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Infection and disease
Infection and disease
• Infection: Entry of “infectious” organisms inside the body, their multiplication
• Disease: Cell / tissue damage, signs and symptoms
All infections may not necessarily cause disease
Microbes come in different shapes and sizes
Bacteria
Parasites
Protozoa
Viruses
Fungi
Historical perspective
Evidence from mummies
Egyptian pharaoh Ramses V
Unknown child from Naples
Source: http://plaza.ufl.edu/
Egyptian art tells us about polio
Source: The Art Archive at Art Resource, NY
Supernatural explanations for infectious diseases
Source: Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Nelson and Williams
Climate, soil etc believed to make one sick
Hippocrates
• Dismissed supernatural explanations
• Seasonal changes in disease patterns
• Fever and swelling – immune response
Hippocrates (460-377 BC)
Fracastoro
• First to propose that infectious diseases were caused by invisible, minute, self-replicating seeds
• Proposed transmission by direct contact, air and through objects
• Described several infectious diseases including syphilis
(1478-1553)
Renaissance era in medicine(14-17 century)
Foundations of modern medicine
• Anatomy
• Physiology
• Circulation
• Brain
• Surgical instruments
• hygiene
Hospitals and hygiene
First microscope (1600s)
Leeuwenhoek
LensSample
Focus
First vaccine
• Edward Jenner (1749-1823)
• World’s first vaccine – against small pox
• Father of immunology
Louis Pastuer (1822-1895)
• Fermentation
• Pasteurization
• Vaccine development
Robert Koch (1843-1910)
• Koch’s postulates
• Gold standard in microbiology
• Fathers of Microbiology - Robert Koch - Louis Pasteur
Koch’s postulates
First set of rules on how to link a disease to an infectious agent. Still used
Several bacterial agents were discovered in the 1800s
Year Disease/organism
1874 Leprosy
1882 Cholera streptococcus
1884 Diptheria
1884 Typhoid
1884 Tetanus
1892 Gas gangrene
1894 Plague
Self-experimentation to prove Koch’s postulates
• Inoculate organism into one’s own body to prove disease etiology / pathogenesis
• Yellow fever / hookworms / Hepatitis E virus
Reservoirs and vectors
• Transmission of plague from rats to humans
• Transmission of yellow fever through Aedes aegypti
First established viral disease with obligate cycle in insect no human to human transmission
• Transmission of malarial parasite (Plasmodium falciparum through Aedes aegypti)
Disarming the microbe
• Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in September 1928.
• World’s first antibiotic
“That’s funny”
Penicillin: Miracle cure
Terminology…• Incidence Fraction of a population that
newly contracts a disease during a specific time. (Eg. Influenza virus)
• Prevalence Fraction of a population having a specific disease at a given time. (eg. HIV)
• Endemic disease Disease constantly present in a population. (eg. Malaria)
• Epidemic disease Disease acquired by many hosts in a given area in a short
time. (Eg. Dengue epidemic in Delhi)
• Pandemic disease Worldwide epidemic (eg. Influenza pandemic).
Major pandemics
• Bubonic plague (1347-1351): ~ 200 million dead
• Influenza (1918-1919): ~ 100 million dead
Control of infectious diseases: 20th century
• Foundation of the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
• Understanding disease biology/pathology
• Development of molecular microbiology
• Development of vaccines
• Development of antimicrobial drugs
Source: Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Nelson and Williams
Year Disease/organism
1798 Smallpox
1896 Cholera
1897 Plague
1927 Tetanus
1927 Tuberculosis
1955 Polio
1970 Anthrax
1998 Rotavirus
Development of vaccines
Discovery of antimicrobial drugs
• 1928 – penicillin
• 1928 to 1962: 15 classes of antibiotics
Control of infectious diseases
Disease 1900: Annual Morbidity
2000: Annual Morbidity
Percent decrease
Smallpox 48164 0 100Polio 16316 0 100Diptheria 175885 1 100Measles 503282 89 100
Role of vaccines and antibiotics
How does the future look? 15 classes of antibiotics
3 classes of antibiotics
BLEAK ; increase in drug-resistance /void in drug discovery
Normal microbiota and the host:
• Locations of normal microbiota on and in the human body
Normal microbiota and the host:
• Transient microbiota may be present for days, weeks, or months
• Normal microbiota permanently colonize the host
• Symbiosis is the relationship between normal microbiota and the host
Normal microbiota: how the host benefits ?
• Microbial antagonism is competition between microbes.
• Normal microbiota protect the host by: – occupying niches that pathogens might occupy– producing acids– producing bacteriocins
• Probiotics are live microbes applied to or ingested into the body, intended to exert a beneficial effect.
Microbes
• Are invisible to the naked eye
• Are everywhere around us, inside us, on us, in our food, in our homes, in the air we breathe and the water we wash in.
• Are mostly useful, but some are harmful
• Have been around for 3.8 bn years.
Microbes exist in huge numbers
In one single teaspoon of garden soil, there are over 100,000 microbes.
In 1ltr of seawater, there are over 1bn microbes.
On your skin there are more microbes than there are people in the world.
There are so many microbes, that scientists have only named <1% of them.
Microbes outnumber all other species and make up most of the living matter on the planet