M. Yazdani (eds). Pp. 1-6.

Swartz, M. L. 1992. "Issues for Tutoring Knowledge in Foreign Language Intelligent Tutoring Systems." In: M. L. Swartz and M. Yazdani (eds). Pp. 219-33.

Underwood, J. 1987. "Artificial intelligence and CALL." In: W. F. Smith (ed). Modern Media in Foreign Language Education. Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Textbook Company. Pp. 197-226.

Underwood, J. 1989. "On the Edge: Intelligent CALL in the 1990s." Computers and the Humanities 23, 1: 71-84.

Weischedel, R. M. and N. K. Sondheimer. 1983. "Meta-Rules as a Basis for Processing Ill-formed Input." American Journal of Computational Linguis- tics 9, 3-4: 167-77.

ZgJaner, C. 1990. "Electronic Dictionaries in CALL." Computer-Assisted Language Learning 2: 59-67.

Z~ner, C. 1991. "Word Grammars in ICALL." In: H. Savolainen (ed). EUROCALL 1991. Helsinki: The Helsinki School of Economics and Business Adminis- tration. Pp. 291-95.

Z~thner, C. 1992. "Foundations of ICALL." In: J. Thompson and C. Z~ihner (eds). Pp. 118-26.

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4. Specific Applications

Abeille, A. 1992. "A Lexical Tree Adjoining Grammar for French and its Relevance to Language Teaching." In: M. L. Swartz and M. Yazdani (eds). Pp. 65-87.

Azadegan, S., J. Martin, E Merlo and A. Weinberg. (Science Applications International Corpo- ration). 1989. Experimental Natural Language Representations for Intelligent Computer-Assisted Instruction. Task 3 Final Technical Report. Deliver- able #0004AC. McLean, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute.

Bailin, A. 1988. Semantic~Pragmatic Inferences and Computer-Assisted instruction. Cognitive Science Memorandum." COGMEN 31. London, ON: Univer- sity of Western Ontario.

Bailin, A. 1990. "Skills-in-Context and Student Modelling." CALICO Journal 8, 1: 7-22.

Ballin, A. and E Thomson. 1988. "The Use of Nat- ural Language Processing in Computer-Assisted Lan- guage Instruction." Computers and the Humanities 22, 2:99-110.

Barchan, J. 1986. "New Approaches to Computer Aided Language Learning." In: K. Cameron, W. Dodd and S. Rithtz (eds). Computers and Modern Language Studies. Chichester: Ellis Horwood. Pp. 93-99.

Barchan, J. 1986. Language INdependent Grammatical Error Reporter. M. Phil. thesis, Uni- versity of Exeter.

Barchan, J., B. Woodmansee and M. Yazdani. 1986. "A Prolog-based Tool for French Grammar Analysis." Instructional Science 15, 1: 21-48.

Bates, M. and K. Wilson. 1981. ILIAD: Interactive Language Instruction Assistance for the Deaf Report #4771. Cambridge, MA: Bolt, Beranek and Newman Inc.

Bloch, J. and J. Bates. 1990. "Developing Inter- active Fiction for the Language Classroom: The Con- tribution of Artificial Intelligence." In: M. L. Craven, R. Sinyor and D. Paramskas (eds). CALL: Papers and Reports. La Jolla: Athelstan. Pp. 181-86.

Borchardt, F. 1988 "Neural Network Computing and Natural Language Computing." CALICO Journal 5, 4: 63-75.

Bowerman, C. 1990. "LICE: An Intelligent Tutor- ing System to Assist Writing in German." RECALL 3 (November): 9-16.

Bowerman, C. 1992. "Writing and the Computer: An Intelligent Tutoring System Solution." In: M. Kibby and R. Hartley (eds). Computer Assisted Learn- ing. Oxford: Pergamon. Pp. 77-83.

Bowerman, C. 1992. "Tutoring in an ITS for German Writing: The Student-Tutorial Module Synergy." In: J, Thompson and C. Z~ner (eds). Pp. 1-11.

Brent, R. and R. Jarvis 1986. "An AI Approach to Natural Language Teaching." In: A/ Proceed- ings, 3rd Australian Computer Science Conference. Canberra.

Brock, M. N. 1988. "The Computer as a Writing Tutor: Is There a Place in the Process for Computer- Based Text Analysis?" ED318429. Macau: University of East Asia.

Brock, M. N. 1990. "Customizing a Computerized Text Analyzer For ESL Writers: Cost Versus Gain." CALICO Journal 8, 2:51-60.

Burns, H. 1982. "Computer Assisted Prewriting Activities: Harmonics for Invention." In: J. Lawler (ed). Computers in Composition Instruction. Los Alamitos, California: SWRL Educational Research and Development. Pp. 19-29.

Burns, H. and G. Culp. 1980. "Stimulating Invention in English Composition through Computer- assisted Instruction." Educational Technology 20: 5- 10.

Butcher, W., J. Galletly and A. Wong. 1990. "Prolog and Language Analysis: Intelligent Response to Comprehension Replies." Computer Assisted Lan- guage Learning 3: 27-36.

Butler, S. 1991. A Tutorial System to Test Parsing of English Sentences and Translation into German. Msc. Thesis, UMIST.

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Button, C. 1989. "An Intelligent Tutoring System for Helping Children Aged 7 to 15 to Acquire a Second Language." Instructional Science 18, 1: 27-43.

Byron, D. 1990. "eL: A Tool for Language Learn- ing." Computer Assisted Language Learning 2: 83- 91.

Carbonnell, N., J. E Haton and J. M. Pierrel. 1986. "Artificial Intelligence in Speech Understanding: Two Applications at C.R.I.N.." Computers and the Human- ities 20, 3: 167-72.

Cardey, S. and E Greenfield. 1992. "The 'Study- gram' Natural Language Morphology System: A First Step to an Intelligent Tutoring Platform for Natural Language Morphology." In: J. Thompson and C. Z~hner (eds). Pp. 42-59.

Catt, M. and G. Hirst. 1990. "An Intelligent CALI System for Grammatical Error Analysis." Computer Assisted Language Learning 3: 3-26.

Catt, M. 1988. Intelligent Diagnosis of Ungram- maticality in Computer-Assisted Language Instruc- tion. Technical Report CSRI-218. Toronto: Computer Systems Research Institute, University of Toronto.

Cerri, S. 1989. "ALICE: Acquisition of Linguis- tic Items in the Context of Examples." Instructional Science 18, I: 63-92.

Cerri, S. and J. Breuker. 1980. "A Rather Intelligent Language Teacher." AISB-80: CERRI1-CERRI5.

Cerri, S. and J. Breuker. 1981. "A Rather Intelligent Language Teacher." Studies in Language Learning 3: 182-92.

Cerri, S. and M. F. Merger. 1983. "Learning Trans- lation Skills with a Knowledge-based Tutor: French- Italian Conjunctions in Context." First Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Compu- tationatLinguistics. Pp. 133-38.

Cerri, S. A., E. Cheli and A. Mclntyre. 1992. "Nobile: Object-Based User Model Acquisition for Second Language Learning." In: M. L. Swartz and M. Yazdani (eds). Pp. 171-90.

Chen, L. and L. Barry. 1989. "XTRA-TE: Using Natural Language Processing Software to Develop an ITS for Language Learning." Fourth International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Education Pp. 54-70.

Chen, S. and L. Xu. 1990. "Grammar-Debugger: a Parser for Chinese EFL Learners." CALICO Journal 8, 2: 63-75.

Claydon, P., E Hietala and K. Nissifft. 1991. "Developing Knowledge Based Learning Support for a Course on Academic Writing." In: H. Savolainen (ed.) EUROCALL 1991. Helsinki: The Helsinki School of Economics and Business Administration. Pp. 151- 62.

Claydon, P., E Hietala and K. Nissil~. 1992. "A Knowledge Based Learner Companion for Aspects of Academic Writing: Problems or Potential?" In: J. Thompson and C. Zahner (eds). Pp. 12-21.

Coleman, D.W. 1985. "TERRI: A CALL Lesson Simulating Conversational Interaction." System 13, 3: 247-52.

Cook, V. 1988. "Designing a BASIC parser for CALL." CALICO Journal 6, 1: 50-67.

Criswell, E., H. Bymes and G. Pfister. 1992. "Intel- ligent Automated Strategies of Teaching Foreign Lan- guage In Context. In: M. L. Swartz and M. Yazdani (eds). Pp. 307-19.

Culley, G. 1984. "Generic or Specific: Having it Both Ways with Generative CAI." Computers and the Humanities 18, 3/4: 183-88.

Culley, G., G. Mulford and J. Milbury-Steen. 1986. "A Foreign Language Adventure Game: Progress Report on an Application of AI to Language Instruc- tion." CALICO Journal 4, 2: 69-87.

Cunningham, E and T. Iberall. 1986. "CALEB: An Intelligent Second Language Tutor." In: B. Woolf (ed). Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society Press. Pp. 1210-15.

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Dale, R. 1990. "A Rule-based Approach to Computer-assisted Copy-editing." Computer Assisted Language Learning 2: 59-67.

DeSmedt, W. H. 1995. "Herr Kommissar: An ICALL Conversation Simulator for Intermediate German." In: V. M. Holland, J. Kaplan and M. Sams (eds). Pp. 153-74.

Dorr, B., J. Hendler, S. Blanksteen and B. Migdaloff. 1995. "On Beyond Syntax: Use of Lexi- cal Conceptual Structure for Intelligent Tutoring." In: V. M. Holland, J. Kaplan and M. Sams (eds). Pp. 289- 310.

Douglas, S. A. 1995. "LingWorlds: An Intelligent Object-Oriented Environment for Second-Language Tutoring." In: V. M. Holland, J. Kaplan and M. Sams (eds). Pp. 201-20.

Elsom-Cook, M. T. and C. E. O'Malley. 1990. "ECAL: Bridging the Gap Between CAL and Intel- ligent Tutoring Systems." Computers and Education 15, 1-3: 69-81.

Emanuelli, A. 1986. "Artificial Intelligence and Computer Assisted Language Learning." UEA Papers in Linguistics 25-26. Special Issue on "Computer Assisted Language Learning." England: University of East Anglia. Pp. 43-56.

Farrington, B. 1986. "'Triangular Mode' Working: the LITFRE Project in the Field." System 14, 2: 199- 204.

Farringtom, B. 1986. "LITIRE: An Expert System for Checking Translation at Sentence Level." UEA Papers in Linguistics 25-26. Special Issue on "Com- puter Assisted Language Learning." Pp. 57-74.

Assisted Language Learning: Program Structure and Principles. Norwood, NJ.: Ablex. Pp. 14-27.

Feuerman, K., C. Marshall, D. Newman and M. Rypa. 1987. "The CALLE Project." CALICO Journal 4, 3: 25-34.

Frederiksen, C. H., J. Donin and M. D6cary. 1995. "A Discourse Processing Approach to Computer- Assisted Language Learning." In: V. M. Holland, J. Kaplan and M. Sams (eds). Pp. 99-120.

Frederiksen, C. H., J. Donin, M. D6cary and M. Hoover. 1992. "Semantic Discourse Processing and Tutoring Systems for Second Language Learning." In: M. L. Swartz and M. Yazdani (eds). Pp. 103-21.

Fum, D. 1989. "Tense Generation in an Intelligent Tutor for Foreign Language Teaching: Some Issues in the Design of the Verb Expert." Fourth Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Compu- tationalLinguistics. Pp. 124-29.

Fum, D., P. Giangrandi and C. Tasso. 1988. "ET: An Intelligent Tutor for Foreign Language Teaching." Proceedings of the International Conference on Intel- ligent Tutoring Systems (ITS-88). Pp. 462-68.

Fum D., P. Giangrandi and C. Tasso. 1988. "Student Modelling Techniques in Foreign Language Tutoring." ECAI-88. Pp. 94-96.

Fum, D., B. Pani and C. Tasso. 1992. "Naive vs. Formal Grammars: A Case for Integration in the Design of a Foreign Language Tutor." In: M. L. Swartz and M. Yazdani (eds). Pp. 51-64.

Furugori, T. 1990. "A Computer-Based Learning of Basic Japanese." CALICO Journal 8, 2: 7-24.

Felix, S. 1987. "A Computer Program for Sentence Comprehension." Per Linguam 3: 20-26.

Felshin, S. 1995. "The Athena Language Learn- ing Project NLP System: A Multilingual System for Conversation-Based Language Learning." In: V. M. Holland, J. Kaplan and M. Sams (eds). Pp. 257-72.

Ferney, D. 1989. "Small Programs that 'Know' What They Teach." In: K. Cameron (ed). Computer

Galletly, J., C. Butcher and J. How. 1989. "Towards an Intelligent Syntax Checker." In: K. Cameron (ed). Computer Assisted Language Learning: Program Structure and Principles. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Pp. 81-100.

Gormley, A. and G. O'N6ill. 1992. "GFTR: A Knowledge Acquisition Approach to the Generation of CALL." In: J. Thompson and C. Zahner (eds). Pp. 22-27.

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Granger, R. H. 1983. "The NOMAD System: Expectation-Based Detection and Correction of Errors During Understanding of Syntactically and Semanti- cally I 11-Formed text." American Journal of Compu- tationaILinguistics 9, 3-4: 188-96.

Guvenir, H. A. 1992. "Drill and Practice For Turk- ish Grammar." In: M. L. Swartz and M. Yazdani (eds). Pp. 275-91.

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