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Flight planning
Ing. Ota Hajzler
21PAP/PIL - EN
Lekce 1: Palivo
• Table of contents
– introduction
– Units
– Terms
– Fuel according to flight phase
– Special cases
„Speed is life, altitude is life insurance“
Introduction
• Typ of aircraft using during this subject– SEP – Single-engine piston aircraft
• Example: Cessna 172
– MEP – Multi-engine piston aircraft• Example: Piper Seneca
– MRJT – Medium range jet transport aircraft• Example: Boeing B737
– LRJT – Long range jet transport aircraft• Example: Airbus A330
Units• Distance units
– Metric units• 1 m (meter)• 1m = 3,2808 ft• 1 ft = 0,3048 m
– Imperial units• 1 in (inch)• 1 ft = 12 in• 1 SM = 5280 ft (feet)• 1 SM = 1609 m• 1 SM = 5280 ft• 1 SM = 1740 yr (yard)
– Nautical units• 1 NM (nautical mile)• 1 NM = 1852 m• 1 NM = 6076 ft
• Mass units– Metric units
• g (gram)
– Imperial units• lb (pound)
– Conversion• Kg = lb x 0,454• lb = kg x 2,205
• Volume units– l (liter), Imp. Gall (imperial Gallon), US Gall
(US Gallon)– 1 Imp. Gall = 4,546 l = 277,42 in3 = 7,2 lb– 1 US. Gall = 3,785 l = 231 in3 = 6 lb– 1 US Gall = Imp. Gall x 1,2
Conversions
Specific gravity (SC)
• Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a liquid, e.g. Fuel, to the density of water
– You know that 1 liter of water has 1 kg of mass
• Examples of fuel• AVGAS – SG = 0.71 kg/l
• JP-1 – SG = 0.79 kg/l
• JP-4 – SG = 0.88 kg/l
Fuel and operator• The operator shall establish a fuel policy for the purpose of flight planning and in-
flight replanning to ensure that every flight carries sufficient fuel for the planned operation and reserves to cover deviations from the planned operation. The fuel policy and any change to it require prior approval by the competent authority.
• The operator shall ensure that the planning of flights is based upon at least:– procedures contained in the operations manual and:– data provided by the aircraft manufacturer; or– current aircraft-specific data derived from a fuel consumption monitoring system;
• the operating conditions under which the flight is to be conducted including:– aircraft fuel consumption data;– anticipated masses;– expected meteorological conditions;– air navigation services provider(s) procedures and restrictions.
Terms• Maximum range
– The maximal total range is the maximum distance an aircraft can fly between takeoff and landing, as limited by fuel capacity in powered aircraft. It depends on:
• Speed of aircraft
• altitude
• temperature
• Speed of wind
• Endurance– endurance is the maximum length of time that an aircraft can spend in cruising flight. Endurance is different from range, which is a
measure of distance flown. For example, a typical sailplane exhibits high endurance characteristics but poor range characteristics
• Radius of Action– Radius of action, or combat radius in military terms, refers to the maximum distance a ship, aircraft, or vehicle can travel away from
its base along a given course with normal load and return without refueling, allowing for all safety and operating factors.
• Top of climb (TOC)– the top of climb, also referred to as the TOC or T/C, is the computed transition from the climb phase of a flight to the cruise phase,
the point at which the planned climb to cruise altitude is completed
• Top of descent (TOD)– the top of descent, also referred to as the TOD or T/D, is the computed transition from the cruise phase of a flight to the descent
phase, the point at which the planned descent to final approach altitude is initiated
Pojmy• Point of no return (PNR)
– The Point of No Return (PNR) is defined as the greatest distance or time that an airplane can continue past an airport and return to that same airport with a specific fuel reserve remaining
• Point Of Safety Return (PSR)– The Point of Safe Return (PSR) provides the pilot with the farthest point
to which the aircraft can go and be able to return safely to the departure point with adequate holding, approach, landing, and alternate fuel.
• Point Of Equal Time (PET)– The Point of Equal Time (PET) is the point between two aerodromes from
which it takes the same time to fly to either aerodrome. The PET is based on the statement that the time to destination is equal to the time to return to the aerodrome of departure.
Cost Index (CI)
• The cost index is a number used in the Flight Management System (FMS) to optimize the aircraft's speed. It gives the ratio between the unit cost of time and the unit cost of fuel.
Fuel required for flight
• taxi fuel;
• trip fuel;
• reserve fuel consisting of:– contingency fuel;
– alternate fuel, if a destination alternate aerodrome is required;
– final reserve fuel; and
– additional fuel, if required by the type of operation;
• extra fuel if required by the commander or company.
Taxi fuel
• Taxi fuel, which should not be less than the amount expected to be used prior to takeoff. Local conditions at the departure aerodrome and auxiliary power unit (APU) consumption should be taken into account.
Trip Fuel
• fuel for take-off and climb from aerodrome elevation to initial cruising level/altitude, taking into account the expected departure routing;
• fuel from top of climb to top of descent, including any step climb/descent;
• fuel from top of descent to the point where the approach is initiated, taking into account the expected arrival procedure; and
• fuel for approach and landing at the destination aerodrome.
Reserve fuel – Contingency fuel
• Either– 5 % of the planned trip fuel or, in the event of in-flight
replanning, 5 % of the trip fuel for the remainder of the flight;
– not less than 3 % of the planned trip fuel or, in the event of in-flight replanning, 3 % of the trip fuel for the remainder of the flight, provided that an en-route alternate (ERA) aerodrome is available;
• Or an amount to fly for 5 minutes at holding speed at 1 500 ft (450 m), above the destination aerodrome in standard conditions.
Contingency 3%
• The fuel ERA aerodrome should be located within a circle having a radius equal to 20 % of the total flight plan distance, the centre of which lies on the planned route at a distance from the destination aerodrome of 25 % of the total flight plan distance, or at least 20 % of the total flight plan distance plus 50 NM, whichever is greater. All distances should be calculated in still air conditions
Reserve fuel – Alternate fuel• include:
– fuel for a missed approach from the applicable DA/H or MDA/H at the destination aerodrome to missed approach altitude, taking into account the complete missed approach procedure;
– fuel for climb from missed approach altitude to cruising level/altitude, taking into account the expected departure routing;
– fuel for cruise from top of climb to top of descent, taking into account the expected routing; – fuel for descent from top of descent to the point where the approach is initiated, taking into
account the expected arrival procedure; and – fuel for executing an approach and landing at the destination alternate aerodrome;
• where two destination alternate aerodromes are required, be sufficient to proceed to the alternate aerodrome that requires the greater amount of alternate fuel.
Reserve fuel – Final reserve
• Final reserve fuel, which should be:– for aeroplanes with reciprocating engines, fuel to fly for
45 minutes; or
– for aeroplanes with turbine engines, fuel to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1 500 ft (450 m) above aerodrome elevation in standard conditions, calculated with the estimated mass on arrival at the destination alternate aerodrome or the destination aerodrome, when no destination alternate aerodrome is required.
Reserve fuel – Additional fuel
• The minimum additional fuel, which should permit:– ETOPS (it will be explained later on)
• The aeroplane to descend as necessary and proceed to an adequate alternate aerodrome in the event of engine failure or loss of pressurisation, whichever requires the greater amount of fuel based on the assumption that such a failure occurs at the most critical point along the route, and
– hold there for 15 minutes at 1 500 ft (450 m) above aerodrome elevation in standard conditions; and
– make an approach and landing,
– Flight planned without ALTN• holding for 15 minutes at 1 500 ft (450 m) above destination aerodrome
elevation in standard conditions, when a flight is operated without a destination alternate aerodrome.
Extra fuel
• Captain extra
– Fuel at commander disretion
• Company extra
– Tankering
Fuel in OFP
Special cases
• RCF – reduced contingency fuel
• PDP – predetermined point
RCF• If the operator’s fuel policy includes pre-flight planning to a destination 1 aerodrome
(commercial destination) with an RCF procedure using a decision point along the route and a destination 2 aerodrome (optional refuel destination), the amount of usable fuel, on board for departure, should be the greater of RCF 1 or RCF 2
RCF
RCF in OFP
PDP
• If the operator’s fuel policy includes planning to a destination alternate aerodrome where the distance between the destination aerodrome and the destination alternate aerodrome is such that a flight can only be routed via a predetermined point to one of these aerodromes, the amount of usable fuel, on board for departure, should be the greater of PDP 1 or PDP 2
PDP
Methods for reducing fuel
Lowest fuel for departure
• Lowest fuel for departure is described by aircraft manual
• For example, lowest fuel for B737 is 4000 kg offuel.
Examples
Time, fuel, distance to climb
Examples
Range
Examples
Endurance
Examples
Climb - MEP
Examples
TAS - MEP
Examples
MRJT
