Informal FallaciesLet’s see some more examples!

Fallacies of Relevance

The conclusion is logically irrelevant to the premises: it isn’t really evidence that leads to the conclusion.

Appeal to Force

Arguing using a threat:

◦“I deserve a good grade, wouldn’t you agree? If you don’t agree, I’m afraid of what might happen: I just can’t control Bruno here.”

Appeal to Pity

Trying to evoke an emotional response from the listener to lead them to act in your favour:

“I need to pass this class in order to graduate. If I don’t graduate, my parents will kill me. Therefore, I should get a passing grade.”

Appeal to People (popularity, argumentum ad populum)

Appealing to the desire to be liked, included or recognized

◦Bandwagon: “Of course God exists. Every real American believes that.”

◦Appeal to vanity/snobbery: “Of course you should cheat, all the cool kids are.”

◦Appeal to Belief: “90% of those surveyed think we should not believe ________, so you should too.”

◦Appeal to common Practice: “everyone speeds, so it isn’t wrong.”

Against the Person (Ad hominem)

Attacking the source, not the argument

Abusive: “He says we should spend more on…, but he is a bleeding heart, liberal, no good, cat-eating s.o.b., so his opinion is worthless.”

Circumstantial: “he says we need to spend more on education, but he’s a teacher…”

From hypocrisy: “you say smoking is bad, but you smoke too.”

Straw Man

Attacking an oversimplified version of an opponent’s actual position.

“Those who support gun control are wrong; they believe that no one should have the right to defend themselves in any situation.”

Missing the Point / Red Herring

Diverting the listener’s attention by changing the subject or drawing a slightly different conclusion than what should be.

“The death penalty is the only way to punish criminals. Why? The justice system in this country has gone straight to hell – with murderers, rapists and robbers getting off scot-free!”

Appeal to Ignorance

Drawing a conclusion based on a premise which states nothing has been shown.

“No one has proved that ghosts don’t exist. Therefore, they obviously do.”

Hasty Generalization

A very bad inductive generalization.

All three of the BR students I’ve met so far are tall, so all the students here must be tall.

False Cause

Stating that since A happened before B, A must have made B happen.

I used Mr. Jenny’s pencil on the test that I passed, therefore, using that pen again means I’ll pass the next one.

Begging the Question

The key premise is unsupported, and/or just repeated in the conclusion.

Circular reasoning: Murderers have lost the right to live because anyone who kills another gives up that right.