Institution of Highways and Transportation 1997 Transport in the Urban Environment. London CIHT

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THE INSTITUTION OF HIGHWAYS & TRANSPORTATION

Guidelines for

THEENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT OFHIGHWAYS


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GUIDELINES FOR

THE ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT OF HIGHWAYS

Published By

THE INSTITUTIONOF

HIGHWAYS & TRANSPORTATION

FEBRUARY2001

THE ENVIRONMENTAL M A N AG EM E N T O F H IGHWAYS 1


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THE ENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENT OF HIGHWAYS

is sponsored by

2 THE ENVIRONMENTAL M A N AG EM E N T O F H IGHWAYS

The sponsors are l is ted above in a lph abet ical order . They are: Clevelan d Potash Ltd; The Count rys ide Agency; Engl ish Her i tage;

The Env ironmen t Agency; Highw ays Agency; Rees Jef f reys Road Fund; Roads Serv ice Agency,

Depar tment fo r Reg iona l Deve lopment ( N I ) , and Sa l t Un ion L td (The De Ic ing Business) .


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Transport touches all our lives. It affects not only commerce, recreation and the environment, but lifestyle as

a whole. While it brings great social and economic benefits, the highway system and its management alsoaffects the environment. Minimising the adverse environmental effects of transport must be a top priority for

policy makers and practitioners alike.

The Governments recently published Transport 2010: The Ten Year Plan acknowledges the strong

economic, environmental and social case for investment in infrastructure in all modes of travel. It also

recognises that reducing the impact of transport on the environment, both locally and as part of widerinternational efforts, is a central aim.

The Institution of Highways & Transportation is internationally acknowledged for its best practice

guidelines in the transportation field. The Guidelines on The Environmental Management of Highwayscontinue that tradition. It outlines the development of environmental policy in the UK and describes best

practice in a range of key environmental topics relating to transport.

Key issues covered include drainage and groundwater management; air quality and noise management;landscape management; ecology, biodiversity and the management of highways within the context of the built

heritage. It also suggests a systematic approach to the environmental management of highways based on the

European Standard, ISO 14001, for Environmental Management Systems.

The aim of the Guidelines for The Environmental Management of Highwaysis to describe best practice

in managing and maintaining transport infrastructure, especially but not exclusively highways, in such a way

as to minimise potentially harmful environmental impacts and maximise environmental gains.The emphasis is on planning, management, layout and engineering. Making the very best use of our

existing road network at least cost to the environment by knowing what to do and when and how to do it.I would like to thank all those involved in the production of these Guidelines, particularly the Steering

Group members, the Managing Editor, authors, photographers and others who contributed material, those

who responded to the consultation, and the IHT staff. I must also particularly thank our sponsors.On behalf of the Institution, I am pleased to commend The Environmental Management of Highways

to all with a professional interest in the future of our environment and the quality of the transport network.

GUIDELINES FOR

THE

ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT OF HIGHWAYS

MESSAGE FROMALANCRAIGIHT PRESIDENT20002001

THE ENVIRONMENTAL M A N AG EM E N T O F H IGHWAYS 3

President 20002001


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THE ENVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS 5

CONTENTS PAGE NO

FROM THE MINISTER INSIDE FRONT COVER

MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT 3

1. ABOUT THE GUIDELINES 11

2. POLICYCONTEXT 152.1 Introduction 15

2.2 The Four Ages of transport policy in Britain 152.2.1 New Realism, The Great Transport Debate and towards a Fifth Age of transport policy 15

2.3 Global and European policy 182.3.1 Global policy 182.3.2 European transport policy 182.3.3 The European AutoOil Programme 19

2.4 Current UK transport policy 192.4.1 The 1998 White Paper 192.4.2 The Daughter Documents 212.4.3 Related documents 282.4.4 Transport 2010: The 10 Year Plan 30

2.5 Other key legislation 31

2.6 Conclusions 312.6.1 The increasing influence of environmental issues 312.6.2 Some final conclusions 32

References 34

3. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 393.1 Environmental protection and management 39

3.2 Legislation and regulation 41

3.3 Organisational considerations 42

3.4 Key considerations 45

3.5 Delivering good environmental practice 46

3.6 The environmental management framework 483.6.1 Choosing a standard 50

3.7 The ISO 14001 Standard 523.7.1 Organisational evaluation standards 523.7.2 Product evaluation standards 53

3.8 Bui lding an EMS 55


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3.9 The highways environmental management model 583.9.1 Stage 1. Know the environmental risks 593.9.2 Stage 2. Manage the environmental risks 613.9.3 Stage 3. Learn and improve 63

3.10 Future trends 64

References 65

4. DRAINAGE, RUNOFF AND GROUNDWATER 674.1 Introduction 67

4.2 Pollutant accumulation on highway surfaces 67

4.3 Classification of highway pollutant sources 694.3.1 Solids 704.3.2 Metals 714.3.3 Hydrocarbons 714.3.4 Inorganic salts, herbicides and bacteria 72

4.4 Sources of highway pollutants 724.4.1 Vehicle emissions, vehicle part wear and vehicle leakages 724.4.2 Road surface erosion 734.4.3 Accidental spillages 734.4.4 Atmospheric deposition 734.4.5 Seasonal maintenance practices 734.4.6 Regular maintenance practices 74

4.5 Legislation and responsibilities 754.5.1 Legislation and legal liability 75

4.5.2 Water quality objectives and standards 764.5.3 EU legislation 784.5.4 Groundwater regulations 794.5.5 Spillages and emergencies 794..5.6 Highway authorities 81

4.6 Treatment of highway runoff 824.6.1 Filter strips and swales 824.6.2 Filter drains 834.6.3 Infiltration systems 854.6.4 Storage facilities 874.6.5 Alternative road surfacings 91

4.7 Recommendations 924.7.1 Costings 934.7.2 Design selection 954.7.3 Specific recommendations 96

References 97

5. AIR QUALITYMANAGEMENT 1035.1 Introduction 103

5.2 The problem of air quality 1045.2.1 Historical perspectives 1045.2.2 Current air quality 107



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5.3 Current practice for impact assessment 115

5.4 Issues 1175.4.1 Vehicle emissions 1185.4.2 Atmospheric dispersion and transformation 123

5.5 Legislation and responsibilities 1255.5.1 Vehilce and fuel standards 1265.5.2 Air quality standards 1295.5.3 International agreements 1295.5.4 Local air quality management 129

5.6 Review and assessment of air pollution 1305.6.1 Air pollution monitoring 1335.6.2 Air pollution modelling 136

5.7 Control and reduction of traffic pollution 1395.7.1 Traffic management 139

5.7.2 The impact of reduced emissions on air pollution levels 141

5.8 Practical measures to reduce traffic pollution 1415.8.1 Emission reduction measures 1425.8.2 Reducing the impact of the emissions 144

5.9 Principal recommendations 145

References 147

6. NOISE MANAGEMENT 1496.1 Introduction 149

6.1.1 The extent of the problem 149

6.1.2 Sources of road traffic noise 1496.1.3 Trends in road traffic noise 1496.1.4 Impact of road traffic noise 150

6.2 Measurement of road traffic noise 1506.2.1 Definition of noise 1506.2.2 Measuring noise 1506.2.3 Sound levels and decibels 1516.2.4 Frequency selectivity of human hearing and Aweighting 1526.2.5 Temporal variation of noise and noise indices 1526.2.6 Equivalent continuous sound level, LAeq,T 1536.2.7 Percentile exceeded sound level, LAn,T 1536.2.8 Temporal variations outside the noise index averaging periods, T 1546.2.9 Efffect of microphone location relative to reflective surfaces 154

6.3 Calculation of road traffic noise and its radiation to the environment 1556.3.1 Calculation of environmental road traffic noise 155

6.4 Human response to noise 1576.4.1 Noise activity and interference 1576.4.2 Noise annoyance 1576.4.3 Noise and sleep disturbance 1586.4.4 Noise and nonauditory health 1586.4.5 Noise and community response 158


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6.5 Planning Issues 1596.5.1 Policy background 1596.5.2 Planning Policy Guidance Note PPG24 Planning and Noise 1596.5.3 Land Compensation Act 1973 1616.5.4 Noise Insulation Regulations 1975 161

6.5.5 Sound insulation and noise reduction for noise sensitive buildings 1626.5.6 DoT Technical Memorandum Calculation of Road Traffic Noise 1626.5.7 DMRB, Volume 11 (3,7), Traffic Noise and Vibration 162

6.6 Guidance on best practice and noise mitigation measures 1636.6.1 Land use and planning 1636.6.2 Road surfaces 1636.6.3 Noise barriers and landscaping 1666.6.4 Traffic management 1696.6.5 Cuttings, tunnels and enclosures 1696.6.6 Building design and layout 170


References 172

7. LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT 1757.1 Introduction 175

7.2 Overview 176

7.3 Issues 1767.3.1 Improvements 1767.3.2 Day and nighttime landscapes 1777.3.3 Urban landscapes 1777.3.4 Suburban landscapes 179

7.3.5 Rural landscapes 179

7.4 Guidance on best practice 1817.4.1 Published information 1817.4.2 Landscape design 1827.4.3 Management plans 1837.4.4 Management and maintenance contracts 1847.4.5 Management operations 1857.4.6 Mature trees and safety 1877.4.7 Reinstatement after road works 1887.4.8 Hard landscape and street furniture 1887.4.9 Serendipity, sensitivity and selectivity 1887.4.10 Nature conservation 189

7.5 Trends and future developments 190

7.6 Case studies 1917.6.1 An urban road the A316 in West London 1917.6.2 A rural road the A30 Okehampton Bypass, Devon 1917.6.3 A suburban road the A6141 in Letchworth Garden City, Hertfordshire 1927.6.4 Lighting A160/A180 Upgrade 194

7.7 Principal recommendations 1947.7.1 Preventative measures 1947.7.2 Palliative measures 195

References 195



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8. THE MANAGEMENT OF ECOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY 1978.1 Introduction 197

8.2 The importance of roadside areas for nature conservation 197

8.3 History of highway management and implications for wildlife value 197

8.4 Highway management and nature conservation 1998.4.1 Conflict between highway safety and nature conservation 1998.4.2 Conflict between nature conservation and uses of the verge 1998.4.3 Responsibili ty for environmentally led highway management 1998.4.4 Costs of highway maintenance 2008.4.5 Conflicting needs of different species 2008.4.6 Lack of research 2008.4.7 Possible conflict with visual and landscape aspirations 200

8.5 Issues 2018.5.1 Frequency and timing of cutting 201

8.5.2 Use of chemicals 2028.5.3 Deicing compounds and other pollutants 2028.5.4 Erosion and disturbance 2048.5.5 Economic and practical considerations 2048.5.6 Communication 2058.5.7 Other, nonhighway factors 205

8.6 Legislation and responsibilities 2068.6.1 Statutory designations 2068.6.2 Nonstatutory designations 2068.6.3 Protected species 2068.6.4 Role of English Nature 2078.6.5 Role of local authorities 207

8.6.6 Role of county wildlife trusts and other naturalists 2078.6.7 Role of landowners 207

8.7 Guidance on best practice 2088.7.1 Assessment of roadside areas 2088.7.2 Cutting regimes 2088.7.3 Use of chemicals 2118.7.4 Erosion and disturbance 2118.7.5 Tree planting and seeding 2118.7.6 Definition of special verges 2118.7.7 New roads/roadside areas 211

8.8 Case studies 212

8.8.1 Striped Lychnic moth in Buckinghamshire 2128.8.2 Roadside reserves and nature wardens: Kent 2138.8.3 Special verges in Essex 215

8.9 Where to find further information 216


References 217


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1 0 THE ENVIRONMENTAL M A N AG EM E N T O F H IGHWAYS

9. MANAGEMENT OF HIGHWAYS WITHIN THE BUILT HERITAGE 2199.1 Introduction 219

9.2 Listed Buildings and Ancient Monuments 219

9.3 Groups of buildings 2209.3.1 Settings of groups of buildings 220

9.4 Conservation and Conservation Areas 220

9.5 Spaces between buildings 221

9.6 Emphasis on linked spaces 222

9.7 Emphasis on the public street, road and highway 223

9.8 Why does heritage matter? 2239.8.1 Cultural base of the community, national and local 223

9.8.2 Economic wellbeing 2249.8.3 Contribution to regeneration 224

9.9 Emphasis on the whole scene 224

9.10 Heritage in everyday life 225

9.11 How can heritage be enhanced by highway management? 2269.11.1 Enhance the setting 2269.11.2 Reduce street clutter 2279.11.3 Coordinate detailed design with the character of the locality 228

9.12 Challenges to the enhancement of heritage 229

9.12.1 Unresolved conflicting objectives and national advice 2299.12.2 Limited interdisciplinary technical knowledge 2309.12.3 Local decisions made incrementally and in isolation 231

9.13 Improving current practice 2329.13.1 Materials 2329.13.2 Signing and street furniture 2329.13.3 Access 2339.13.4 Lighting 2339.13.5 Traffic calming 234

9.14 Examples of interdisciplinary considerations 2359.14.1 Strand, London 2359.14.2 Hennef, Germany 236

9.15 Repairs 237

9.16 Where to find further information 237

9.17 Principle recommendations 238

References 238

INDEX 243


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CHAPTER1. ABOUTTHEGUIDELINESThe main purpose of these Guidelines for the Environmental Management of Highways is to

describe best practice in managing and maintaining transport infrastructure, especiallyhighways, in such a way as to minimise any potentially harmful environmental impacts andmaximise environmental gains. It is a technical document to support the aims of the 1998 WhitePaper, A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone (DETR, 1998a), which viewed theobjective of environmental protection highly. Indeed the White Paper set the framework tominimise transports demand for land, protect habitats and maintain the variety of wildlife and

to limit the visual intrusion caused by transport.

These Guidelines are intended for use mainly by planners, architects, highway engineers, trafficengineers and maintenance engineers, in both the public and private sectors. As comprehensiveguidance on the environmental management of highways has been somewhat neglected in thepast, they highlight measures that can make qualitative improvements. They suggest techniques

for use and further development. The Guidelines are also intended to assist Councillors,voluntary groups and others who wish to pursue improvements to the highway environment,such as residents whose community is disrupted by heavy traffic. Finally, they are intended tohelp promote a consensus amongst the authorities, professionals and user groups on the bestways to improve conditions.

Scope and emphasis

The emphasis of these Guidelines is on what to do and how to do i t. Those involved in theplanning and development process need to put a new emphasis on achieving good design.Good urban and rural design, a concern for the overall quality of the environment and the builtenvironment in particular, is necessary for the creation of attractive living surroundings which

work well for everyone. The policy and planning framework is outlined, but the focus is on theprocesses that will prevent or reduce environmental damage. Most examples are from the UKbut some examples from mainland Europe have also been included.

Where the term highway is used this should be taken to mean road in Scotland. Legislativeand administrative differences for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are shown wherenecessary. Furthermore, many of the lessons are also applicable to other transportationinfrastructure, such as railways and airports.

Relationship to other guidance

These Guidelines are intended to be compatible with other official guidance from TheInstitution of Highways & Transportation (IHT), the Department of the Environment, Transportand the Regions (DETR) and the Highways Agency (HA). To avoid repeating all that is containedin comprehensive sources of nationally accepted guidance, such as Transport in the UrbanEnvironment(IHT, 1997) and DETR Local Transport Notes as well as the Design Manual forRoads and Bridges (DMRB), frequent reference is made to them. Such documents include, forexample, Places, Streets and Movements (DETR, 1998b) which sets out an approach that isintended to prevent residential developments being dominated by roads and vehicles andbecoming standardised, regardless of their situation.

To achieve consistency in practice, local authorities are recommended to use these Guidelinesfor the environmental management of highways (and other transportation infrastructure) by theirown staff, their consultants and developers, rather than producing a local guide.

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The Guidelines build on other advice that has been primarily intended for the construction ofnew roads. It is recognised that there has been a major change in policy toward the transportsector, the evolution of which is traced in Chapter Two. In very general terms the predict andprovide transport policies of previous generations have been replaced by an emphasis onmaking the best use of what we have. In environmental terms, this means achieving best

practice in the maintenance, management and enhancement of the existing highwayenvironment: it is precisely here that these Guidelines are aimed.

It is important, however, that these Guidelines are not ignored for new highway provision whereappropriate. Pressure on scarce land resources in the UK means that a very substantialproportion of new housing development will be on brownfield sites. Inevitably, this requiresthat the associated new highway development (which includes, footways, cycle tracks andreserved corridors for public service transport) integrate with existing provision.

Guidelines, not standards

The Guidelines attempt to set out best practice. It is recognised, however, that it will not alwaysbe possible to meet all these criteria and that compromises must sometimes be made. TheGuidelines therefore try to indicate the desirable provision and lower standards that may provesatisfactory in certain circumstances. They also suggest alternative approaches to tacklingproblems. It is the task of the transport professional including planners, engineers and others todecide if a lower standard is acceptable in given circumstances or if another approach wouldbe more beneficial.

The technical chapters of this publication all conclude with a number of PrincipalRecommendations. It is accepted that, in virtually all cases, these recommendations haveresource implications that will have to be set alongside other competing demands on finitebudgets. The Guidelines attempt to prioritise these recommendations where possible, but it isessential that all users of this document realise that their own professional judgement must be

exercised in the selection of appropriate procedures for local circumstances. It is important torealise also that not all resources are directly financial, particularly where local volunteerinitiatives are available. In addition, it should be recognised that much of the management ofthe natural and built environment is a matter of concern for all those with an interest in it, notmerely professional environmental scientists or engineers. Public/private partnerships and, forexample, town centre management partnerships now have a real role in setting priorities andensuring delivery of many of the recommendations contained in these Guidelines.

Guide to the Guidelines

The Guidelines are in two parts. Chapters two and three cover issues relating to policy and

management. Chapters four to nine deal with the technical details, providing advice on how toavoid or mitigate harmful consequences of highways management and how to provideenvironmental gain. Chapter two covers global and European policy including the EuropeanAuto-Oil Programme. Current UK transport policy including the 1998 White Paper as well asthe daughter documents are also considered. Chapter three describes environmentalmanagement systems so that environmental protection and management delivers good practice.In addition to legislation and regulation, it also covers organisational considerations as well asdescribing how to develop an environmental management strategy. Chapter four coversdrainage, runoff and groundwater management describing highway pollutant sources such asvehicle emissions and vehicle component wear, vehicle leakages, road surface erosion andaccidental spillages. Chapter five addresses air quality management focussing upon vehicleemissions. Chapter six is concerned with noise management, in addition to issues relating to thecalculation of road traffic noise. Landscape management is covered by Chapter seven. A



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distinction is made between different types of landscape: day and nighttime landscapes; urbanlandscapes; suburban landscapes and rural landscapes. Chapter eight is concerned with theecological management of the roadside estate, and finally Chapter nine with the managementof highways within the built heritage.

The emphasis in these Guidelines is on planning, management, layout and engineering. Makingthe very best use of our existing road network by knowing what to do and when and how to do it.

References

DETR, 1998a A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone. Cmnd 3950.The Stationery Office, London.

DETR, 1998b Places, Streets and Movement, The Stationery Office, London.

The Institution of Highways & Transport in the Urban Environment. IHT, London.Transportation, 1997



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CHAPTER2. POLICY CONTEXT

2.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to provide the transport and environment policy context relevant tothe design, management and maintenance of highways. The chapter is structured as follows:section 2.2 provides some historical context by identifying four ages of transport policy inBritain. Section 2.3 highlights the growing importance of a topdown policy approach in whichglobal and European commitments influence national policy. Section 2.4 outlines what might betermed the fifth age of transport policy in Britain in more detail. In particular, it examines the1998 White Paper, the Daughter and related documents and other relevant legislation and plansincluding Transport 2010. Section 2.5 outlines other key relevant legislation and lastly,section 2.6 draws some conclusions.

2.2 The Four Ages of transport policy in BritainIt has been estimated that 79% of Britains roads were in place by 1940 and 80% of motorwayswere in place before 1980 (Hyder Consulting, 1999). The historical context is thereforeimportant, particularly given that environmental concerns have only emerged relativelyrecently. Button and Gillingwater (1986) divided transport policy in Britain into four ages. Thefirst age The Railway Age lasted from the midnineteenth century until the First World War.The emphasis of policy was on the economic regulation of the railways because of their positionas private monopolies. Between the wars was The Age of Protection, in which the stateconcentrated on protecting incumbent operators particularly the railways from competition.The rationale was to prevent wasteful competition and improve safety standards particularlyon the roads. The period from the Second World War until the late 1970s was termed The Ageof Administrative Planning, in which the transport sector became largely controlled by the state.The period from the late 1970s was characterised as The Age of Contestability, in which theidea that transport markets could and should be open to competition (that is, be contestable)took hold. Key events during this period affecting highways included:

the deregulation of express coach services as a result of the 1980 Transport Act; the deregulation and privatisation of most local bus services following the 1985 Transport

Act; the privatisation of the National Freight Corporation (responsible for road haulage) in

1982; the removal of direct responsibility for building and maintaining roads from the

Department of Transport to the Highways Agency in 1994, and examination of a number of options for achieving private investment in roads,

culminating in the emergence of a shadow toll system for DBFO (Design, Build, Financeand Operate) schemes. Private investment in infrastructure provision and operation isalso being introduced via Public Private Partnerships and these arrangements may, in duecourse, be used for highway development.

2.2.1 New Realism, The Great Transport Debate and towards a Fifth Age oftransport policy

In the late 1980s, the broad thrust of transport policy began to turn. Arguably, the definingmoment was the publication of the 1989 National Road Traffic Forecast, (NRTF Department ofTransport, 1989) which predicted, in rough terms, a doubling of road traffic between 1988 and2025. It was the unsustainability of these forecasts that led to the Trunk Roads Review. Adams



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(1993) calculated that simply providing one additional parking space for each of the 27 millionextra vehicles predicted to join the countrys motor vehicle population would require theequivalent of a new motorway from London to Edinburgh 257 lanes wide. It is also worth notingthat the forecasts themselves have been revised. The 1997 NRTF projected traffic growth ofalmost half that forecast in 1989, for example growth of between 43% and 82% between 1989

and 2026 compared to earlier forecasts of growth of between 83% and 142% between 1988 and2025 (DETR, 1998a). More recent work by consultants WS Atkins and the DETR has revised theforecasts back up. For example, the central forecast is now that road traffic will increase by 35%between 1996 and 2010 compared to a 1997 NRTF forecast of a 28% increase from 1996 to2011 (CfIT, 1999).

In an influential report (Goodwin et al, 1991), it was argued that there were two main policychoices in transport planning. Either accept that the increase in car use is inevitable and try andprovide the necessary infrastructure (predict and provide) or control car use in order to keep itin bounds defined by broader social objectives. Goodwin et al believed that the former policyhad led to unacceptable levels of congestion, accidents, local and global pollution and socialexclusion. They argued that there was a consensus emerging in favour of the second policy

choice that they referred to as the New Realism which supported:

a substantial improvement in the quality and scale of public transport; increased traffic calming and pedestrianisation; the use of advanced traffic management systems to increase the operational efficiency of

transport networks; the adoption of a road pricing system that reflects congestion and other externalities, and the construction of new roads only where it is desirable to meet demand.

This report was important for at least two reasons. First, New Realism revived interest in theenvironmental capacity of roads examined by Buchanan et al (1963) and in road pricing whichhad been expounded in the early 1960s by the Smeed Report (Ministry of Transport, 1964).

Secondly, it stimulated the Great Transport Debate that took place in 1995 initiated by the thenSecretary of State for Transport, Brian Mawhinney. This debate focused on three questions thatare worth reiterating because they highlight the potentially contradictory objectives of transportpolicy. The questions were:

is the present balance right between economic growth, protection of the environment andsupport for personal choice?

if the balance needs to be shifted (for example towards greater environmental protectionor towards enhancing competitiveness by reducing road congestion), what measuresneed to be taken and how will they achieve their stated objectives?

are we prepared to accept the wider consequences (for the environment, for personalchoices, for industrial competitiveness, jobs and the economy as a whole) of any such

measures?

The Great Debate culminated in the publication in 1996 of a Green Paper (Department ofTransport, 1996), which accepted that there was a need to pay increased attention to theenvironmental impact of transport policy and reduce dependence on the car. Ways of achievingthis would include marketoriented measures, so that transport prices were more aligned withsocial costs. Planning oriented measures would also be adopted, including a presumptionagainst planning permission for outoftown retailing (Planning Policy Guidance Note 6 Department of the Environment, 1996), and a switch in emphasis in investment from roads topublic transport.

The work of two other national bodies in influencing policy change should also be highlighted.The first was the Standing Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment (SACTRA) which



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originated from the Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment (ACTRA) which producedthe Leitch Report (ACTRA, 1977). The Leitch Report had examined the use of the COBA (CostBenefit Analysis) program in road appraisal and identified a major weakness in the assessmentof environmental procedures. Partially as a result, the Department of Transport produced theManual of Environmental Assessment (MEA) (1983) to supplement the conventional economic

appraisal. The MEA was substantially revised in 1988 and reformulated to become Volume II ofthe Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) in 1993 (Department of Transport, 1993).Two important reports were produced in the 1990s. The first (SACTRA, 1992) recommended thatthe assessment of environmental impacts should take place within a costbenefit analysisframework thus bringing the economic and environmental appraisals together. The second(SACTRA, 1994) highlighted the need to take into account the fact that roads generate trafficand move away from the assumption of a fixed trip matrix which had been standard practicesince the 1960s. The implementation of these two reports might be expected, in totality, toweaken the case for the construction of new roads.

The second body was the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP), whoseeighteenth and twentieth reports considered transport and the environment (RCEP, 1994, 1997).

The eighteenth report identified eight clear objectives of a sustainable transport policy, alongwith 110 detailed recommendations. The objectives were:

to ensure that an effective transport policy at all levels of government is integrated withland use policy and gives priority to minimising the needs for transport and increasingthe proportion of trips made by environmentally less damaging modes;

to achieve standards of air quality that will prevent damage to human health and theenvironment, including full compliance by 2005 with World Health Organisation airquality guidelines for transport related pollutants;

to improve the quality of l ife, particularly in towns and cities, by reducing the dominanceof cars and lorries and providing alternative means of access. For example, it wasrecommended that the proportion of urban journeys in London undertaken by car should

reduce from 50% to 35% by 2020. In other urban areas, a target of a reduction of thecars share of journeys from 65% to 50% by 2020 was proposed;

to increase the proportions of personal travel and freight transport by environmentallyless damaging modes and to make the best use of existing infrastructure. For examplethe proportion of passengerkilometres carried by public transport should be increasedfrom 12% in 1993 to 30% by 2020 and the proportion of freight tonnekilometres carriedby rail should increase from 6.5% in 1993 to 20% by 2010;

to halt any loss of land to transport infrastructure in areas of conservation, cultural,scenic or amenity value unless the land for that purpose has been shown to be the bestpracticable environmental option;

to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from transport so that emissions in 2020 are no morethan 80% of the 1990 level;

to reduce substantially the demands which transport infrastructure and the vehicleindustry place on nonrenewable materials. For example, the weight of scrappedvehicles which is recycled should be increased from 77% to 95% by 2015, whilst theproportion of recycled material used in road construction should be quadrupled by 2015,and

to reduce noise nuisance from transport to not more than 65 dB LAeq.16h at the externalwalls of housing for daytime exposure and 59 dB LAeq.8h for nighttime exposure.

The twentieth report reviewed progress and concluded that recent action has been too littleand too slow to provide a substantial shift in transport trends (page 12). It was concluded thatfuel price increases and improvements in vehicle technology so far planned would not inthemselves bring about the requisite improvements in air quality or reductions in emissions ofgreenhouse gases. Needs were identified for rapid innovation in vehicle technology, better



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integration of public transport systems, better integration of transport and land use planning,better traffic management policies (including greater use of economic instruments) and policiesto encourage modal shift.

2.3 Global and European policyAnother important set of influences on domestic transport policy have been the externalinfluence of global and European policy initiatives.

2.3.1 Global policy

The Rio Earth Summit provided a blueprint for a global strategy toward a sustainable future(UNCED, 1992). Local Agenda 21 groups have been set up to determine detailed proceduresfor implementation using the slogan Think Global, Act Local. At the followup Kyoto climatechange conference in December 1997, the UK Government committed itself to a legally bindingtarget to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 12.5% below 1990 levels by the period 2008 to

2012. This reduction is equivalent to 27 million tonnes of carbon. In addition, the UKGovernment has a domestic aim to reduce CO 2 emissions to 20% below 1990 levels by 2010.It was partly because of the increased emphasis on improving air quality that resulted from theRio and Kyoto summits that the UK Government introduced the Fuel Price Escalator in whichfuel duty would rise by at least five percent per annum in real terms from 1994. This wasincreased to six percent in 1997. The RCEP (1994) had recommended an increase of ninepercent per annum. In 1999, it was announced that the commitment to the Fuel Price Escalatorwould be abandoned, with any increase in fuel duty above inflation hypothecated for transportexpenditure.

2.3.2 European transport policy

Articles 74 to 79 of the 1957 Treaty of Rome provided the basis for a Common Transport Policy(CTP) for the then European Community. However, as Glaister et al (1998) point out, progresswas slow until 1985 when the European Court of Justice declared that the inland transport ofpassengers and freight should be open to all Community firms without discrimination as tonationality or place of establishment. In the same year, the Commissions White Paper on thecompletion of the internal market (and the subsequent 1986 Single European Market Act) placedtransport at the forefront of move towards the completion of the single market that was finallyachieved in 1992.

In 1992 the European Commission also published a White Paper on the CTP (EuropeanCommission, 1992), which was adopted the following year. The White Paper marked animportant change in emphasis for the CTP which had previously been geared towards the

elimination of artificial barriers (although many such barriers continue to exist or were onlyremoved since 1992 see Preston, 1999). It now provides a more comprehensive policy, withthe main objective of promoting sustainable mobility through improving the quality of transportsystems, in terms of competitiveness, safety and environmental impact (see also EuropeanCommission, 1995). The CTP has been adapted to confront the new challenges facing post 1992transport policy. In particular, the Maastricht Treaty, which was finally ratified in 1993, requiredthe integration of environmental objectives.

However, actions that can be taken at a European level are limited by the subsidiary principlein which transport policy is delegated to national, regional or local governments. TheDirectorate General of the European Commission responsible for transport (formerly DGVII andnow DG Transport) has only a limited number of policy instruments at its disposal. The mostimportant are directives and regulations that aim at the harmonisation of technical, fiscal and



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social provisions. Of particular importance to this chapter are the attempts to harmonise vehicleemission standards, which are discussed below. Another example is the Integrated PollutionPrevention and Control Directive (61/96) which came into effect in October 1999.

2.3.3 The European AutoOil Programme

An important development at the European level has been the Auto/Oil Programme that was designedto determine emission standards to apply from 2000. The programme involved the EuropeanCommission in conjunction with Europia and ACEA, the European Trade associations for the oil andmotor industries respectively. The work programme consisted of (European Commission, 1996):

air quality studies to predict future air quality in seven European cities (Athens, Cologne,The Hague, London, Lyon, Madrid and Milan) and, for ozone, across the EuropeanUnion. Emission reduction targets were to be determined for carbon monoxide,particulate matter, benzene, nitrogen dioxide and tropospheric ozone;

the European Programme on Emissions, Fuels and Engine Technology a joint motor andoil industries research programme to investigate the effects of vehicle technology and

fuel characteristics on emissions, and a costeffectiveness study in which the costs and emissions impact of a range of

abatement techniques were collated and the most costeffective package of measures tomeet the emission reduction targets identified.

As a result of the Auto/Oil work the limit for particulate emissions from diesel passengervehicles was reduced from 0.08g/km (Stage II) to 0.05g/km in 200001 (Stage III) and 0.025g/kmin 2005 (Stage IV). Limits for diesel and petrol passenger vehicles are also set for carbonmonoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides (see, for example, RCEP, 1997, p23). Similarly, thepermitted sulphur content of diesel was reduced from 3000ppm to 2000ppm in October 1994and to 500ppm in October 1996. The sulphur content of petrol was reduced from 1000ppm to500ppm in January 1995.

2.4 Current UK transport policy

2.4.1 The 1998 White Paper

In July 1998 the Labour Government published the White Paper A New Deal for Transport: Betterfor Everyone(DETR, 1998b). Although this was intended as an United Kingdom policy document,separate documents were also produced for Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales (see, forexample, Secretary of State for Scotland, 1999). For reasons of brevity, this chapter focuses onthe important transport policies as they affect the majority of the United Kingdom, but it shouldbe recognised that there are differences in emphasis in different regions. The White Paper, which

was a culmination of the internal policy pressures discussed in section 2.2.1 and the externalpolicy pressures discussed in section 2.3, may be seen as an important stage in a fifth age ofBritish transport policy which might be termed The Age of Integration. In the words of theSecretary of State, John Prescott, The White Paper is aboutradical change and how to achieveit. The White Papers aims are manifold but may be summarised under 12 key headings:

1. An integrated transport policy based on integration within and between different types oftransport, integration with the environment, integration with landuse planning and integrationwith policies for education, health and wealth creation.

2. Better policy at the national level, including a new independent Commission for IntegratedTransport (CfIT), tackling the pinchpoints in transport networks that lead to congestion and anew airports policy with a stronger role for regional airports.



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3. Better policy at the regional level, with many decisions on transport issues devolved to theScottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland and Wales Assemblies. Strengthened planningarrangements in the English regions will secure integration between transport and land use,whilst the Mayor for London will be required to produce an integrated transport strategy.

4. Better policy at the local level, including new five year Local Transport Plans, new localpowers including road user charging and levies on parking, new sources of additional fundingfor local transport and decision making on transport to be more accountable to local people.

5. Better buses, including upgraded quality partnerships and exclusive quality contracts, anationwide half price concessionary fare scheme for the elderly and special funding for busesin the countryside.

6. Better trains, through the creation of a Strategic Rail Authority (SRA), passenger dividendsfrom passenger railway companies and tougher regulation.

7. A better environment, through greener, more fuelefficient vehicles promoted by better

standards, tax incentives and a cleaner vehicle task force; new powers to enforce noise controlsat airports; the promotion of traffic management, traffic calming and traffic reduction (anaspiration to reduce traffic by ten percent is hinted at) and through making cycling and walkingeasier and safer.

8. Better safety and security, through a root and branch review of transport safety; a new roadsafety strategy and targets to reduce accidents; safe routes to school; a major review of speedpolicy; safer public transport; changes in drivers hour legislation; a review of the role of theBritish Transport Police and implementation of a secure stations scheme.

9. Better freight transport, through quality partnerships between local authorities and operatorson lorry routing and delivery hours; greater use of 41 tonne, six axle lorries; improvements in

best practice; impounding illegally operated lorries; facilitating shipping; extending freightgrants to include coastal and short sea shipping and promoting rail freight through the StrategicRail Authority.

10. A new deal for motorists, including improved management of the trunk road system throughRegional Traffic Control Centres; investment focused on improving reliability of journeys; bettermaintained roads; an updated Highways Agency Road Users Charter; more help for motorists ifthey break down on the motorway; a reduction in the disruption caused by utilities street work;improved road safety and safer cars; quality information for the driver; dealing with car crime;more secure car parks; better information and protection when buying a car; action oncowboy wheel clampers; more fuelefficient cars and less congestion on the roads and lesspollution in cars.

11. A new deal for the public transport passengerthrough more and better buses and trains; stafftrained in customer care; a stronger voice for the passenger; better information including anational public transport information system by 2000; better interchanges and connections;enhanced networks with simplified fares and better marketing; more throughticketing andtravelcards; more reliable buses through priority measures and reduced congestion and easyaccess to public transport.

12. Everyone doing their bit, including: Government departments taking the lead in introducinggreen transport plans; local authorities, businesses, community organisations, schools andhospitals encouraged to produce their own green transport plans; a major national awarenesscampaign; a new initiative on school journeys and individuals/families/communitiesconsidering their own travel habits.



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Overall, the White Paper hopes that the new deal for transport will lead to more choice, a moreinclusive society, better places to live, a more sustainable economy and greater sharing ofdecisions. The response to the White Paper was generally positive. For example, a straw poll of17 experts in Local Transport Today(1998) found only one dissenting voice. However, there arealso some important concerns. Mackie (1998) raises four areas of concern. The first is that there

is some vagueness about the nature of the problem and hence about policy objectives. Theemphasis is on congestion and environmental externalities of transport but there is a danger ofswinging from one polar position that traffic growth is unequivocally good, a symbol of thegreat car economy to the other in which traffic growth is unequivocally bad and must bereined back always and everywhere. A moderated view might be that although total trafficgrowth may be seen as undesirable, local growth might be more or less desirable within anoverall national limit. Secondly, there are some concerns about the strategic direction of policy,with an overemphasis on pricing mechanisms and an underemphasis on capacityenhancement, particularly for the inter urban roads network, for example the speedmanagement exercises on the M25. Thirdly, there are concerns about the potential of publictransport as an instrument for coping with traffic growth. Little attention has been paid to thefact that the crosselasticity of car demand with respect to public transport attributes is, onaverage, very low. The fourth issue is the need for action. Concerns include the lack of a firmlegislative programme, the lack of measurable targets, the lack of the necessary finance to makechange happen, the passing of responsibilities for difficult problems down to local authoritiesand the danger that the new QUANGOs (such as SRA and CfIT) will slow down not speed uppolicy implementation. These concerns have been partially addressed by the publication inNovember 1999 of a 231 clause, 258 page Transport Bill, with the most important provisionbeing the granting of powers to local authorities to introduce road user charging and workplaceparking levies. Full details of Bills before parliament may be found at www.parliament.uk

2.4.2 The Daughter Documents

The White Paper was accompanied by nine daughter documents. The six most importantdocuments with respect to roads are discussed in turn.

The New Deal for Trunk Roads in England(DETR, 1998c) undertook a major trunk roads reviewin which 37 schemes were accepted and, by being cancelled or left for local authoritydecisions, 36 rejected. Somewhat perplexingly, both sets of schemes seem to have averagebenefit cost ratios of 3:1 (Mackie, op cit). Decisions on a further 44 schemes were deferredpending further study (Price, 1999). These decisions were based on a New Approach toAppraisal (NATA) which is discussed in more detail in DETR (1998d and 1998e). The keydevelopment is that in addition to impacts on the economy and safety (largely measured byCOBA), impacts also need to be taken into account that affect the environment, accessibilityand integration (see Table 2.1). The results are brought together in an Appraisal Summary Table(AST) which brings together quantitative and qualitative indicators (see Table 2.2). With respectto the environment, the essential measures are as follows:

for noise, the number of residential properties for which the difference in the assessmentyear levels between the do minimum and with proposal options is 3dB(A). In theexample in Table 2.2 (an upgrade of the A1) it can be seen that a net total of 670properties benefit from the scheme;

for local air quality, changes in the emission of PM10s (measured in micrograms per cubicmetre (g/m3) and NO2 (measured in parts per bil lion). Differences in emissions shouldbe multiplied by the number of weighted properties on the route (where a property within50m of the roadside has a weight of 1.00 and those within 150m to 200m have a weightof 0.50 {PM10} and 0.55 {NO2}). The scheme in Table 2.2 leads to a reduction inexposure to PM10s and NO2;

for global emissions, changes in the level of carbon dioxide, measured in tonnes. Thescheme in Table 2.2 leads to an increase in emissions of CO 2.



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for landscape, the approach involves a description of the character of the landscape and anevaluation of what matters in the landscape and why. The latter is achieved by developinga matrix of features against indicators (referred to as Worksheet 6.2). Features consideredare: pattern, tranquillity, culture, landcover and summary of character. Indicators include:description, scale, rarity, importance and substitutability, impact and additional mitigation.Impact is measured on an eightpoint scale, based on a sevenpoint scale devised by theCountryside Commission but including a category for a very large adverse effect. Theimpact of the scheme in Table 2.2 is judged to be slightly adverse.

for biodiversity, the approach involves a description of the nature conservationevaluation of the habitats, species and natural features affected and an assessment of theecological features. A list of attributes should be considered (referred to as Worksheet6.3) including site, scale, importance, rarity, substitution possibilities, natureconservation evaluation and impact. Using a methodology derived from English Nature,nature conservation evaluation is based on a fivefold classification illustrated by Table2.3. Impacts are again measured on an eight point semantic scale. Nature conservationevaluation and impact are combined to produce an assessment score as shown by Table2.4. The scheme in Table 2.2 is judged to be slightly adverse.

Heritageis also assessed using a matrix, referred to as Worksheet 6.4. The rows are thedefinition of features in terms of form, survival, condition, complexity, context andperiod. The columns involve description, scale, significance, rarity and impact. Usingadvice from English Heritage, an overall assessment score may be developed based onthe guidance matrix illustrated by Table 2.5. The scheme in Table 2.2 is judged to beneutral.


Criteria SubCriteria

Environmental Impact* NoiseLocal Air Quality

LandscapeBiodiversityHeritageWater

Safety not subdivided

Economy Journey Times and Vehicle. Operating Costs

Journey Time Reliabili tyScheme CostsRegeneration

Accessibility Access to Public TransportCommunity SeverancePedestrians and Others

Integration not subdivided

*Environmental Impact also includes data on change in CO 2 emissions.

Source: Price, 1999, page 224

Tab le 2 .1 : Cr i te r ia and Sub Cr i te r ia used in the New Approach t o App ra isa l .


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Category A

Ramsar Sites (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as WaterfowlHabitat, 1971)World Heritage Sites (Convention for the Protection of World Cultural & Natural Heritage, 1972)Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO Man & The Biosphere Programme)European Sites (EC Habitats Directive 1992 & UK Habitats Regulations 1994):

Special Areas of Conservation (SACs)Special Protection Areas (SPAs)Sites of Community Importance (SCIs)Candidate SACs and potential SPAs

Sites hosting habitats/species of European Community interest (Annex 1 and 2 of HabitatsDirectives)Sites hosting species listed under the Bonn Convention (Convention on the Conservation ofMigratory Species of Wild Animals)Sites hosting species under the Berne Convention (Annex 1 and 2 of the Convention on theConservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, 1979)Biogenetic Reserves under the Council of EuropeEuropean Diploma Sites under the Council of Europe

Category B

Sites of Special Scientific Interest and National Nature Reserves (Wildlife & Countryside Act1981 as amended and National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1959)Sites with Limestone Pavement Orders (Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981)Nature Conservation Review Sites (NCR)Geological Conservation Review SitesMarine Nature Reserves (Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981)Areas of Special Protection for Birds (Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981)

Sites hosting Red Data Book speciesSites hosting species in Schedules 1, 5 and 8 of the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981.

Category C

Local Nature Reserves (National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949)Other sites (not described above) with Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) priority habitats/speciesSites of Importance to Nature Conservation (SINCs) and other local designationsRegionally Important Geological Sites (RIGS)Other natural/seminatural sites of significant biodiversity importance, not referred to above.

Category D

Sites not in the above categories, but with some biodiversity or earth heritage interest.

Category E

Sites with little or no biodiversity or earth heritage interest.

Note: Sites falling into more than one category should be classified into the most importantcategory.

Source: DETR, 1998e

Table 2 .3 : Guide to Nature Conservat ion Eva luat ion.


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Water Quality and Land Drainage/Flood Defence are assessed using a riskbasedapproach to determine potential negative impacts, based on guidance provided by theEnvironment Agency. Seven indicators are examined: General Quality Assessment (GQA)grade (Chemical), EC Freshwater Fisheries Directive, water abstraction points,groundwater vulnerability, location of boreholes, floodplain, watercourses, river

corridors and flood risk. These indicators are assessed in terms of sensitivity and thepotential of the proposal to cause harm, using a threepoint scale (high, medium andlow). These assessments are converted into an overall score using the information givenby Table 2.6. The approach is modified to take into account the scope for mitigation andenhancement. The scheme in Table 2.2 is judged to be neutral.


Nature conservation Impact Assessment scoreEvaluation

(1) Category A + Major negative = Very large adverse

(2) Category A + Intermediate negative = Large adverse(3) Category A + Minor negative = Slight adverse

(4) Category B + Major negative = Very large adverse(5) Category B + Intermediate negative = Large adverse(6) Category B + Minor negative = Slight adverse

(7) Category C + Major negative = Large or Moderateadverse (see note F)

(8) Category C + Intermediate negative = Moderate adverse(9) Category C + Minor negative = Slight adverse

(10) Category D + All negative categories = Slight adverse

(11) Category E + All negative categories = Neutral

(12) All categories + Neutral = Neutral(13) All categories + Minor positive = Slight positive(14) All categories + Intermediate positive = Moderate positive(15) All categories + Major positive = Large positive

Notes:(A) Options that have a very large adverse effect are likely to be unacceptable on nature conservation

grounds alone (even with compensation proposals).(B) There should be a strong presumption against options in the "large adverse" category, with more than

1:1 compensation (net gain within the Natural Area) for the very occasional cases where developmentis allowed as a last resort.

(C) Options in the moderate adverse category should include at least 1:1 compensation (no net losswithin the Natural Area) if the development is allowed.

(D) See Annex 6A for the definition of nature conservation evaluation categories.(E) See the main text for definition of impact.(F) Circumstance (7) above should score large adverse if the habitats/species are not substitutable, or

otherwise should score moderate adverse.

Source: DETR, 1998e

Table 2 .4 : Dec is ion Rules to Ass is t the Assessment o f Opt ions on Nature Conservat ion.


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Severance is often considered as an environmental impact but is treated in the NATAunder the heading of accessibility. Severance is measured on a threepoint scale (slight,moderate and severe/substantial). The numbers of pedestrians affected by new severance

and relieved from existing severance are recorded (in worksheet 8.3). The overallassessment may be neutral, slight, moderate or large. In the case of the scheme in Table

2.2 there is a large beneficial impact because there is relief from severe severanceaffecting a large number of households.

Overall for the scheme in Table 2.2, the present value of benefits (PVB) is 337m and thepresent value of costs (PVC) is 91m, resulting in a net present value (NPV) of 245m and abenefit cost ratio (BCR) of 3.7. On conventional economic grounds, the scheme would go

ahead. The AST show that there are no serious adverse environmental impacts (indeed, there aresome substantial benefits). Similarly, the scheme is either neutral or beneficial with respect to

accessibility and integration. Under the NATA, the scheme remains in the roads programme(Targeted Programme of Improvements).


Assessment Score Guidance Matrix

EFFECT SCALE

INTERNATIONAL NATIONAL REGIONAL

PHYSICAL MAJOR Very Large Large Moderate/Large

PARTIAL Large Large Slight

VISUAL MAJOR Very Large Large Large

SETTING SLIGHT Large Large Slight

CUMULATIVE MAJOR Very Large Very Large Large

SLIGHT Very Large Large Large

Source: DETR, 1998e

Sensitivity ofthe Environment 3*High 2 2 3Medium 1 2 2Low 0 1 2

Low Medium HighPotential to Cause Harm

Key: 3* Very large negative effects3 Large negative effects2 Moderate negative effects1 Slight negative effects0 Neutral

Source: DETR, 1998e

Tab le 2 .5 : De te rm inan ts o f an Assessmen t Sco re fo r He r i tage .

Tab le 2 .6 : De te rm inan t s o f an Assessmen t Sco re fo r Wa te r Qua l i t y and Land Dra inage / F loodDefence.


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More detailed advice on the application of the NATA to 17 of the 44 deferred schemes in whichmultimodal solutions might be feasible has also been produced and is referred to as theGuidance On Methodology for Multimodal Studies (GOMMS MVA et al, 1999). Particularadvice is given on public consultation, the generation of options, the formulation of strategiesand plans, objective setting and problem identification, effectiveness of policy instruments,

modelling and appraisal.

The advantages of the NATA include its attempt to bring together quantitative and qualitativeindicators together in one summary table. It is perhaps too succinct in this. It is also relativelytransparent as an appraisal process, although the policy prescriptions that have emerged in theRoads Review are less transparent. According to Glaister (1999) it goes as far towardsmulticriteria analysis as is sensible. However, despite warnings from the DETR, there may benear irresistible temptations to bring together individual scores to form an aggregate overallscore, which would erroneously assume ordinal measures are cardinal. Dangers of doublecounting would also seem to have increased.

The other five roadsrelated daughter documents may be discussed in slightly less detail. The

bus policy document, From Workhorse to Thoroughbred(DETR, 1999a) proposes to increase therole played by the bus in transport policy and promote a shift in the planning and allocation ofroad space from the car to the bus.

The daughter document on road user and workplace parking charging policy, Breaking theLogjam (DETR, 1998f) is essentially a consultation document. It poses a number ofimplementation questions concerning the proposals to grant local authorities powers to chargefor the use of congested roads and raise a workplace parking levy. There are also proposals forcharging on motorways and trunk roads. In conjunction with this consultation, trials ofelectronic road pricing have been proposed in Edinburgh and Leeds. The Mayor of London andthe London boroughs have been given charging powers in the Greater London Authority Act(1999). Details of this Act and all other Acts passed since 1995 may be found on

www.hmso.gov.uk

The daughter document on freight policy, Sustainable Distribution: A Strategy, sets out a series ofpolicies to promote the sustainable transport of goods (DETR, 1999b). This also involves integrationwithin the freight sector and with planning and road policies, the integration of distributioninfrastructure, and the promotion of rail freight, coastal shipping and inland waterways. One of theimportant outstanding issues surrounds the case for the 44 tonne, six axle lorry, following theauthorisation for 40 tonne, five axle and 41 tonne, six axle lorries in January 1999.

Road safety policy has also been reviewed. New targets for casualty reduction have been set(DETR, 2000a) to cover the next decade. Furthermore, greater emphasis is being given to speedreduction (DETR, 2000b). Both documents will have implications for the highway environment

as local authorities aim to achieve slower vehicle speeds.

Local authorities are required to produce Local Transport Plans (LTPs) (DETR, 2000c and 2000d)covering the fiveyear period 200102 to 20056 both to provide a strategy and to bid for fundsfrom central government. Funding will be awarded for the first year only with an AnnualPerformance Review to determine funding subsequent funding levels. Key elements with respectto the environment include the need to coordinate with any air quality action plan; action onnoise and action on climate change; the need to recognise the particular needs and specialcharacter of the countryside and the promotion of measures to encourage voluntary adoption ofgreen transport plans. Appraisal is to be based on the guidance of the new approach to appraisal(GNATA), discussed above, and on the appraisal summary tables exemplified by Table 2.2.Table 2.7 shows the recommended approach to LTP appraisals. It is apparent that LTPs will bethe important delivery mechanism for the White Papers transport policies.



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2.4.3 Related documents

The National Air Quality Strategy (NAQS) (Department of Environment, 1997) has twoobjectives:

to achieve full compliance by 2005 with World Health Organisation (WHO)healthbased air quality guidelines for transportrelated pollutants, and

to establish, in appropriate areas by 2005, local air quality standards based on thecritical levels required to protect sensitive ecosystems.

The initial standards and objectives are shown by Table 2.8, although they have since been reviewedand revisions are likely (DETR, 1999e). An important tool for delivering the NAQS is the system ofLocal Air Quality Management. Local authorities have a duty to assess air quality to determinewhether the objectives prescribed in the Air Quality Regulations, 1997 are likely to be met.

An important concept is that of sustainability, which using the Brundtland definition means theability to meet the needs of current generations without compromising the needs of future

generations. Sustainability is often subdivided into environmental, economic and socialsubcomponents. It can be a vague concept but a sustainable framework for transport policywas outlined in the Sustainable Development Strategy for the UK (Cm2426, 1994). The UKRound Table for Sustainable Development (1996) added more detail in terms of policy definitionand on the environmental and economic policies required to achieve the objectives.

One important aspect of policy is the series of circulars, good practice guides, Mineral PlanningGuidance Notes (of which MPG 6 on guidelines for aggregates provision in England and Walesis important for highways) and Planning Policy Guidance Notes (PPGs) produced by the DETR.Full details may be found on www.detr.gov.uk. Three PPGs have been recently revised, subjectto consultation. PPG 12 proposes the production of better development plans and describeshow they should integrate with LTPs. PPG 11 provides advice on the preparation of Regional

Transport Strategies as an integral part of Regional Planning Guidance. PPG 13, first issued in1994 and revised in October 1999, aims to integrate planning and transport at the national,


Appraisals

LTP with no Simplified AST for Simplified AST for

major scheme preferred strategy alternative strategies

tested

LTP with major Simplifi ed AST for Apprai sal of the road Simplifi ed AST for Simpli fied

road scheme preferred strategy scheme, as specified in preferred alternative AST for

with road scheme the GNATA strategy without road additional

(against the do minimum), scheme alternativeto inform the simplified AST strategies

tested

LTP with major Simplified AST for S56 and full cost benefit Simplified AST for Simplified

PT scheme preferred strategy with appraisal of the PT scheme, preferred alternative AST for

PT scheme to inform the AST strategy without PT additional

scheme alternative

strategies

tested

Source: DETR, 1999d.

Table 2.7: Appraisal Procedure for LTPs.


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Standard Objective Sites at which standard was exceeded in 1995

Benzene 5 ppb as running annual achieve standard by 2005 none, but likely to be exceeded at the side of

mean (EPAQS) heavily trafficked urban roads

1,3butadiene 1 ppb as running annual achieve standard by 2005 none; unlikely to be exceeded except at a few

mean (EPAQS) urban background sites (or at the side of heavily

trafficked roads)

carbon 10 ppm as running achieve standard by 2005 West London (4 exceedances on two days) and

monoxide 8hour mean (EPAQS) Belfast City Centre (13 exceedances on

three days)

lead 0.5 (g/m3 as annual achieve standard by 2005 a few industrial monitoring sites: unlikely to be

mean (WHO) exceeded in urban areas

nitrogen 150 ppb as 1hour mean achieve both standards by for 1hour mean, seven urban sites on up to five

dioxide (EPAQS) 21 ppb as 2005 days each (all but two urban sites would have

annual mean (WHO) exceeded the annual standard), no rural sites

ozone 50 ppb as running achieve standard at 97th frequent exceedances at both urban and rural

8hour mean (EPAQS) percentile by 2005 (that is, sites, with greater frequency in uplands and parts

standard can be exceeded of southeast England closest to the

on 10 days of the year at continent and lowest frequency in Scotland and

any site) Northern Ireland

fine particles 50 (g/m3 as running achieve standard at 99th some urban sites on up to 4050 days, especially

(PM10) 24hour mean (EPAQS) percentile by 2005 (that is, in London, Liverpool, Swansea and Belfast

standard can be exceeded (where coal is still a major domestic fuel);

on 4 days of the year at all urban sites between 1992 and 1995, winter

any site) and summer, with higher readings in winter

sulphur 100 ppb as 15minute achieve standard at 99.9th all except the two most remote continuous

dioxide mean (EPAQS) percentile by 2005 (that is, monitoring sites, with highest frequency in

standard can be exceeded industrial and coalburning areas; grounding

for 35 15minute periods of plumes from power stations also a factor

during the year at any site)

objectives in italics are provisional

EPAQS standard recommended by the UK Expert Panel on Air Quality Standards

WHO guideline recommended in the latest revision of the World Health Organisation Ai r Quali ty Guidelines (not yet

published)

Source: RCEP, 1997

Tab le 2 .8 : Na t iona l A i r Qua l i t y S t ra tegy : s tanda rds , ob jec t i ves , repo r ted exceedances in 1995 .


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regional, strategic and local levels to promote more sustainable transport choices and reducethe need to travel, especially by car. Specific advice includes:

focus on the major generators of travel demand in city, town and district centres and nearto major public transport interchanges;

locate local facilities in local centres which are accessible by walking and cycling; accommodate housing principally within existing urban areas, with increased densities

for both housing and other uses at locations which are highly accessible by publictransport, walking and cycling;

in rural areas, locate development for housing, jobs, shopping, leisure and services inlocal service centres;

use parking policies to reduce reliance on the car for work and other journeys; give priority to people over traffic in town centres, other areas with a mixture of land uses

and local neighbourhoods and give more road space to pedestrians, cyclists and publictransport in these locations;

ensure that the needs of disabled people are taken into account, and protect sites and routes which could be critical in developing infrastructure to widen

transport choices.

2.4.4 Transport 2010: The 10 Year Plan

In July 2000, the Government produced Transport 2010 (DETR, 2000e), described by theSecretary of State, John Prescott, as a tenyear route map designed to achieve the goals setout in the 1998 White Paper.

The approach outlined in Transport 2010 is based upon:

integrated transport: looking at transport as a whole, matching solutions to specificproblems by assessing all the options;

public and private partnership: government and the private sector working more closelytogether to boost investment, and

new projects: modernising the transport network in ways that make it bigger, better, safer,cleaner and quicker.

Transport 2010 envisages that some 180bn will be necessary over the next ten years. Publicinvestment will account for 64.7bn, private investment for 56.3bn with the remainder(approximately 59bn) coming from public revenue. The investment programme will provide forroads, railways and local transport (including London) in roughly equal shares.

Key features that the programme is expecting to deliver are:

reduced congestion on the road network; modern trains with better services and reduced fares; a 50% increase in passenger use of the railway; resources to enable the Mayor of London to reduce over crowding on the Underground

and congestion in London with 3.2bn investment in the first three years; 100 new bypasses; 360 miles of trunk road and motorway widening; improvements in rural transport; better bus services and a 10% growth in passenger use; up to 25 new light rail projects in major cities; safer roads and railways, and lower emissions and better air quality.



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THE ENVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS 3 1

As far as the highways sector is concerned a number of substantial targeted improvements areoutlined. These include:

bottlenecks eased by targeted widening of 360 miles of the strategic road network; 80 major trunk road schemes to improve safety and traffic flow at junctions;

100 new bypasses on trunk and local roads to reduce congestion and pollution incommunities;

130 other major local road improvement schemes; completion of the 40 road schemes in the Highways Agency Targeted Programme of

Improvements; 60% of the trunk road network given lowernoise surfaces; elimination of the maintenance backlog for local roads, bridges and lighting as part of a

30bn programme; HGV lanes on congested strategic routes to provide priority for lorries and safer lanes for

cars; smarter management of the trunk road network, giving drivers better information on

traffic conditions;

40% reduction in the number of people killed or seriously injured in road accidents, and accelerated takeup of cleaner vehicles to reduce air pollution and CO2 emissions.

2.5 Other key legislation

There is a myriad of legislative statutes relevant to the environmental management of highways.Perhaps the most important act is The Highways Act 1980, which was amended in 1999 toimplement EC directive 85/337/EEC and subsequent amendment 97/11 on The assessment ofthe effects of certain public and private projects on the environment. This, and relatedlegislation, are discussed in detail in Transport in the Urban Environment(IHT, 1997, especiallychapters 4 and 33). The key environmental legislation is the Environment Act 1995 whichfurther prioritised environmental protection. Much of the relevant legislation in this area is

described in Volume 11 of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, particularly with respectto conservation legislation (section 3, part 4, annex III). The 1981 Wildlife and Countryside Act,which established Areas of Special Protection for birds (AOSPs) and Sites of Special ScientificInterest (SSSI), is particularly influential, as can be seen from Table 2.3.

More recently, the 1997 Road Traffic Reduction Act requires local authorities to assess trafficlevels, forecast expected growth rates and consider targets. This was strengthened by the 1998Road Traffic Reduction (National Targets) Act that requires the Minister to set targets and pursueother solutions. The Commission for Integrated Transport advises that a single nationalendyear target on road traffic or resultant congestion levels will not be the best tool toconfront congestion or other problems arising from road traffic. Instead a matrix ofbenchmarking profiles is recommended based on three dimensions: different area types; traffic

levels and congestion outcomes and packages of measures based on key policy scenarios.

2.6 Conclusions

2.6.1 The increasing influence of environmental issues

This review of transport policy in the UK has indicated that although there was some concernfor environmental impacts in the previous four ages of domestic transport policy, environmentaleffects have probably only been given adequate weight in the last decade as the fifth age oftransport policy has emerged. Similar changes have occurred in other sectors of economicactivity, with the publication of This Common Inheritance being a key turning point(Department of the Environment, 1990).


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This change has been characterised as a shift from the age of contestability to the age ofintegration, with the tipping point year being 1998, although the process of change hasspanned a decade. One of the key features is the integration of transport policy withenvironmental policy. This is particularly reflected by the New Approach to Appraisal.

Arguably, similar policy changes have taken place at the global and European levels but todifferent degrees and with different timescales. In Europe, initial emphasis of the CTP was onintroducing the age of contestability, although liberalising reforms have been introduced muchmore gradually than the big bang approach favoured by the UK, with the process stillincomplete, particularly for railways. However, since the White Paper of 1992 there has beena greater emphasis on the environment at a European level and the emergence of an age ofintegration but with greater emphasis on network integration (and hence interest in concepts

such as interoperability, intermodality and interconnection) and social coordination.

One interesting area of speculation relates to how long the new age of integration might last.This is likely to be dependent on the outcome of some important test cases, including the M4Bus Lane and the Oxford Transport Strategy. However, even if national policy moves away fromintegration, it seems that the momentum of global and European transport policy will ensurethat environmental betterment remains prioritised as a policy objective. While it is nowrecognised that the UK, like most developed countries, has a welldeveloped highway network,new road construction will be limited, although there will still be some substantial targetedimprovements (see, DETR, 2000e). More resources will be devoted towards the more effectivemanagement of the system, including the achievement of environmental objectives.

2.6.2 Some final conclusions

A consensus has emerged that the environmental impacts of transport are important. Moreover,environmental policies may not conflict with economic competitiveness because appropriatelydesigned environmental standards may lead to innovation resulting in a winwin situation(Porter and Linde, 1995). However, there are still some disagreements about how importantenvironmental impacts are and what should be done about them. Nash (1997) notes that this ispartly due to the lack of consensus on the principles that should be used in environmentalappraisal, and in particular whether it is appropriate to use willingness to pay type measuresor opportunity cost measures based on environmental standards. As Tables 2.9 and 2.10 showthis can result in huge variations in valuations, particularly for climate change. There is also asimilar lack of consensus on the most appropriate measures. Environmental economists wouldargue for marketbased methods involving pricing, taxes and tradable permits. Ecologists and

Peirson, Skinner and Mauch andVickerman Rothengatter

Accidents 0.58 1.33 1.84Noise 0.08 0.39 0.28Air Pollution 0.17 0.43 0.70Climate change 0.03 0.46Total 0.86 2.18 3.28

Note: Mauch and Rothengatters results have been converted from ECUs to pounds using anexchange rate of 1.4284 (Source: Economic Trends Annual Supplement, 1994 Edition. HMSO London. Table 51).

Source: Peirson, Skinner and Vickerman (1994); Mauch and Rothengatter (1995) Quoted by Nash (1997)

Ta b l e 2 . 9 : U K U n i t Ex t e rn a l Co st s 1 9 9 1 . ( c ar ) ( p / p a ss k m )


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environmental scientists would argue for a standards based approach. Current UK and Europeanpolicy appears to involve a mixture of the two measures. However, the important litmus test,particularly in the UK, will be the extent to which road user charging is adopted. In any event,particularly outside congested urban areas, it seems likely that there will be continued relianceon standards based approaches which in turn has important implications for the design,

management and maintenance of transport infrastructure. To use the phraseology of HyderConsulting (1999), a considerable amount of work is required if we are to convert old roads intogreen roads.

GB billion a year in 1994 prices

RCEP (1994) Newbery Maddisonand Pearce

Air pollution 2.05.2 2.87.4 19.7Climate change 1.53.1 0.4 0.1

Noise and vibration 1.04.6 0.6 2.63.1

Total environmental costs 4.612.9 3.88.4 22.422.9

Road accidents 5.4 4.57.5 2.99.4

Quantified social andenvironmental costs otherthan congestion costs 10.018.3 8.315.9 25.332.3

Congestion costs1 not included 19.1 19.1

Total road transport 10.018.3 27.435.0 44.451.4Externalities2

1. The costs of delays to road users and operators and increased running costs at slow speedsin congested conditions.2. Not including the costs of damage by vehicles to roads, which both Newbery and Maddisonand Pearce included in the total; the Eighteenth Report showed separately the costs ofproviding, maintaining and operating roads.

Source: RCEP, 1997.

Table 2 .10: Road Transport : Quant i f ied Env ironmenta l and Soc ia l Costs .


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