Influences on the Effectiveness of the National Population ... · keberkesanan keibubapaan) dan pendedahan kepada modul terhadap KAPS (pengetahuan, sikap, amalan, dan kemahiran keibubapaan)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 7(1): 43 - 57 (1999) ISSN: 0128-7702© Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Influences on the Effectiveness of the National Population andFamily Development Board's Parenting Module

ANJLI PANAlAL K DOSHI and ROZUMAH BAHARUDIN1

National Population and Family Development BoardMinistry of National Unity and Development

Kuala LumpurIFaculty of Human EcologyUniversiti Putra Malaysia

Key words: parenting module effectiveness, parenting knowledge, parenting attitudes, parentingpractices, parenting skills, individual differences

ABSTRAK.

Secara umumnya kajian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan pengaruh keberkesanan ModulKeibubapaan Lembaga Penduduk dan Pembangunan Keluarga Negara (LPPKN) dengan menelitikesan perbezaan individu (persediaan untuk perubahan caragaya keibubapaan dan perspesikeberkesanan keibubapaan) dan pendedahan kepada modul terhadap KAPS (pengetahuan,sikap, amalan, dan kemahiran keibubapaan) keibubapaan dan persepsi terhadap modul. Rangkabentuk penyelidikan Pra-uji dan Pos-uji dengan Kumpulan Kawalan telah digunakan untukmenilai modul keibubapaan LPPKN. Sejumlah 80 responden telah dibahagikan secara rawakkepada dua kumpulan, eksperimental dan kawalan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa KAPSbagikumpulan eksperimental meningkat dengan signifikan selepas pendedahan kepada modul.Secara umum, didapati bahawa peserta mempunyai persepsi yang tinggi terhadap struktur moduldan kegunaannya. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa perbezaan individu mempunyai korelasisignifikan dengan pengetahuan keibubapaan (r=0.56, p<0.05) dan sikap keibubapaan (r=0.46,p<0.05). Walau bagaimanapun tidak terdapat korelasi signifikan antara perbezaan individudengan amalan dan kemah iran keibubapaan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa pendedahankepada modul mempunyai korelasi yang positif dan signifikan dengan pengetahuan keibubapaan(r=0.57, p<0.05), sikap keibubapaan (r=0.56, p<0.05), amalan keibubapaan (r=0.34, p<0.05) dankemah iran keibubapaan (r=0.26, p<0.05). Pendedahan peserta kepada modul dan perbezaanindividu didapati mempunyai kesan langsung terhadap pengetahuan, sikap dan amalankeibubapaan. Walaubagaimanapun tidak terdapat bukti untuk menyokong kesimpulan bahawapendedahan kepada modul dan perbezaan individu mempunyai kesan terhadap kemahirankeibubapaan peserta. Secara keseluruhannya, kajian ini membuat kesimpulan bahawa modulkeibubapaan adalah berkesan dalam mengubah pengetahuan, sikap, amalan, dan kemah iran

keibubapaan ibu bapa.

ABSTRACT

The general purpose of this study was to determine the influences on the effectiveness of theNational Population and Family Development Board's ( PFDB) parenting module amongparents by examining the effects of individual differences (expressed readiness for parentingchange and perceptions of parenting self-efficacy) and exposure to the module on parentingknowledge, attitudes, practices, and skills (KAPS) and perceptions of the module. The Pre-testPost-test Control Group Design was used for evaluating the parenting module. A total of 80

Anjli Panalal K Doshi and Rozumah Baharuclin'

respondents were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. Results of the studyshowed that parenting KAPS improved significantly for the experimental group after exposure tothe module. Generally, it was found that the participants had high perceptions of the modulestructure and its usefulness. Results also showed that individual differences was significantlyrelated to parenting knowledge (1'=0.56, p<0.05) and parenting attitudes (1'= 0.46, p<0.05).However, there was no significant correlation between individual differences and parentingpractices and skills. Results obtained suggested that exposure to the module was significantly andpositively correlated with parenting knowledge (r=0.57, p<0.05), parenting attitudes (r=0.56,p<0.05), parenting practices (r=0.34, p<0.05) and parenting skills (r=0.26, p<0.05). The participants'exposure to the parenting module and individual differences were found to have direct effect ontheir parenting KAP. The study however, found no evidence to conclude that exposure to themodule and individual differences had an effect on the parenting skills of the participants.Nevertheless, on the whole the study concluded that the parenting module was effective inchanging the parenting KAPS of parents.

INTRODUCTION

The National Population and FamilyDevelopment Board's (NPFDB) parentingmodule that was evaluated in this study attemptsto accomplish the long term goal of 'developinghappy families' through the enhancement ofparenting knowledge and skills among parents.The parenting module is an innovative approachthat has been developed and used since 1994.The NPFDB has expended a lot of resources onthe formulation, production and implementationof this module. A team of experts in the field offamily development and communication fromthe Universiti Putra Malaysia and the NPFDBwere involved in the development of theparenting module. To-date, the NPFDB hastrained a few hundred master trainers fromvarious related government departments andnon-governmental organisations in the utilisationof the module. These master trainers have inturn been involved in the training of theirrespective clientele.

The specific goals of the module are toenhance parenting knowledge, attitudes,practices and skills (parenting KAPS). Theparenting module consists of five units:introduction to family life, husband-wifecommunication, pre-parenting, increasing child'sself-esteem and building a happy family. Theparenting module utilises various methodologiesin imparting knowledge and developing theparenting skills of parents. Role playing, groupdiscussions, individual assignments andvideotapes observation and analysis are some ofthe techniques used. The module emphasiseson experiential learning and interactive approachthat are very suitable for topics such as

communication, self-esteem, problem-solving andfamily values.

This is the first study that has beenconducted to evaluate the effectiveness of theNPFDB parenting module. The findings fromthis study have important implications as it willenable the module to be further refined,improved or expanded in terms of approach orcontents so as to increase its effectiveness. Thestudy findings are also important as they cancontribute to the formulation of future moduleson parenting. A review of the literature indicatesthat parenting programmes have been effectivein terms of their specific objectives. Eastman(1983) reviewed almost 60 published evaluationsof family life education programmes and foundthat almost all of them showed positive gains.Research have shown that various factors such asthe families in which one grew up, education,income, social networks, beliefs, values and mediamay influence one's parenting behaviour(Belsky, 1984; Luster & Kain, 1987). It couldtherefore be assumed that family life programmeswould not be able to significantly alter parent'sknowledge, attitudes and practices. However,the evaluations of various programmes haveshown them to be effective. Numerous researchhave shown that parenting programmes havebeen able to increase parenting knowledge,change attitudes, enhance skills as well as changetendency to behave (e.g. Pfannensteil & Honig,1995; Spoth et aI., 1995; Thompson et aI., 1993;Anderson & Nutall, 1987; Kramer & Washo,1993; Witkin et aI., 1983; Cleaver, 1987; McBride,1991; Owen & Mulvihill, 1994; Devlin et aI.,1992). Findings from these studies indicate thatfamily life education should be developed further

44 PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 7 No.1 1999

National Population and Family Development Board's Parenting Module

and its coverage expanded to encompass a widercross-section of society. Various types of familylife education programmes have providedevidence that it is possible to increase knowledge,change attitudes, and teach skills throughrelatively simple and short programmes. Theresults of the Common Sense ParentingProgramme that was carried out among parentsof both middle and low income indicated thatparental reports of child behaviour problems,parent attitudes and parent-problem solving skillsimproved significantly from before to after parenttraining (Thompson et aI.; 1993).

The effectiveness of parent behaviourtraining for reducing child behaviour problemsand enhancing parents' knowledge, skills andattitudes regarding child-rearing has beenconsistently documented (Kramer & Washo,1993; Pfannenstiel & Honig, 1995; Thompson etaI., 1993). Similarly, the ability of parentcommunication training to enhance parents'relationship skills such as reflection andexpression of feelings, empathy, and to alterchildren's self-esteem and behaviour also hasbeen empirically supported (Buetler, Buetler, &Mitchell, 1979).

The methodology used in presenting atraining module may influence the effectivenessof the module. Research has shown that acombination of various methodologies such asrole playing, skills practice, watching videotapesand group discussions are superior to didacticgroup training or written materials alone(Anderson & Nuttall, 1987; Cleaver, 1987;Warmbrod, 1982; Owen & Mulvihill, 1994; Devlinet aI., 1992).

Giblin, Sprenkle and Sheehann (1985)concluded that programmes which emphasiseskills and behavioural practice yielded muchbetter outcomes than those which did not.Cleaver (1987) found that videotaped skillinstruction helped marital couples maintaincommunication skills. Warmbrod (1982) foundsupport for the hypothesis that the generationof alternatives in problem-solving came fromspecific training more than a genericcommunications skills approach.

In general, performance oriented teachingmethods (role playing, behavioural rehearsal)have been rated as more useful than writtenmaterials. Parents' ratings of the value ofperformance oriented components were foundto be significant predictors of parents' reported

positive changes in parenting skills following thetraining experience (Anderson & Nuttall, 1987).Previous research in parent-training has providedevidence that experiential approaches add totreatment effectiveness in the general population(Eastman, 1983; Anderson & Nuttall, 1987).

A review of past evaluations of parenteducation programmes reveals that there isinadequate research on the relationship betweenindividual differences and parenting outcomesin parenting programme evaluation literature(Spoth et aI., 1995). Examination of such effectshas been recommended in previous interventionliterature (e.g. Buetler, 1991; Shoham-Salomon& Hannah, 1991). There has been limited studyof the relationship of readiness for parentingchange with skills training outcomes (Spoth etal., 1995). Expressed readiness for parentingchange is defined as a commitment or willingnessto change or may be interpreted as personalreadiness to profit from panicular treatmentsituations (Snow, 1991).

Another variable that can be predictive ofchanges in parenting behaviour is parentingself-efficacy (Spoth et aI., 1995). Bandura (1977,1989a) defined self-efficacy as a perception ofone's ability to successfully perform behavioursrequired to produce given outcomes or one'sability to perform a desired behaviour. Selfefficacy has been significant in accounting forinitiation and maintenance of behaviour instudies evaluating a wide range of domains(Bandura, 1977, 1982; Gecas, 1989; Teti &Gelfand, 1991; Berry & West, 1993; Pajares &Kranzler, 1995). This positive effect occurs dueto increased motivation for and perseverance inbehavioural change driven by self-efficacy. Anumber of studies have shown that self-efficacycan play an important role in parenting (Spothet a!., 1995; Teti & Gelfand, 1991; Luster, 1985;Luster & Rain, 1987; Jan, 1995).

A controlled parenting skills outcome studyexamining individual differences (expressedreadiness for parenting change and parentingself-efficacy) and intervention exposure foundthat both fathers' and mothers' level ofintervention attendance and expressed readinessfor parenting change were sufficient predictorsof the targeted parenting outcome, as wasparental efficacy among mothers (Spoth et a!.,1995) . Luster and Rain (1987) found that parents

with little education and/or low incomes areless likely than better educated parents to believe

PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 7 No.1 1999 45

Anjli Panalai K Doshi and Rozumah Baharudin l

that parents have a great deal of control overdevelopmental outcomes. The study also foundthat high efficacy and low efficacy parents differin how they view the parenting role. Highefficacy parents emphasise the importance ofproviding their children with love and affectionand good examples unlike low efficacy parentswho stress on disciplinary actions (Luster &Kain, 1987).

Parents' attitudes and perceptions aboutchild-rearing affect parental behaviour and, as aresult, this influences the developmentaloutcomes of the child (Belsky, 1984; Luster,1985; Luster & Kain, 1987; Teti & Gelfand,1991) . Teti and Gelfand (1991) found thatmaternal self-efficacy beliefs related significantlyto behavioural competence among mothers oninfants in the first year. Results suggested thatmaternal self-efficacy mediates relations betweenmaternal competence and other psychosocialvariables and may play a crucial role indetermining parenting behaviour. This findingis consistent with Bandura's (1982, 1989a) viewthat self-efficacy is the mediating link betweenknowledge and behaviour. Mothers who feelefficacious in the parenting role would besuccessful in establishing a warm and harmoniousrelationship with their infants (Teti & Gelfand,1991).

The general objective of the current studywas to evaluate the influences on the effectivenessof the NPFDB's parenting module among parentsby examining the effects of individual differences(expressed readiness for parenting change andperceptions of parenting self-efficacy) andexposure to the module on parenting KAPS andperceptions of the module. Specifically, theobjectives of the study are as follows:

1. To determine the changes in therespondent's KAPS after exposure to theNPFDB parenting module.

2. To determine the respondent's perceptionsof the parenting module.

3. To determine the relationship betweenexposure to the parenting module andparenting KAPS.

4. To determine the relationship betweenrespondent's individual differences(experessed readiness for parenting changeand/or perceptions of parenting selfefficacy) and parenting RAPS.

5. To determine whether individual differencesmediate the relationship between exposureto the module and parenting KAPS.

METHODOLOGYResearch Design

The research design employed in the presentstudy was the Pretest-Posttest Control GroupDesign. The greatest virtue of this design is that,when it has been properly implemented, it willbe possible to draw strong conclusions about theeffect of the intervention (parenting module)on posttest scores (Fitz-Gibbon & Morris, 1978).A prerequisite for a true group experimentaldesign is that there be both control andexperimental groups that are equivalent (Miller,1986). The study design (Fisher et al., 1991) isrepresented in Figure 1. This Pretest-PosttestControl Group design was used for evaluatingthe module. This design randomly assignedsubjects (RA) from a single population to theexperimental group and the control group. Boththe experimental and control groups receivedan initial measurement observation (the pretests01 and 03). However, the experimental group

RA~ Experimental Group

Control Group

Time~

OJ X °2°3 °4

Note:RA Random assignment of subjects to the experimental and control groupTime The passage of time. The extreme left of the design is the beginning of the course

(pretest) and the extreme right is the end (posttest).X Programme intervention (parenting module).° An observation measurement. The subscript is used to distinguish one observation

measurement from another. For example 01' 02' 0" 0 •.

Figure 1 : Pretest-posttest control group design



then further received the inten'ention ofparenting module (X).

Finally, a second set of observations weremade (02 and 04)' Since the experimentalgroup received the intervention (X), 02 isexpected to be greater than OJ' Also, since boththe experimental and control group cases wererandomly assigned, we would expect that °J

would be equal to 03 on such key variables asparenting knowledge, attitudes, practice and skills(Fisher et al., 1991). These design have beennoted to be the strongest in terms of controlling(or accounting for) threats to validity (Fisher etal., 1991). The intervention effects were assessedby comparing the average group scores ondependent variables of the subjects in theexperimental and control groups. Experimentsare designed to allow an investigator to inferfunctional or causal relationships betweenindependent and dependent variables (Miller,1986).

The FELDA Serting scheme in the state ofNegeri SembiIan was purposively selected as thestudy site. The population for the study was theFELDA settlers and their spouses. Initially, basedon the study's criteria, about 150 settlers or theirspouses were short-listed for the experimentalstudy with the help of the FELDA personnel inSerting. Random sampling procedures werethen employed to select 80 respondents for theexperimental study and to assign them to one oftwo groups, 41 were assigned to the controlgroup and 39 to the experimental group.

Procedure

The parenting module (treatment) wasconducted by two facilitators from the NPFDBover a period of three days, from 21nd to 24thApril 1996, for the experimental group. Themodule which comprised 5 units was conductedover a period of 15 hours. The post-test wasconducted about a week later, that is, from 3rdto 6th of May, 1996. The timing of the post-testwas consistent with past research (Thompson etal., 1993; Pfannensteil & Honig, 1995; Kramer &Washo, 1993; Devlin etal., 1992; Mcbride, 1991).

Measures

Parenting Knowledge (PK) was assessed using aLikert scale adapted from Gilbert and Hanson's(1983) Perception of Parental Role Scale (PPRS)and Rozumah's (1995) Parenting KnowledgeScale. The knowledge scale consisted of 15 (12

positive and 3 negative) items. An example of apositive statement is: A person's self-conceptinfluences his behaviour. An example of anegative statement is: Playing with a child (e.g.,by tossing or shaking his body roughly) will notharm the child. The responses appeared on a 4point Likert format ranging from 4 (stronglyagree), 3 (agree), 2 (disagree) and 1 (stronglydisagree). Reliability assessment of the ParentingKnowledge Scale in the present study yielded analpha coefficient of 0.7.

Parenting Attitudes was measured using anattitude scale consisting of 15 (8 positive and 7negative) Likert-type items. The scale wasadapted from the Schludermann andSchludermann (1979) Parent Attitude ResearchInstrument (PARI Q4). The attitude scaleassessed parents' attitudes about child-rearing,paren t-child relationships, communication,importance of self-esteem and roles of familymembers. An example of a positive statementis: Parents must earn the repect of their childrenthrough their own action. An example of anegative statements is: Parents do not have torespect their children's opinions. The responseformat consisted of a 4-point Likert scale onwhich respondents indicated whether they, agree,disagree or strongly disagree with each attitudestatement. Reliability assessment of the AttitudeScale yielded an alpha coefficient of 0.5.

Parenting Practices was assessed using aLikert-type scale consisting of 10 itemsconstructed by the researcher. The Cronbachalpha coefficient for the scale was 0.4.Respondents were asked to indicate howfrequently they practised ten parentingbehaviours on a 5-point Likert scale rangingfrom never, seldom, sometimes, often and veryoften.

Parenting Skills was measured using a scaleconsisting of 20 items developed by theresearcher. The alpha coefficient for this scalewas 0.59. The response format consisted of twosub-formats. Respondents were first askedwhether they have 10 specific parenting skills(they had to answer yes or no). Subsequently,they were asked how effective they perceivedthemselves to be in using the parenting skills ona 5-point Likert scale. The responses rangedfrom never, seldom (1-2 times out of 10),sometimes (3-5 times out of 10), often (6-8 timesout of 10) and very often (9-10 times).


Anjli Panalal K Doshi and Rozumah Baharudin'

The General Perceptions of the ModuleScale which consisted of 2 sub-scales was adaptedfrom the scale used by Kramer and Washo (1993)to evaluate the respondents' perceptions of theparenting module. The alpha coefficient forthe overall scale (General Perceptions of ModuleScale) was 0.74. The Perceptions of ModuleSu·ucture Sub-scale alpha coefficient was 0.67while the alpha coefficient for the Perceptionsof Usefulness of Module Sub-scale was 0.75. Inthe first sub-scale (Perceptions of ModuleStructure) which consisted of six items,respondents indicated on a 4-point Likert sca~e

(l=strongly disagree to 4=strongly agree) theIrperceptions of the parenting module. In thesecond sub-scale (Perceptions of Usefulness ofModule) consisting of 6 items, respondentsindicated on a 4-point Likert scale (1=stronglydisagree to 4=strongly agree) their generalperceptions of whether the parenting modulehad been helpful/useful to them.

The Perceptions of Methodologies Scale (8items) was developed by the researcher basedon the methodologies used in the module.Respondents were asked to rate their per~eptionsof the effectiveness of the methodologIes usedon a four-point Likert scale (4=very effective,3=effective, 2=not effective and l=not at alleffective. The alpha reliability coefficient forthis scale was 0.72.

The Individual Differences Scale consistedof two sub-scales: Expressed Readiness forParenting Change Sub-scale and Perceptions. ofParenting Self-efficacy Sub-scale. The scale whIChwas based on the contents of the module wasmeasured on a 4-point Likert scale (1= stronglydisagree to 4=strongly agree). The Expres~ed

Readiness for Parenting Change sub-scale whIchconsisted of five items was adapted from thescale used by Spoth et al. (1995). Reliabilityassessment of this sub-scale yielded an alphacoefficient of 0.69. The Perceptions of ParentingSelf-Efficacy Sub-scale was adapted from Luster's(1985) Perception of Parental Self-Efficacy ~cale

(POPE) and Simons's et al. (1993) three-HemParental Influence Scale. The Perception ofParenting Self-Efficacy Sub-scale used in thepresent study consisted of 7 items concerningparents' beliefs about their ability to performthe specific type of behaviours targeted .by theintervention. Reliability assessment of thIS scaleyielded an alpha coefficient of 0.54.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Sarnple Characteristics

Table 1 and 2 present the backgroundcharacteristics and differences between theexperimental and control groups. Theexperimental group consisted of nine (23%)males and 30 (77%) females. As shown in Table1, the respondents' ages ranged from 26 to 45years with a mean age of 36.7. The respondentshad an average level of education with a majority(44%) of the respondents having completed atleast primary or lower secondary level (33%) ofeducation. The conu·ol group consisted of 16(39%) males and 25 (61 %) females. As shownin Table 1, the respondents' ages ranged from26 to 46 years with a mean age of 38.3 for thecontrol group. Independent t-test analysescontrasting the background characteristics ofthe experimental and control groups revealedno significant differences in age, level ofeducation, household income, number ofchildren, and years of marriage among therespondents (see Table 1).

The first objective of the study was todetermine the changes in the participant's KAPSafter exposure to the module. The results asshown in Table 2, indicate that parenting KAPSimproved significantly after exposure for theexperimental group participants. The fact thatthese changes were consistent across all the fourparenting measures suggests that the parentingmodule was effective in enhancing the parentingKAPS of the respondents.

Results of the analysis of variance forrepeated measures on parenting KAPS showedthat the time by group effect is significant (seeTable 3). A statistically significant F-ratio for theparenting KAPS indicates that the pre-test-posttest score of one group is significantly greaterthan that of the other group. This was followedby the paired t-test and independent t-test toidentify which group had significant gains inknowledge scores. The detailed findings fromthe paired t-test and independent t-test supportthat the module was effective in increasing theparenting KAPS score of the respondentsexposure to the module (see Table 2, 3 and 4).

This finding is consistent with the findingsof other evaluations of family life educationprogrammes which have shown that it is possibleto increase knowledge, change attitudes andteach skills through relatively simple and short



TABLE 1Background characteristics and differences groups (n=80)

Control (n=41) Experimental (n=39) t-test (p)

Variables

Age26-30 years31-35 years36-40 years41-45 years>46 years

MeanSD

Education (Respondent)

No formal educationPrimaryLower SecondaryUpper SecondaryOthers

Years of Marriage<10 years11-15 years16-20 years21-25 years>25 years

MeanSD

Number of children< 23 - 56 - 8>8

MeanSD

Monthly Fam. Income< than RM400RM401 - RM800RM801 - 1200RM1201 - 1600> RM1600

MeanSD

n

45

1615

1

22310

6

6121481

42212

3

225

644

%

9.812.239.036.6

2.4

38.305.10

4.956.124.414.6

14.629.334.219.5

2.4

15.906.20

9.853.729.3

7.2

4.851.98

4.961.014.6

9.89.8

RM800RM415

n

21316

8

1171371

42195

329

61

81876

%

5.133.341.020.5

36.743.97

2.643.633.317.9

2.6

10.358.823.112.8

14.804.32

7.674.415.4

2.6

4.411.58

20.546.217.915.4

RM748RM376

t=1.49 (0.14)

t=1.40 (0.16)(years of

education)

t=1.29 (0.20)

t=l.lO (2.70)

t=l.lO (0.28)

programmes (Eastman, 1983; PEannensteil &Honig, 1995; Spoth et aI., 1995; Owen &Mulvihill, 1994; Kramer & Washo; 1993,Thompson et aI., 1993).

Fang's (1992) study demonstrated thatparticipants' child development knowledgeincreased after having attended the ParentEducation Programme During the Transition to

PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 7 No. 11999 49


TABLE 2Independent t-tests comparisons of for parenting KAPS variables (n=80)

Scales Pre-test Post-test

mean (sd) t-value (p) mean (sd) t-value (p)

Parenting KnowledgeControl Group 44.63 (3.21) 0.45 (0.65) 43.88 (2.51) 6.11 (0.00)Experimental Group 44.37 (2.71) 48.46 (3.99)

Parenting AttitudesControl Group 42.93 (2.34) 1.01 (0.32) 43.37 (2.17) 5.96 (0.00)Experimental Group 43.51 (2.83) 47.31 (3.55)

Parenting PracticesControl Group 27.10 (3.25) 2.36 (0.02) 26.61 (2.59) 3.18 (0.00)Experimental Group 25.51 (2.71) 28.56 (2.91)

Parenting SkillsControl Group 25.05 (3.87) 1.71 (0.09) 25.15 (3.83) 1.53 (0.13)Experimental Group 23.39 (4.82) 26.44 (3.70)

Note: sd = standard deviation; p = level of significance

TABLE 3Means, Standard deviations and repeated measures analysis of variance for parenting KAPS (n=80)

Variable Control (n=41) Experimental (n=39) Interaction

Pre (sd) Post (sd) Pre (sd) Post (sd) F p

Parenting 44.63 43.88 44.37 48.46 37.27 0.00Knowledge (3.21) (2.51) (2.71 ) (3.99)

Parenting 42.93 43.37 43.51 47.31 18.32 0.00Attitudes (2.34) (2.17) (2.83) (3.55)

Parenting 27.10 26.6 25.51 28.56 23.87 0.00Practices (3.25) (2.6) (2.71) (2.91)

Parenting 25.05 25.15 23.39 26.44 7.12 0.01Skills (3.87) (3.83) (4.82) (3.70)

Note: sd = standard de\~ation; p = level of significance

Parenthood. The increase in knowledge can beconsidered as a positive effect of the modulebecause changes in knowledge affects attitudes,which in turn have an impact upon behaviour(Pfannensteil & Honig, 1995). Parks andSmeriglio (1986) found that parents with highlevel of child development knowledge know andare sensitive towards the needs of the child.Thus, they are able to carry out their parentalrole more confidently. Knowledge on childdevelopment is vital because it will enable parentsto understand and interpret their child's needsand demands (Chiam, 1994). Parentingknowledge is also important because the familyserves as the children's first context for learning

the language, cogmuve skills, and social andmoral values of their culture (Berk, 1994).

Thompson et al. (1993) found that parentattitudes improved significantly from before toafter parent training. However, Owen andMulvihill (1994) who evaluated the attitudes ofparents towards child-rearing issues found nosignificant effects of the programme on parentsattitudes, probably because they were alreadypractising healthy and appropriate parenting.First and Way (1995) who used thephenomenological approach to investigate thenature of outcomes of a parent educationprogramme found that participants changedtheir thinking and patterns of behaviour.

50 PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 7 No. 11999


Table 4Paired t-test comparisons for parenting RAPS variables before and after exposure to the module (n=80)

Scales Control Group (n=41) Experimental Group (n=39)

mean (sd) t-value (p) mean (sd) t-value (p)

Parenting KnowledgePre-test 44.63 (3.21) 1.60 (0.12) 44.37 (2.71) 6.34 (0.00)Post-test 43.88 (2.51) 48.46 (3.99)

Parenting AttitudesPre-test 42.93 (2.34) 1.04 (0.31) 43.51 (2.83) 5.67 (0.00)Post-test 43.37 (2.17) 47.31 (3.55)

Parenting PracticesPre-test 27.10 (3.25) 1.00 (0.32) 25.51 (2.71) 5.68 (0.00)Post-test 26.61 (2.59) 28.56 (2.91)

Parenting SkillsPre-test 25.05 (3.87) 1.4 (0.89) 23.39 (4.82) 3.50 (0.01)Post-test 25.15 (3.83) 26.44 (3.70)


Effective parenting skills can help parentsface the challenges of parenting as well as avoidnegative parenting (Spoth et aI., 1995). Thefindings on the increase in parenting skills afterexposure to the intervention is consistent withthe findings of previous studies (Thompson etaI., 1993; Witkin et aI., 1983; Cleaver, 1987,Devlin et aI., 1992).

The second objective of the study was todetermine the repondents' perceptions of theparenting module. Results obtained indicatethat the respondents had high perceptions ofthe module structure with almost all the parentsagreeing that the module contents were wellstructured, easy to understand and was relevantto their needs as parents (see Table 5). Thisperception is important because although mostof the participants had less than nine years offormal education and were already parents withan average of three to five children, they couldunderstand the contents of the module as wellas finding it relevant to their needs. Parentscould identify with what was taught in themodule. These findings are consistent with pastresearch (Cleaver, 1987; Kramer & Washo, 1993)which also found that the programmes evaluatedwere perceived as organised and understandableand would be useful to other parents.

The participants who disagreed (36%) withthe time allocated for module sessions anddisagreed (42%) with the time allocated fordiscussions felt that more time would haveenabled them to have more in-depth discussions

and further enhanced their learning (see Table5). This is one probable reason why the meanfor these two items is relatively lower than themean score for the other two items on thePerceptions of Module Structure Sub-scale. Thisfinding supports past research that has shownthat longer programmes (over 12 hours) tend toyield better results than shorter programmes(Guerney & Maxson, 1990; Eastman, 1983).

The positive perceptions of the modulestructure may have enhanced the process ofexperiential learning among the participants.The findings on the participants' perceptions ofthe module are consistent with the findings ofan evaluation workshop by Devlin et al. (1992)and the PAT programme by Owen and Mulvihill(1994). They found that a majority of theparticipants expressed high levels of satisfactionwith the programme and would recommend theprogramme to others.

Overall, the participants' high scores indicatethat parenting knowledge and specific skills suchas active listening to assist parents can be taughtefficiently and effectively through the modularor experiential learning approach. Theparticipants' high levels of satisfaction and theirperceptions of the helpfulness of the module isconsistent with past research (Owen & Mulvihill,1994; Devlin et aI., 1992).

As shown in Table 6, the participants'perceived that the three most effectivemethodologies were large group discussions(mean=3.31), role-playing (mean=3.28), and



TABLE 5Participants' general perceptions of the parenting module (n=39)

Scale item stronglyagree %

Perceptions of ModuleStructure Sub-scale1. The module contents were 33.3

presented in an organised andeasily understandable manner

2. The contents of the module were 41.0relevant to the needs of parents

3. The time allocated for units 10.3was sufficient

agree%

64.1

59.0

53.8

disagree%

2.6

33.3

strongly mean (sd)disagree %

3.31 (0.52)

3.41 (0.51)

2.6 2.72 (0.70)

4. There was suflicient time fordiscussions

Mean Score of Sub-scale = 12.10Std Deviation = 1.73

10.3 48.6 38.5 2.6 2.67 (0.70)

Perceptions of Usefulnessof the Module Sub-scale5. The module helped you to be 43.6 53.8 2.6

more sensitive to your

6. The module did not give you 2.6 92.3many ideas on how to talkeffectively to your children

7. The module gave you new ideas 30.8 69.2on what to do and not do withyour children

8. The module gave you new ideas 33.3 66.7on how to communicateeffectively with your spouse

9. The module did not give you 2.6 17.9 74.4new ideas on how to enhancethe self-esteem of your child

10. This module would be useful 51.3 48.7for other parents

Mean Score of Sub-scale = 19.41Std. Deviation = 1.92

Total Mean Score of General Perceptions Scale = 31.51Std Deviation = 2.93

3.41 (0.55)

5.1 3.03 (0.28)

3.31 (0.47)

3.33 (0.48)

5.1 2.82 (0.56)

3.51 (0.51)

individual assignments and watching videotapes(mean=3.26). Past research has demonstratedthat a combination of methodologies is effectivein disseminating parenting knowledge and skills(Anderson & uttall, 1987; Duncan, Box, &Silliman, 1996; Cleaver, 1987).

The third objective was to determine therelationship bet\'1een exposure to the parentingmodule and parenting RAPS. Results obtainedin the study indicate that exposure to the module

was positively and significantly correlated withparenting knowledge (r=0.57, p<0.05), parentingattitudes (r=0.56, p<0.05), parenting practices(1'=0.34, p<0.05) and parenting skills (r=0.26,p<0.05) (see Table 7). The findings imply thatthose who were exposed to the module werealso more likely to have more parentingknowledge, more favourable parenting attitudesand better parenting practices and skills.



TABLE 6Participants' perceptions of the effectiveness of the methodologies used (n=39)

Methodology very effective not not effectiveeffective effective at all

% % % %

1. Lectures 28.2 61.5 10.3

2. Role-play 33.3 61.5 5.2

3. Small-Group Discussions 23.1 69.2 7.7

4. Large-Group Discussions 23.1 66.6 10.3

5. Slides 17.9 82.1

6. Individual Exercise 12.8 66.7 20.5

7. Video 28.2 69.2 2.6

8. Additional Readings 23.1 71.8 5.1

Mean Score = 26.46Std Deviation = 2. 95


mean (sd)

3.18 (0.60)

3.28 (0.56)

3.15 (0.49)

3.31 (0.57)

3.18 (0.39)

3.26 (0.50)

3.26 (0.50)

3.18 (0.51)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Table 7Correlation between the independent and dependent variables for the experimental

group after exposure (n=39)

Knowledge Attitudes Practices Skillsr (p) r (p) r (p) r (p)

Exposure to Module 0.57 (0.00) 0.56 (0.00) 0.34 (0.00) 0.26 (0.05)

Total Perceptions of Module 0.46 (0.00) 0.44 (0.01) 0.17 (0.31) 0.06 (0.70)(general perceptions andrelevance of content areas)

General Perceptions of 0.43 (0.01) 0.65 (0.00) -0.09 (0.58) -0.19 (0.24)Module (perceptions ofstructure and perceptionsof usefulness of module)

Perceptions of Module 0.2 (0.23) 0.43 (0.01) -0.36 (0.02) -0.31 (0.06)Structure

Perceptions of Usefulness 0.47 (0.00) 0.60 (0.00) 0.19 (0.25) -0.02 (0.93)of Module

Relevance of Content Areas 0.37 (0.02) 0.22 (0.17) 0.27 (0.10) 0.19 (0.26)

Perceptions of 0.22 (0.19) 0.31 (0.06) -0.13 (0.94) -0.22 (0.91)Methodologies Used

Note: r = correlation value; p = level of significance

The fourth objective was to determine therelationship between participants' individualdifferences (expressed readiness for parentingchange and/or perceptions of parenting selfefficacy) and parenting KAPS. Results obtainedin the study indicate that individual differences,expressed readiness for parenting change andperceptions of parenting self-efficacy are

significantly and positively correlated withparenting knowledge and parenting attitudes(see Table 8). There was low correlation with adefinite but small relationship between theindividual differences and parenting practices.The relationships did not reach the acceptedlevel of significance. However, there was apositive and significant correlation between the

Pertanika.J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 7 No.1 1999 53

Anjli Panalal K Doshi and Rozumah Baharudin1

perceptions of parenting self-efficacy andparenting practices (r=0.33, p<0.05). Thefindings failed to demonstrate a significantrelationship between individual differences andparenting skills. Based on the results, it wasfound that the participants' individual differences(expressed readiness for parenting change and/or perceptions of parenting self-efficacy)influenced their parenting KAP but not theirparenting skills.

Multiple regression analysis using the 'forcedentry procedure' was used to determine whetherthe hypothesis that individual differences mediatethe relationship between exposure to the module(dummy-coded measure) and parenting KAPS istenable. The study examined whether the dataare consistent with the following causal sequence:exposure to the module -+ individual differences-+ parenting KAPS. Three sets of analyses weredone for each of the parenting KAPS afterexamining the correlation data on each of thelinks in the chain or causal sequence.

The percentage of variance accounted forby each of the three models for parenting KAPSis presented in Table 9. The data is inconsistentwith the assumption that the relation betweenexposure to the module and parenting KAPS isindirect, via individual differences or that theindividual differences mediate the relationbetw'een exposure and parenting KAP. Basedon the results, the null hypothesis that there isno significant effect of the participants' individualdifferences (expressed readiness for parentingchange and/or perceptions of parenting selfefficacy) and exposure to the parenting moduleon parenting KAP is rejected. There is significanteffect of exposure and individual differences asshown by the increase in R square when bothvariables are entered together. This implies thatboth exposure to the module and individualdifferences have a direct effect on parentingKAP. There is no mediating effect becausethere is low correlation (r=0.36) betweenindividual differences and exposure to the

TABLE 8Correlation between the' individual differences and dependent variables for the

experimental group after exposure to the module (n=39)

Variables Knowledge Attitudes Practices Skillsr (p) r (p) r (p) r (p)

Individual Differences 0.56 (0.00) 0.57 (0.00) 0.31 (0.06) -0.04 (0.83

Expressed Readiness for 0.49 (0.00) 0.46 (0.00) 0.27 (0.10) -om (0.97)Parenting Change

Perception of Parenting 0.49 (0.00) 0.49 (0.00) 0.33 (0.04) -0.04 (0.79)Self-Efficacy

Note: r = correlation value; p = level of significance

TABLE 9Multiple regression analysis on the effect of exposure to module and individual differences (n=80)

1. Parenting Knowledge

2. Parenting Attitudes

3. Parenting Practices

4. Parenting Skills

54

Exposure Individual (Exposure and(entered alone) differences individual differences

(entered alone) entered together)

R2 F (p) R2 F (p) R2 F (p)

0.33 38.17 0.31 16.80 0.53 42.48(0.00) (0.00) (0.00)

0.32 36.38 0.33 18.07 0.52 41.57(0.00) (0.00) (0.00)

0.11 10.10 0.09 3.80 0.17 7.95(0.10) (0.10) (0.00)

0.03 2.34 0.00 0.07 0.03 1.31(0.13) (0.79) (0.28)

PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 7 No.1 1999


parenting module. As suggested by Baron andKenny (1986), to demonstrate mediation, theremust be strong relations between the mediatingvariable (individual differences) and thepredictor variable (exposure to the module).

For parenting skills, based on the findings,the null hypothesis that there would be nosignificant effect of the participants' individualdifferences (expressed readiness for parentingchange and/or perceptions of parenting selfefficacy) and exposure to the parenting moduleon parenting skills failed to be rejected (seeTable 9). There is no evidence to conclude thatexposure to the module and individualdifferences explain the variation in parentingskills.

CONCLUSION AND IMPUCATIONS

Findings from the present study suggest thatparenting programmes such as the one assessedmay be an effective means of increasing theparenting KAPS of parents. These results supportprevious research suggesting that parenteducation can have positive effect on variousaspects of parenting. Based on the findings itcan be concluded that the participants had highperceptions of the module's structure, usefulness,and methodologies used. These findings haveimportant implications on the module sinceaccording to Bandura (1989b) people are ableto increase their knowledge and skills on thebasis of information conveyed by modellinginfluences.

It can be concluded that the individualdifferences were able to significantly influencethe parenting knowledge and attitude but notthe parenting practices and skills outcomesfocused on in the study. These findings lendsupport to the work of previous researchers whohave reported significant relationships betweenself-efficacy and related parenting KAPS. Ingeneral, the study found that individualdifferences, exposure to the parenting moduleand perceptions of the module were found tohave positive relations with the parenting KAPSof the respondents in the study. Based on thefindings, the study concluded that an exposureto parenting module could directly affect parent'sKAPS in parenting. However, data from thestudy failed to support the hypothesis thatindividual differences functioned as a mediatingvariable between exposure to the module andparenting KAPS.

Results from this study may have some majorimplications for family life educators andparenting programme developers. The findingsillustrated the effectiveness of the parentingmodule in terms of increasing the parentingKAPS of parents. The results suggest that theparenting module should be disseminated morewidely and efforts to reach out to a greaternumber of parents, especially those in need ofsuch interventions should be intensified.

Parenting programme developers andimplementers should also pay attention toparents' individual differences such asperceptions of parenting self-efficacy andexpressed readiness for parenting change asthey are important in predicting parentingbehaviours and skills. Efficacy training shouldalso be considered in future interventions asparents who value parenting but lack parentingskills may benefit greatly from such training inthat their skills and confidence about performingtheir parenting role would well increase.

Findings from the current study holdimplications for future research on the impactof parenting programmes on the child, parentsand the family. The current study collected datafrom a homogeneous group of respondents;therefore the generalisability of the findings arelimited to parents having similar characteristicsto those who participated in the study. Futurestudies should focus on the effectiveness of theparenting module with a more diverse,heterogeneous and representative sample ofparents. The majority of respondents in thissample were women. Thus, the findings reportedhere may better reflect the effectiveness of theparenting module on the parenting KAPS ofwomen than of men. Future research withsamples including higher proportions of fathersshould enable an examination of differencesassociated with parents' gender.

It is important to note that although nomediating effects of individual differences onparenting KAPS were found in the current study,the direct effects of individual differences andexposure to the parenting module on parentingKAPS are interesting enough to guide futureresearch in this area. The possible interactioneffects of perceptions of parenting self-efficacyand parenting behaviour should be assessed infuture studies. The study of parenting changeprocesses, including variables mediating parenttraining outcomes is recommended.



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(Received: 9 November 1998)


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Influences on the Effectiveness of the National Population ... · keberkesanan keibubapaan) dan pendedahan kepada modul terhadap KAPS (pengetahuan, sikap, amalan, dan kemahiran keibubapaan)