PA TI M E SRESPONSES TO DECEMBERTHEORY/PRACTICE SECTIONSeen Through the We e d sD i m l y 5Practitioners recognize the need and role of theory in public administration. The challenge for theoreticians is to devise a mode of theorizingthat enhances, rather thandestroys, meaning in practice.

Let the Debate Continue 5I would propose that theon-going debate of theory vs.practice in public administrationeducation, as treated by severalcontributors to the 1999Educational Supplement, remainjust that—on-going.

Letters to the Editor 4F rederickson Perspective 6Ethics Moment 8CAP Corn e r 8W h e re Things Stand 9

A S PA TI M E SNew Members 1 0P re s i d e n t ’s Column 1 9C o n t r i b u t o r s 2 0F rom the Executive Dir e c t o r 2 0Members on the Move 2 0Chapter News 1, 23

R e c ru i t e r 2 6 - 2 7

A S PA Calendar of Events 2 8

A Powerful Voice for Public Service . . .

INSIDE:AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION VOL. 23 NO. 2 FEBRUARY 2000

For more information on how to bepublished in PA TIMES, please contactChristine Jewett McCrehin at 202-393-7878, or cjewett@aspanet.org

PA TIMESJennifer Miller

New legislation that would amend thePresidential Transition Act of 1963, draftedby ASPA Past President Dwight Ink, wasapproved by the House this winter and nowawaits a Senate vote.

Dwight Ink’s initiative was created during aNational Capital Area Chapter (NCAC)retreat several years ago, when he wasprompted to find a solution to a problemInk saw in presidential transitions. Theresult is a law that is designed to give spe-cific approval for orientation programs, thatinvolve former political appointees fromboth political parties, for appointed staff ofa new president during the transition period.

The current Act was developed to ease tran-sitions between presidential administrationsand it provides funds to cover basic func-tions including telephone service, computerequipment and temporary advisors. Whilethe Act does not forbid orientation pro-grams like that suggested in the proposedlegislation, Ink feels that a formal blessingfrom Congress would encourage theseactivities to take place during the transitionperiod.

Support for this legislation was offered tothe House Subcommittee on GovernmentManagement, Information and Technologyby Ink as well as that late Elliott

Richardson, former attorney general toPresident Richard Nixon; Lee White, for-mer assistant counsel to President John F.Kennedy and counsel to President LyndonJohnson; Paul Light, director of the Centerfor Public Service, Brookings Institution;and Norman J. Ornstein, resident scholarfor the American Enterprise Institute forPolicy Research.

The changes proposed to the Act are intend-ed to help a new presidential administration(of any party) to be productive in the firstyear of office. Ink says that a new presidentand his administration need to take advan-tage of the “honeymoon period”, becausethe president doesn’t have any baggage atthat point and there is a greater willingnessto take initiative.

“You have to take advantage of the enthusi-asm and energy in the beginning [of a presi-dency],” Ink said.

The orientation process that Ink has draftedis designed to “increase the early effective-ness of a new presidency,” and help protectthe political strength that a new administra-tion walks into the White House with oninauguration day.

“You want any president coming in to bemost effective at the beginning of their

New Legislation Will ImpactPresidential TransitionsDwight Ink testifies for House subcommittee on behalf of bill

(continued on page 2)

Gary Wamsely

In the mid-1980’s my colleagues and I atVirginia Tech University’s Center for PublicAdministration and Policy responded toattacks—by successive Democratic andRepublican administrations—on Americanpublic administration, or as the attackers putit, “bureaucracy”, by penning something thatwe called “The Blacksburg Manifesto”. Itwas meant to be a call for a shifting of politi-cal dialogue from negative manipulation ofthe symbol “bureaucracy” and overheatedrhetoric concerning the evils of government

to a constructive dialogue about the appropri-ate role of government in a society such asours.

Over the years my colleagues and I came torecognize that there was another implicit pur-pose in the Manifesto, one of equal impor-tance to shifting the political dialogue. Thatwas: to evoke in both practitioners and schol-ars of public administration an awarenessthat they were involved in a fundamentallynormative enterprise, and that self-con-

A Public Service Creed

(continued on page 3)

Brian Pokluda

In December, the North Texas Chapter ofthe American Society for PublicAdministration in conjunction with theUrban Management Assistants of NorthTexas held the first program in a newExecutive Lunch Series. The ExecutiveLunch Series is designed to give publicadministrators and academicians theopportunity to have small group interac-tion with top public executives in theregion in an informal setting. JeffreyFegan, executive director of theDallas/Fort Worth International Airport(DFW), hosted the first event.

The program was open to the public, butthe chapter targeted ASPA members andmembers of the Urban ManagementAssistants of North Texas (UMANT).The event was limited to 12 participantsto insure that everyone in the groupcould have direct interaction with thehost. The demand for this program faroutstripped the availability of seatswhich is interesting since the publicityfor the event was confined to e-mail andthe chapter’s web site.

Fegan discussed the challenges of man-aging a large airport and techniques forworking with an appointed board.According to him, D/FW Airport faceschallenges locally, regionally, and glob-ally. Locally, the City of Dallas and sev-eral air carriers are waging a legal battleto expand service at Love Field in Dallas.Love Field is currently only allowed toservice flights within Texas and the fouradjoining states if the aircraft has over 56passengers. This requirement memorial-ized in the Wright Amendment to the AirTransportation Competition Act of 1979was made to help consolidate air trafficat D/FW Airport and phase out opera-tions at Love Field. Now certain airlinesbelieve that the expansion of the LoveField could be advantageous to them, atthe expense of D/FW Airport.

Regionally, D/FW competes for new pas-senger and cargo service with otherdomestic airports such as George BushIntercontinental Airport / Houston,Atlanta, Chicago O’Hare, and MiamiInternational Airport. The primary waythat D/FW competes is through its land-ing fees. Because of the large size of the

(continued on page 13)

North TexasChapter LaunchesExecutiveLunch Series

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PAGE 2 PA TIMES VOL. 23 NO. 2 FEBRUARY 2000

terms,” Rep. Steve Horn (R-CA), chair ofthe subcommittee said about the impor-tance of the bill.

The Presidential Transition Act has beena purposefully informal law so that anincoming administration can use process-es that suit their individual needs.According to Ink, the Act now needsrefining as the number of politicalappointees increase, the transition periodshrinks and the learning curve becomesextremely steep for those who survive theappointment process.

“The current language has nothing specif-ic about orientations like the one I amtalking about,” Ink said. “This [legisla-tion] eliminates any doubt as to what theAct allows.”

Currently, briefing books are the maintools used to prepare incoming officialsabout the status of existing programs.They are not the right vehicles for helpingincoming political appointees, says Ink.He considers briefing books to be goodresources and should be kept as a sup-portive measure, but feels that they do notexplain the “operational minefields facinga new presidency and how they might beovercome.”

“Briefing books talk about trends and pol-icy issues,” Ink said. “ That just answersthe ‘what’, now we need to provide the‘how’.”

The orientation program that Ink supportsincludes gathering key politicalappointees with former appointees whohave served in their position, so that anew administration can learn from thepast and create new legislation and civicprograms.

“The orientation would involve individu-als who have left the White House wellregarded by their peers,” Ink said.“Participants would be from both par-ties.”

In his testimony, Ink argued that the ori-entation program that he was proposingwould help eliminate mistakes that recentappointees make with the press and thepublic.

“Avoidable missteps by well-intentionedpolitical appointees of incoming adminis-trations can be damaging and often under-cut the momentum which new presidentsmust have to quickly launch new initia-tives when the opportunities are greatest,“ Ink said. “Equally unfortunate areinstances in which new appointees fallshort of their potential performancebecause of failure to understand thebasics of how to get things done in thecomplicated world of Washington.”

There are five areas that Ink considersbeing important to the success of a newadministration: Congressional Relations,White House staff, Executive OfficeOfficials, external pressures, and the roleof career civil servants. Ink argues thatthese areas would be better supportedwith orientations to gather institutionalknowledge that would help the presi-dent’s officials avoid crucial mistakes.

Ink testified that political appointeesoften do not understand the role ofCongress and they fail to make relation-ships with members of the House andSenate a priority.

“They [appointees] regard Congress as anineffective problem to be tolerated,” Ink

said. “There is less of a recognition ofthe constitutional role of Congress.”

Ink believes that by spending time withformer officials who can discuss theirexperiences in working with Congressand Congressional members of both par-ties, appointees can avert missteps thatcould create a hostile or even distrustfulenvironment between the new administra-tion and Congress.

In a similar manner, the White Housestaff has become intricately involved inpolicy coordination and for this reason apositive image is essential.

“The White House staff is a very impor-tant factor in the success or failure of apresident,” Horn said.

The orientations that Ink’s legislationallows for would introduce White Housestaff to ways to deal effectively with thepress and other federal agencies. WhiteHouse staff also needs to be informedabout the ethical standards that they areheld to by the American public. Ink saysthat the image of impropriety can dosome of the worst damage and can be eas-ily avoided by past officials making newstaff aware of risky behavior.

Executive Office officials working in theExecutive Office of the President whorepresent the president and his adminis-tration are often in daily contact withother departments, agencies, Congressand external groups.

“They shape the image and credibility ofthe president” Ink said. “They have tothink about the personal relationshipswith those other agencies.”

Ink hopes that talking with previousoffice staff will alleviate existing tensionsand help build better ties with their coun-terparts.

According to Ink, 20,000 nationwideinterest groups are headquartered in theWashington area, and they can often frus-

trate new political appointees. Thesegroups along with the media offer anintense scrutiny that can be unbearablewithout the proper mentoring.

“Very few of us see our day on nationaltelevision,” Ink said.

The orientation programs would not elim-inate the press or the scrutiny, Ink says,rather prepare new officials to deal witheach effectively.

One of the most important elements ofworking in Washington are the careerpublic servants, who can be subject to ahostile working environment and exclu-sion tactics.

“They [career servants] are a tremendousresource and to alienate them is foolish atthe outset,” Ink said.

Involving career servants in decision-making and policy coordination will ben-efit the new administration by using theirknowledge and perspective to gain afoothold with new initiatives.

While Ink awaits a vote in the Senate onthe legislation, he credits Horn and hisstaff with the success the bill has had inthe House.

“This would have never happened with-out Steve and his staff,” Ink said. “He isa big supporter of good government.”

Ink remains optimistic that this legislationwill have a positive impact on futureadministrations.

“If we can sensitize top appointees earlyon to these kind of problems, they will bemuch more supportive of their politicalsubordinates sensitivity to problems andcreate a more effective operation,” Inksaid.

Jennifer Miller is a communicationsassistant at the Washington, DC office ofASPA.

Ink, NCAC (continued from page 1)

“They [career public servants] are a

tremendous resourceand to alienate them

is foolish at the outset,”Ink said.

FEBRUARY 2000 PA TIMES VOL. 23 NO. 2 PAGE 3

sciousness concerning this, and devel-opment of a set of values and profes-sional self-conception consistent withthose values, was not only essential,but perhaps necessary prior to anychange in tenor of the political dia-logue about administration and gover-nance.

This growing awareness of the need tochange the self-conception of practi-tioners and involved scholars of publicadministration, led to discussions andsuggestions of the need for some wayof expressing the values inherent inthe Blacksburg Manifesto in a way thatcould be more readily appreciated,especially by practitioners. Something“less academic” and which was not justa list of “dos and don’ts”, but whichwould affirm the values we hold buttoo seldom express, and somethingwhich would also articulate worthyaspirations for all of us involved in thedifficult and generally under-appreciat-ed function of administering the pub-lic’s affairs. Something, many said,which was practical—something youcould carry in your purse or wallet, orwas “suitable for framing”.

It always seemed to me that it wouldtake quite a bit of, let us say “ confi-dence”, to try to write such a thing, notto mention considerable writing skill.Not having an over abundance ofeither, and unable to escape thethought that there was certainly noreward in academe, and quite possiblynone in the world of practice, for suchefforts, I always found something elseurgent to do. But perhaps because Iwas irritated with myself for suchthoughts, or perhaps out of a generalaggravation at the challenge involved, Ihave continued “fiddling” with the taskover the years. I am now at a pointwhere I need some critical feedbackfrom practitioners and academic col-leagues and some ideas concerningwhat, if anything, could or should bedone with it.

The idea of a creed came from somefragment of memory from the years Ispent decades ago in the Air Force.One of my assigned duties as a youngofficer was to instruct airmen, cadetsand officer trainees in the meaning andsignificance of the Fighting Man’sCode—a code developed as a result ofalleged collaboration and defections onthe part of captured American militarypersonnel during the Korean War.These prisoners of war had been sub-jected to what communist governmentscalled indoctrination and the Americanmedia called brainwashing. Settingaside for the moment the fact that TheFighting Man’s Code had a title that istoday politically incorrect, and encoun-tered a number of problems, itnonetheless had many of the character-istics of the document that was begin-ning to take shape in my mind. Yetwhen I checked the dictionary for themeaning of code, it seemed to me thatits first definition “any systematic bodyof law,” was too legalistic, and its sec-ond “any system of principles or rules”sounded too rigid and presumptuousfor an enterprise whose very concep-tion may be considered presumptuousby many. At that point, another mem-ory shard produced the word creed.

My battered Webster’s New CollegiateDictionary (circa l958), produced thefollowing definition of creed: “ Anyformula or confession of religiousfaith.” Now this is a definition withwhich I find a certain resonance, but Iquickly decided it might only affirmthe perceptions of some people thatthose associated with the “BlacksburgPerspective” belong to some misguidedreligious cult. The second, non-ecclesi-astical definition, however, comesclose to serving my purposes. It reads:creed—“A summary of principles oropinions professed or adhered to, inscience, politics, etc..”.

The name settled for the moment, Ifirst drafted a creed addressed to publicadministrators or managers narrowlydefined as career civil servants work-ing for governments at all levels inAmerica. Thanks to critiques by facul-ty and student colleagues I ended upwith three or four versions of such acreed in varying lengths. My colleagueJim Wolf made me realize that thefield of public administration increas-ingly and appropriately must be con-ceived of as encompassing people,organizations and institutions commit-ted to serving the public interest fromall sectors of society—-government,non-profit, and for-profit. It mustencompass political appointees as wellas career civil servants and managersand directors of non-profit entities. Itmust seek to encompass more than“line managers”, and it must alsoinclude the complexity and diversity ofprofessions and occupations servingthe public in all sectors.

As a consequence, I have tried to drafta “public service creed” for discussionand critique. It isn’t meant to suggestwhat people should do so much as it isaimed at capturing what I hope will beconsidered suitable expressions of thevalues and aspirations I find manifest-ed, but seldom or poorly expressed, inthose Americans who are committed toserving the public. They do so in oneof the most diverse and dynamic soci-eties in the world—-one with a govern-mental system most accuratelydescribed as a democratized, constitu-tional republic of divided and sharedpowers. A government which oftenevokes more exasperation than admira-tion and which seems to make it easyfor Americans to love their country,but care little about their government,or even to hate it. The challenge forthose concerned with public service istherefore daunting.

I am anxious to find out how practi-tioners and scholars will view thecreed. Is this a “fool’s errand”? Couldit be of any value in meeting the chal-lenge? If so, how could it be distrib-uted? Does it need certain changes? Orshould it simply be filed away under“nice but impractical”? My file of suchthings is rather bulky, but there isalways room for one more.

ASPA member Gary L. Wamsley is aprofessor at Virginia TechnicalUniversity in Blacksburg, VA.

*** I am an American committed to a public service career. At one time only those whoworked for government were thought of as so committed, but today awareness has grownthat people like me are found in a variety of organizations and institutions both in and outsidegovernment. Wherever we are located, we are concerned with the pubic interest and thereforea part of the process of governance. We may be educated or trained in any one of hundreds ofprofessions and occupations. We may be in a staff or analytical position, a supervisor, man-ager, a career civil servant, a politically appointed executive, an employee of a not-for-profitinstitution, or an employee of a private corporation working with community groups, butnone of these roles or identities makes clear my broader and more significant role: that of akey actor in the process of democratic governance a person at the critical point of publicaction and the public interest—at the nexus between branches and levels of government,other agencies, interest groups, non-profit organizations, private businesses and citizens.

*** I have chosen my occupation and role, and made my commitment for many reasons butamong the more important is a desire to serve my fellow citizens. That desire may or may nothave always been my primary motivation but for most people like me it generally comes tooutweigh others, and I try to sustain it despite a myriad of pressures and diversions. Mychoice of occupation commitment does not mean I forfeit the ambition to provide my familywith the same things most Americans want. Nor do I consider my choices to be superior inany way to those who have chosen to purse wealth or other goals, for they may also servesociety in their own less direct way. My choice to place public service first is simply a reflec-tion of my personal priorities.

*** I recognize and try to accept that a commitment to public service is not well understoodand even less appreciated in America. I try to remember that our society was born of dissatis-faction with a heavy-handed government and a desire for individual liberty and freedom; andour society reached its enviable level of affluence through our cultural emphasis on individ-ual pursuit of goals and ambitions. Commitment to community and public service havealways been present but less appreciated and understood. This history has left a particularlegacy of distrust with regard to government and sometimes a lack of attention to communityneeds.

*** Our history has left a particular legacy of distrust toward government and those commit-ted to serving the public in governmental roles. But this distrust has sometimes been extendedto other institutions outside government committed to public and community services. Thisdistrust often increases with economic distress, social tensions, opportunistic blaming andfault-finding by political partisans, betrayal of public trust by leaders, by the bungling thatseems to be the inevitable byproduct of complex organizations, and by the injustices thatunfortunately exist even in democratic political systems.

*** I try to appreciate the role of elected officials and the fact that they bring democratic rep-resentation and responsiveness to the governance process in both a substantive and symbolicsense. For my part, I try to bring to the governance process: dedication, expertise, democraticstewardship and a long-range perspective on the public interest. I also seek ways to directlyinvolve people in the governance process that go beyond merely voting. All are essential tothe process of democratic governance and societal well-being.

*** I also recognize that my role in our constitutional structure is more implicit than explicit.Yet that same structure of overlapping and shared powers makes my role, my commitment topublic service and my participation, absolutely essential to its successful functioning. Thatconstitutional structure of shared powers means that 1, and others like me, must play a roleand exercise considerable discretion in fashioning and implementing programs of publicaction that can somehow resolve the conflicting and the often contradictory purposes embod-ied in statutes or the competing institutional goals. In doing so we must satisfy a bewilderingarray of persons, groups and associations.

*** Thus, as a consequence of our constitutional structure, which divides and diffuses power,and our societal emphasis on individualism, I incur and accept the responsibility for pursuingwith others the discovery of the broadest possible conception of the public interest that can becollectively derived. To effect this role, however, I must be ever conscious of the uniquenessand vulnerability of my claim to be committed to public service and discovering the publicinterest. I need therefore to always seek to act in accord with the values of the Constitutionand the law, and to acknowledge and respect the role and claims of others with regard to serv-ing the public and discovering the common good.

*** At the same time I try to play a crucial role in discovering the common good, I must beable to resist the pressures of society and those with whom I interact to pursue my self ororganizational interests at the expense of that broader public interest. This means that I mustconsciously conceive of my role as one of “special citizen”—not special in status, knowledgeor perquisites, but special in terms of duties, obligations and responsibilities to my fellow citi-zens.

*** I must consciously conceive of my role as that of a democratic leader in the governanceprocess of a democratized, constitutional, republic and a highly individualistic society. Thismeans I must consciously conceive of public service in the same way that Aristotle did overtwo thousand years ago—as a process whereby I can help create circumstances evoking citi-zenship on the part of others thus enabling them to realize their fullest potential as each dis-covers meaning for their lives in pursuit of their individual conceptions of “the good life”.

*** In consciously conceiving of myself as a democratic leader in my family, institutionaland governance roles I must: listen more than speak; give reasons more than orders; persuademore than command; evoke more than do; mediate more than decide; enable more than con-trol; give reasons rather than excuses; facilitate problem solving by others; make governmentand other institutions involved in public action responsive, representative, and responsiblewhile at the same time, making them more economic, efficient and effective; seek to makethe organizations and institutions with which I am involved reflect the gender,

racial and ethnic diversity of America; speak truth to power; sustain the Constitution,its values and constitutional processes; uphold transcendent national symbols; obeylaws and if my role is in government, follow clear and legal orders whenever possibleregardless of my personal feelings; do my best to respect and reflect credit upon otherleaders and officials; and enable citizens to feel and say—”we did this ourselves”.

*** My commitment to public service and pursuit of the public interest demands of me: anabiding commitment to the values of the Constitution; a firm faith in the ability of myself andmy fellow citizens to discover together the pubic interest; an optimism regarding the intelli-gence and abilities of my fellow citizens and our capacity for renewal and discovery of thatwhich is good in all of us; a durable sense of humor; a constant willingness to strive with rel-atively few tangible rewards; and the capacity to learn and grow under often adverse condi-tions. I believe my role as an American committed to public service is one of the most chal-lenging, but also one of the most rewarding on the planet.

A Public Service CreedCreed (continued from page 1)

Dear Editor:

I just finished Mary Hamilton’s columnin the August 1999 issue of PA Timesregarding her conversation about gov-ernment with her nephew. Whenever Iencounter those attitudes, I find it usefulto challenge young people to think aboutwhere they encountered informationabout government inefficiency and cor-ruption. Almost invariably, the informa-tion comes from the media either direct-ly or indirectly. Young people are beinginfluenced by spotty, incomplete reportsabout government problems without anycontext in which to judge the informa-tion. The result is a judgement without afactual basis. Then I ask young peopleto try to quantify just a bit what theymean by problems with the government.For example, ask them how muchmoney they think the federal govern-ment “wastes” every year. They maycome up with a number, but it’s likely tobe wildly inaccurate and easily recog-nized as such. For example, if they say$1 billion, it’s always instructive to tellthem that the government’s budget isnearly $1 trillion. That means that intheir understanding the government isspending 99.99 percent of its money cor-rectly. If they say $100 billion, then thegovernment is spending nearly 90 per-cent of its money correctly. That meansthat the government deserves an A! (Butit’s nearly unimaginable that the govern-ment could waste that much moneythrough fraud and abuse; honest mis-takes are another story.) It’s always funto prod them about about their owngrades at this point. Everyone has somepoor grades in their portfolio. Now, askthem if other parts of society (e.g, theprivate sector) is likely to be doing sowell. There are numerous examples ofprivate sector mismanagement to use asa counterpoint. Very few corporate lead-ers would claim that 90 percent or moreof their spending was without fault. Andhow about the success rate for entrepre-neurs? A one-in-ten success rate for newtechnologies is considered a very goodtrack record! This discussion usuallyhighlights the need to know more aboutthe issues before coming to a judgement.That lesson is as important as gettingthem to realize that they may have

developed very biases views about poli-tics and public administration.

Erik Devereux Executive Director

Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management (APPAM)

Dear Editor:

The article in December 1999’s SpecialSection entitled “The Imperative ofTheory in Public Administration” writ-ten by Mary M. Timney caught myattention and held it. According to theauthor most public administratorsbelieve, “Practitioners need only toknow how to do management technique,that the context of public service provi-sion does not matter.” The article doesaddress a true barrier that separates prac-tice versus theory. Using the CaliforniaCase, it articulates how theory can undowhat is fundamentally undermining pub-lic administration.

I agreed, the context of public service isas equally important as managementtechniques. By adding theoretical dia-logue to public administration, the cre-ation of public value theory will trickledown into improved services and anincrease in public administrators’ loyal-ty. What is needed is the creation ofpublic service deliveries that factors inpublic value in its administration.

By adding public value, I mean provid-ing services while at the same time pro-ducing value to citizens, all within man-dated objectives. For example, publicadministrators that are empowered tosearch for better queuing systems, forms,and improved accessibility to citizensetc... This adds public value to services.Besides adding value, public administra-tors at every level will feel empoweredto exploit opportunities and innovationsthat add public value. This is what moti-vates today’s public servants, in myopinion.

Derrick McCallStudent

Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service

New York University

Two New Case Studies:

• Performance Measurement Challenge: Measuring Federal Real Property asa Cross-Cutting Administrative Function, by Stan Kaczmarczyk, USGeneral Services Administration (Case No. F22)

• Measuring Performance of Regulatory Compliance Programs: The UnitedStates Environmental Protection Agency’s Enforcement and ComplianceAssurance Program, by Michael M. Stahl, US Environmental ProtectionAgency (Case No. F23)

These highly informative case studies are available only through ASPA’sCenter for Accountability and Performance (CAP). CAP offers 39 differentcase studies to help you learn more about performance management issues atall levels of Government and help you "Manage for Results." Case Studies areavailable for $6 each, including shipping and handling. For abstracts of allCAP case studies, check out our web site at www.aspanet.org. Case studiesmay be ordered directly through our web site or by calling ASPA at (202) 393-7878.

ASPA’s Center for Accountability and Performance is engaged in a multi-year program to develop case stud-ies describing performance management (PM) efforts at all levels of government. If you have a topic youwould like to see addressed in a case study or would like to contribute a case study, please contact Jo AnneLillis at (757) 462-8286, ext. 378, e-mail: jlillis@aspanet.org; or Ed Jennings at (606) 257-5596, e-mail:pub714@pop.uky.edu. CAP is especially interested in publishing new cases involving the efforts of local andstate governments and non-profit organizations. For additional information, see the Call for Cases publishedin CAP Corner in the November 1999 issue of PA Times.

PAGE 4 PA TIMES VOL. 23 NO. 2 FEBRUARY 2000

Letters to the Editor Public Productivity & Management ReviewCall for Manuscripts: public servants, academics, researchers.Now in Volume XXIII, Public Productivity and ManagementReview is the a problem solving journal for both the publicmanagement professional and the public management scholar.Sponsored by the Section on Management Science of ASPAPublished by Sage Publications, Inc.Manuscript/Subscription Information:http://newark.rutgers.edu/~ncppInquires and proposals for symposia to:Dr. Marc Holzer, Editor-in-Chief, Rutgers U.-Newarkmholzer@pipeline.comArticles and cases, send 5 copies to:Dr. Dorothy Olshfski, Managing Editor, Rutgers U.-NewarkOlshfski@andromeda.rutgers.eduGrad. Dept. Public Admin. 7th floor, Hill Hall, Newark, N.J. 07102

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w w w. a s p a n e t . o rg

Russell Harding

By coincidence or design, a sudden rushof articles and opinions on the nature oftheory and practice in public administra-tion recently emerged. The special sec-tion in the December 1999 issue of PATIMES, followed closely on the heels oftwo articles that appeared in theSeptember/October 1999 volume ofPublic Administration Review (PAR)addressing graduate education andresearch in public administration.

Heralded by PA TIMES as representing“interesting and sometimes quite differ-ent views,” the one thing that all the arti-cles have in common is that they arewritten by academics (read theoreti-cians). The result is a view of the theorycomponent of the theory-practice rela-tionship that is oblivious to the destruc-tive influence of theory on practice.

Lest there be any doubt as to the orienta-tion of recent writers, let me reiteratesome of the definitions and observationsadvanced. From Brewer et. al.,“Research is the first step in improvedpractice.” Timney offers - “practicewithout theory is a hollow exercise.”From Miller, “theory is practice-to-be,waiting to be enacted.” And the one thatset me to writing this polemic, “theory isnot the problem.” Well, theory is theproblem, and I will devote the rest ofthis article to illustrating why this is so.

I have been a practitioner for 22 years,beginning in the mailroom, and workingmy way through purchasing, accountsreceivable, payroll (prior to computers,when people were paid in cash), to labor

relations, international aviation policy,and for the last 14 years, environmentaland natural resource management. I haveworked both within a WestminsterParliamentary system, as well as withinUnited States’ federal and state govern-ments.

Like many practitioners I became soldrelatively early in my career on the ideathat my undergraduate degree in philoso-phy and English may not suffice foradvancement in an increasingly profes-sionalized and specialized public sector.In 1981 I began studying for a Mastersdegree in public policy. Entering thisfrom a recent background in labor rela-tions, I was already skeptical of the utili-ty of positivist theory. This was my firstsubstantive introduction to phenomeno-logical theory. It was intoxicating, notonly for its explanatory power, but alsofor its fit with the “real world.”

Inevitably, good things end, and the uni-versity saw fit to confer me with adegree. Armed with my new foundknowledge of the manipulability of lan-guage, not only for gain, but also forsocially desirable ends, I set aboutwielding my newly acquired theory forthe public good.

If a little theory is good, more theorymust be better, right? Wrong. In 1988, Ihad the privilege of working for the NewZealand Ministry of Agriculture andFisheries. At the time, New Zealand ledthe world in its governmental reforms.What better material could one have toundertake doctoral research? What betteropportunity to explore the abyss of inter-

pretive theory? An interlude of three-and-a-half years intervenes at this point,with its familiar story of doctoralresearch and general depravation. At theend of which, the university again con-ferred upon me a most grandiose degree,and threw me back into the world ofpractice. This time, though, I was notarmed with powerful theoreticalweapons wherewith to fight for the pub-lic good. Instead, all the cherished mech-anisms of government, previously wield-ed with great utility, no longer heldlegitimacy for me. I could no longeroperate these mechanisms without theaccompanying knowledge that they werenot value-free. While legitimacy may bein the eye of the beholder, it was not inmine. Hence the existential angst of thetheoretically reflective practitioner.

Theory, as transmitted to us, from what-ever tradition, emanates from the 17thcentury enlightenment. It illuminates ourworld, but does so at a high price. Thatprice is the removal of meaning. Myth,stories, emotions, jokes and other com-prehensive, affirming and meaningfulelements are removed, and in their placeis substituted a thin atomistic rationaliza-tion. Great minds have noted the sametrend. No less than Gershom Scholemnoted the destructive tendency ofReason.

Praxis, the dialectically complex rela-tionship between theory and practice isfar from a relationship of equality.Practice provides the content and contextfor theory. In return, theory robs practiceof its meaning. Praxis is nothing otherthan a term designed to hide theory’s

hegemony over practice. Consider, in thelight of this, Timney’s assertion thatpractice without theory is a hollow exer-cise. On the contrary, practice with theo-ry is the hollow exercise. Indeed, if hol-lowness is the criterion, consider theorywithout practice! The very title ofTimney’s article, “The Imperative ofTheory in Public AdministrationPractice,” belies the imperialism of prax-is.

I have never been much impressed withthe often high-blown conclusions withwhich articles such as this are ended. Forexample, Kettl’s matching value to puz-zles is public administration’s greatestchallenge. Or Brewer et al’s comforting,“resolution of the research problem willrequire the best efforts of scholars andpractitioners working in tandem.” In thisinstance, though, I will offer one of myown. Practitioners recognize the needand role of theory in public administra-tion. The challenge for theoreticians is todevise a mode of theorizing thatenhances, rather than destroys, meaningin practice.

ASPA member Russell Harding is aColumbia River Coordinator with theOregon Department of EnvironmentalQuality. He also has an adjunct facultyappointment at Portland StateUniversity’s Mark O. Hatfield School ofGovernment. Russell is chair of theOregon ASPA Chapter. The viewsexpressed in this article are his own, anddo not necessarily reflect the views ofeither of his employers, or of other orga-nizations mentioned in this article.

FEBRUARY 2000 PA TIMES VOL. 23 NO. 2 PAGE 5

Seen Through the Weeds DimlyResponses to the December PA Times Theory/Practice Special Section

Leatrice Ferraioli

I would propose that the on-going debateof theory vs practice in public adminis-tration education, as treated by severalcontributors to the 1999 EducationalSupplement, remain just that—on-going. However, if one views thisdebate as not necessarily representativeof a problem that can or should beresolved, education in public administra-tion will continue to evolve to the poten-tial benefit of educators, practitioners,students and employers.

At the heart of this debate is whether onefeels the MPA should constitute “voca-tional training” for the acquisition ofhands on skills but, perhaps, with limitedexposure to topics such as organizationalbehavior and culture, public administra-tion theory and history, research methodsand ethical issues in public service toname but a few. The opposing view isthat of the MPA being a more scholarlypursuit where actual skills and practicaltraining are sacrificed for a focus onmore theoretical (and less useful?) con-cerns.

The usual question posed is which sce-nario is the preferred one? But mightanother question be, does there have tobe a preferred one? To attempt to answerthis question one must first evaluate pub-lic administration within the many con-texts in which it will be practiced. mas-ters in public administration (MPA)

graduates are employed in state and localgovernment, human resources, healthcare, the criminal justice system, envi-ronmental agencies, the non-profit sectorand profit sector...the list is virtuallyendless. Likewise, a review of MPA cur-ricula reveals a myriad of concentrationslike financial management, health policyand administration, non-profit manage-ment, public policy, municipal manage-ment, personnel management, urbanplanning, public policy analysis... anoth-er seemingly endless list. With this arrayof concentrations leading to practice inany number of environments, how caneducation in either theory or practice bemutually exclusive? Rather, the richnessand complexity of environments whichrequire capable public administratorssupports the belief that a combination ofboth theory and practice is required.

The acquisition of the MPA or any otherdegree is not an end in itself. Employersmust take the lead in imparting the par-ticular skills and competencies unique totheir organizations. Likewise, graduatesshould not assume that all necessarylearning has occurred and all competen-cies acquired. The need for creativethinkers to be active participants in con-tinued learning is crucial. If the goal ofthe MPA is to “shape public servants” asstated by King (1999 EducationalSupplement) only a balance of skills andtheory can best prepare future public

administrators. A solid grounding in the“whys” of public administration mustand can effectively link with the practiceof public administration. Focusing onone to the exclusion of the other mayonly serve to limit the growth potentialof students and may relegate MPA grad-uates to a unidimensional niche. There isan inherent danger in academicians,practitioners and students occupying animmovable position on either side of thetheory/practice fence.

Not surprisingly, this debate seems toextend to the doctorate in public admin-istration as well. This is significant ifthere is an expectation that there shouldnecessarily be some progression fromthe MPA to the PhD for those soinclined. Brewer, Douglas, Facer andO’Toole (PAR Sept/Oct 1999) maintainthat the quality of research in the field ofpublic admiinstration, as evidenced by areview of dissertations, falls far short ofwhat is needed to achieve and maintainintellectual currency in the field. Further,they assert that the solution to too littleresearch in public administration is to befound in a relationship between scholarsand practitioners. What better way toaddress these crucial issues than throughdialogue between those trained primarilyin research and those with hands onpractical knowledge from the field and abasic understanding of research method-ology and theoretical underpinnings?

Felbinger, Holzer and White (PARSept/Oct 1999) also see the doctorate inpublic administration as both an academ-ic and professional degree.

If one agrees that the needs of bothfuture academicians and professionalscan be met through doctoral education,why must such controversy rage over theMPA? Let there be core curricula of the-oretical, performance and researchcourses at both levels and give studentsthe ability to pursue a goal of scholarlyinquiry or enhanced professional prac-tice.

As the needs of society and its organiza-tions continue to change and increase incomplexity, the demand for solidthinkers and doers in the workplace will,likewise increase. Schools of public ser-vice will necessarily need to continuallyassess, plan and evaluate curriculum forits currency and marketability toprospective students without sacrificinga solid foundation in the roots of publicadministration. Whether one chooses topursue the PhD which is seen as a pri-marily scholarly pursuit or stop at theMPA the student must be given the ben-efit of both theory and practice. If wedon’t know where we came from howcan we begin to know where we need togo?

ASPA member Leatrice Ferroioli isdirector of patient services at a certifiedhome health agency on Long Island, N.Y.

Let the Debate Continue

PAGE 6 PA TIMES VOL. 23 NO. 2 FEBRUARY 2000

It wasn’t just the Y2K problem that did-n’t happen. Something probably muchmore important didn’t happen either.Because what didn’t happen is not news,we missed it entirely.

Between the beginning of theThanksgiving holiday and the end of theChristmas/Hanukkah/New Year’s holi-days, a period of 40 days, approximately50 million people took commercialscheduled air flights. That is nearly 14percent of the entire population of theUnited States! Any late afternoon andevening during this 40 day period therewere just under 500,000 people hurtlingthrough the sky at 500 miles per hour, atthe same time, travelling in all direc-tions, entirely safely. Not one persondied in regularly scheduled commercialair travel.

During this same period electricity gen-erated by nuclear, gas, oil, hydro, andcoal systems, kept 100 million Americanhomes lit, powered our cooking andcleaning utilities, and lit the televisionsets we watched to see the celebrationsof the year 2000 sweep across the earth.All of this happened because nothingwent wrong.

The hospitals operated, the natural gassupply system heated our homes and ourwater, the 911 system operated smooth-ly, our food and medicine was safe andreliable, the communication satellitesstayed in orbit, there were no terroristincidents. Nothing happened!

Nothing bad happened because all of ourhigh reliability systems worked just per-fectly, or at least well enough. If any oneof these systems had failed it is likelythat our problems would have been atleast as serious as the potential problemsassociated with Y2K. Breakdowns in ourhigh reliability systems such as Five

Mile Island, Egypt Air, and Value Jet areremembered vividly. It seems ordinaryand routine when high reliability systemswork properly, but when they fail it isnews and often news that milks the inci-dent well beyond its importance.

It is perhaps useful to remember that onehundred years ago in the transitionbetween 1899 and 1900 none of thesesystems even existed. What we nowenjoy as a result of these high reliabilitysystems would seem miraculous to thosewho witnessed that transition, but to ussuch miracles are so ordinary and routinethat we are short tempered with theslightest variation in system reliability.

Tucked away in the recesses of publicadministration research and theory is alittle storehouse of very useful informa-tion about these high reliability systems.The scholarly work of Martin Landau,Todd La Porte, Paula Consolini, DavidSills, Louise Comfort, Joseph Moroneand Edward Woodhouse, CharlesPerrow, James Reason, and Karl Weickhas all contributed to this storehouse ofknowledge. To summarize and simplify,here is what we know about high relia-bility systems and why they work.

High reliability systems use a much dif-ferent logic when compared with trial-and-error, failure-tolerant systems. Theincremental, mixed scanning, loose cou-pling, resource scarcity, and boundedrationality theories, theories that explainmuch of standard organizational behav-ior, are replaced in high reliability sys-tems with the following:

First, the physical technologies(radar, nuclear generating plants, andso forth) of these systems are tightlycoupled, which is to say that animportant breakdown anywherealong the production process maycause the whole system to fail.

Second, this tight coupling is charac-terized by fixed and relatively rigidstandard operating procedures orprocedure protocols that do not ordi-narily vary, which is to say thatadministrative discretion is sharplyreduced.

Third, humans operating along anypoint in the production process ofhigh reliability systems requireextensive technological training andconstant retraining.

Fourth, such systems are ordinarilyfunded to a level that will guaranteehigh efficiency, or, put differently,efficiency is much more importantthan economy in the world of highreliability.

Fifth, such systems are highly redun-dant, with two, three or even fourbackup or redundant systems if theprimary system were to fail. Onethinks immediately of the redundan-cy that saved the Apollo 13 spacemission.

Sixth, such systems are highly net-worked, which is to say that manydifferent organizations are in theproduction chain. Consider, forexample, air travel, which involvesat least the following in a tightlycoupled network: the FederalAviation Administration; air trafficcontrollers; local airport managers;commercial airline companiesincluding the pilots, attendants, andso forth; airline manufacturers, theairline maintenance companies; fuelsuppliers.

Seventh, these systems are composedof a marvelous mix of governmental,nongovernmental, and commercialorganizations, the very definition ofhigh-functioning public-private part-nerships.

Eighth, when working properly,error reporting is encouraged and notpunished; indeed, initiatives to iden-tify flaws in procedures and proto-cols and thereby avoid failure arerewarded.

Ninth, ordinarily such systems arerather hierarchical, both within thesystem and within the organizationmaking up the system. But at timesof peak load and emergencies onefinds rule switching by which offi-cials move away from hierarchy andprocedures to seek the expertise orexperience that might account for or

explain an anomaly and provide sug-gestions for possible non-routinesolutions. One thinks again of theApollo 13 space mission.

These failure-free systems reveal howremarkably effective modern public andprivate organizations can be if they haveadequate resources and are well man-aged. To be sure, failure-free systems arethe subject of intense public scrutinybecause of the visibility of failures, how-ever rare. Such systems are also a greatfavorite of alarmists, however wellmeaning. One thinks of a formerInspector General of the FederalAviation Administration so determinedto show how unsafe air travel is that shetried to pass through an airport securitysystem with dangerous things in hercarry-on luggage. She was caught.

There will be failure and there will beaccidents; simple probability demon-strates that it is so. But on a day-to-daybasis we all enjoy the modern miraclesof high reliability systems. And, interest-ingly, when they fail it is usuallybecause of human fallibility.

It is difficult to imagine modern lifewithout high reliability systems. Whenthey work perfectly, it appears that noth-ing happens. In fact, everything happensproperly.

ASPA member, H. George Fredericksonis the Stene Professor of PublicAdministration at the University ofKansas and the author of The Spirit ofPublic Administration (Jossey-Bass,1997).

FredericksonThe

A Column by H. George Fredericksonp e r s p e c t i v eP A TI M E S invites your opinions regarding issues addressed in this space, or any public management issues. Please fax us at (202) 638-4952 or e-mail us at: cjewett@aspanet.org The viewpoints expressed in the C o m m e n t a r y section of P A TI M E S are the individuals’ and are not necessarily the viewpoints of ASPA or the organizations they represent.

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FEBRUARY 2000 PA TIMES VOL. 23 NO. 2 PAGE 7

Y2KPA TIMES

January

PrivatizationDeadline: December 10, 1999

February

Affirmative ActionDeadline: January 10, 2000

March

TransportationDeadline: February 10, 2000

May

Information Technology SupplementDeadline: April 10, 2000

June

Diversity: Women & Minorities in PADeadline: May 10, 2000

July

LeadershipDeadline: June 12, 2000

August

Census ImpactDeadline: July 10, 2000

October

Education Supplement “Professional Development”Deadline: September 11, 2000

December

Human Resource ManagmentDeadline: November 10, 2000

The PATimes requests that articles be between 800-1000 words and written in reporter’s format (most important infor-mation first, etc.) for ease of cutting or adding text if necessary. Deadlines for each of the 12 issues are listed below.

Recruitment advertising questions may be directed to Jennifer Miller, communications assistant, jmiller@aspanet.org.Press releases, announcements, article inquiries and display advertising questions may be directed to:

Christine Jewett McCrehin, Communications Manager

Phone: 202-393-7878 • Fax: 202-638-4952 • cjewett@aspanet.org

2000 Editorial CalendarSave this page for future reference!

April

Poverty in Welfare ReformDeadline: March 10, 2000

November

Council/Manager SystemDeadline: October 10, 2000

September

Political EthicsDeadline: August 10, 2000

PAGE 8 PA TIMES VOL. 23 NO. 2 FEBRUARY 2000

Assume you are a county administratorwhose annual salary is more than$160,000 and you have come up throughthe ranks having served the county for15 years as head of the Data ProcessingDepartment. Assume also that in yourrole as head of Data Processing youacquired considerable computer andinformation management expertisewhich other local governments in yourregion would like to tap. Would you (a)make your expertise available pro bono?(b) work with and through professionalassociations to help other local govern-ments? (c) form a consulting firm withyour wife to market your expertise?The County Administrator of DuPage

County, Illinois, chose option (c). Heand his wife formed a computer consult-ing firm in 1994 and have done morethan $100,000 in government business.When asked about whether or not thiswas a conflict of interest, the CountyAdministrator replied “no”. His consult-ing firm has never done work forDuPage County which would certainlybe a conflict of interest. Rather, his con-sulting work was done with other localgovernments and done on his owntime—vacation days, nights, and week-ends. Should high-ranking public man-agers act as consultants? What do youthink? —based on a story reported in theChicago Tribune, 12/29/99, p. D1.

In January’s column, it was stated thatthe results of the ethics test for localgovernment employees would be pub-lished in the February issue of the PATimes. The results will be published inthe March issue. ________________ This month’s Ethics Moment marks thebeginning of the third year of the col-umn. Interested readers are invited tocomment on the column. Any and allsuggestions for improvement are wel-comed!*********************************Don Menzel, Division of PublicAdministration, Northern Illinois U.,DeKalb, Il 60115-2854, tel. 815-753-6140, FAX 8157532539, E-mail: dmen-zel@niu.edu, HomePage:http://www.niu.edu/~tp0dcm1/dcmhome.html

AnEthics

MomentAnEthics

Moment

Public Managers as Private Consultants

Joan Nowotny Ewell and Stuart Grifel, Office of the City Auditor, Austin, Texas

As governments around the country and throughout theworld continue taking steps on the path toward strengthening perfor-

mance and accountability and establishing a managing for results ori-entation, many are wondering, “why is it taking so long?” Progress

appears painfully slow to those of us who have been directly involved insupporting the development of systems for collecting information and processes to support theuse of performance information to support informed decision making.

In Austin, Texas, the development of a performance measurement and reporting system hasbeen an evolutionary one. The Office of the City Auditor (OCA) has had an active role in sup-porting management and Council to implement performance measurement reforms. The AuditOffice’s role has ranged from supporting Council in passing a performance measurement reso-lution in 1992, to conducting three citywide audits on performance measurement and reporting.Current efforts include assistance to City Departments in developing an integrated perfor-mance accountability system and serving as a corporate partner with the City’s Budget Officein reviewing and revising departmental business plans.

Over the years, we have learned a number of lessons about ways to respond to manage-ment’s implementation challenges in supporting improvements to performance improve-ment and accountability systems in government. It is to that topic that our attention isnow turned.

Implementation Challenges: Among the more significant challenges we encountered inimplementing performance measurement and reporting systems were:

1. Establishing information relationships to make performance information useful for avariety of users and decision-makers. In order to follow the IT principle of “capture dataonce, protect its integrity, and share it for multiple uses,” it is important to define, and designinto the system, the information relationships that will allow slicing and dicing the data for dif-ferent uses. For example, information gathered on any given operating unit’s costs, outputs,and results should be able to be presented as higher-level, aggregated information for high-level decision makers, while also providing the detail and disaggregated information needed byprogram-level decision-makers and front-line personnel. It can be extremely challenging towork through the different information relationships and ensure that system design will supportthe multiple dimensions of rollup and reporting that are necessary to get the full bang-for-the-buck out of the system. For example, we wanted to link the office’s Strategic Plan, CorporateBusiness Plan (establishing objectives and measures for external reporting), Annual ServicePlan, Program Manager Action Plans, and individual performance planning and assessment.We also wanted to be able to assess results and performance at the service, activity, program,and office-wide level, and perform year-to-year and plan-to-actual variance analysis.

2. Translating business requirements into system requirements and detailed design spec-ifications. We have found through work with clients, preliminary results on a survey we haveunderway on Performance Measurement and Information Technology, and through ourinvolvement in development of our office’s Performance Measurement and Reporting System(PMRS), that it is important to have parties involved who have a good understanding of theorganization’s business objectives and processes, and who can help translate these businessrequirements into technical requirements and specifications. Without that communicationbridge between the business side and the technical side, it can be difficult for systems designand development staff to gain a clear understanding of the true functionality desired andrequired of the system. With a strong bridge, it will be more likely that data collection mecha-nisms will be designed to be integrated with, not an interruption of, basic business processes,and that reports generated by the system will be useful for monitoring and managing the vari-ous drivers affecting performance.

3. Achieving consensus on desired level of system capabilities and costs. Different stake-holders have different perspectives about what kind of system is needed – basic nuts and boltsto capture the basic most meaningful data – or a fully-integrated system that produces highquality outputs for a variety of uses. Of course, it is necessary to strike a balance between per-formance and affordability. We found it useful to identify and assess the criteria that had to bemet for an effective system that would meet the Office’s business objectives. Also, we desireda system that would automatically produce information that the office was currently spendingstaff resources to produce in a labor-intensive way. In discussions on system capabilities andcosts, it is important to have the involvement of individuals who see clearly the desired stateand system potential to be achieved, and individuals whose role it is to ensure affordability,and to achieve a balance between the two.

4. Establishing an adequate support system. Many governments that have been support-ing improvements in performance measurement and reporting often reach what has beendescribed as a danger period, in which they have invested significant efforts and resources instrengthening performance measurement reporting and systems, but are not yet reaping thebenefits of these. There is a concern or risk of “stall,” that performance measurement effortswill be abandoned because they are not seen as worthwhile, as judged by intermediate results.It is during this period that leadership must be maintained and resources devoted to supportdevelopment and implementation of the standards needed to make performance measurementuseful for its desired end – to serve as a tool to strengthen services and to support accountabili-ty to citizens. To support these efforts, some governments have developed a full, or part-time,performance measurement coordinator position, or a combination of roles on a corporate team.

CAP Corner:Performance Measurement Implementation Challenges

For information or items of interest related to CAP or performance management/measurementactivities or if you have a related item for the CAP Corner, please contact Jo Anne Lillis, CAPDirector, 1120 G Street, NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC 20005; (202) 393-7878; jlillis@aspanet.org or Be sure to check out the “CAP Corner” onASPA’s home page http://www.aspanet.org.

For the most current information on ASPA’s Visions 2000 Conference April 1-4, San Diego, CA, go to our website at:

www.aspanet .org

Public VoicesCall for Manuscripts: public servants, writers, artists, acade-mics.Now in Volume IV, Public Voices is the journal of historical,artistic and reflective expression in public administration andpublic service.Sponsored by the SHARE Section of ASPAPublished by Chatelaine Press, Inc.Manuscript/Subscription Information:http://newark.rutgers.edu/~ncpp/PV.htmlInquires and proposals for symposia to:Dr. Marc Holzer, Editor-in-Chief, Rutgers U.-Newarkmholzer@pipeline.comArticles, fiction, poetry and critiques, send 5 copies to:Dr. Willa Bruce, Managing Editor, U. Illinois-SpringfieldBruce.Willa@uis.edu, Doctoral Prog. Pub. Admin., PAC 326,P.O. Box 19243, Springfield, IL 62794-9243

FEBRUARY 2000 PA TIMES VOL. 23 NO. 2 PAGE 9

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PUBLIC SERVICE UPDATE:INNOVATIONS IN AMERICANGOVERNMENTConsidered one of the country’s mostprestigious public-service prizes, theInnovations in American GovernmentAward recognizes people and programsat all levels of government that deviseimaginative, effective ways to meeturgent social and economic challenges inthe public arena. Sponsored by the FordFoundation, and administered byHarvard University’s Kennedy School ofGovernment and the Council forExcellence in Government, the programannually awards ten grants of $100,000and 15 others of $20,000. Selected fromsome 1600 applications, this year’stwenty-five finalists made presentationson October 13, 1999 to a panel of formerMembers of Congress and big city may-ors, journalists, and academics, all ofwhom have an abiding interest in mak-ing government work better. Believingthat ASPA members could benefit fromknowing about these innovations, wewill highlight several of them eachmonth in these spaces. We will includethe name and contact information forthose responsible for the innovations andwilling to talk to others about them.Information about the Innovations pro-gram, the winners, and the applicationprocess can be found at www.innova-tions.harvard.edu or by calling 617-495-0557. Finalists highlighted this month:

Electronic Bond Bidding Initiative,City of Pittsburgh, PA: uses Internetbidding for municipal bonds to improvecompetition and reduce borrowing costs.Contact Ellen McLean, Director ofFinance, City of Pittsburgh, City-CountyBldg. Rm 200, 414 Grant St., Pittsburgh,PA 15219, 412-255-2582; fax: 412-255-8649.

Texas School Performance Review,State of Texas: a state-level review per-formed by the State Comptroller’s Officeto improve management and finances ofpublic school districts, thereby channel-ing more funds to the classroom.Contact Betty Russell, Project Manager,Texas School Performance Review,Comptroller of Public Accounts, 111 E.17th St, Rm 507, Austin, TX 78774,512-463-3973; fax: 512-475-0286;Website: www.cpa.state.tx.us/trp/trp

Public ManagementArchive CreatedThe George Bush School of Governmentand Public Service is pleased toannounce the creation of the NationalPublic Management Research Archive(NPMRA). The archive is designed tooffer the same resource for research inthe field of public administration that theNational Bureau of Economic Researchand Polmeth working paper archives dofor economists and political methodolo-gists. Along with the working paperarchive, the site will also host a dataarchive and a list of links related to pub-lic management research.

The archive currently contains more thanfifty papers. It served as the clearing-house for the recent Fifth NationalPublic Management ResearchConference, held December 3-4, 1999 atthe Bush School. Over 1500 individualsvisited the website in its beta test versionthis fall.

The paper archive will store works inprogress, as well as papers presented atthe biannual National PublicManagement Research Conference.Posting papers at the archive allowsauthors to receive valuable feedback ontheir work. Also, by browsing throughthe archive, practitioners, professors, andstudents assess current state of researchin the field.

The NPMRA will host an up-to-datelinks lists for public administration relat-ed resources. The list includes links topublic administration associations andjournals, data sources, government agen-cies, and academic sites.

The NPMRA is funded by the BushSchool of Government and PublicService at Texas A&M University.http://www-bushschool.tamu.edu/pub-man

Roger Williams UniversityOffers First Online Degreein Rhode IslandRoger Williams University will be thefirst Rhode Island school to offer anonline degree program. “RWU Online”will offer students the opportunity totake online courses leading to a bachelorof science degree in public administra-tion, beginning in January 2000.

GAO Releases New SurveyMethodology“Survey Methodology: An InnovativeTechnique for Estimating SensitiveSurvey Items” provides information onan innovative technique for collectingdata on sensitive policy-relevant topics.If successful, this technique might even-tually help fill key data gaps andimprove statistical information relevantto the national decision-making process.GAO’s main goal is to stimulate interest

in this promising, but as yet not fullyvalidated, technique.

The first copy of each GAO report andtestimony is free. Please call (202) 512-6000 or visit

PAGE 10 ASPA TIMES VOL. 23 NO. 2 FEBRUARY 2000

Allcon Roberts AkronRosemarie Ramos-Tirelli ArizonaBrian Swanton ArizonaTerri Bumgardner ArkansasJames Tyrone Sloan ArkansasJoao Bilhim At-Large MemberRuben Caro At-Large MemberSia Hersini At-Large MemberMichael Hughes At-Large MemberDavid Landor At-Large MemberDaniel Moorman At-Large MemberKorin Schmidt At-Large MemberCarol L. Jenkins Auburn AlabamaChristopher Bugbee CentexRobin McKeever CentexRobert Musfeldt CentexElena Nuno Central CaliforniaAlan Frisher Central FloridaKenan S. Baldritge Central New YorkMaja Husar Central New YorkMichael Markowski Central PAJennifer L. Plagman-Galvin C. PiedmontBrenda K. Halpin ConnecticutJoseph M. Sobota Detroit Metro. AreaFord P.R. Mclain Empire State Cpl. AreaSian Hale EvergreenMolly MeeBickel EvergreenJacqueline Clarke GeorgiaLisa A. End-Berg GeorgiaWilliam S. Glisson, Jr. GeorgiaRoland Lane, Jr. GeorgiaLaTresse N. Pipkins GeorgiaGerald Checco Greater CincinnatiAlicia Meyer Greater Kansas CityMichael Press Greater Kansas CityMelissa Quearry Greater Kansas CityBeatrice Parks Greater RochesterLou Spiro Greater RochesterMarie Dodson Hampton RoadsPhillip Hakey Hampton RoadsStephen A. Marshall HawaiiDawn Yoshimura HawaiiKara Loeffler Houston AreaStephaine A. Whitus Houston Area

Tina Nabatchi Indiana

Carole Stringer Inland EmpireAlicia Meyer KansasJames J. Spinello Las VegasColleen A. Wilson-Pappa Las VegasGeorge A. Teachey Long IslandThomas Jenkins L.A. Metro AreaCarrie Fager LouisianaChristie C. Onwujuba LouisianaRobert E. Chapman MarylandRobert DeFlaminis MassachusettsWilliam F. Martin, Jr. MassachusettsPeter S. Meltzer, Jr. Miami ValleySusan L. Dean Michigan CapitalSandra J. Friedle Michigan CapitalChristopher Petras Michigan CapitalLaverne Thigpen MississippiPamela Needham Monterey Bay CAJohanne Angers Natl. Capital AreaCamille Cates Barnett Natl. Capital AreaMaureen Holoham Natl. Capital AreaKenneth Hunter Natl. Capital AreaPhilippe Rosse Natl. Capital AreaKeturah Sawyer Natl. Capital AreaAletha Gray NebraskaL. Todd Petersen NebraskaMichael J. Wentling NebraskaDawn Berney New JerseyJack Ratcliffe New JerseyRenetta M. Torres New MexicoEdward J. Blakely N.Y. MetropolitanRobert DeFlaminis N.Y. MetropolitanWendy Murray N.Y. MetropolitanRobyn E. Vogel N.Y. MetropolitanDavid B. Chapman North FloridaRichard C. Feiock North FloridaKaren Bostic North TexasJulie Fleischer North TexasDick W. Grigsby North TexasElizabeth A. Hensler NE Ohio RegionalErik Janas NE Ohio RegionalMelanie P. Carballo N. New JerseyEric S. Corrence N. New JerseyDemond A. Davis N. New Jersey

Russell S. Harrigfeld N. New JerseyNichole McEachern N. New JerseyRhonda Lynn Pelech N. New JerseyRachel Scialfa N. New JerseyIveth Z. Streisand N. New JerseySherage Jasmine Volmar N. New JerseyJames Zaccari N. New JerseySuzanne Leous N. VirginiaDavid S. Lowry N. VirginiaCatherine Massey N. VirginiaStephen M. Quilty NW OhioJim Lance Baugh OklahomaErica T. Haley OklahomaLarycia Alaine Hawkins OklahomaMary Kathryne Iervolino OklahomaMichael Markowski Philadelphia AreaJack Ratcliffe Philadelphia AreaShawn Arbogast Pittsburgh AreaWendi Elkworth Research TriangleCarol L. Jenkins Research TrianglePhonda McFarlane SacramentoDorothy Thrush San Diego Terrence Ireland S.F. Bay AreaMichael Ng S.F. Bay AreaMary Furey Santa Clara ValleyPhonda McFarlane Sierra NevadaDavid R. Mitchell Siouxland SDDavid R. Bushyager South CarolinaShrita Penn South FloridaHeidi M. Hoffman S. ColoradoNaoshi Sambonsugi SW GeorgiaJohn Talbott SWVirginiaAlan Artibise St. Louis Metro.Stephanie Sauve SuncoastGregory H. Young SuncoastMadlyn Nonimy TennesseeRandall Berry UtahMichele Hutchins UtahPhil Kirk UtahAnne Wescott-Gerber Utah

The following are new ASPA members, or have rejoined ASPA in the month of December1999.

PATIMES AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION FEBRUARY 2000

For more information on how to be publishedin PA TIMES, please contact Christine JewettMcCrehin at 202-393-7878, or cjewett@aspanet.org

AffirmativeAction

Special Section

Raymond Batz

In recent years we have heard a greatdeal about affirmative action, but do wereally know what it is? Is it outreach andcounseling to job applicants and college-bound high school seniors regardless ofrace or ethnicity, or does it mean prefer-ence in hiring, schooling and contractingon the basis of race, ethnicity or gender?

In early 1996 the Roper Poll asked over1,300 university professors to define theterm, “affirmative action.”Approximately twelve percent of thoseresponding said they could not. Of theremainder, about half thought it meantrace and gender preferences, the restthought it meant race-neutral outreach.

Aware of potential voter confusion, theauthors of California’s anti-preferenceProposition 209 purposely omitted“affirmative action” from 209’s text orballot language. The operative clausestates; (a) “The state shall not discrimi-nate against, or grant preferential treat-ment to, any individual or group on thebasis of race, sex, color, ethnicity, ornational origin in the operation of publicemployment, public education, or publiccontracting.”

Nonetheless, opponents of Proposition209 went to court demanding the inser-tion of “affirmative action” into the lan-guage of the initiative. But the courtrefused, writing the term is “fluid” and“means different things to different peo-ple.”

Since the 1996 passage of Proposition209, the annual affirmative action budgetfor the University of California systemhas grown from a pre-election $63 mil-lion to $130 million. These funds areearmarked for out-reach, remedial edu-cation and counseling for all potentialUC students, regardless of race, genderor ethnicity. In California, non-preferen-tial affirmative action is legal, while raceand gender preferences are not.

Early in his presidency, John Kennedyhad encouraged employers to take “affir-mative action” steps to increase the num-bers of minorities in the workforce. Hegave no specific guidelines as to howthis was to be accomplished without vio-lating existing law nor did he define theterm. An insight into his leanings mightbe gleaned from a speech in which hepointed out, “All of us do not have equaltalents, but each of us must be givenequal opportunity to develop our tal-ents.” Few will argue with this state-ment, but many have distorted it.

Senator Hubert Humphrey expandedPresident Kennedy’s promise when hesponsored what eventually becameknown as the Civil Rights Act of 1964.Title VII of this act makes it illegal foremployers to hire, fire or refuse to hireindividuals on the basis of race, color,national origin, religion or ethnicity.Opponents of his measure neverthelessaccused him of advancing a race quotabill, and, in his now famous response,Sen. Humphrey said he would eat thebill, page by page, if they could findanything in the text that required race

preferences. Humphrey was on firmground. The act contained no such pro-visions.

Southern Democrats (Dixiecrats) werestalling the bill with prolonged filibuster-ing. This forced President LyndonJohnson to appeal to Senate Republicansfor its passage, promising no race quotaswould be permitted under this legisla-tion. California Senator Stanley Kuchelaccepted his promise and convinced fel-low Republicans to endorse theHumphrey bill. With the increased num-ber of Republican votes, the bill carriedin the Senate and was enacted into law.However, the ink was barely dry before

the mischief began.

Following the signing of this historiclegislation, Senator Humphrey askedPresident Johnson if he could keep theoriginal for his personal archives, but ithad disappeared. It had been stolen.Within a few years President Nixon per-mitted the use of race preferences forblack contractors in Pennsylvania in arace preference program known as thePhiladelphia Plan. The camel’s nosewas in the tent and ethnic pressuregroups around the country began stump-ing for quotas and preferences for theirparticular constituencies.

Originally designed to aid only blacks tocombat the effects of “historical racism,”preferences were soon extended toMexican-Americans, then to all Spanishspeakers from south of the border,Puerto Ricans, Filipinos and then toSpaniards from Spain. Curiously,Portuguese people, from the sameIberian Peninsula as the Spanish, werenot granted preference unless they werenonwhite Portuguese speakers fromBrazil. Preferences were subsequentlyextended to most Asians, PacificIslanders, Aleuts and American Indians

Preferences in contract awards have beenextended to fresh-off-the-boat Cubans inparts of Florida, often excluding native-born Americans of European descentfrom the bidding process. SanFrancisco, in yet another illegal nosesnubbing at Proposition 209, recentlyadded Arab-Americans to its list of pre-ferred groups in hiring and contracting inthat city. San Francisco’s FireDepartment has extended hiring and pro-motional preferences to the sons anddaughters of wealthy Asians, blacks, SriLankans, and South Americans, whilehigher scoring sons ofEuropean/American firefighters are rou-tinely turned away.

What is the final tally? Prior to the pas-sage of Proposition 209, fully seventythree percent of Californians were eligi-ble to receive preferences in hiring,schooling and contracting, solely on thebasis of their race, gender or ethnicity.Those shut out were European/Americanmales. Even European/American womenreceived special consideration in hiringand contracting. However, they wereoften turned away from the eight campusUniversity of California system evenwhen they were the best-qualified appli-cants, while their UC slots were given tolower scoring minorities.

But the tide is changing. WashingtonState has passed a 209-style initiative.San Jose, California has recently lost tworounds in court while trying to defendtheir outreach programs which benefitonly minorities. The CaliforniaSupreme Court will soon hear anotherargument on this case.

If we are ever to turn away fromAmerica’s dark history of racism andfulfill Senator Humphrey’s dream ofequality for all people, we could hardlydo better than to live by a mission state-ment proposed by the NAACP at itsfounding. They wished, “To secureequal employment opportunity based onindividual merit, without regard to race,color or national origin.”

Raymond Batz is the former press secretary for Americans AgainstDiscrimination and Preferences, which is the parent organization for Proposition 209.

What is Affirmative Action?

IN EARLY 1996the Roper Poll asked over 1,300 university

professors to define theterm, “affirmative action.”

Approximately twelve percent of those

responding said theycould not. Of the

remainder, about halfthought it meant race

and gender preferences,the rest thought it meantrace-neutral outreach.

What is affirmativeaction? How difficult isits implementation? Whatare some of the pros andcons of its existence? Allof these questions areaddressed in the follow-ing articles.

A continuation of this discussion will be postedon ASPA’s OnlineCommunity at www.memberconnections.com/ASPA on the *PATIMES message board.*Access is restricted to ASPA membersonly.

The PA TIMES would like to thank it’sboard for their help in putting this spe-cial section together, especially DonMenzel for coordinating the pro/con arti-cles on AA in ASPA’s Code of Ethics.

If you would like to

continue this discussion,

go to the

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Boardon the ASPA Online

Community

www.aspanet.orgAccess is restricted to ASPA members only.

The Reality of ImplementingAffirmative Action

Jade Berry

Reviewing Affirmative ActionThe1995 White House review of affirma-tive action was the result of politicalpressure levied to downgrade or disman-tle affirmative action programs.President Clinton’s declaration that“affirmative action has always been goodfor America” has inspired many in thehigher education community to reaffirmtheir commitment to the principles ofaffirmative action. Although Clintonhas encouraged the nation to “[m]end . .. but don’t end” affirmative action pro-grams, court rulings continue to makethe justification of affirmative action pro-grams more difficult.

Colleges and universities have been pro-gressive in developing and sustainingaffirmative action programs. Throughthe affirmative action plan, most institu-tions have successfully identified goalsand timetables used for achieving recruit-ment and hiring guidelines for all mem-bers of their workforce. Additionally,affirmative action officers are identifiedas the persons responsible for monitoringaffirmative action policy and determin-ing the institution’s ability to meet pro-jected goals. Notwithstanding theseaccomplishments, supporters of affirma-tive action continue to argue that affir-mative action programs in higher educa-tion have not been so effective as to jus-tify their dismantling. In fact, the chal-lenges of implementation negativelyaffect the quest for a color-blind society.

Moving From Theory to PracticeIn theory, affirmative action programspromote social equity and eliminate dis-criminatory barriers while encouraginginstitutions to achieve a representativebalance in education, employment andcontracting. In practice, however, weoften misinterpret program goals as“quotas” or view them as unrealisticmeasures to be attained in a market com-peting for small numbers of minoritiesand women. Claims that affirmativeaction programs foster “preferentialtreatment” and prevent meritorious deci-sion-making are common. Yet signifi-cant inequities or racial imbalances con-tinue to exist in the academe.

Despite widespread agreement that affir-mative action initiatives help to “levelthe playing field” for minorities andwomen, affirmative action officers con-tinue to face political and administrativebehaviors that impede program imple-mentation. At the point where policy istranslated into practice, affirmativeaction officers provide a crucial role inimplementing policy: they are typicallythe “street-level bureaucrats” who dealdirectly with the public while copingwith ambiguous institutional goals andlimited resources for program implemen-tation.

Facing the ChallengeOn many campuses, the actions of affir-mative action officers determine the suc-cess of affirmative action programs.

Faced with the formidable task of chal-lenging conventional institutional poli-cies, they can sometimes bear the soleresponsibility for ensuring that institu-tional procedures promote a representa-tive workforce and student body. Whileobligated to ensure that the institution isoperating in accordance with federal andstate laws, the ability of the affirmativeaction officer to encourage academic andadministrative departments to “do theright thing” and to