Instructor s Classroom Kit, Volume I - TEST BANK 360testbank360.eu/sample/test-bank-lifespan-development-5th-edition... · Chapter 3 Test Bank PowerPoint Handout ... Lifespan is a

Instructor’s Classroom Kit, Volume I

for

Boyd and Bee

Lifespan Development

Fifth Edition

prepared by

Karen P. Saenz Houston Community College—Southeast College

Rod Fowers

Highline Community College

Susan Carol Losh Florida State University

Boston New York San Francisco Mexico City Montreal Toronto London Madrid Munich Paris

Hong Kong Singapore Tokyo Cape Town Sydney

Full file at http://testbank360.eu/test-bank-lifespan-development-5th-edition-boy

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The contents, or parts thereof, may be reproduced with Lifespan Development, Fifth Edition, by Denise Boyd and Helen Bee, provided such reproductions bear copyright notice, but may not be reproduced in any form for any other purpose without written permission from the copyright owner. To obtain permission(s) to use the material from this work, please submit a written request to Allyn and Bacon, Permissions Department, 501 Boylston Street, Suite 900, Boston, MA 02116 or fax your request to 617-671-2290. ISBN-13: 978-0-205-64342-4 ISBN-10: 0-205-64342-6 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 12 11 10 09 08


Contents for Instructor’s Classroom Kit, Volume I MASTER LIST OF HELEN BEE’S STUDENT PROJECTS

v

GUIDE TO THE INSTRUCTOR’S CLASSROOM KIT VOLUME I vi

FOUNDATIONS Chapter 1 Test Bank PowerPoint Handout

Basic Concepts and Methods

11945

Chapter 2 Test Bank PowerPoint Handout

Theories of Development 5981

105


Prenatal Development and Birth 113141165

POLICY QUESTION I: SHOULD PREGNANT WOMEN WHO USE DRUGS BE PROSECUTED? 179

INFANCY Chapter 4 Test Bank PowerPoint Handout

Physical, Sensory, and Perceptual Development in Infancy 181203227


Cognitive Development in Infancy 239259283


Social and Personality Development in Infancy 295315339

POLICY QUESTION II: ARE “SAFE HAVEN” POLICIES A GOOD IDEA? 351


EARLY CHILDHOOD Chapter 7 Test Bank PowerPoint Handout

Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood 353375401


Social and Personality Development in Early Childhood 415443469

POLICY QUESTION III: "DEADBEAT" DADS: IRRESPONSIBLE PARENTS OR POLITICAL SCAPEGOATS?

483

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Chapter 9 Test Bank PowerPoint Handout

Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 485509533


Social and Personality Development in Middle Childhood 545567591

POLICY QUESTION IV: HAS TEST-BASED REFORM IMPROVED SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES?

605


Master List of Helen Bee’s Student Projects (Printed in the Grade Aid Student Workbook)

CHAPTER 1 Research Project 1: A First Observation of a Child: An Example of a Narrative Report Research Project 2: Naturalistic Observation of a Nursing Home Resident At-Home Project 3: Analysis of Research Presented in Popular Sources

CHAPTER 2 No projects for this chapter.

CHAPTER 3 Investigative Project 4: Available Prenatal Services Investigative Project 5: Investigation of Birth Options

CHAPTER 4 Research Project 6: Observation in a Newborn Nursery

CHAPTER 5 Research Project 7: Development of the Object Concept

CHAPTER 6 Research Project 8: Observation of Turn Taking Research Project 9: Assessment of Day Care Centers Investigative Project 10: Investigation of Day Care Options

CHAPTER 7 Research Project 11: Assessing the Child’s Theory of Mind Research Project 12: Beginning Two-Word Sentences Research Project 13: Conversation between Mother and Child

CHAPTER 8 Research Project 14: Observation of Altruistic Behavior

CHAPTER 9 Research Project 15: The Game of Twenty Questions Research Project 16: Conservation of Mass, Number, and Weight Investigative Project 17: Investigation of IQ Testing in Local Schools

CHAPTER 10 Research Project 18: Understanding of Friendship At-Home Project 19: Television Aggression At-Home Project 20: Sex Roles on TV


Guide to the Instructor’s Classroom Kit, Volumes I & II

The goal of the Instructor’s Classroom Kit Volume 1 and 2 to accompany Lifespan Development, Fifth Edition, by Denise Boyd and Helen Bee, is to deliver the complete supplements package (Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, PowerPoint® Handouts) in a user-friendly, highly portable, and fully integrated format. Volume I covers Chapters 1-10 and Volume II includes the remaining Chapters 11-19. Instructor’s Manual Prepared by Karen P. Saenz, this Instructor’s Manual provides support for both seasoned instructors and ones who are new to teaching by incorporating questions for class discussion or short written assignments and suggested Allyn & Bacon resources into the Integrated Chapter Teaching Notes. The resources are designed to encourage instructors to use a variety of activities in the classroom to stimulate student interest and involvement. The curriculum lends itself to a learner-centered format rather than exclusively using traditional lectures. Each chapter begins with the Chapter Preview to provide a glimpse of the chapter as a whole. The Integrated Chapter Teaching Notes section presents information from the textbook as well as discussion launcher questions and activities. The Lecture Enhancer section provides additional information on selected topics that are appropriate for lecture or as a handout to the students. The Instructor Resources at the close of the chapter provide a summary of suggested materials to aid in preparing for class. The following resources are included within the Integrated Chapter Teaching Notes: Learning Objectives: Specific objectives for each section are included to focus on the essential

information. Key Terms: Terms that are in bold in the text are indicated at the end of each section. In the teaching

notes, they are printed in bold and italics. Critical Thinking Questions: Taken straight from the textbook at the end of each section, the

critical-thinking questions provide opportunities for class discussion that involve critical-thinking skills. Many are also suitable for short written assignments or group work.

Discussion Launchers: The discussion questions also provide a stimulus for discussion in class to

increase student participation. Many are opinion questions, and I often tell my students that any intelligent answer will get them credit—the key word being “intelligent.” Students should support their opinions with sound arguments. Many are suitable for short written assignments or group discussions.

Videos/DVDs: Many videos and DVDs of various lengths are listed, and there is obviously not time

in one term to include them all. Helen Bee's Student Projects: Adapted from Helen Bee's first edition of Lifespan Development, the

projects are printed in the Grade Aid. The list of suggested projects for each chapter is included in the Instructor's Resource section of each chapter. They can be used as part of the written assignment for the course or even as extra credit projects.


Test Bank This portion of the Classroom Kit provides thoroughly reviewed questions, prepared by Rod Fowers, which target the key concepts from both the main content as well as the chapter features from textbook. There are approximately 2,000 questions total, ranging in type from multiple-choice, completion (fill-in-the-blank), short answer, and concise essay questions. All questions have the following metadata: correct answer, page reference from the main text, level of difficulty (scaled from 1-3, 3 being most challenging), skill type (factual, conceptual, applied), topic, and the corresponding Learning Objective number. New to this Edition! MyDevelopmentLab Connections This edition of the Test Bank also offers both multiple choice/completion and essay questions to test relevant MyDevelopmentLab assets from the Study Plan that closes each chapter. Each question has the asset type and title as well as the corresponding Learning Objective! The Instructor’s Classroom Kit Volume 2 CD-ROM has an electronic version of the test bank so you can easily build tests in Microsoft Word®. We also offer this same Test Bank in the TestGen Computerized Test Bank software, which can be downloaded from the Instructor’s Resource Center at http://www.pearsonhighered.com. PowerPoint® Presentations Each chapter has a lecture and art only PowerPoint Presentation prepared by Susan Carol Losh. Use the print-outs to plan your lectures, take notes, or distribute them as handouts for your students. The electronic version of the lecture outline and art only PowerPoint® Presentations are available on the CD-ROM packaged with Instructor’s Classroom Kit Volume 2 as well as on our Instructor’s Resource Center online at http://www.pearsonhighered.com. The lecture outline version contains all of the permissible figures from the text. As you plan the Syllabus for your term, consider the materials included in this Instructor’s Classroom Kit system and try something new: a debate, a new written assignment or project, or more classroom discussion. We also strongly urge you to review the GradeAid Student Workbook with Practice Tests as a required text for your course. This student supplement, also prepared by Karen P. Saenz, is an excellent study guide to help students get the most out of the material presented in the book. Lifespan is a course that is rich with opportunities for these activities, and we encourage you to incorporate additional perspectives into your instruction. The resources provided in the manual will enrich the course to provide an exciting and enjoyable class for your students. Thank you for choosing Lifespan Development, 5th Edition! We sincerely hope that you find these carefully integrated resources a valuable addition to your course materials. Karen P. Saenz, Houston Community College—Southeast College Rod Fowers, Highline Community College Susan Carol Losh, Florida State University


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Unending thanks go to my family—both immediate and extended—for providing me with the lifespan perspective. My husband and I recently celebrated our fortieth wedding anniversary. Our daughter finished her Bachelor’s degree, started a career, and began work on her Master’s degree. Our son and daughter-in-law changed jobs and moved farther away. Our grandson started school, and our granddaughter turned three. My mother-in-law is 93 and my aunt is almost 99. Additionally, I’m blessed to be working with some amazing high school students attending an Early College High School on our college campus. Among us, we’ve got the chapters covered! Each has patiently “rearranged the world” to allow me time to write. Thank you!

Karen P. Saenz Houston Community College—Southeast College

Houston, Texas


CHAPTER 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS

RESOURCES-AT-A-GLANCE

Detailed Outline Instructor’s Resources Test Bank MyDevelopmentLab Connection

Chapter Introduction p. 1-2

MC 1 FI 1

An Introduction to Human Development p. 2-6 Philosophical and

Scientific Roots The Lifespan Perspective The Domains and Periods

of Development

Lecture Enhancer Non-Western

Philosophical views of Development PowerPoint Slides

MC 2-21 FI 2-5 SA 1-5 ES 1-2 MDL Study Plan MC** 1-2

Explore Life Stages and Approximate Ages in

Human Development Practice An Introduction to Human

Development

Key Issues in the Study of Human Development p. 6-10 Nature versus Nurture Continuity versus

Discontinuity Three Kinds of Change Contexts of Development

PowerPoint Slides

MC 22-46 FI 6-9 SA 6-11 ES 3-6 MDL Essay* 2 MDL Study Plan MC 3

Explore Key Issues in Developmental

Psychology Listen Nature-Nurture Debate

Research Methods and Designs p. 11-19 The Goals of

Developmental Science Descriptive Methods The Experimental Method Designs for Studying

Age-Related Changes Cross-Cultural Research Research Ethics

Lecture Enhancer The Difference Between

an Experiment and a Correlation

PowerPoint Slides Student Projects #1 A First Observation of

a Child: An Example of a Narrative Report

#2 Naturalistic Observation of a Nursing Home Resident

#3 Analysis of Research Presented in Popular Sources

MC 47-75 FI 10-15 SA 12-15 ES 7-10 MDL Essay 1 MDL Study Plan MC 4-5

Explore Correlations Do Not Show Causation Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Research Interactive Correlation Watch Stanford Prison Experiment: Phil

Zimbardo Naturalistic Observation

* MyDevelopmentLab Essay Questions correspond to italicized assets cited in the MyDevelopmentLab Connection **MyDevelopmentLab Study Plan Multiple Choice/Completion Questions test assets listed in the main text

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

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INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL


CHAPTER OVERVIEW The goal of scientists who study human development is to produce observations and explanations that can be applied to as wide an age range of human beings and contexts as possible. To accomplish this goal, they study both change and stability. Additionally, they study cultural expectations; make predictions about development and use scientific methods to test them; and hope their findings can be used to positively influence development in individuals. The philosophical concepts of original sin, innate goodness, and the blank slate have influenced Western ideas about development. The concept of developmental stages comes, in part, from Darwin’s evolutionary theory. G. Stanley Hall identified norms at which developmental milestones happen. Gesell focused on genetically programmed sequential patterns of change. Important changes occur during every period of development across the lifespan, and these changes must be understood in the cultures and contexts in which they occur. There are three broad categories, called domains of development, to classify the changes—physical, cognitive, and social. In addition to domains, developmentalists use a system of age-related categories known as periods of development. Historically, developmentalists have looked at nature and nurture as an either-or debate. Modern developmentalists understand that developmental change is a product of both genetics and the environment. A key issue in the study of human development is the continuity-discontinuity issue. The question is whether age-related change is primarily a matter of amount or degree (continuity), or it involves changes in type or kind (discontinuity). Normative age-graded changes are universal; normative history-graded changes affect each generation differently; and nonnormative changes result from unique, unshared events. The context in which the child is growing is impacted by the factors such as the family, the neighborhood, and the larger society. Developmental psychology uses the scientific method to achieve its goals: to describe, explain, predict, and influence human development from conception to death. Descriptive research methods are used to study the relationship between variables. Case studies are in-depth examinations of single individuals. The laboratory observation method attempts to exert some degree of control over the environment. Surveys collect data about attitudes, interests, values, and various kinds of behavior. Correlational studies measure the relationship between variables. To test causal hypotheses, experimental designs in which subjects are assigned randomly to experimental or control groups are necessary. There are three choices for studying age-related change: a cross-sectional design to study different groups of people of different ages; a longitudinal design to study the same people over a period of time; and a sequential design to combine cross-sectional and longitudinal designs in some fashion. Cross-cultural research helps developmentalists identify specific variables that explain cultural differences. Ethical principles in human developmental research include the following: protection from harm, informed consent, confidentiality, knowledge of results, and protection from deception.


2

CHAPTER 1


LEARNING OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS After completing Chapter 1, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1.1 What ideas about development were proposed by early philosophers and scientists? 1.2 What is the lifespan perspective? 1.3 What major domains and periods do developmental scientists use to organize their discussions of

the human lifespan? 1.4 How do developmentalists view the two sides of the nature-nurture debate? 1.5 What is the continuity-discontinuity debate? 1.6 How do the three kinds of age-related change differ? 1.7 How does consideration of the contexts in which change occurs improve scientists understanding

of human development? 1.8 What are the goals of scientists who study human development? 1.9 What descriptive methods are used by developmental scientists? 1.10 What is the primary advantage of the experimental method? 1.11 What are the pros and cons of cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential research designs? 1.12 Why is cross-cultural research important to the study of human development? 1.13 What are the ethical standards that developmental researchers must follow?

KEY TERMS ageism (p. 9) human development (p. 2) population (p. 13) atypical development (p. 9) independent variable (p. 14) qualitative change (p. 7) case study (p. 12) laboratory observation (p. 12) quantitative change (p. 7) cognitive domain (p. 5) lifespan perspective (p. 4) research ethics (p. 18) cohort effects (p. 15) longitudinal design (p. 14) sample (p. 13) control group (p. 14) maturation (p. 4) sensitive period (p. 9) correlation (p. 13) naturalistic observation (p. 12) sequential design (p. 14) critical period (p. 9) nature-nurture debate (p. 6) social clock (p. 9) cross-sectional design (p. 14) nonnormative changes (p. 9) social domain (p. 5) dependent variable (p. 14) normative age-graded changes (p. 7) stages (p. 7) ethnography (p. 17) normative history-graded changes (p. 9) survey (p. 12) experiment (p. 13) norms (p. 4) experimental group (p. 14) physical domain (p. 5)


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INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL


INTEGRATED CHAPTER TEACHING NOTES

AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT (p. 2-6) Human development is the scientific study of age-related changes in behavior, thinking, emotion, and personality. Many Western beliefs about human development are based on philosophers' explanations for differences they observed in individuals of different ages.

Philosophical and Scientific Roots 1.1 What ideas about development were proposed by early philosophers and scientists?

Original Sin, the Blank Slate, and Innate Goodness The Christian doctrine of original sin, often attributed to 4th-century philosopher St. Augustine, taught that all humans are born with a selfish nature. To reduce the influence of this inborn tendency toward selfishness, Augustine taught that humans must seek spiritual rebirth and sublime themselves to religious training. Developmental outcomes, both good and bad, are the result of each individual’s struggle to overcome an inborn tendency to act immorally when doing so somehow benefits the self. In the 17th century, English philosopher John Locke drew upon a broad philosophical approach known as empiricism when he claimed that the mind of a child is a blank slate. Empiricism is the view that humans possess no innate tendencies and that all differences among humans are attributable to experience. The blank slate view proposes that adults can mold children into whatever they want them to be. “Good” and “bad” differences among adults can be explained in terms of differences in their childhood environments. Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau claimed that all humans have innate goodness, and all humans are naturally good and seek out experiences that help them grow. The goal of human development is to achieve one’s inborn potential. Good outcomes result from growing up in an environment that doesn’t interfere with the individual’s attempts to do so. Poor outcomes are learned from others or happens when a person experiences frustration in his efforts to follow the dictates of the innate goodness with which he was born. Thus, the innate goodness and original sin approaches share the view that development involves a struggle between internal and external forces. In contrast to both, the blank slate sees the child as a passive recipient of environmental influences. Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.1, p. 3) How might a parent who believes in the original sin view respond to and interact with a child differently than one who agrees with Rousseau about innate goodness? How might the approaches of each of these parents differ from a parent who believes in Locke’s blank slate idea? Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.1, p. 3) Other cultures and religions have different ways of viewing the process of development. How do the original sin, innate goodness, and blank slate views compare to your own beliefs? How do you think your own culture and religion have contributed to these beliefs?


4

CHAPTER 1


Early Scientific Theories In the nineteenth century, people turned to science for explanations about human development. Charles Darwin and other evolutionists believed they could understand the development of the human

species by studying child development. They kept detailed records of their own children’s early development called baby biographies, in hopes of finding evidence to support evolution. These were the first organized studies of human development. Darwin’s studies were the source of many important ideas in modern developmental psychology, such as the concept of developmental stages.

G. Stanley Hall wanted to find more objective ways to study development. He used questionnaires and interviews to study large numbers of children. Hall thought that developmentalists should identify norms, average ages at which milestones happen, and that norms could be used to learn about the evolution of individual children.

Arnold Gesell suggested the existence of genetically programmed sequential patterns of change, called maturation. He thought that maturationally determined development occurred regardless of practice, training, or effort. He pioneered the use of movie cameras and one-way observation devices to study children’s behavior, and his findings became the basis for many tests that are used today to determine if individual children are developing normally.

Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.1, p. 4) Review philosopher John Locke’s blank slate idea. How does Watson’s view, quoted in the text, compare to it?

The Lifespan Perspective 1.2 What is the lifespan perspective? Until quite recently, psychologists thought of adulthood as a long period of stability followed by a short span of unstable years immediately preceding death. Views have changed for the following reasons: It has become more common for adults to go through major life changes, like divorce and career

shifts, resulting in stage models of development that include adult phases. Significant increases in life expectancy have occurred in the industrialized world, resulting in an

increase in older adults that have influenced many disciplines, including developmental psychology. The changes listed above have led to the adoption of a lifespan perspective. It maintains that important changes occur during every period of development and that these changes must be understood in the cultures and contexts in which they occur. This new perspective emphasizes these key elements: Plasticity: Individuals of all ages possess the capacity for positive change in response to

environmental demands. Interdisciplinary research: Research from different kinds of disciplinary perspectives is needed to

fully understand lifespan development. Multi-contextual nature of development: Individual development occurs within several interrelated

contexts. Paul Baltes has been a leader in the development of a comprehensive theory of lifespan development. One of his most important contributions is his emphasis on the positive aspects of advanced age.


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INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL


Domains and Periods of Development 1.3 What major domains and periods do developmental scientists use to organize their discussions of the human lifespan? Scientists who study age-related changes across the lifespan often use three broad categories, called domains of development, to classify these changes. The physical domain includes changes in the size, shape, and characteristics of the body. The cognitive domain includes changes in thinking, memory, problem-solving, and other intellectual

skills. The social domain includes variables that are associated with the relationship of an individual to

others. Using domain classifications helps to organize discussions of human development, but it is important to remember that the three domains do not function independently of one another. Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.3, p. 5) Give examples of how the three domains interact in development. In addition to categorizing developmental events according to domains, developmental scientists also use a system of age-related categories that are known as periods of development. The prenatal period is the only one that has clearly defined biological boundaries at its beginning and

end in that it begins at conception and ends at birth. Infancy begins at birth and ends when a child begins to use language to communicate. Early childhood begins when children reach the milestone of beginning to use language. Middle childhood is marked by a social event, the child’s entrance into school. Adolescence is marked by a biological milestone, puberty, which signals the end of childhood. Early adulthood is marked with a variety of legal boundaries that are highlighted by the social and

psychological nature of the transition to adulthood. Middle adulthood, generally thought to begin around age 40, is even more arbitrary in its timing. The

biological milestones, such as menopause, vary greatly among individuals, and social boundaries are rapidly changing.

Late adulthood, though customarily begins at age 60, is not distinguished by any biological or social event that distinguishes it from a middle-aged adult.

Despite the difficulties involved in defining the various periods of development, they can still serve as a useful system for organizing the study of development. Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.3, p. 6) Give examples of variations in periods of development. Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 1.1-1.3, p. 6) How have culture, religion, and science shaped your views of development?


6

CHAPTER 1


KEY ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT (p. 6-10) Videos/DVDs The Human Animal: Nature and Nurture There are several key issues that cut across all of the domains and period of development, such as the relative contributions to development of biological and environmental factors and the presence or absence of stages. Additionally, researchers debate whether or not a specific change is common to all humans, or if the change in questions occurs under some conditions but not others.

Nature versus Nurture 1.4 How do developmentalists view the two sides of the nature-nurture debate? The debate about the relative contribution of biological processes and experiential factors is known as the nature-nurture debate. Psychologists have moved away from either-or approaches to more subtle ways of looking at both types of influence. The concept of inborn biases is based on the notion that children are born with tendencies to respond in certain ways. Some inborn biases are shared by virtually all children; others may vary from one individual to another. Whether these inborn patterns are coded in the genes in some fashion, are created by variations in the prenatal environment, or through some combination of the two, the basic point is that the baby is not a blank slate at birth. Babies seem to start life prepared to seek out and react to particular kinds of experiences. The key element of internal models of experience is the idea that the effect of some experience depends not on any objective properties of the experience but on the individual’s interpretation of it.

Continuity versus Discontinuity 1.5 What is the continuity-discontinuity debate? Another key issue in the study of human development is the continuity-discontinuity issue. The question is whether age-related change is primarily a matter of amount or degree (the continuity side of the debate), or more commonly involves changes in type or kind (the discontinuity side). A quantitative change is a change in amount. A qualitative change is a change in kind or type.

If development consists only of additions (quantitative change), then the concept of stages, qualitatively distinct periods of development, is not needed to explain it. If development, however, involves reorganization or the emergence of wholly new strategies, qualities, or skills (qualitative change), then the concept of stages may be useful.

Three Kinds of Change 1.6 How do the three kinds of age-related change differ? Age-related changes are a part of our everyday lives, so much so that we often give them little thought. Generally, developmental scientists think of each age-related change as representing one of three categories.


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INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL


Normative age-graded changes are universal. Universal changes are common to every individual in a species and are linked to specific ages. Some universal changes happen because we are all biological organisms involved in a natural, genetically programmed maturing process. Some changes are universal, however, because of shared experiences. In each culture, the social clock, or a set of age norms, defines a sequence of normal life experiences. Age norms can lead to ageism. Ageism is analogous to sexism or racism and can lead to prejudicial behavior directed toward older adults. Normative history-graded changes affect each generation somewhat differently. The term cohort describes groups of individuals born within some fairly narrow band of years who share the same historical experiences at the same times in their lives. Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.6, p. 9) Ask the class to list examples of events that could shape a cohort. Nonnormative changes result from unique, unshared events.

One clearly non-shared event is conception; the combination of genes each individual receives at conception are unique.

Characteristics influenced by both heredity and environment, such traits as intelligence and personality, constitute another class of individual differences.

Another type of individual difference involves the time of a developmental event. In theories of child development, the concept is that of a critical period. The idea is that there may be specific periods in development when an organism is especially sensitive to the presence (or absence) of some particular kind of experience.

The broader concept of a sensitive period is more common in the study of human development. A sensitive period is a span of months or years during which a child may be particularly influenced by their absence.

In studies of adults, the central timing concept has been the contrast between on-time and off-time events. The idea is that the experiences occurring at the expected times for an individual’s culture or cohort will pose fewer difficulties for her than will off-time experiences.

Atypical development is another kind of individual change. Synonyms for atypical development include abnormal behavior, psychopathology, pathological behavior, and maladaptive development. All of these refer to deviation from a typical, or “normal,” developmental pathway in a direction that is harmful to an individual.

Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.6, p. 9) Give examples of events that would be influenced by being on-time or off-time. Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 1.6, p. 8) Research Report: Children and Adolescents in the Great Depression: An Example of a Cohort Effect Speculate as to some of the possible causes of the different cohort effects in the two groups.


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CHAPTER 1


Contexts of Development 1.7 How does consideration of the contexts in which change occurs improve scientists understanding of human development? In recent decades, developmental scientists have become increasingly aware of the importance of looking beyond a child’s immediate family for explanations of development. We must understand the entire context in which the child is growing: the neighborhood, the school, the occupations of the parents and their level of satisfaction with these occupations, the parents’ relationship with each other and their own families, and so on. Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.7, p. 10) Give examples of how these contexts interact with one another. When considering the contexts, we have to keep in mind that all of the various contexts interact with each other and with the characteristics of the individuals who are developing within them. Some developmentalists found the concepts of vulnerability and resilience to be useful. Each child is born with certain vulnerabilities, such as a tendency toward emotional irritability, a physical abnormality, allergies, a genetic tendency toward alcoholism, or whatever. Each child is also born with some protective factors, such as high intelligence, good coordination, an easy temperament, or a lovely smile, that tend to make her resilient in the face of stress. These vulnerabilities and protective factors then interact with the child’s environment, so that the same environment can have quite different effects, depending on the qualities the child brings to the interaction. Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.7, p. 11) Give examples of vulnerabilities and resiliencies. The characteristics of the larger society in which a child’s family and neighborhood are embedded need to be factored in as well. Culture describes some system of meanings and customs, including values, attitudes, goals, laws, beliefs, morals, and physical artifacts of various kinds, such as tools, forms of dwellings, and the like. Culture shapes not only the development of individuals, but our ideas about what normal development is. Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.7, p. 10) Give examples of how culture affects development. Another aspect of the context within which an individual’s development occurs involves gender. Males and females experience the interaction between their characteristics and their environment differently. Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.7, p. 10) Give examples of the gender differences in the interaction between an individual’s characteristics and his or her environment. Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objective 1.7, p.10) How do your culture’s behavioral expectations for 20-year-olds, 40-year-olds, and 60-year-olds differ?


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INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL


RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS (p. 11-19) Videos/DVDs Methodology: The Psychologist and the Experiment Research Methods What Right Has a Child?

The Goals of Developmental Science 1.8 What are the goals of scientists who study human development? Developmental psychology uses the scientific method to achieve the following four goals to study human development from conception to death: To describe development is simply to state what happens. To explain development involves telling why a particular event occurs. Developmentalists rely on

theories, sets of statements that propose general principles to explain development, to generate explanations.

To predict development, researchers test hypotheses. To influence development is to modify the behavior in some way.

Descriptive Methods 1.9 What descriptive methods are used by developmental scientists? Variables are characteristics that vary from person to person. When two or more variables vary together, there is some kind of relationship between them. There are several ways of identifying such relationships. When psychologists use the naturalistic observation method, they observe people in their normal environments. Such studies provide developmentalists with information about psychological processes in everyday contexts. The weakness of the method is observer bias in which a researcher ignores any behavior that goes against the hypothesis. To overcome observer bias, researchers only use “blind” observers who don’t know what the research is about, and in most cases, two or more observers are used for the sake of accuracy. The results have limited generalizability and are very time-consuming.

Case Studies Case studies are in-depth examinations of single individuals. Case studies don’t tell us if the findings apply to others, but they are useful in making decisions about individuals. They are also frequently the basis of important hypotheses about unusual developmental events such as head injuries and strokes. Lecture Launcher (Learning Objective 1.9, p. 12) Give examples of studies that use case studies.

Laboratory Observation Laboratory observation differs from naturalistic observation in that the researcher exerts some degree of control over the environment.


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Surveys A survey is a study in which researchers use interviews and/or questionnaires to collect data about attitudes, interests, values, and various kinds of behaviors. Surveys allow researchers to quickly gather information, and they can track changes over time. The value of any survey depends entirely on how representative the sample of participants is of the researcher’s population of interest. A population is the entire group about which the researcher is attempting to learn something; a sample is a subset of that group. Survey participants are sometimes influenced by the perceived social desirability of their answers.

Correlations A correlation is a number ranging from –1.00 to +1.00 that describes the strength of a relationship between two variables. A correlation of zero indicates that there is no relationship between those variables. A positive correlation means that high scores on one variable are usually accompanied by high scores on the other. The closer a positive correlation is to +1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables. Two variables that move in opposite directions result in a negative correlation, and the nearer the correlation is to –1.00, the more strongly the two are connected. Correlations have a major limitation: they do not tell us about causal relationships. In order to identify causes, we have to carry out experiments. The Experimental Method 1.10 What is the primary advantage of the experimental method? An experiment is a study that tests a causal hypothesis—something causes something to happen. A key feature of an experiment is that subjects are assigned randomly to participate in one of several groups—chance determines the group in which the researcher places each subject. When subjects are randomly assigned to groups, the groups have equal averages and equal amounts of variation with respect to variables like intelligence, personality traits, height, weight, health status, and so on. Consequently, none of these variables can affect the outcome of the experiment. Subjects in the experimental group receive the treatment the researcher thinks will produce a particular effect, while those in the control group receive either no treatment or a neutral treatment. The presumed causal element in the experiment is called the independent variable and the behavior on which the independent variable is expected to show its effect is called a dependent variable. Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.10, p. 14) Suppose you want to see if children who watch violence on TV are more aggressive than children who do not watch violent TV. Identify the following parts of the experiment: independent variable, dependent variable, experimental group, and control group. Experiments are essential for our understanding of many aspects of development, but two special problems in studying human development limit the use of experiments.

Many of the questions we want to answer have to do with the effects of particularly unpleasant or stressful experiments on individuals, such as abuses, prenatal influences such as alcohol or tobacco, low birth weight, poverty, unemployment, or widowhood. For obvious ethical reasons, we cannot manipulate these variables; to study the effects of such experiences, we must rely on non-experimental methods, like correlations.


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Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.10, p. 14) Ask the class to give examples of how research on each of the variables listed above could be done without using an experiment.

The independent variable we are often most interested in is age itself, and we cannot assign subjects randomly to age groups. We can compare four-year-olds with six-year-olds on a particular task, but the children differ in a host of ways other than their ages.

Thus, unlike psychologists studying other aspects of behavior, developmental psychologists cannot systematically manipulate many of the variables we are most interested in. To get around this problem, we can use one of a series of strategies, sometimes called quasi-experiments, in which we compare groups without assigning the subjects randomly. Cross-sectional comparisons are a form of quasi-experiment. So are studies in which we select naturally occurring groups that differ in some dimension of interest. Such comparisons have built-in problems, because groups that differ in one way are likely to be different in other ways as well. A quasi-experiment, by its very nature, will always yield more ambiguous results than will a fully controlled experiment. Designs for Studying Age-Related Changes 1.11 What are the pros and cons of cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential research designs? In addition to deciding which method to use, developmental scientists must also determine how to incorporate age into their research design. There are three general strategies for doing so. Study different groups of people of different ages, called a cross-sectional design. Study the same people over a period of time, called a longitudinal design. Combine cross-sectional and longitudinal designs in some fashion in a sequential design.

Cross-Sectional Designs To study cross-sectionally, groups of subjects are selected at each of a series of ages. The results may seem to indicate that there are major changes based on age. Cross-sectional data alone cannot be used to conclusively support a hypothesis because these adults differ not only in age, but in cohort. Influences of this kind lead to cohort effects, findings that are the result of historical factors to which one age group in a cross-sectional study has been exposed. Cross-sectional studies cannot tell us anything about sequences of change over age, or about the consistency of individual behavior over time, because each subject is tested only once. Cross-sectional research is very useful because it is relatively quick to do and can give us a glimpse of possible age differences or age changes. Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.11, p. 15) Suppose a cross-sectional study of sex-role attitudes reveals that adults between ages 20 and 50 have the most egalitarian attitudes, while teenagers and adults over 50 have more traditional attitudes. How might cohort differences influence your interpretation of these results?

Longitudinal Designs Longitudinal designs seem to solve the problems of cross-sectional research because they follow the same individual over a period of time. Each study of the same individuals allows us to look at sequences of change and at individual consistency or inconsistency over time. Because they compare performances by the same people at different ages, they get around the obvious cohort problem. Longitudinal designs, however, have several major difficulties. One problem is that longitudinal designs typically involve giving each subject the same test over and over again. Over time, people learn how to


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take the tests and the practice effects may distort the measurement of any underlying developmental changes. Another significant problem is that not everyone sticks with the program; some subjects drop out, others die or move away. As a general rule, the healthiest and best educated are most likely to stick it out, and that fact biases the results, particularly if the study covers the final decades of life. Each successive testing includes proportionately more and more healthy adults, which make it look as if there is less change, or less decline, than actually exists. Longitudinal studies also don’t really get around the cohort problem. With subjects born in the same decade who showed the same pattern of change with age, we wouldn’t know whether the pattern was unique to that cohort, or if it reflected more basic developmental changes that would be observed in other cultures and other cohorts.

Sequential Designs One way to avoid the shortcomings of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs is to use a sequential design. A researcher using a sequential design would begin with at least two age groups. Investigators then test each group over a number of years. Each testing point beyond the initial one provides researchers with two types of comparisons—age-group comparisons like in a cross-sectional study, and comparisons of each group to itself at an earlier testing point like in a longitudinal design. Sequential designs also allow for comparisons of cohorts. Finding the same developmental pattern in two cohorts provides psychologists with stronger evidence than either cross-sectional or longitudinal data alone. Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.11, p. 17) Using the previous example about children who watch violence on TV and their levels of aggression, how would you design the study as cross-sectional research? Longitudinal research? Sequential research? Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective Question 1.11, p. 15) No Easy Answers: It Depends . . . In groups, ask the class to describe a scenario in which someone might want to predict the long-term outcome, such as the incidence of child abuse mentioned in the text. Each group should then list as many variables as possible that could influence the outcome. Report each group’s ideas to the whole class.

Cross-Cultural Research 1.12 Why is cross-cultural research important to the study of human development? Increasingly common in developmental psychology are studies comparing cultures or contexts, a task that researchers approach in several ways. One strategy, borrowed from the field of anthropology, is an ethnography, a detailed description of a

single culture or context based on extensive observation. Often the observer lives within the culture for a period of time, perhaps as long as several years.

Alternatively, investigators may attempt to compare two or more cultures directly, by testing children or adults in each of several cultures with the same or comparable measures. Sometimes this involves comparing across different countries. Sometimes the comparisons are between subcultures with the same country, such as involving comparisons of children or adults living in different ethnic groups or communities, such as African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans, and European Americans.


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Cross-cultural research is important to developmental psychology for the following two reasons: Developmentalists want to identify universal changes, that is, predictable events or processes that

occur in individuals’ lives in all cultures. Without cross-cultural research, it is impossible to know whether studies involving North Americans and Europeans apply to people in other parts of the world.

One of the goals of developmental psychology is to produce findings that can be used to improve people’s lives. Cross-cultural research is critical to this goal as well. Cross-cultural research helps developmentalists identify specific variables that explain cultural differences.

Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 1.12, p. 18) Give examples of research that could use cross-cultural design.

Research Ethics 1.13 What are the ethical standards that developmental researchers must follow? Research ethics are the guidelines researchers follow to protect the rights of animals and humans who participate in studies. Ethical guidelines are published by professional organizations like the American Psychological Association, American Educational Research Association, and Society for Research in Child Development. Guidelines for animal research include the requirement that animals be protected from unnecessary pain and suffering. Further, researchers must demonstrate that the potential benefits of their studies to either human or animal populations must be greater than any potential harm to animal subjects. Ethical standards for research involving human subjects contain five major themes. Protection from Harm: It is unethical to do research that may cause permanent physical or

psychological harm to subjects. If the possibility of temporary harm exists, researchers must provide subjects with some way of repairing the damage.

Informed Consent: Researchers must inform subjects of any possible harm and require them to sign a consent form stating that they are aware of the risks involved in participation. In additions, human subjects, whether children or adults, have the right to discontinue participation in a study at any time. Researchers are obligated to explain this right to children in language they can understand.

Confidentiality: Participants have the right to confidentiality. The exception to confidentiality is when children reveal to researchers that they are or have been abused in any way by an adult. In most states, all citizens are required to report suspected cases of child abuse.

Knowledge of Results: Participants, their parents, and administrators of institutions in which research takes place have a right to a written summary of a study’s results.

Deception: If deception has been a necessary part of a study, participants have the right to be informed about the deception as soon as the study is over.

Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 1.13, p. 19) The Real World: Thinking Critically about Research In teams, examine a question of concern to the students, and decide how to evaluate research about the topic.


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Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 1.8-1.13, p. 11-19) Researchers have found a positive correlation between a mother’s age at the birth of her child and the child’s later IQ. Very young mothers have children of lower IQs. How many different explanations of this correlation can you think of? Suppose a cross-sectional study of sex-role attitudes reveals that adults between the ages of 20 and 50 have the most egalitarian attitudes, while teenagers and adults over 50 have more traditional attitudes. How might cohort differences influence your interpretation of these results?

LECTURE ENHANCERS

Non-Western Philosophical Views of Development As the text points out, the original sin, innate goodness, and blank slate views of development are associated with Western culture. Understanding how philosophical perspectives in other cultures differ from them is important to understanding why parenting and educational practices often vary across cultures. When we examine philosophies of development across cultures, we find both similarities to and differences from these three points of view. For example, Judaism agrees with Rousseau that children are naturally good but in need of training from adults, as in Locke’s blank slate approach. The notion of development as a struggle, like the original sin view, is present in both Hinduism and Buddhism, systems of thought that are common in India and some other parts of Asia (Ozman & Craver, 1986). However, the struggle is primarily an internal one between an individual’s spiritual and physical natures. Children are taught the law of karma, the idea that the sum of a person’s good and bad deeds determines whether he or she must repeat the cycle of life, that is, be reincarnated, after death. In adulthood, moral success is defined in terms of the degree to which an individual has succeeded in following his spiritual rather than physical nature. In China, Japan, and Korea, Confucian ideas have been particularly influential (Serpell & Hatano, 1997). Children are seen as morally neutral, as in Locke’s blank slate perspective. However, developmental outcomes are presumed to result from both environmental influences and the individual’s own efforts. There is also a great deal of emphasis on perfect emulation of good models. Ozman, H. & Craver, S. (1986). Philosophical foundations of education. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Serpell, R. & Hatano, G. (1997). Education, schooling, and literacy. In J. Berry, P. Dasen, & T.

Saraswathi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology, Vol. 2: Basic processes and human development. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

The Difference Between an Experiment and a Correlation Many times researchers are confronted with information that does not come from experimental data. Instead, the correlational method is used. The information illustrates a relationship between two events and the degree to which the occurrence of those events is meaningful. The correlation is a statistical technique for measuring the degree of relationship between two events or variables. For example, a town discovers a significant correlation between the amount of ice cream bought and the number of violent crimes. The newspaper splashes the front page with the following headline, "Ice Cream Consumption Increases Violence." What assumption has this article made? Primarily, that the


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link between ice cream and violence is clear. Secondly, this article assumes that there is no other possible explanation for the relationship and that there is no other unknown factor that could explain the occurrence of both increased ice cream consumption and violent crimes. Many questions would need to be asked and answered to truly reach the conclusion this headline has reached. These questions include: How is violence being defined? Are we sure that the same people who bought the ice cream are the ones who committed the

violence? What other factors may be linked to both?

Clearly, alternative explanations exist. Most notably, it is possible that the data was collected during the summer, and that the true culprit in the increasing violence is the outside temperature and not the amount of ice cream being purchased. Research shows a very clear connection between temperature and violence. In this case, the apparent relationship between ice cream and violence is a false one. Assumptions of causality can only be made to the extent that the experimental method has been utilized. For example, a scientist conducts the following experiment: Half of the subjects are assigned to a condition of eating ice cream, and the other half of the subjects

are given pudding to eat. All other characteristics of the subjects are similar. After the food has been consumed, all subjects are made angry. Next, subjects were told that they have been assigned the role of "teacher" in a learning task, and it is

their job to administer an electric shock to the "learner" after every mistake the learner makes. The experimenter utilized the intensity of the shocks administered to the "learner" as a measure of

violence. If, under these conditions, the group that ate ice cream administers significantly more intense shocks to the learner than those who ate pudding, a much stronger statement can be made. In the study, with the intensity of the shock as the measure of violence, those subjects who ate ice cream truly behaved in a more violent manner. This example illustrates the difference between the experimental method and the correlational method. In the experimental method, the experimenter has control and manipulates what happens to the groups. If all other features of the groups are the same (or if subjects are randomly assigned to groups so that other characteristics of the subjects would be random within the groups), and differences are discovered between the two groups, there is a lot more power for assuming that the difference was due to the food they were given. All of the elements of a successful experiment were present in the shock example. An experimental group is defined as the group that gets the manipulation of interest. A control group is defined as the group that is as similar as possible to the experimental group except

they do not receive the treatment, so they eat pudding instead of ice cream. An independent variable is defined as the variable that we manipulate or the difference between our

groups—in this case, the type of food they are given. A dependent variable is defined as the variable that we measure—in this case, the amount of violence

as measured by the intensity of shocks. Clearly, correlational data do not include these components. They merely describe the degree to which two events occur together. The variables are not systematically manipulated variables to differences. There is nothing wrong with correlational data, but no assumptions can be made about what caused the variables to be related. In the above experiment, the treatment of the subjects was manipulated. The only difference between the two groups was the food they were given (the independent variable). When the two groups then showed a difference on the violence measure (the dependent variable), we are in a good position to state that ice


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cream consumption (those serving as our experimental group) increased the degree of violence in comparison to the control group (those who ate pudding).

INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES

Media The Human Animal: Nature and Nurture. (52 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1986).

Discusses the effects of both heredity and environment in human development. Includes twin studies, shyness, attachment, accelerated learning programs, genetics counseling, and the role of parents. A Phil Donahue TV Special.

Methodology: The Psychologist and the Experiment: (30 minutes, CRM/McGraw-Hill Films, 1975). Illustrates experimental design with two studies.

Research Methods. (35 minutes, Insight Media, 1975). Discusses the impact psychological research can have on a person. Explains the importance of sound scientific methods.

Research Methods. (25 minutes, RMI Media Productions, 1989). Underscores the necessity of random assignment and the selection of appropriate control groups.

What Right Has a Child. (15 minutes, CRM/McGraw-Hill Films). Describes UN Declaration on Children’s Rights and children’s reaction to it.

Helen Bee’s Student Projects Research Project 1 A First Observation of a Child: An Example of a Narrative Report Research Project 2 Naturalistic Observation of a Nursing Home Resident At-Home Project 3 Analysis of Research Presented in Popular Sources


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Test Bank Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Methods Multiple Choice Questions 1) Which of the following would be a legitimate conclusion from the "Reality House" project conducted in 2005? A) People typically live in multigenerational households because of economic circumstance. B) Most families, including multigenerational families, have a need for private space--areas where individual family members can be alone. C) The project really didn't offer any useful information since multigenerational households are very rare in the United States. D) The need for multigenerational households in the United States arises primarily from social and cultural needs. Answer: B Diff: 2 Page Ref: 2 Topic: Chapter Introduction Skill: Conceptual Objective: N/A 2) The Christian doctrine of ________ is the basis for the theory that human development occurs as a result of how well or how poorly someone does at overcoming their innately sinful nature. A) original sin B) blank slate C) behaviorism D) innate goodness Answer: A Diff: 1 Page Ref: 3 Topic: Philosophical and Scientific Roots Skill: Factual Objective: 1.1 3) Which of the following believed that humans are selfish by nature and must seek spiritual rebirth through religious training? A) St. Jean Rousseau B) Augustine C) John Locke D) St. Mary Answer: B Diff: 1 Page Ref: 3 Topic: Philosophical and Scientific Roots Skill: Factual Objective: 1.1 4) Who was the philosopher who believed that children are born with a mind which is a blank slate? A) John Luc B) Darwin C) Jean-Jacques Rousseau D) John Locke Answer: D Diff: 1 Page Ref: 3 Topic: Philosophical and Scientific Roots Skill: Factual Objective: 1.1


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5) The ideas of the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau would suggest that the basis for human development is A) a result of the struggle between an individual's original sin nature and the Holy Spirit. B) an individual's response to external, environmental influences. C) empiricism. D) an individual's effort to overcome his or her inborn potential. Answer: B Diff: 2 Page Ref: 3 Topic: Philosophical and Scientific Roots Skill: Factual Objective: 1.1 6) As a developmental psychologist I believe that humans possess no inborn abilities and that a child's parents can mold them into whatever they want them to be. Which of the following would best describe my beliefs? A) Empiricism B) Innate goodness C) Original sin D) Darwinism Answer: A Diff: 3 Page Ref: 3 Topic: Philosophical and Scientific Roots Skill: Applied Objective: 1.1 7) The idea that the earth contains a wide variety of life forms and that humans have developed as a result of the interaction of heredity and environment was proposed by A) John Locke. B) Charles Darwin. C) Jean-Jacques Rousseau. D) John Hall. Answer: B Diff: 1 Page Ref: 3 Topic: Philosophical and Scientific Roots Skill: Factual Objective: 1.1 8) Which of the following assertions regarding lifespan development can be attributed to both G. Stanley Hall and Charles Darwin? A) Humans evolved from other animals. B) Biology dictates human personality. C) Environment dictates healthy development. D) Norms should be identified for each developmental stage. Answer: D Diff: 2 Page Ref: 4 Topic: Philosophical and Scientific Roots Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.1


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9) What is the term that Arnold Gesell used to describe genetically programmed sequential patterns of change such as puberty or menopause? A) Maturation B) Growth C) Social clock D) Age norms Answer: A Diff: 2 Page Ref: 4 Topic: Philosophical and Scientific Roots Skill: Factual Objective: 1.1 10) Which of the following best describes your text's approach to human development? A) Human development begins at birth and continues throughout the lifespan. B) Human development begins at birth and becomes relatively stable by adolescence. C) Human development begins slowly at birth and accelerates as we age. D) Human development begins with the onset of puberty. Answer: A Diff: 1 Page Ref: 4 Topic: The Lifespan Perspective Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.2 11) If you are born in the 21st century, which of the following statements might apply to you? A) You may well live to be 100 years old. B) You are likely to live 30 or more years longer than your parents. C) If you are the average person you will live to be 76 years old. D) Your life expectancy will likely be double that of your grandparents. Answer: A Diff: 3 Page Ref: 4 Topic: The Lifespan Perspective Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.2 12) Because of our increasing lifespan, theorists have to include many types of information gathering to complete their research. Which of the following is NOT one of the key elements emphasized in the newer approaches to lifespan development? A) The multi-contextual nature of development B) Interdisciplinary research C) Extra-generational implications D) Plasticity Answer: C Diff: 3 Page Ref: 4 - 5 Topic: The Lifespan Perspective Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.2 13) Which of the following theorists is known for his optimism about aging? A) John Locke B) Paul Baltes C) Jean Piaget D) Sigmund Freud Answer: B Diff: 1 Page Ref: 5 Topic: The Lifespan Perspective Skill: Factual Objective: 1.2


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14) Michael, age 16, has recently gained a considerable amount of weight, but has not grown any taller. Developmentalists would suggest that there is a problem in which of the following domains of developmental psychology? A) Physical B) Cultural C) Cognitive D) Social Answer: A Diff: 2 Page Ref: 5 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Applied Objective: 1.3 15) Which domain of developmental psychology examines interactions with others? A) Cognitive B) Physical C) Biological D) Social Answer: D Diff: 1 Page Ref: 5 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Factual Objective: 1.3 16) Stella, age 12, is in the 6th grade, but still reads at a 3rd grade level. Developmentalists would suggest that there is a problem in which domain of development? A) Physical B) Cultural C) Cognitive D) Social Answer: C Diff: 2 Page Ref: 5 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Applied Objective: 1.3 17) The three broad categories that are used to classify changes over the lifespan are called A) domains of development. B) domains of change models. C) evolutionary stages. D) psychosocial domains. Answer: A Diff: 1 Page Ref: 5 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Factual Objective: 1.3


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18) If a child is born with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and has severe mental retardation, which of the following domains of her development is directly affected by this? A) Physical B) Emotional C) Social D) Cognitive Answer: D Diff: 2 Page Ref: 5 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.3 19) Periods describe which aspect of developmental theories? A) Age-related changes B) Domain-related changes C) Biological changes D) Prenatal changes Answer: A Diff: 2 Page Ref: 5 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Factual Objective: 1.3 20) Not all cultures define the boundaries of adolescence in the same way. For example, if you grew up in Great Britain, which of the following would be different than if you grew up in the United States? A) You would be able to buy alcohol at any age. B) You wouldn't be able to drive until the age of 21. C) You could join the military at the age of 16. D) You wouldn't be able to vote until the age of 19. Answer: C Diff: 1 Page Ref: 6 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Applied Objective: 1.3 21) According to your text, when does middle childhood occur? A) 2 - 3 years B) 3 - 5 years C) 6 - 12 years D) 12 - 14 years Answer: C Diff: 1 Page Ref: 6 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Factual Objective: 1.3 22) Which of the following are central to the nature-nurture controversy? A) Environmental continuity and psychological comfort B) Change triggered by social processes or change caused by cultural influences C) Inborn biases and genetic predispositions D) Biological process and experiential factors Answer: D Diff: 2 Page Ref: 6 Topic: Nature Versus Nurture Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.4


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23) Juanita's father died when she was just a baby, but her family insists that she not only looks like him, she acts like him as well. This might indicate that which of the following had a large impact on her development? A) Nature B) Environment C) Nurture D) Innate goodness Answer: A Diff: 3 Page Ref: 6 Topic: Nature Versus Nurture Skill: Applied Objective: 1.4 24) Developmental psychologists have observed that babies seem to be born predisposed to respond to people in certain ways, such as crying or smiling, in order to elicit attention from a caregiver. Psychologists call these inherent tendencies A) cultural biases. B) maturational patterns. C) nature and nurture tensions. D) inborn biases. Answer: D Diff: 2 Page Ref: 6 Topic: Nature Versus Nurture Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.4 25) "Mom, he's looking at me! Make him stop!" These remarks imply that the very act of being looked at is offensive to this child. Mom, on the other hand, doesn't see the problem. This typical family dilemma illustrates A) sibling rivalry. B) nature versus nurture. C) an issue of cognitive development. D) internal models of experience. Answer: D Diff: 3 Page Ref: 7 Topic: Nature Versus Nurture Skill: Applied Objective: 1.4 26) Which of the following accurately defines the concept of inborn biases? A) From birth, children are more comfortable with members of their own culture i.e. individuals who have similar language, customs, and behaviors, than members of other cultures. B) Babies who are born into families with higher socioeconomic status have a head start on developing their full potential. C) Babies are born with built-in tendencies to respond to stimulation or experience in certain ways. D) Development is based upon genetically controlled, systematic physical change. Answer: C Diff: 1 Page Ref: 7 Topic: Nature Versus Nurture Skill: Factual Objective: 1.4


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27) Which of the following is an example from your text of an inborn bias? A) The fact that all male infants show a propensity toward aggression and female infants are more passive. B) The fact that there are more blue-eyed children in the United States than brown-eyed children. C) The fact that, universally, children's speech begins with single words before proceeding onto sentences. D) The fact that, universally, all children learn to crawl before they learn to walk. Answer: C Diff: 1 Page Ref: 7 Topic: Nature Versus Nurture Skill: Factual Objective: 1.4 28) Qualitative is to quantitative as A) production is to comprehension. B) specific to individual. C) continuous is to discontinuous. D) discontinuous is to continuous. Answer: D Diff: 2 Page Ref: 7 Topic: Continuity versus Discontinuity Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.5 29) You are a psychotherapist who believes that 6 year-old Michelle acts very differently than 4 year-old Martha. You would probably subscribe to which of the following theories of development? A) Discontinuity B) Quantitative C) Quantum D) Continuity Answer: A Diff: 3 Page Ref: 7 Topic: Continuity versus Discontinuity Skill: Applied Objective: 1.5 30) If puberty begins for girls with the onset of menstruation, puberty could be considered a matter of A) discontinuity. B) continuity. C) quantitative development. D) ecological development. Answer: A Diff: 3 Page Ref: 7 Topic: Continuity versus Discontinuity Skill: Applied Objective: 1.5 31) Which of the following is an example of a normative age-graded change? A) You have blue eyes even though both of your parents have brown eyes. B) You are taller now than when you were ten. C) You moved to the United States when you were a teen and learned to speak English. D) You learned to walk before you learned to crawl. Answer: B Diff: 3 Page Ref: 7 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.6


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32) Our sense of "the right time" to go to college, marry, have children, or retire is determined by our A) biological clock. B) intuition. C) social clock. D) cultural and cohort continuity. Answer: C Diff: 1 Page Ref: 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Applied Objective: 1.6 33) Roberta married for the first time at age 39, and at age 40 she is pregnant for the first time. She is now considering starting college to become a computer systems engineer. When Roberta laughingly tells her friends, "I have never done anything when I was supposed to!” what is she referring to? A) Her social clock B) Her biological clock C) Ageism D) A critical period Answer: A Diff: 1 Page Ref: 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Applied Objective: 1.6 34) Which of the following best describes our social clock? A) The normal sequence of life activities in which we engage at certain times in our lives as determined by our physical age. B) The continuous maturation of our physical bodies as determined by our environment. C) The slowing down of biological and cognitive processes as determined by our physical aging. D) The normal sequence of life activities in which we engage at certain times in our lives as determined by our culture. Answer: D Diff: 2 Page Ref: 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Factual Objective: 1.6 35) What is the term for a general negative attitude about aging, typified by the belief that older persons are incompetent or unable to complete required job functions? A) The social clock B) Dotage pathway C) Ageism D) Maturity Answer: C Diff: 1 Page Ref: 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Factual Objective: 1.6


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36) The basic idea that there may be significant periods in development when an organism is especially sensitive to the presence or absence of some particular kind of experience or influence is referred to as a A) cohort influence. B) critical period. C) collectivist cultural influence. D) timing influence. Answer: B Diff: 1 Page Ref: 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Factual Objective: 1.6 37) Humans learn languages best in their childhood. In fact, some research indicates that if a child doesn't learn to speak a formal language before the age of 6, they may never learn to speak well at all. This would best illustrate which of the following? A) Critical period B) Normative age graded changes C) Individual differences D) Cultural specificity Answer: A Diff: 2 Page Ref: 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Applied Objective: 1.6 38) Which of the following best defines sensitive period? A) A time of psychological fragility, usually due to some type of loss such as the death of a spouse, termination of employment, deterioration due to aging, etc. B) The period of time during which developmental norms for physical development are reached or achieved. C) A specific period in development when an organism is particularly responsive to specific forms of experience or particularly influenced by their absence. D) The time when the tension between nature and nurture is resolved in an organism's development. Answer: C Diff: 1 Page Ref: 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Factual Objective: 1.6 39) Which of the following is the best example of an "off-time" event that could have negative effects upon an individual's development? A) The deaths of elderly parents B) Being divorced at the age of 25 C) The death of one's spouse at the age of 30 D) Experiencing a life-threatening illness at the age of 60 Answer: C Diff: 3 Page Ref: 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Applied Objective: 1.6


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40) Which of the following are members of the same cohort? A) A woman raising her children during World War II and a woman raising her children during the Vietnam conflict in the 1970s B) A high school student in California and a high school student in Florida C) A grandfather and his four grandchildren D) An urban child in Europe and a rural child in the United States Answer: B Diff: 3 Page Ref: 8 - 9 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Applied Objective: 1.6 41) Adults in London, England who were teenagers living there during the bombings of World War II all report that their lives were changed by those events. This exemplifies which of the following? A) Normative age-graded changes B) Normative critical periods C) Normative history-graded changes D) Non-normative life events Answer: C Diff: 3 Page Ref: 8 - 9 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Applied Objective: 1.6 42) People who grow up in different cultures and who experience different lifestyles and events are most likely to exhibit which of the following? A) Cohort effects B) Placebo effects C) Individual differences D) Critical difference effects Answer: C Diff: 1 Page Ref: 9 Topic: Contexts of Development Skill: Factual Objective: 1.7 43) Which of the following is a finding of Glen Elder, et al., on individuals who grew up during the Great Depression? A) The cohort born in 1920 suffered more than the cohort born in 1928. B) Teenaged girls were more likely than teenaged boys to be forced into the work place prematurely because of economic hardship. C) Teenagers whose families experienced severe economic difficulty assumed adult responsibility prematurely. D) The adolescents who were forced prematurely into the work force were better adjusted as adults. Answer: C Diff: 3 Page Ref: 10 Topic: Research Report Skill: Factual Objective: 1.7


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44) Which of the following developmental outcomes would be illustrative of the concept of vulnerability? A) Very low IQ scores are most common among children who were born with a low birth weight and who are reared in highly stressed, uninvolved families. B) Normal birth weight infants born into upper socioeconomic status families invariably have superior levels of intelligence. C) Children born into caring, facilitative families rarely have sufficient protective factors to overcome or offset all vulnerabilities that might potentially affect their development. D) Positive developmental outcome is possible only for children with few vulnerabilities and many protective factors. Answer: A Diff: 3 Page Ref: 10 Topic: Contexts of Development Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.7 45) Which of the following best defines a system of meanings and customs shared by an identifiable group and transmitted across generations? A) Age strata B) Cohort C) Collective identity D) Culture Answer: D Diff: 1 Page Ref: 10 Topic: Contexts of Development Skill: Factual Objective: 1.7 46) Which of the following would LEAST likely be a contributing factor to a person's development? A) Culture B) Hair color C) Age D) Gender Answer: B Diff: 2 Page Ref: 10 Topic: Contexts of Development Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.7 47) Which of the following best describes the goals of developmental science? A) To describe, explain, predict & influence development B) To understand and explain social norms C) To study cohort effects across cultures D) To explain, record and influence human differences Answer: A Diff: 1 Page Ref: 11 Topic: The Goals of Developmental Science Skill: Factual Objective: 1.8


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48) Sets of statements that propose general principles to explain development are known as A) cross-sectional designs. B) hypotheses. C) theories. D) constructs. Answer: C Diff: 1 Page Ref: 11 Topic: The Goals of Developmental Science Skill: Factual Objective: 1.8 49) Predictions that can be tested in an effort to explain human development are known as A) theories. B) hypotheses. C) experiments. D) constructs. Answer: B Diff: 1 Page Ref: 11 Topic: The Goals of Developmental Science Skill: Factual Objective: 1.8 50) Which of the following statements is the BEST example of a hypothesis about human development? A) Cross-cultural studies have determined that human breast milk provides the ideal nutrition for infant brain development. B) Human breast milk contains nutrients that are essential for formation of neurons and synapses in an infant's developing brain. C) Because human breast milk is a superior form of nutrition for infants, all newly-delivered women should be encouraged to breast feed their infants. D) If breast milk is a superior supplement for infant brain development, children who were breast-fed as infants should perform better on psychological tests than children who were not breast fed. Answer: D Diff: 3 Page Ref: 11 Topic: The Goals of Developmental Science Skill: Applied Objective: 1.8 51) Which of the following is the best example of the ultimate goal of developmental research? A) Researchers are working hard to find the causes of ADHD. B) Researchers are working hard to find the best ways to help children with ADHD. C) Researchers are working hard to predict the occurrence of ADHD. D) Researchers are working hard to identify the genetic causes of ADHD. Answer: B Diff: 3 Page Ref: 11 Topic: The Goals of Developmental Science Skill: Applied Objective: 1.8


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52) Of the following, which is the BEST example of naturalistic observation? A) The school psychologist has administered aptitude tests to the sophomore class of Martin Luther King, Jr. High School. B) A researcher interested in the effects of caffeine upon learning provides high-caffeine drinks to an experimental group who are being taught a complicated game and provides caffeine-free drinks to a control group who are being taught the same game. C) A serial killer is subjected to a battery of psychological exams and intensive interviews in an effort to determine the factors that influenced his developmental pathway to homicidal behavior. D) Researchers interested in children's gender-related interactions videotape children while they are playing during recess and while they are engaged in cooperative learning assignments in their classrooms. Answer: D Diff: 3 Page Ref: 12 Topic: Descriptive Methods Skill: Applied Objective: 1.9 53) The Maple Leaf Elementary School counselor, social worker and the parents of eight-year-old Jimmy Jackson are working as a cooperative team to determine why Jimmy exhibits a pattern of highly aggressive behavior toward his peers and teachers. Jimmy's behavior has been extensively observed, he has been subjected to a battery of psychological tests, and his parents have been interviewed. This in-depth examination of Jimmy Jackson is an example of A) an ethnograph. B) naturalistic observation. C) a correlational study. D) a case study. Answer: D Diff: 3 Page Ref: 12 Topic: Descriptive Methods Skill: Applied Objective: 1.9 54) How does observation in the laboratory differ from naturalistic observation? A) There is no difference. The two terms are synonymous. B) The researcher has more control over variables if they choose the natural environment carefully. C) The researcher in a laboratory setting has some level of control over the variables which might influence the participants' behavior. D) Laboratory observation is considered experimentation while naturalistic observation is a descriptive method of research. Answer: C Diff: 3 Page Ref: 12 Topic: Descriptive Methods Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.9 55) Which of the following is a true statement about correlations? A) A correlation of zero indicates a strong relationship between two variables. B) A correlation of -1.00 indicates a weak relationship between two variables. C) A correlation of +1.00 provides clear evidence that one variable has a causative effect upon the other. D) Correlations can range from -1.00 to +1.00 and describe the strength of a relationship between two variables. Answer: D Diff: 2 Page Ref: 13 Topic: Descriptive Methods Skill: Factual Objective: 1.9


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56) Researchers have found that children born to mothers who smoke during and after pregnancy are more likely to develop respiratory illness. This is an example of which of the following? A) A negative correlation B) An experimental finding C) A strong correlation D) A positive correlation Answer: D Diff: 2 Page Ref: 13 Topic: Descriptive Methods Skill: Applied Objective: 1.9 57) You are a taking part in a survey which asks about your attitudes toward physical punishment of children. Even though you believe that spanking is sometimes necessary, you answer that you are opposed to any sort of physical punishment. Which of the following terms best describes why you answered the way that you did? A) Social desirability B) Experimenter bias C) Randomness D) Sample representation Answer: A Diff: 2 Page Ref: 13 Topic: Descriptive Methods Skill: Applied Objective: 1.9 58) Which of the following is NOT a key feature of an experimental study? A) Controls for cohort effects B) A dependent variable C) Subjects in a control group D) An independent variable Answer: A Diff: 2 Page Ref: 14 Topic: The Experimental Method Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.10 59) An experiment is designed to study the effects of long lectures on the sleeping behavior of college students. In such a study, the dependent variable is A) sleeping behavior of college students. B) long lectures. C) the length of time a lecture runs. D) college students. Answer: A Diff: 3 Page Ref: 14 Topic: The Experimental Method Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.10


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60) Researchers designed an experiment to study the effects of a professor's sense of humor on enrollment numbers. What is the independent variable in this study? A) The college professor B) The college professor's sense of humor C) Students considering attending college D) The number of students who enroll Answer: B Diff: 3 Page Ref: 14 Topic: The Experimental Method Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.10 61) A new medicine for headaches is in clinical trials. The patients who are receiving this new drug are members of which group? A) The placebo group B) The control group C) The experimental group D) The independent group Answer: C Diff: 3 Page Ref: 14 Topic: The Experimental Method Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.10 62) In an experiment, what do we call the group of participants who receive a neutral treatment? A) Independent variable B) Control group C) Experimental group D) Dependent variable Answer: B Diff: 1 Page Ref: 14 Topic: The Experimental Method Skill: Factual Objective: 1.10 63) A researcher wants to study how radiation affects a developing human fetus. Which type of research would be best suited for this? A) Experimentation B) Quasi-experimentation C) Case study D) Naturalistic observation Answer: B Diff: 3 Page Ref: 14 Topic: The Experimental Method Skill: Applied Objective: 1.10


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64) In which of the following research designs, are subjects of different ages studied at the same time and the results compared? A) Longitudinal B) Cross-sectional C) Sequential D) Cross-cultural Answer: B Diff: 1 Page Ref: 14 - 15 Topic: Designs for Studying Age-Related Changes Skill: Factual Objective: 1.11 65) Which of the following is the best example of a cross-sectional research study? A) Dr. Huang assessed the eye-hand coordination of the second, fourth, and sixth graders of Maple Leaf Elementary School in September, 2006. B) Dr. Sanchez assessed the eye-hand coordination of the second, fourth, and sixth graders of Maple Leaf Elementary School in December, 2006, and the same children will be tested again in 2008, 2010, and 2012. C) Each year at the beginning of the school year, the five children of the Jones family visit their family doctor to have physical exams. D) Each year the five-year-olds of Washington, D.C. are given number and letter proficiency exams before they begin kindergarten. Answer: A Diff: 3 Page Ref: 15 Topic: Designs for Studying Age-Related Changes Skill: Applied Objective: 1.11 66) Which of the following is the best example of a longitudinal research study? A) Dr. Ngo studied four groups of children aged six, eight, ten, and twelve to determine how therapy helps children cope with their parents' divorce. B) To determine how alcohol affects retention of information, researchers monitored subjects' ingestion of alcohol while the subjects were learning to play a complicated game. C) Dr. Cisneros initially studied a group of recently-divorced 40-year-olds to evaluate their communication skills and continued to study their interpersonal relationships for 30 years. D) In December, 2004, researchers surveyed shoppers at local malls to assess peoples' attitudes about retirement and their plans for post-retirement activities. Answer: C Diff: 3 Page Ref: 15 Topic: Designs for Studying Age-Related Changes Skill: Applied Objective: 1.11 67) Which type of research design is intended to avoid the shortcomings of both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies by combining features of both? A) Sequential design B) Cross-longitudinal design C) Longitudinal case study D) Correlational study Answer: A Diff: 2 Page Ref: 16 Topic: Designs for Studying Age-Related Changes Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.11


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68) Your text uses an example of a sequential study in which "Baby Boomer" women were the participants. Which of the following was a finding of that study? A) The relationship between age and reported frequency of marital conflict was the same across cohorts. B) The different cohorts' self-perceptions of femininity declined in parallel fashion. This represents a true developmental change. C) Because this was a sequential study, no reliable findings can be reported. D) The relationship between age and reported frequency of marital conflict was different in each cohort. Answer: D Diff: 3 Page Ref: 17 Topic: Designs for Studying Age-Related Changes Skill: Factual Objective: 1.11 69) Which is the best term to describe when a researcher lives in a particular culture for an extended time in order to gain a detailed understanding and description of the culture? A) Ethnography B) Sociology C) Sociobiology D) Ethnopsychology Answer: A Diff: 1 Page Ref: 17 Topic: Cross-Cultural Research Skill: Factual Objective: 1.12 70) The two primary goals of cross-cultural research are to identify universal changes that cross cultures and to A) demonstrate cultural diversity in the social sciences. B) nurture more culturally sensitive attitudes. C) gain information that will help improve people's lives. D) determine the effects that one culture has upon another. Answer: C Diff: 1 Page Ref: 17 Topic: Cross-Cultural Research Skill: Factual Objective: 1.12 71) In survey research it is very important that the participants reflect the characteristics of the whole group of people being studied. To which characteristic of the sample are we referring? A) Similarity B) Bias C) Representativeness D) Social desirability Answer: C Diff: 1 Page Ref: 18 Topic: Cross-Cultural Research Skill: Factual Objective: 1.12


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72) Participants in research projects must be told of any harmful effects or possible risks associated with the research in advance of their participation. What is this ethical responsibility called? A) Deception B) Protection from harm C) Knowledge of results D) Informed consent Answer: D Diff: 1 Page Ref: 19 Topic: Research Ethics Skill: Factual Objective: 1.13 73) Darius participated in a study of the effects of alcohol on long term memory. More than a year after his participation ended, he received a newsletter telling him all about the results of the study. The researchers were following the ethical guideline that mandates A) knowledge of results. B) informed consent. C) full disclosure. D) protection against harm. Answer: A Diff: 1 Page Ref: 19 Topic: Research Ethics Skill: Applied Objective: 1.13 74) Which of the following best explains the protection from harm aspect of research ethics? A) Absolutely no harm, either permanent nor temporary can come to the participants during the research. B) As long as the harm is temporary, and only lasts for the duration of the research, it's okay. C) If temporary harm may be caused by the research, the researchers must provide a way to relieve that harm. D) As long as the participants are informed of the possibility of harm before the research begins, no ethical violations are considered. Answer: C Diff: 2 Page Ref: 19 Topic: Research Ethics Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.13 75) After reading chapter one, which of the following should you be able to apply to your daily life? A) You will be able to start your own research projects in developmental psychology once you have read chapter one. B) You will have some tools to critically evaluate research and make an informed decision as to applying the research findings to your daily life. C) You will be able to properly write a research report on your own. D) You should always be skeptical of research and realize that most research is done with bias towards the desired results. Answer: B Diff: 2 Page Ref: 19 Topic: Summary Skill: Applied Objective: N/A


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Fill-in-the-Blank Questions 1) The 2000 U.S. census showed that ________ households are on the rise. Answer: multigenerational Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1 Topic: Chapter Introduction Skill: Factual Objective: N/A 2) The ideas of the English philosopher John Locke would suggest that the basis for human development is a ________ waiting to receive information. Answer: blank slate Diff: 1 Page Ref: 3 Topic: Philosophical and Scientific Roots Skill: Factual Objective: 1.1 3) When we gather data from different sources of academia we are taking a (n) ________ approach to research. Answer: interdisciplinary Diff: 1 Page Ref: 4 Topic: The Lifespan Perspective Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.2 4) Celia has an outgoing, friendly personality, while her best friend Chester is shy and reserved. We are describing Celia and Chester through the ________ domain of development. Answer: social Diff: 2 Page Ref: 5 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Applied Objective: 1.3 5) As we age the transition between stages of development becomes more ________ in terms of defining milestones. Answer: arbitrary Diff: 3 Page Ref: 6 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.3 6) The internal model of experience assumes that events themselves are not as important in influencing development as are the individual's ________ of those events. Answer: perception Diff: 2 Page Ref: 7 Topic: Nature Versus Nurture Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.4 7) Normative ________ changes are universal, in that they apply to everyone at the same period of maturation. Answer: age-graded Diff: 2 Page Ref: 7 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Factual Objective: 1.6


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8) Your text suggests that the period from 6 - 12 months might be the sensitive period for ________. Answer: parent-infant attachment Diff: 1 Page Ref: 9 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Factual Objective: 1.6 9) Both of Asa's parents and both of her grandparents have heart disease. We might assume that Asa will be more ________ to heart problems than her cohorts. Answer: vulnerable Diff: 3 Page Ref: 9 Topic: Contexts of Development Skill: Applied Objective: 1.7 10) A major difference between a theory and a hypothesis is that hypotheses are ________. Answer: testable Diff: 3 Page Ref: 11 Topic: The Goals of Developmental Science Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.8 11) The four goals of developmental psychology are to ________, ________, ________ and ________ human behavior. Answer: describe; explain; predict; influence Diff: 1 Page Ref: 11 Topic: The Goals of Developmental Science Skill: Factual Objective: 1.8 12) One major weakness of naturalistic observation is, according to your text ________. Answer: observer bias Diff: 1 Page Ref: 12 Topic: Descriptive Methods Skill: Factual Objective: 1.9 13) Correlational research does not allow us to show ________ relationships. Answer: causal Diff: 2 Page Ref: 13 Topic: Descriptive Methods Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.9 14) In an experiment, if participants have equal chances of being assigned to the different groups, we say that assignment was ________. Answer: random Diff: 2 Page Ref: 13 Topic: The Experimental Method Skill: Factual Objective: 1.10


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15) If someone were to ask you how reliable developmental research is in predicting human behavior, your answer should likely begin with "________." Answer: It depends Diff: 2 Page Ref: 15 Topic: No Easy Answers Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.11 Short Answer Questions 1) How has the study of human development changed over the last two centuries? Answer: Answers may include any of the following: - innate goodness - empiricism - blank slate - development continues throughout the lifespan and doesn't end with childhood - researchers have also come to realize that the processes of development are complex - the scientific method was introduced into this time period Diff: 2 Page Ref: 3 - 6 Topic: An Introduction to Human Development Skill: Factual Objective: N/A 2) What contributions did Arnold Gesell make to the study of human development? Answer: maturation; genetically programmed patterns of change; developed "norms" for children; observational techniques Diff: 2 Page Ref: 4 Topic: Philosophical and Scientific Roots Skill: Factual Objective: 1.1 3) List the three domains of development. Answer: cognitive; social; physical Diff: 1 Page Ref: 5 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Factual Objective: 1.3 4) Identify the periods of development. Answer: prenatal; infancy; early childhood; middle childhood; adolescence; early adulthood; (or emerging adulthood); middle adulthood; late adulthood Diff: 3 Page Ref: 5 - 6 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Factual Objective: 1.3 5) All children begin to smile and coo at approximately the same age. Identify at least two key concepts that you might use to explain these behaviors. Answer: nature-nurture; inborn biases; predispositions; domains; periods of development Diff: 3 Page Ref: 5 - 6 Topic: The Domains and Periods of Development Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.3


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6) Briefly explain how quantity and quality relate to continuity and discontinuity. Answer: continuity = quantity; discontinuity = quality Diff: 2 Page Ref: 7 Topic: Continuity versus Discontinuity Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.5 7) Give at least three examples of normative age-graded changes. Answer: Anything that applies to biological maturation can be used to answer this question: walking, puberty, fertility, loss of bone density, graying hair, etc. Diff: 3 Page Ref: 7 - 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Applied Objective: 1.6 8) Joshua entered puberty much later than his peers. What terms might you use to describe how this could affect Joshua's social development? Answer: sensitive period; on-time events; off-time events Diff: 2 Page Ref: 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Applied Objective: 1.6 9) Give at least three examples of normative history-graded influences. Answer: anything that applies to historical events common to cohorts e.g. changes that resulted from experiencing the attacks of 9/11/2001; those who lived during World War II, those who survived hurricane Katrina, etc. Diff: 3 Page Ref: 8 - 9 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Applied Objective: 1.6 10) Briefly define the terms vulnerability and resilience. Answer: vulnerability = those inborn characteristics which predispose a person to abnormal events or processes resilience = those inborn characteristics which predispose a person to overcome abnormal or adverse events Diff: 3 Page Ref: 9 Topic: Contexts of Development Skill: Applied Objective: 1.7 11) Briefly define the term culture. Answer: no universal definition; typically includes common meanings; customs; values attitudes; goals etc. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 10 Topic: Contexts of Development Skill: Factual Objective: 1.7 12) What are the goals of developmental science? Answer: describe; explain, predict; also the terms theories and hypotheses may be used here Diff: 2 Page Ref: 11 Topic: The Goals of Developmental Science Skill: Factual Objective: 1.8


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13) In research, what is the difference between a population and a sample? Answer: population is the entire group of interest; sample is a representative subset of the entire group Diff: 2 Page Ref: 13 Topic: Descriptive Methods Skill: Factual Objective: 1.9 14) You are taking part in an experiment to test the effectiveness of cognitive therapy in treating anxiety. There are two groups: one group receives cognitive therapy, the other group meets weekly with a therapist who does not use cognitive therapy, but merely chats during the session. Using the terminology of research, identify each of the two types of groups. Answer: experimental group; control group; independent and dependent variables Diff: 3 Page Ref: 14 Topic: The Experimental Method Skill: Applied Objective: 1.10 15) Identify at least three of the ethical standards for research involving human participants. Answer: protection from harm; confidentiality; informed consent; knowledge of results; appropriate use of deception Diff: 2 Page Ref: 19 Topic: Research Ethics Skill: Factual Objective: 1.13 Essay Questions 1) Compare and contrast the philosophies of John Locke and Charles Darwin as they apply to developmental theory. Answer: Locke proposed the concepts of blank slate and empiricism, and that children can be molded. Darwin proposed that environment and genetic processes interact to influence development. The answer should include some expansion on these concepts. Diff: 3 Page Ref: 3 - 4 Topic: Philosophical and Scientific Roots Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.1 2) Compare and contrast the views of at least three early researchers. Explain how you would reconcile these differing and sometimes conflicting views. Answer: The answer will vary depending on which researchers and philosophers the student chooses. The student should demonstrate some understanding of taking an eclectic approach to explaining development and recognize that differing opinions are not always mutually exclusive of each other. Diff: 3 Page Ref: 3 - 5 Topic: An Introduction to Human Development Skill: Factual Objective: N/A 3) Explain the concept of internal models of experience and give an example from your own experience. Answer: The answer needs to explain the environmental influences of development AND the individual's perception of these experiences. The example needs to demonstrate that the student can properly apply the nature-nurture concept. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 7 Topic: Nature Versus Nurture Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.4


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4) Briefly summarize the research carried out by Glen Elder and his colleagues on children in the Great Depression. Answer: The answer should summarize the key points: cohorts in terms of year in which the subjects were born; teens versus young children; economic conditions and their effects on premature acceptance of adult responsibility. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Factual Objective: 1.6 5) What is a critical period? What is a sensitive period? Give examples to illustrate your answers. Answer: critical period = time during development when an organism is particularly susceptible to influences on specific developmental processes sensitive period = influences which may lead to on- or off-time events Diff: 3 Page Ref: 8 Topic: Three Kinds of Change Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.6 6) Give an example of how context, vulnerability and resilience may influence development. Answer: The answer needs to demonstrate that vulnerability and resilience are generally inborn factors that may modify context effects and visa versa. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 9 - 10 Topic: Contexts of Development Skill: Applied Objective: 1.7 7) Explain the difference between a theory and a hypothesis. Give an example of each. Answer: Theories are typically descriptive, educated guesses. Hypotheses are testable statements. The example needs to reflect an understanding of these differences. Diff: 1 Page Ref: 11 Topic: The Goals of Developmental Science Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.8 8) You are reading a research report on the relationship between playing Mozart during pregnancy and a child's future intelligence. The researchers report a correlation coefficient of +1.67. Explain what this means. Answer: The answer must recognize that a correlation >1.0 is impossible. There may be some explanation of a positive correlation regarding the direction of the relationships between the variables. Diff: 1 Page Ref: 13 Topic: Descriptive Methods Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.9 9) Write a hypothesis which will allow you to research the relationship between a pre-adolescent's drug use and their propensity toward ADHD. Identify the independent and dependent variables in your study. Answer: The statement has to be clearly testable and a clear relationship between the i.v. (drug use) and the d.v. (ADHD) must be stated. Diff: 3 Page Ref: 14 Topic: The Experimental Method Skill: Applied Objective: 1.10


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10) Why do the authors say that whenever someone asks you about research conclusions, you should always begin your answer with "It depends..."? Answer: The answer needs to include a discussion of the many variables in human research which can not be controlled through experimentation. The student should also recognize that much of the research in developmental psychology uses descriptive, correlational, or quasi-experimental methods--none of which show causation. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 15 Topic: No Easy Answers Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.11 MyDevelopmentLab Essay Questions 1) After viewing the video interview of Phillip Zimbardo regarding the Stanford Prison Experiments conducted in 1971, identify and explain three key concepts regarding human behavior which are identified by Zimbardo. Give an original example from your own experience applying one of these concepts. Answer: The student may identify any of the following: situational influences, social conduct, social influences, social psychology, institutional influences, context effects, fundamental attribution error. The example, of course, should exemplify a true understanding of one of these concepts. Diff: 3 Page Ref: MDL Topic: Watch: Interview Philip Zimbardo: Stanford Prison Experiment Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.10 2) What is the answer to the nature versus nurture question? Identify the three examples that were given in the audio recording. Answer: The question is clearly not either/or but nature and nurture. Both genetics and environment interact to shape behaviors. The three examples are: height, intelligence, and watching TV. Diff: 2 Page Ref: MDL Topic: Listen: Nature-Nurture Debate Skill: Factual Objective: 1.4 MyDevelopmentLab Study Plan Questions 1) Who is the researcher famous for the Stanford Prison Experiment during the 1970s? A) Carol Tavris B) Philip Zimbardo C) Elizabeth Loftus D) David Rosenhan Answer: B Diff: 1 Page Ref: MDL Topic: Explore: Psychology Timeline Skill: Factual Objective: 1.1 2) Assume that you are a psychologist who practices according to the theories of Carl Rogers. You are most likely to take a ________ - ________ approach to treating clients. Answer: client-centered Diff: 2 Page Ref: MDL Topic: Explore: Psychology Timeline Skill: Applied Objective: 1.10


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3) Which of the following best describes why the concept of ethnicity is more valuable in studying human behavior than is race? A) The concept of race includes too many genetic variables to be valuable in research. Ethnicity is determined by only one pair of chromosomes. B) Race explores commonalities due to environmental factors such as common backgrounds, beliefs and allegiances, and therefore includes too many variables to control. C) Ethnicity is easy to study because it explores only the commonalities between people of the same race. D) Ethnicity explores commonalities due to environmental factors such as common backgrounds, beliefs and allegiances. Race is determined solely by genes. Answer: D Diff: 3 Page Ref: MDL Topic: Explore: Race and Ethnicity in Psychological Inquiry Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.7 4) In Distinguishing Independent and Dependent variables, which of the following was one of the options given as an independent variable? A) Changing the duration of the stimulus B) Modifying the configuration of the shapes C) Length of time that it takes to recognize the correct choice D) Modifying the background color of the arrays Answer: A Diff: 2 Page Ref: MDL Topic: Explore: Distinguishing Independent and Dependent Variables Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.10 5) In research the ________ variable is manipulated, while the ________ variable is measured. Answer: independent; dependent Diff: 3 Page Ref: MDL Topic: Explore: Distinguishing Independent and Dependent Variables Skill: Conceptual Objective: 1.10


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© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Chapter 1:Basic Concepts and Methods

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An Introduction to Human Development

Age-related changes in:

• Behavior• Thinking• Emotion• Personality

An entire lifespan!


• Saint Augustine• Humans are born selfish• Addresses moral dimensions of

development

Philosophical RootsOriginal Sin


45



Philosophical and Scientific RootsInnate Goodness

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau• Emphasis on children and basic human

nature• Children need only nurturance and

protection to flower• Deprivation leads to frustration and

anger


Philosophical and Scientific RootsThe Blank Slate

•John Locke

•Empiricism

•Children passive recipients of experience•

•Individual differences due to experience


• Evolution– Interplay of genetics and environmental

adaptation

• Baby biographies– Detailed records of own children’s early

years

Early Scientific TheoriesCharles Darwin


46



Early Scientific Theories

• G. Stanley Hall– Psychologist– Emphasis on norms or average ages at

which developmental milestones occur• Arnold Gesell

– Maturation—occurs “naturally”– Used movie cameras, one-way mirrors


• Important changes occur in eachperiod of development

• Adults experience major life passages– Parenthood– Retirement

• Increased longevity– Now about age 76 for U.S. adults

The Lifespan PerspectivePaul Baltes


The Lifespan PerspectivePaul Baltes

• Interpret change in context of one’s culture or subculture

• Plasticity and adaptability at all ages• Interdisciplinary perspective and

research• Multi-contextual nature• As we age, use strategies to maximize

gain and compensate for losses


47



• Physical Domain

• Cognitive Domain

• Social Domain

Domains and Periods of Development


Periods of Development

• Prenatal• Infancy• Early Childhood• Middle Childhood• Adolescence• Early adulthood• Middle adulthood• Late adulthood


• Nature– Inborn propensities; biological influences– Inborn biases

• Nurture– Learning from environmental experiences– Internal models of experience

Key Issues in the Study of Human Development

Nature versus Nurture


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Continuity versus Discontinuity

• Quantitative change (in amount or degree)

• Discontinuity– Development involves reorganization– Qualitative changes in kind or type– Emergence of wholly new strategies,

qualities, or skills (qualitative change)– Stage theories

• Qualitatively distinct periods of development


• Normative age-graded universal changes– Physical such as puberty– Social clock or age norms such as expected

time of retirement• Normative history graded changes

– Cohort or generational effects• Non-normative changes

– Unique, unshared changes or individual differences

Three Kinds of ChangeQualitative changes in kind or type


• Vulnerabilities and protective factorsinteract with child’s environment

• Same environment can affect different children differently

• Effect depends on qualities the child brings to the interaction

• Resilient children gain support from more optimal environments

Contexts of DevelopmentVulnerability and Resilience


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Contexts of Development

• Critical period• Sensitive period• On-time events

– When most members of a society experience events such as marriage

• Off-time events• Atypical development

– Mental retardation, psychopathology


Questions To Ponder

• Now that you have heard several issues, which do you think is more important in understanding development – nature issues or nurture issues? Why?

• What part of the life span interests you the most? What issues would you like to learn about the most?


• Theories– Sets of statements that propose general

principles of development

• Predictions or Hypotheses– An educated guess that is testable by data

collection and analysis

Research Methods and Designs


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The Goals of Developmental Science

• Describe development• Explain development

– Why events and changes occur• Predict developmental events• Influence some developmental

outcomes– For example: memory declines


Descriptive Methods

• Variables– Characteristics that vary across people

– EXAMPLE: years of age

– One variable can relate to another variable• EXAMPLE: years of age with memory decline


Descriptive MethodsNaturalistic observations

• Observe people in their normal environments

• Includes schools or assisted living facilities

• Could harbor observer biases


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Descriptive Methods

• Case Studies– In-depth examination of a single individual– Useful in making decisions about

individuals– Frequently basis of important hypotheses

about unusual developmental events• Laboratory observations

– Controlled setting for study


Descriptive MethodsSurveys, interviews and questionnaires

• Ask people questions and record their answers

• Use samples– Subsets of a total collection (population) of

people• People’s answers may be affected by

perceived social desirability


Correlations

• Correlations range from -1.00 to +1.00– Describe strength of relationship between two variables– A “0” means two variables are not related

• Positive correlation– High scores on one variable usually accompany high scores

on the other– Better educated people generally have higher family incomes

• Negative correlation– Scores on the two variables move in opposite directions: – Better educated people are less likely to smoke cigarettes


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Limits of Correlations

Correlation is NOT causality

• Correlations simply measure the level or degree of covariation between two variables

• They do not prove causal relationships

• A large correlation between two variables does NOT mean one variable caused the other


Experimental Designs

• Can test causal hypotheses• Randomly assign participants to

different treatment and control groups – The experimental group gets a treatment

the experimenter thinks will produce a particular effect

– The “control group” gets no treatment or neutral treatment


Experimental Designs (continued)

• Independent variable or “cause”

• Dependent variable or “effect”– The dependent variable depends on the “cause”

• Quasi-experiments– Participants not randomly assigned– For example, children in day care programs may

be compared with children kept at home


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In these designs, we study people from different age groups at the same time point, such as July 2008

• Cross-sectional research very useful because it is relatively quick to do

• It can indicate possible age differences or age changes

• But age-related differences may become confused with cohort or generational effects

Designs to Study Age-Related ChangesCross-Sectional Designs


• Different generations can have unique experiences– Your generation grew up with computers– 100 years ago people didn’t have radio– Your great-grandparents may have lived through

World War Two or the 1930s Great Depression • When (and where) you were born could affect

nutrition, sleeping arrangements, or your age at marriage

• In cross-sectional studies or “one-shot”, cohort and aging effects may become entangled

Birth Cohort or Generational Effects


Figure 1.1 An Example of a Cross-Sectional Design


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• Study the same individuals over a period of time

• Can observe individual consistencies and inconsistencies

• Assess net change over time in the same people• Some studies last for several years

– The Berkeley/Oakland Growth Study continued for several decades

Designs to Study Age-Related ChangesLongitudinal Designs


Longitudinal Designs:Some Problems

• “Practice” or “testing” effects can occur when people are repeatedly studied

• Study “attrition”• People die, move away, stop participating• Better educated, healthier people more often

remain in the study• This can create biases in studying aging


Figure 1.2 Example of a Longitudinal Design


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• These combine groups from at least two cohorts followed in a longitudinal study

• Both aging AND cohort effects are possible

• Allows comparison of cohorts while incorporating some degree of individual differences

Designs to Study Age-Related ChangesSequential Designs


Figure 1.3 An Example of a Cross-Sequential Design


• Ethnographies– In-depth descriptions of a single culture or context– May compare two or more cultures or subcultures– Perhaps particular age or ethnic groups

• Cross-cultural studies search for universal and unique developmental changes– Hope to improve people’s lives – EXAMPLE: encourage more cooperation by

learning from collectivist cultures

Cross-Cultural Research


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• Protection of animal rights and human subjects

• Universities, government, organizations often have Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

• Often called “Human Subjects Committees”• Special attention paid to studies of children,

pregnant women, individuals with learning or other disabilities

Research Ethics


• Protection from harm—We protect participants from harm

• Informed Consent—participants learn possible risks and benefits of the study to them

• Confidentiality—Research data is kept confidential

• Knowledge of Result—Participants are given information about results

• Deception—Any deception is explained to participants after data are collected

Research Ethics


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