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Integrative Models in Environmental Planning andPolicy MakingDavid Clinton Kyler aa Regional Planning Agency , Coastal GeorgiaPublished online: 15 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: David Clinton Kyler (1984) Integrative Models in Environmental Planning and Policy Making, The Journal ofEnvironmental Education, 15:3, 17-24, DOI: 10.1080/00958964.1984.9942677

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Integrative Models in Environmental Planning

And Policy Making

DAVID CLINTON KYLER

ABSTRACT: The following paper explores the conceptual models of thought which have recently emerged to confront the conventional approaches to analysis and solu- tion of complex problems. Beginning with a critical attack on the tradition of specialization and reductionism, the author then summarizes several models which have originated from ecology, cybernetics, and systems theory. Throughout the paper is an emphasis on the potential contribution that such models can make to complex areas of policy and management, particularly within the environmental professions. Equally stressed is the fundamental importance of social learning and collective problem solving, particularly as engendered in the environmental profes- sions as learning facilitators. The substance of the paper therefore promises a dual significance to environmental education-first, in the preparation of successive generations of individuals who are prepared to interpret, analyze, and respond adaptively to changing issues of great complexity; and second, to help develop the environmental professions as catalytic agents within society through which the public gains increasing awareness of and participation in critical policy debate. Through the evolving enhancement of the models exemplified by those described, the author asserts that both those working directly in environmental issues as well as society at large will benefit.

here can be little dispute that most if not all human T activities have become burdened by fragmented specialization. Those who argue that such a trend is in- evitable hold that the increasing complexity and sheer volume of information relevant to progress in any discipline require ever greater specialization. While there is an element of truth and a persuasive logic to this rationale, we have begun to encounter problems and events which defy resolution through continued obe- dience to the tradition of intellectual division of labor. In fact, a good argument can be made that this tradi-

David Clinton Kyler is a professional planner for a regional planning agency in coastal Georgia.

tional strategy of the industrial era is so ill-suited to many current circumstances that specialization itself compounds, if not creates, some of our foremost prob- lems.

Perhaps in no other human activity is specialization a greater threat than in environmental planning and policy making. There are probably at least two reasons for this. First, environmental systems themselves are characteristically integrated without regard to academic notions of function or structural specialization; com- plex exchange of energy, information, and materials transcends easily defined boundaries prescribed by disciplinary professions. Secondly, the problems and issues which the environmental professions address are themselves linked within a network of processes which are of both natural and “artificial” origin. Placing

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boundaries on the functional or geographic domain of such problems as urban development, economic viabil- ity, and sustainable use of environmental resources im- mediately clarifies the difficulty of specialized ap- proaches. Economic, political, social, and physical fac- tors unavoidably come to bear on such problems, re- quiring a uniquely unspecialized understanding of com- plexity. Generally, environmental problems are prob- lems within problems, systemically creating a synergetic effect unpredicted from analysis of problem compo- nents. Unfortunately, most of the academic and profes- sional strategies available for attacking problems are devised for dealing with the components or only symp- toms of the underlying system of actual problems.

Several disciplines have attempted to recognize a1 least some aspect of this complexity inherent in en- vironmental issues. To name a few, certainly architec- ture, urban design, landscape architecture, city and regional planning, resource management, and economic geography come to mind. Yet, each of these disciplines fails in its own way to construct an appropriate integra- tion of information and problem-solving orientation precisely because of its outgrowth from the intellectual tradition of specialization. Indeed, the cutting edge of all of these disciplines is in exploring the amorphous frontier where many, if not all, analytical design con- cepts intersect - the no-man’s land which defies con- ventional boundaries of expertise. There remains a pro- found need to synthesize the methodologies, skills, and foci of numerous professions which are responsible for directing human use of the environment.

The most common element among such professions has been an emphasis on physical aspects - in problem definition, in developing alternative strategies, in evaluation and analysis, and in implementation of recommended “solutions” if implementation is even seriously considered. Of course, framing both problems and solutions in largely physical terms has its advan- tages. Physical symptoms are more easily observed, leading to their often misleading substitution for the ac- tual underlying problem(s). Similarly, physical forms satisfy a universal demand for tangibility and substance in measuring our achievement and registering our in- dividual and collective identities, which expresses our materialist heritage while substantiating its relevance to current values. It is not surprising that specialization has become both the offspring and the progenitor of mater- ialism; materialist values assert the critical importance of efficiency and productivity in production of both goods (“hardware”) and practical information (“soft- ware”) leading to the division of labor, which in turn sustains successive generations of materialist values. Unfortunately, this mutually supportive cycle must sur- vive within an environment of far greater complexity. Such complexity results in the now widely recognized limitations of the “technological fix” and, by implica-

tion, challenges the domain of specialism. Problems formerly attacked by reductionist division and specialized problem solving are growing increasingly resistant to such an approach. Worse yet, conflicting objectives of traditionally defined program areas have precipitated contradictory policies and practices which work at cross-purposes, thereby compounding previously ex- isting problems and creating entirely new “meta- problems” which are hybrids of former problem gener- ations (4). While such meta-problems are certainly not unique to environmental management and planning, they are perhaps more commonly recognized in en- vironmental issues due to the very nature of their com- plexity and the relatively recent emergence of these issues in the public domain.

Due to the limitations of specialization and the associated dominance of physical factors, some impor- tant linkages must be constructed among disciplinary viewpoints and methods, leading to a more holistic language and understanding of complexity. Interesting- ly, through the ongoing process of developing and ex- perimenting with integrative models and methodologies, underlying connections among multiple areas of study will very likely arise to create essential new world views. The materialistic, mechanistic assumptions which in- fluence so much of our current perspective will gradual- ly yield to an ecological percept, providing a variable basis for sustaining human societies during the next era. Of course, the accuracy of such a prediction is based upon a critical assumption that this realization will oc- cur soon enough and that it will result from a popular, pluralistic doctrine rather than being autocratically im- posed. No revolution or quantum-leap evolution of thought can be artificially superimposed on an unwilling public; clearly, the last hundred years’ of war, revolu- tion, and terrorism have verified the fundamental im- portance of participatory, pluralistic development in all areas of public policy. And certainly the professions that serve the public share a serious responsibility in preserving and enhancing this balance, particularly in policies which bear on the critical relationships between humankind and the environment in the broadest sense. Translating this concern to changes in institutions and social values will be the most important part of the proc- ess. The significance of this social transformation must be reflected in both public education and professional practice if it is to be achieved under timely, democratic conditions (7).

Accordingly, the following narrative outlines con- cepts which have great potential for contributing to vitally needed refinements in our ability to understand and deal constructively with complex meta-problems, particularly those with environmental repercussions. Although the emphasis is on the development and ap- plication of these concepts in education and practice of public policy-related professions, there must be an

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equally strong commitment to their advancement throughout all components of society. This commit- ment, in turn, must be expressed in the mission and methods of the professions.

Cybernetic Principles and Information Management

The accelerating volume of information associated with specialization is obvious. Vast quantities of infor- mation are divided and subdivided in an attempt to develop improved control over its appropriation and use. But with each new specialization further ignorance arises out of the esoteric language and subject of its do- main. Even relatively connected fields of activity

“Rather than further propagating informa- tion overload, effective use of cybernetic principles and systems theory will help to reduce irrelevant information and to en- hance our capabilities to trace the implica- tions of new information, from all areas of human activity.”

become alienated from one another through this proc- ess, creating “disjoint incrementalism” and inap- propriately narrow definition of problems and respon- sibilities. In addition to the communication and use of information between and among specialities, even the most elementary forms of feedback are too often neglected, worsening the already prevailing tendency towards crisis-reaction rather than proactive coordina- tion. Clearly, the form and content of data relevant to definition, analysis, evaluation, and monitoring of com- plex problems and their resolution must be recognized as imperative to successful management of policies, pro- grams, and projects. Equally important, these concerns must be expressed through continuous development of integrated forms of information, languages which fulfill the functional purposes of multiple disciplines while ex- tending our ability to treat highly joined meta-problems (6). Consequences of specific actions must be an- ticipated in a reiterative process exhibiting many dimen- sions - including perhaps those normally considered the responsibility of other specializations. Generally, new channels of communication must be developed among academic and practicing professionals, profes- sionals and clients, and among those who set the course of their fields and influence others. In addition to the widely publicized innovations of hardware and for- malized software heralding the “information revolu- tion,” the creative use of organizations, institutions, and all types of human relationshps must be considered.

Rather than further propagating information overload, effective use of cybernetic principles and systems theory will help to reduce irrelevant informa- tion and to enhance our capabilities to trace the implica- tions of new information, from all areas of human ac- tivity. The theoretical works of Beer ( l ) , Boulding (2), and Weiner (14), among others, have laid the ground- work for this development, and it must be carried for- ward into the most practical types of application, from resource management to feasibility study and environ- mental assessment. Wherever needed, appropriate forms of information should beaggregated using well publicized methods to arrive at key indicators and indices which can be used by policy makers and planners as well as the general public. As a public resource, this information should be accessible to everyone, used to explain and educate rather than to obscure or manipulate. Con- versely, interactive exchange of information and for- mats by all sorts of users will undoubtedly help further refine their accuracy and usefulness. By providing the widest possible access to information and learning systems (information about information and its process- ing), the “requisite variety” so essential to democratic social stability in times of turbulence will be assured. Similarly, the necessary balance of viewpoints and criteria of success will be molded into emerging stan- dards.

While there is reason to recognize the profound challenges represented by our conventional inability to develop acceptable and consistent measures for dif- ferent aspects of complex problems, new types of infor- mation and evaluative measures may be instrumental in overcoming them. Conflicts between economic and en- vironmental policies, for example, may be shown to be more a result of the inadequacies of traditional informa- tion and implicit values than inherently irresolvable issues. We can quite realistically expect that attempts to solve information (descriptive) problems will directly contribute to advancing our ability in higher order prob- lem solving, including normative issues requiring social learning (9). Closing “loops” among human activities and consequences which are now artificially separated or ignored altogether, such as the many indirect health, employment, and housing effects caused by a chaotic web of public policies and private actions, will also serve these purposes. Generally, investment of material and human resources in the development, processing, analysis, and communication of information of all kinds will yield untold returns, especially in issues of great complexity and conflict.

Internalizing the Externalities

As an outgrowth of increasingly intensive human ac- tivities, particularly those involving concentrated

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transformation of nonrenewable material and energy resources, what were formerly neglected as “exter- nalities” must now be brought into the forefront of public decision making. As already argued, many of our most pernicious problems are a direct result of the con- ventional misuse and artificial restrictions of informa- tion. Narrowly conceived to achieve short-term, often isolated objectives, in both the public and private sec- tors criteria for measuring these objectives have become sacrosanct themselves. Once established as respectable indices of measurement, factors such as return on in- vestment, capital gain, pay-off period, operating effi- ciency, and productivity reach a status which is nearly invulnerable to new concepts and policy strategies, not to mention reliable accountability. Contracts and other institutionally defined relationships founded on conven- tional language of performance and limited understand- ing of equity likewise restrain the development and ap- plication of new insights. Like most human tools. language itself is not immune to obsolescence; new situations and issues may result in conventional language and implied values actually contributing to society’s problems rather than helping to solve them. This de-evolution or degradation of information and knowledge based upon i t may seem to run contrary to our accepted notions of progress; yet, because our measures of progress are themselves in the language of emerging obsolescence, over time this process is perhaps inevitable unless i t is very carefully monitored and cor- rected. The loss of information and control over time and among innumerable message transactions has been described in detail using information theory’. What has been explained for individual messages and information systems may equally well hold true for more complex and dynamic human systems: changing conditions within the operating environment and among members of the information systeni(s) may result in inappro- priate response, increasing lag times and, there- fore, poorer information and system performance. But many of the same advancements which have contributed to the increasing complexity and turbulence of the human environment now offer potential means for im- proving our ability to deal with this environment.

indeed, the sustained viability of the human species itself may depend on continually enhancing our institu- tional means for taking into account the previously ig- nored consequences of our actions. In each generation of institutions, language, and normative criteria of per- formance (values), the success which is achieved through their application requires increasingly accurate information in order to sustain it. As necessary, institu- tions and values are adapted over time in reestablishing relative stability. Affluent, organized societies of im- mence proportions require current, increasingly sophis- ticated means for assuring stability, either through im- proved equity and balance or through dictatorial con-

trol. Theoretical arguments which limit the scale and complexity of societies controlled by central authority aside, as members of democratic society, we must recognize our choices for stability, and they inevitably include institutionally recognized information. Infor- mation and institutions must symbiotically evolve under our careful and pluralistic intervention.

But contrary to the usual connotation, the required advancements in sophistication of human institutions and supporting language and values may actually be achieved through a higher order simplicity. Because adverse consequences of obsolete language result in complex regulations and legal instruments imposed in attempts to correct these adversities, externalities are preserved as such only at the expense of further increas- ing complexity. Eventually a condition is reached where it is actually easier to incorporate new concepts of “in- ternalities” rather than to maintain the illusion of exter- nalities while patchworking the old institutions. Ex- amples of the less sophisticated but more complex view- points abound: welfare, much public regulation, and even employment of many kinds are typical of the inver- sion of principles and language, of ends and means. It is not surprising that policies serving such diverse (but cer- tainly not separate) programs as transportation, economic development, environmental protection, and social welfare work at cross-purposes in a world view which is so thoroughly obsolete. Surprisingly, though perhaps appropriately enough, the political positions which most assiduously criticize the “unnecessary” in- stitutional complexity and associated violations of in- dividual liberty, most commonly extol the virtues of those values and negligences which brought about the need for such artificially imposed complexity of control. Unless revised means for accounting for the multitude of diffused social and environmental costs are developed and applied, the language of concentrated benefits will lead to severe and perhaps irreversible social decline. This enhanced accountability backed by popularly supported authority to invoke institutional controls will be increasingly important as externalities accumulate. What was negligible in the past may be essential in the future, and the dynamics of human systems wielding modern technology make i t increasing- ly probable.

From the Mechanistic to the Organic

The decline of the so-called industrial age has been marked with increasing clarity by numerous resource crises and their social consequences over the past decade. Single-purpose programs and policies under- taken in attempts to deal with one or another social or economic ill have repeatedly failed, as centralized in- stitutions flounder in indecision. These actions have often inflicted additional confusion by contradicting the

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indirect purposes of still other single-purpose actions. Transportation policy, urban and housing programs, and latent environmental issues have repeatedly con- flicted in this milieu of isolated reactions to a morass of interconnected problems. Lacking an underlying ability to perceive complex, multifaceted interrelationships ex- hibiting probabilistic dynamics, the well worn mechanistic model continues to propagate new prob- lems even as it is used to attempt to solve narrowly defined ones. Similarly, the established assumptions regarding the equity and balance of authority based on centralized power have also failed us by attempting to impose linear, cause-effect controls on inherently open systems characterized by innumerable agents of change. Under such a world view, static objectives of equilib- rium and economic growth have led to still greater in- stability resulting from the dismissal of delayed and in- direct factors of growing importance. Laboring within deterministic constraints, centralized institutions have strayed even further from effective administrative con- trol and management.

Recognizing that environmental determinism is as mechanistically outmoded as any other school of deter- minism, we should not disregard the potential for using physical forms to serve the experimental purposes of various social and economic institutions. For example, the conventional separation of human activities into spatial allocations based on consumption, production, recreation, and domestic life reflects an ill-conceived bias towards regimented and isolated patterns of behavior having devastating social consequences. Similar conventions in the development of human set- tlements have failed to recognize the cumulative and long-term impacts of modern urbanization on economic and natural resources. Through improved understand- ing of organic, pluralistic, and dynamic characteristics of human and other complex systems, we can begin to build new forms of social stability. This stability will necessarily be based on an increasing concern for the in- tegration of both the individual and society through im- proved ability to design diversity and openness into human environments, reflecting the same principles in organic systems. To the extent that human systems parallel other organic processes, these features will serve doubly to manage both “natural” and “artificial” en- vironments on a sustained basis. Likewise, authority based on understanding and involvement rather than power and dominance will assure far better fit between human and non-human systems by reducing the need for centralized control and improving the diversification needed for stability (3). Neighborhood planning, client- user participation, cooperatives and community-based corporations, and many other innovative organizational forms and processes will propagate social, economic, and physical changes having profound potential for achieving organic modes of performance.

If, as argued here, existing problems remain unre- solved largely due to overly specialized and mechanistic approaches, a more diversified and organically balanced strategy will symbiotically link many aspects of infor- mation, analysis, design, and implementation from dif- ferent kinds of problem solving. The possibilities for creative and mutually supportive decisions and actions will very likely increase as more continuity and wholeness is realized. Physical forms will spawn new social and economic experimentation just as emerging political and social processes lead to new physical forms. As better understanding of institutional and en- vironmental dynamics is developed, more of the interac- tive advantages of the organic model will be intentional- ly designed into emerging adaptations. In the few places where there is historical evidence of multi-faceted en- vironmental planning and design, physical and meta- physical changes have been surprisingly synergistic (1 2). Considering the vital importance of our environment to human well-being, it should be reasonable to expect that a truly comprehensive approach to environmental prob- lems will bring many related benefits. Perhaps the greatest challenge will be to develop means for an- ticipating this potential and applying it to strategic ad- vantage.

From Colonization to Climax

Carrying the organic model one step further, we turn to basic ecology. Ecologists have established that any complex ecosystem typically develops to maturity through a sequence of increasingly stable stages, characterized by gradually increasing diversity of species. During the early period of rapid growth, or col- onization, there is a relatively high yield of biomass per unit of energy and nutrient consumed, reflecting a similar phenomenon in the ontogeny of individual members of the ecological community. As the eco- system reaches maturity, conversion of total energy and imported materials to biomass declines on a rate basis, indicating the effects of species diversity and associated stability. Within this diversity, the energy “cascades” (8, 10) are channeled from one user to another, pro- viding the basis for greater variety of closure, as each species fills a refined niche of behavior; biomass of one form feeds that of another, until at full maturity there is a highly developed sort of mutually dependent stability. There appears to be a general tendency in life systems, further supported by the second law of thermodynamics or the entropy law ( 5 , l l ) , to reduce the net rate of mass-energy transformations as maturity approaches. In other words, a more complex and enriched communi- ty is less productive in sheer volume but far more stable and self-regulating. This phenomenon has profound im- plications for policy governing the management of human systems, especially as human activities exhibit

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increasingly interconnected dependence upon one another and on natural life-support systems.

There is strong evidence that the same dynamics apply to “artificial” systems of human design which by necessity require mass-energy transformations for sur- vival. Despite typical arguments that human technology extends the limits of such transformation efficiencies, ultimately these “technological species” themselves must compete for limited resources, and they must coex- ist within an environment which can assimilate the by- products of the society which they support. Natural, technological, institutional, and sociological forms can be considered part of a maturing ecosystem of great complexity. Development objectives established during a period of rapid growth (colonization) will therefore fail to realize the needs of this maturing system as it ap- proaches full climax, great diversity, and high stability. Without appropriate refinements in the behavioral ob- jectives which guide our human institutions and tech- nologies, there is serious question whether the course toward maturity can be sustained without severe inter- ruption. While the factors which determine our in- dividual and collective behavior and its many manifesta- tions are obviously quite complex, there are nevertheless far more promising means for understanding and modi- fying self-consciously regulated human activity today than ever before. Many of the concepts already dis- cussed obviously support such social transformation, but, again, such change must be highly pluralistic, based on individual understanding and initiative rather than the dictates of autocratic authorities. To the extent that professional efforts can contribute to constructive change, they must be aimed at social learning and public awareness, balancing off the already prevailing tenden- cies toward technical expertise and often self-serving in- stitutional politics.

According to policy analysis based on the entropy concept, as the global effects of human activities in- evitably close in upon one another, there is no possibil- i ty for continued growth for its own sake because local- ized benefits result in exported costs, whether material, economic, social, or political. Given this condition, the best strategy for preserving the now global human ecological system is to use institutional and tech- nological means to establish “sustained yield” produc- tivity strategically guided in support of world stability. Like that of the natural ecological system, this strategy is enhanced by diversity (requisite variety) and requires reduced rates of mass-energy transformations. But unlike the simplistic notion of the no-growth economy, this strategy implies the need for refined understanding of the nature of growth combined with greater discre- tion in the development and application of human in- novations, both technological and institutional. The growing acceptance of the appropriate technology movement may be an element of this strategy, but the

most formidable challenge will be the institutional. (Of course, they are not mutually exclusive; to the contrary, as already discussed, well conceived innovations of one kind will often precipitate those of another.) Accepted values and associated behavior determine the concepts of status, wealth and its distribution, employment, property, education, and numerous other fundamental characteristics which collectively structure our actions and world view. Successful modification of values and institutions will require broadened definition of prob- lems of policy, planning, and design; enhanced analyti- cal approaches enriched by innovative use of informa- tion, learning processes, and community ties; and ongo- ing evaluative processes which are essential to long-term stability. Through improved understanding of such con- cepts as carrying capacity and resource costs, economic and other guiding policies can be adapted to reflect both environmental and development concerns, But until a general acceptance of ecological principles is realized, there can be only limited advancement. Hardline, heavy-handed regulatory and policing actions will only succeed at the expense of true freedom and social in- tegrity. We must pursue a policy of understanding through involvement and active experimentation, based on continually emerging concepts of an environmental ethic.

Synergistic Networks Many of the dilemmas of industrialized nations, in-

cluding inflationary trends in the midst of economic stagnation, are the result of contradictions inherent in public policy. Substantively, these contradictions rest on a number of obsolete assumptions which form the foundation of our world view. They collectively sepa- rate the ethical from the legal, the environmental from the economic, and social from individual interests. As such assumptions regarding the value and use of re- sources and the means and ends of economic activity grow more obsolete, contradictions between intended results and realized conditions of numerous policy areas are compounded in successive generations of problems. Ultimately, the problems themselves are noteworthy in- dications of the need for fundamental reorientation.

Trist (13) identifies the growing importance of these conflicts as a milestone marking a new era of “tur- bulence” in which all aspects of the environment - economic, technological, organizational, urban, politi- cal, socio-cultural, and ecological - become more dynamic and therefore more richly joined, creating greater “mutual causality” among them. Because of the accelerating complexity and interdependence of a world dominated by intensive and extensive human activity, there is a growing need for effective analysis of dynamic conditions and action taken within uncertainty. The older institutional bureaucracies, working within specialized, routine procedures under sluggish central-

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ized authority, cannot perform effectively within this turbulence. This is especially aggravated by the tenden- cy for inappropriate institutional reactions, often suf- fering from ungainly lag times, to compound the prob- lem environment. What were once dependent param- eters of the passive environment subject to manipula- tion are increasingly becoming independent, unpredict- able, and impossible to control. As a result, argues Trist, competitive and reactive modes of behavior must be replaced by collaborative, proactive ones.

This perhaps seemingly overwhelming task may ac- tually have its beginnings in already existing trends. The innumerable coalitions which have formed around one or another social and/or political issue in recent years, the independent community action groups, cooperative and community-based economic activity, and other local initiatives support the notion that there is already a movement toward a decentralization and personaliza- tion of authority. Properly organized and interlinked through resourceful information networks, formal and informal means for identifying, analyzing, and resolv- ing important issues under public scrutiny, and other participatory processes, local and regional bodies could become the catalytic core to social transformation. Rather than attempting to aggregate and organization- ally fragment information under the control of central authorities, more attention must be given to the possi- bility of integrating both planning and operational mat- ters at the level where needs and consequences can be best evaluated. Connections developed at these decen- tralized levels could be used to provide timely informa- tion regarding the condition of human and natural sys- tems and the likely effects of actions being considered. On a wider scale such networks could be used to create communication links among geographically remote par- ties having experience and/or concerns in the same issue(s). Under a participatory network of this type, the public would have greater potential for positively in- fluencing public policy and better understanding the critical factors involved in public issues; similarly, decentralized networks could improve our abilities to resolve conflicts among competing factions, first by set- ting the framework for their interaction and, second, by bringing more diverse and more objective opinions to bear on the issue at hand. Communities which have un- dergone similar conflicts elsewhere could be used to pro- duce invaluable first-hand evidence of the means and results of alternatives available for resolving conflicts. Information which must be shared at all levels for effec- tive legislative, executive, and judicial decisions and ac- tions would conceivably benefit both in content and speed of dissemination. Lateral and vertical exchanges alike could lead to better deductive application in developing specific policies from general relationships and inductively in generalizing higher level policies based on dispersed local and regional experience.

Above all, developing networks of communication specifically conceived for resolving public issues will serve to educate both officials and the general public, thereby improving the basis for pluralistic democracy. At the same time, local and regional characteristics can be enhanced while further integrating geographically, socially, and politically separated groups - whether local, national, or even international. Again, however, it is likely that the principal obstacles will be the established institutions, particularly those with vested interests in the control of information and resources for narrowly determined purposes. Short of an equally threatening imposition of “objective” information and standards by some autocratic authority, the only viable alternative is in the initiative of politically active and community minded individuals seeking to improve wider understanding of and democratic influence over public issues. It is this movement which professionals in public service must seek to nurture and diversify, leading to social values and processes which are capable of self-regulation within a turbulent environment. It is only through such a constituency that a truly responsive approach to public planning and management can be fully developed, and all efforts towards that end will be well spent.

In particular, the relationship between the public and private sectors of activity must be improved through networks servicing mutual concerns. Identification of shared goals and complementary policies must be sought as groundwork for explicit programs of action, replacing the often antagonistic rhetoric exchanged be- tween the regulated and regulators. Conversely, in- grown relationships between big business and big bureaucracy, which not uncommonly exploit true public interests, must be isolated and eliminated. A cooperative, compliant understanding of social objec- tives and issues can be developed or at least greatly enhanced through progressive information processes applied in conflict resolution and issues analysis. Given the broadest possible constituent involvement, such in- formation must include credible analysis of resource development impacts and other comprehensive en- vironmental scenarios. While provision of relevant in- formation by private firms and individual owners of capital resources may not be required by law, public pressure, such as that exemplified by the consumer movement, can be brought to bear when critical public issues are at stake. Likewise, there are some equally significant benefits to be obtained by the private sector in using broad-based public information; marginal ef- fects of continued practices, assessment of return-on- investment and pay-off feasibility, and other managerial measures of performance can conceivably enhance both productivity and public interests.

Similar advantages can be expected from the develop- ment of more responsive institutional entities such as

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neighborhood organizations and various forms of cooperative enterprise. I t is quite possible that there are new forms of organization which could provide the leverage and self-determined nucleation for achieving capital formation, employment, and housing, for exam- ple, under the direct management and/or ownership of presently alienated social groups. In many ways this possibility opens opportunities for better environmental control because the beneficiaries are more commonly community members, having greater concern for sus- taining a balance of economic, social, and environmen- tal objectives than the absentee owners who presently command the vast bulk of capital investment. Similarly, such organizations and their members would stand to benefit from the shared exchange of information re- garding financing, market potential, and locational fac- tors, for example, through the development of com- prehensive information networks. Long-term and in- direct consequences of proposed actions could be far more effectively traced in order to refine the congruity between goals and objectives, strategies and tactics. Generally, by providing the resources necessary (human, technological, and organizational/institu- tional) for organizing, compiling, analyzing, and evaluating the increasing information available to all those concerned with public issues, overwhelming con- tributions to constructive social transformation could be realized. That such transformations will be made is widely recognized as inevitable; that change will be com- plementary to our social stability and quality of life depends fundamentally on the timing and wisdom of’ our chosen strategy.

Conclusion

If the professions which guide decisions affecting significant aspects of our environment are to advance beyond an increasingly obsolete, reactive incremen- talism, they must act cohesively in creating a publicly supported network through which policies and issues can be more thoroughly evaluated. By necessity, this re- quires the commitment of educators and their institu- tions to experimentation and active exploration of all promising alternatives - organizational, technological, political. This learning-communicat ion network must be both the result of and the catalyst for consensus and policy making through social learning and pluralistic choice. Conventional distinctions between formal and informal education, institutional discretion, authority, and public obligation, and artificial boundaries between the various disciplines must be continually reevaluated and challenged where appropriate.

In order to avoid past failures of both those in the practicing professions and their educators, particularly in environmental fields, we must not alienate the public through excessive abstraction and jargon unique to the

tradition of specialization. The values of all those likely to be affected by decisions must be actively elicited, and public understanding of all likely consequences and alternatives must be carefully nurtured. Effective deci- sion making throughout society will become increasing- ly dependent on the development of and accessibility to integrative processes which reflect strong values orienta- tion and conflict-resolving capability. The political dominance of organized political action committees in recent years, as just one example, must be counter- balanced by creative intervention in behalf of a greater segment of the public. For society to maintain and enhance our collective quality of life, it is imperative that this representation is used to build consensus, resolve conflicts, and reestablish pluralistic policy through social learning.

NOTE

I . Shannon and other, habe thoroughly developed theorie\ ol in- formation transfer. accuracy, and degeneration based o n exten\ivc ex- perimentation in both elecrroiiic/rnechanical arid human \y\rem\. I n addition to the reference$ to cybernetic literature, w c Adib!:. W. Ross, An Inrrodircrion /o Cvbernetics. London: Chapman and Hall. 1.td.. 1956.

REFERENCES

1. Beer. Stafford. “Managing Modern Complexity.” Plu!fortii / o r Change. New York: J o h n Wiley and Sons, 1975, 120-241.

2. Boulding, Kennelh E. EC(J!IO,TI~CX us a Science. New Y o r k : McGraw-Hill. 1975.

3. Denman, Anne and Clay. “Decenrraliration: Making Small Places Work Again.” In Hugh Nash (Ed.), Progress us !fSuri, ivu/ Mulrered. San Francisco: Friends of the Earth. 1977.

4. Friedman, John. “Innovation, Flexible Respun% and Social Learning: A Problem in the Theory of Meta-Planning.” I n Robert W. Burchell and George Sternlieb (Ecls,), PIuiining Theorjl in rhe 1980’s. Rutgrrr University: Center for Urban Policy Re\earch, 1979.

5. Georgexw-Roegen. Nicholas. The Etirropy 1 u M and rhe Economic Prot.ex. Cambridge, Mas\.: Harbard LJni\erhity Pre\\, 1971.

6. Harvey, David. “On Planning and (he Ideology of Planning.” In Robcri W. Burchell and George Sternlieb (Edh.), Plunni!ig The0r.v in rhe 1980’s. Rutgcrr Univenity: Center Tor Urban Policy Research, 1979.

7. Korten, David C . “The Management ol’ Social Transformation.’’ Public Ad/?iinis/ru/ion Review 41 (November/ December 198 I) 110. 6.

8. Lovinj. Amory B. Sqfr Energy Pulhs: ToLWrd u Dlrruhle Peuce. N e s Y o r k : Harper and Row, 1977.

9. Marrnanian. Daniel A,, and Sabatier. Paul A . .F[/eclive f ( J / l C : V

/t)ip/i~iiienrutiori. London: D. C. Heath and Company, 19x1. 10. Odurn, Howard T. Enr,iron!nenI, Power, und Sociery: Etier,e).

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Viking Press, 19x0. 12. Stoke\. Bruce. Local Rvsponse.r lo Glohul Neec1.5: A kev 10

Meering Busic Hirriiun Needs. Washingtorl, DC: Worldwatch I n - \tiiule. 1978.

13. Trijt, Eric. “The Erivirrtrimenr and Sy\tt.m-re\ponw Capahility.” FUTURES (April 1980).

14. Weiner. NorberJ , Cvbrrnerics: Or Comt?iuriIc~ru~~on und Corlrrol in rhe Anitnul and (he illuchine. C‘amhridge. hla\\.: MIT F’rc\\, 194X. 1961.

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