Indochina Notes

Conflict in Indochina 1954 – 1979

Principal Focus: Students investigate key features and issues in the history of the conflict in Indochina 1954-1979

INDOCHINA AFTER THE FRENCH Consequences of the Vietnamese victory against the French Strategic importance – major US naval and air base Economic importance – tin, rubber, oil, iron ore. Containment (domino theory) US eventually supplying 80% France’s war costs

Battle Final crisis for France as they were facing defeat Siege began on March 13 All supplies had to be airlifted Dien Bien Phu was a valley surrounded by high cliffs which the Viet Minh climbed, dragging

heavy machinery so as to have an advantageous position over the French On May 7, after 8 weeks of fighting, the French surrendered French military influence ended and the First Indochina War was over

Reasons for French Defeat Brought supplies in early Advantageous position on hillside, knew area well Jungle cover Better tactics – guerrilla over conventional Sheer numbers French arrogance Supplies – difficult for French, had to be flown in, easier for Vietnamese – surrounding

villagers helped Vietnamese fighting on their own soil for their own freedom – “Power in defence of

freedom is always greater than power mobilised on behalf of oppression” (Felix Green, 1969)

Importance of Dien Bien Phu Humiliation 7000 French casualties 11,000 prisoners Bao Dai – French puppet, President of the South Cambodia and Laos gained independence as the French have left Viet Minh stronger, greater bargaining power Geneva Conference Communism – domino theory, fear of communism grows

Consequences of the Geneva Peace Agreement for the Vietnamese people to 1964 “The experience of forty years’ relentless fighting had convinced him that a man has never

altogether won or altogether lost…” (Jean Lacouture, 1967) “…the Geneva Conference produced no durable solution to the Indochina conflict…merely

an interlude between two wars – or rather, a lull in the same war.” (Stanley Karnow, 1983) “…However, the State of Vietnam was virtually powerless, and the influence of the United

States was quite limited. The American leaders themselves were by no means confident that they would be able to prevent the reunification of Vietnam from occurring on schedule in 1956.” (Edwin E Moise)

Modern History - 1 - Conflict in Indochina

Held in Geneva, Switzerland on May 8 1954 (day after French defeat at Dien Bien Phu) Settle political problems in Indochina as a result of the end of French colonialism Nine participants – DRV (Ho), “State of Vietnam” (Bao Dai), Cambodia, Laos, People’s

Republic of China, Soviet Union, France, Great Britain, USA Delegates had conflicting objectives – conference stalled US opposed to giving any independence to Vietnam June 8 deadlock broke as govt of Hanoi made concessions – temporary separation of N&S

Vietnam, control of only about half of Vietnamese territory. Three conditions: Division at 17th parallel was temporary until free elections could be held in

July 1956 Elections by 1956 to unify the country Neither zone would make alliances or receive military help

June, 1954, Bao Dai appointed Ngo Dinh Diem as Prime Minister. He had US backing & was promised financial & other assistance to consolidate the new state of the South Vietnam.

July 20 - Geneva Accords signed Accords were a face saving device for the French while recognising the victory of the Viet

Minh. Accepted by all except USA & Bao Dai regime French govt continued to recognise Bao Dai regime – ended cooperation between France

and Hanoi North Vietnam cheated by the West Nearly 900,000 Vietnamese moved south – “voted with their feet”, Catholics migrated south 300 day migration period Provided a military truce French troops to withdraw Laos and Cambodia established as independent states By 1954, after 7 years of war, 2 competing govts emerged: the Democratic Republic of

Vietnam in Hanoi & the Republic of Vietnam in Saigon. Each claimed to be the only legitimate government.

Impacts Rigged referendum that appointed Diem as “President, PM and Minister of Defence” – full

backing of USA Feb 1955 – Nth proposed the restoration of normal relations between the two zones –

proposal rejected 1955 – Hanoi urged Sth to take part in the arrangement of details for the 1956 nationwide

election – rejected. Hanoi asked repeatedly for these conferences. US refused to allow elections as Ho would have won “possibly 80 per cent of the population would have voted for the Communist Ho Chi Minh” (President Eisenhower)

No reunification of Vietnam Increased US interference in Vietnam After US withdrew its support Diem assassinated North struggled to feed its population – limited agricultural resources Diem appeared corrupt as well after rigged elections -> animosity against leader -> Second

Indochina War Accords signed to make peace but ironically set the stage for a second war.

Political, social, economic and military developments within the North and South Vietnam

NORTH


“It allowed the Communist Party to strengthen and reinforce its control over northern Vietnam and, secondly, the economic consolidation put North Vietnam in a strong position to confront the problem of a divided country” (James Harpur, 1991) re difficulties of Ag Reform Tribunals, efforts of DRV to maintain neutrality

“The Party sought, above all, to avoid errors which might renew the corrosive class divisions that had marked its earlier, hasty reform efforts” (Gabriel Kolko, 1986) re Co-op program

“The regime, seeking a scapegoat, placed the blame on…Truong Chinh…years later, the Vietnamese Communists would contend that they had been pushed into the program by Chinese advisors” (Stanley Karnow, 1983)

“…to label the NLF as simply a satellite of Ho…was to miss a key point. For there were serious divergences between the northern and southern Communists in a society as pluralistic as Vietnam” (Stanley Karnow, 1983)

“The NLF controlled the timing and terms of combat in almost four-fifths of the engagements. Technological fetishism was to fail, and the United States military machine could perform barbarous acts but not victorious ones…” (Gabriel Kolko, 1986)

Political Lao Dong led by Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam Worker’s Party). Hoped to promote the socialist

revolution.o 1951, ICP and Vietminh combined to form Lao Dong. It would create a wider base for

Ho’s revolutionary movement. o All groups within society under strict party controlo Ho believed creating a workers’ party not exclusively named as ‘communist’ would

gain more support. o Anti-colonialist and communist-inspired.o Was above the Politburo, Secretariat, etc – could control the North.

Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) Holistic Communism was woven into Vietnamese social, cultural and historical traditions –

ideals of freedom, victory, prosperity and loyalty. Propaganda was widespread. Francophiles targeted All resources nationalised by state Ho Chi Minh personified nation -> national cohesion Party controlled groups within society Agricultural Reform Tribunals – Giap and Truong Chinh’s opposing views Vietminh (People’s Army) supported the Party’s actions

Social Terror of Ag Reform Tribunals, denunciation, death Ideals of communism – Lao Dong Food production Unity in support of HCM

Economic Land Reform

o Agricultural reform tribunals – oversee reform, get rid of disloyal and pro-French people – 100 000 died.

o 1956 – 1.5m peasants had approx half hectare as a result of land redistributiono Divisions in Nth over what path of reform to take – Giap argued for moderate

reform, Truong Chinh wanted rapid reform. Latter won. o Tribunals became a byword for terror, denunciation and death. People were

accused, given quick trials and then just as quickly sentencedo Many people sentenced without trial


o Over 1 million died during this purgeo Panic and fear as many denounced friends, Viet Minh fighters who had fought the

French were subject to accusations as were thousands of innocent peopleo Food production declined, leadership faced violent opposition – 1956 peasant

uprisingso Ho stepped in – 1958 Cooperativisation program – villagers shared out labour and

responsibilities. Many people who had been purged were released, violence didn’t cease immediately

o DRV managed to turn situation around & by 1960 over 85% of Nth’s peasant population was participating in the Co-op Program -> food production increased -> living standards rose and internal political position stabilised

Ruined ag infrastructure, short of capital for investment Loss of skilled workers in the 300 day migration Food shortages Nationalisation of industry

o Coal and textileso Banks and public utilitieso Other large businesseso Govt imposed regulations on small businesses under private control e.g. prices,

wages and output 3 Year Economic Plan – 1958

o Followed Soviet model Economic aid from Soviet Union and China By 1960 national income had grown, transportation capacity double and Nth Vietnam had

highest eco growth rate of any Asian economyMilitary

Vietminh/NVA (North in the North) o Originally army that defeated French at DBPo Militia, guerrilla warfare tactics, booby traps, tunnels, better knowledge of terraino No badges, rankso “Every day the guerrilla fighter remains uncaptured, he is winning, if it takes

twenty years to regain our freedom, we will wait” (Ho Chi Minh) NLF/VC (North in the South) – received much support from Nth, received logistical support

from Nth via HCM Trail. Wanted to overthrow Diem, anti-US culture, ethnic and gender equality, anti-imperialists. Seen as liberators, led the Sth to become on verge of collapse. 1967 had 300 000 military and paramilitary

SOUTH “The repression, however, spread to people who simply opposed their regime, such as

heads or spokesmen of other political parties, and against individuals who were resisting extortion by some of the government officials.” (Michael Maclear, 1981)

“By 1960 the South’s internal security problems continued to grow despite (or because of) Diem’s repression” (Brawley, S; Dixon, C; Green; J, 2005)

Re Diem’s policies esp Agroville “to ‘legalise’ the situation, the infamous law 10/59 was passed. This provided for two punishments only, death by guillotine or life imprisonment, for anyone suspected of harbouring an intent to commit a crime against the ‘security of the State’” (H G Slingsby, 1966)

Political Bao Dai instated as Emperor by the French – puppet figure Diem (President) – Catholic, nepotism, bought loyalty


Can Lao US advisors – Colonel Lansdale $$ Agroville Policy Diem bought opponents’ loyalty – Binh Xuyen, Cao Dai, Hoa Hao NLF Diem and his brother assassinated on 2 Nov – murdered and mutilated. Prior to

assassination military members began to organise plot against Diem – USA wouldn’t take part but wouldn’t stand in way of Diem’s forced removal. 1st Nov a coup staged against Diem by army and air force officers.

After assassination Revolutionary Military Council set up to run country led by Big Minh Kennedy assassinated only 3 weeks after Diem – change in US policy as Johnson took over. Next 18mths – complete instability.

Social Propaganda – exploit fear of communism Routine censorship


Lack of unity for leader Individualism

Economic Diem was “the miracle man of Asia” (President Eisenhower, 1957) Receive aid from US -> booming economy. However, were entirely reliant on US largesse Saigon westernised Bankrupt -> French angry Agroville program

o Counter support for Ho in rural communitieso Villagers relocated to ‘govt protected’ sites known as Agrovilleso Reduced farm output, increased rural poverty as land was poor qualityo Connection lost between peasants and ancestors as they were forced from home

Increased polarisation between rich and poor as US aid didn’t reach countryside Corruption Capitalist

Military ARVN – trained and supported by US Opposition to NLF – Diem called them the Vietcong Cao Dai, Hoa Hao militia

THE USA AND INDOCHINA Political and social issues in Indochina by 1960 “The Kennedy administration was a party to the coup and hence to the assassinations of

Diem and Nhu” (Howard Jones, 2003) “Attitudes arose from a remarkable arrogance that not only took for granted America’s

right to intervene in Vietnamese affairs, but also never questioned Washington’s ability to control events after Diem’s overthrow” (Ellen J Hammer, 1987)

Vietnam: Political issues:

o Both DRV & RVN relied on foreign aid.o RVN refuses to hold elections > knew Ho Chi Minh held the majority; the Sth

couldn’t win an election.o Communist propaganda spread throughout Viet by Vietminh & after 1966, NLF.o Diem creates ‘strategic hamlets’ to counter communist infiltration. Villagers forced

off land into these hamlets. o Many Catholic refugees were experienced bureaucrats. NV left with inexperienced,

inefficient bureaucracy. Social issues:

o NV: land redistribution.o SV: Local hill tribes displaced by Catholics.o Religious tensions: Catholic/Buddhists.o Low levels of literacy hampered attempts to increase popular involvement in govt.

Growing opposition to Diem By the early 1960s Diem had managed to turn almost every section of society against him. Opposition by the early 1960s:

o Binh Xuyen, Cao Dai, Vietminh forces, peasantry, general populace, Buddhists, military

His consolidation of power in 1955-56 secured his position, but didn’t eliminated dissent.


Binh Xuyen and religious sects e.g. Cao Dai had gone underground. Diem bought their support

Remaining Vietminh would obviously be hostile to Diem – NLF presented Diem as nothing more than a US puppet

Peasant opposition due to:o Reversal of pre-1954 Vietminh land reformso Agroville program (extremely unpopular)o Strategic Hamlet program, supported by US but alienated peasant populationo Government economic policy favoured cities at the expense of the countrysideo Thousands of civilians killed

Diem’s power rested upon the support of the police and the military. However, even the military was becoming agitated:

o Regime’s nepotism extended into military rankso Military coup attempt in November 1960 – failed after intervention of US

Diem’s brutality, nepotism and corruption alienated workers, peasants and students. Greed and materialism contrasted the apparent selflessness and sense of purpose in the

North. 1963 – opposition started to show amongst the Buddhist community.

o Diem gave Catholic population best land, escaped obligations and tax payments.o 11 June – Buddhist monk Quang Duc self-immolated at a busy Saigon intersection:

Stanley Karnow: “He pressed his palms together in prayer as a sheet of flame the colour of his orange robe enveloped him…by the time the ambulance arrived, the old man had fallen over, still burning as the fire consumed his flesh”

Images of self immolation broadcast around world -> criticism of Diem’s regime. Military members began to organise a plot against Diem. No decision to remove Diem could be made without US consultation (due to incredible

amount of US aid).o US position was made clear – it would not take part but it would not stand in the

way of a forceful removal of Diem from power.

Laos: Political issues:- Independent since 1953.- After independence – fighting occurred between the Royal Lao forces and Communist Pathet

Lao- Pathet Lao (communist) forces integrated into army of Laos – uneasy coalition govt with

conservative parties in 1957.- 1958 elections: Pathet Laos won 13 of 21 seats.- USA withdraws aid to communist dominated govt & civil war breaks out in 1959.

Cambodia: Political issues:- Independent since 1953.- Prince Norodom Sihanouk’s govt tried to maintain neutral relations with both communist &

non-communist countries (see notes below for issues in Cambodia).- Sihanouk’s govt popular with the people therefore communist propaganda had limited

success before 1960.

Nature and development of US policy towards Indochina generally and Vietnam in particular


Reasons for US

Involvement

Containment

Domino Theory

US eco/mil investment

US Idealism

Prestige

Loss of China, cold war tensions

McCarthyism – pressure to be tough on communism

US belief in monolithic communism

Cold War Period Fear, suspicion and paranoia. Ideological struggle between east and west. Soviet Union desired an egalitarian utopia, US

and western allies sought democracy and capitalism, also a power struggle – arms race, space race.

March 1947 – ‘Truman Doctrine’ established policy of containment whereby the USA promised to support any state threatened by communist attack.

‘Fall’ of China in 1949 traumatised Truman administration 1950-53 Korean War – spread of communism USA helping France economically in Indochina – by end of 1st Indo War USA was paying up to

80% of French war expenses Communism spreading throughout Indochina as seen in French defeat at DBP 1948-60 Malayan Crisis 1959-62 Cuba – Fidel Castro, ‘Bay of Pigs’ fiasco, Cuban Missile Crisis Berlin Wall Monolithic communism i.e. all communist activity was directed by Moscow

US Presidents Harry Truman (Apr 1945 – Jan 1953) Dwight D Eisenhower (Jan 1953 – Jan 1961) John F Kennedy (Jan 1961 – Nov 1963) Lyndon Johnson (Nov 1963 – Jan 1969) – Americanisation Richard Nixon (Jan 1969 – Aug 1974) – Vietnamisation Gerald Ford (Aug 1974 – Jan 1977)

Containment USA viewed Ho as part of a worldwide communist campaign of aggression. Decided to back Sth Vietnam and later escalate US military intervention Definition of containment seen above Widespread domestic support – large fear of communism, necessary and justified

Domino Theory


President Eisenhower’s theory – “You have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is certainty that it will go over very quickly”

If SVN fell so too could Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, Malaya, etc Eisenhower determined to stop communism at the 17th parallel – meant US involvement in

SVN “Although Kennedy and his advisors were pressing forward with their New Frontier, their

roots were still in Cold War rhetoric and in many respects it was a case of ‘Plus ça change, plus c’est la meme chose (roughly, the more things change, the more things remain the same)’” (Moya Ann Ball (1992)

Idealism “Vietnam represents the cornerstone of the Free World in South East Asia” (Kennedy) JFK referred to the US as ‘godparents’ if not the parents of Sth and that USA had

responsibility to sustain the country “This is our offspring, we cannot abandon it, we cannot ignore its needs”

Self-Interest Losing Sth meant the loss of a huge economic investment – also, facilities could fall into

Soviet hands if Sth fell to communism Sth acted as a “bulwark against international communism” (Webb, 2010) America’s stake in Vietnam “can be measured in the last analysis, in terms of American lives

and American dollars” (JFK, 1956) “Like Kennedy, Johnson had repeatedly drawn a scenario of aggressive monolithic

communism on the march, with South Vietnam as a measure of the free world’s determination.” (Michael Machlear, 1981)

Prestige US National Security Council stated – The US must protect its position and restore its

prestige in the Far East by a new initiative in South East Asia Key factor motivating US policy Pentagon Papers (published June 1971) – showed that Johnson administration had

deliberately escalated the conflict in Vietnam, often against advice of intelligence authorities “There may be a tendency to underestimate the real margin of influence on the outcome

which flows from the simple fact that at this stage of history we are the greatest power in the world – if we behave like it” (Walt Rostow - Extract from Pentagon Papers, 1971)

John McNaughton (Assistant Secretary of Defence) wrote at the time that US motives were:o 10% for the welfare of South Vietnamese peopleo 20% to keep South Vietnam out of China’s handso 70% to avoid a humiliating US defeat

USA involved during First Indochina War – helping French Geneva Conference – USA refused to compromise with Vietminh and Chinese delegates US increasing involvement during Diem’s reign – affected almost all aspects of life.

o US govt aid and investmento WHAM (winning hearts and minds) – develop social infrastructure for South

including health services, education and subsidised riceo US support for Strategic Hamlet program – failure o Tacit American support for eventual removal of Diem

$322m aid package to Sth US backed rigged referendum of Oct 1955 which ousted Emperor Bao Dai, supported

cancellation of national elections


1961 – 3200 US advisors – train ARVN in counterinsurgency (strategy for fighting against guerrillas) – these trainers were known as ‘The Green Beret’ units.

US involvement in coup against Diem “If President Kennedy so clearly supported the phased withdrawal plan, why did it fail? His

assassination…was a key factor” (Howard Jones, 2003)

President Johnson Elected on 22 Nov 1963 Americanisation of war i.e. go full throttle Shared view that communism was being directed from Moscow -> containment required If he allowed Sth to fall to Communists then there would be no chance of his re-election Nov 1964 Johnson won election in a landslide victory “Johnson’s immediate motivation in Vietnam was political self-defence as much as defence

of the Free World…the theoretical fear of losing the leadership if he lost Vietnam was at least as equal a determinant as the actual military situation” (Michael Maclear, 1981)

“I want them to get off their butts and get out in those jungles and whip hell out of some Communists” (Johnson extract from Howard Jones, 2003)

Feb 1965 – approved Operation Rolling Thunder – regular bombing of Nth Gen Westmoreland – aggressive tactics, convinced war would be won by killing large

numbers of enemy – if enemy couldn’t be forced into battle, villages became targets Defoliants - chemicals sprayed to kill of vegetation to deprive Vietcong of cover – Agent

Orange Bombing of Ho Chi Minh trail

Tonkin Gulf Incident Johnson needed a reason to escalate the war Conflict between two groups of advisors – hawks (hard line in Vietnam, increase military

presence) and doves (doubted US presence, disengagement) Late 1964 USS Maddox patrols off coast of Nth into their waters. Nth vessels attacked

Maddox, crew of Maddox claimed they sank a Nth patrol boat and damaged 2 others 2 days later Maddox and USS C Turner Joy returned to area – untrue claims made that US

vessels were attacked again – deliberate? Johnson responded quickly, ordering air raids – quick, decisive leader Congress passed the Tonkin Resolution – gave Johnson power to take “all necessary

measure” to prevent further aggression – could take action without having to go through Congress

After re-election he launched more air raids but decided that ground troops were needed as well. 8 March 1965 first US contingent of 3500 combat troops arrived in Sth Vietnam

By end of 1965 > 184 000 troops

Steps in US escalation – Americanisation of the war

Date EventFebruary 1964 US commences secret raids in North Vietnam, aim: to attack economic

targets and limit North Vietnamese aid to VCMarch 1964 Pentagon develops detailed bombing plans, targeting North Vietnamese

military sites, guerrilla sanctuaries (Laos and Cambodia), Northern infrastructure


Johnson administration begins preparing draft congressional resolution giving president power to take whatever action he wanted (revealed in Pentagon Papers)Secret SOG and DESOTO patrols against North Vietnam

June 1964 Honolulu Conference increased US advisor numbers to 23,000July 1964 Tonkin Incident5 August 1964 US forces attack patrol boat sites and oil storage centres in North VietnamAugust 1964 Tonkin ResolutionSeptember 1964 Sustained bombing against North authorised but not implementedNovember 1964 Johnson wins election in landslideJanuary 1965 Operation Flaming Dart air raids into North Vietnam24 Feb 1965 Operation Rolling Thunder sustained bombing of North Vietnam 8 March 1965 First US combat forces (3,500) arrive at Da Nang air baseEnd of 1965 Almost 200,000 US combat troops in Vietnam

President Nixon - Attempts at Peacemaking Main aims of Nixon:

o US withdrawal with honouro Survival of Thieu regime in Saigono His own re-election

Nixon elected President in Nov 1968 – promised USA would achieve ‘peace with honour’ Brought down by Watergate scandal – June 1972 media reported evidence linking Nixon

Whitehouse to the forced break-in of Democrat headquarters, electronic wiretapping, bribery, destruction of documents, falsification of reports related to Vietnam and Cambodia. Destroyed Republican Party’s credibility, August 1974 Nixon resigned.

Nixon’s policy of détente - improving relations with two former enemies “Nixon had always supported a hard line over Vietnam and frequently criticised Johnson

for getting bogged down in the war” (Ken Webb, 2010) Tet changed Nixon’s view – now wanted ‘peace with honour’ – get out but save face; build

up Sth so that they could fight on their own; Vietnamisation or the ‘Nixon Doctrine’ – withdrawal; ‘Madman Theory’ – Nth should be told that Nixon is a mad anti-comm with his finger on the nuclear button – put pressure on Hanoi; consider negotiations with Soviet Union and China – put pressure on Nth to compromise in peace talks

Vietnamisation:o Withdrawal of US troops, handing over fighting responsibility to ARVNo Guise to distract from apparent defeat by Asiatic nation worked to some extent

with American publico Did not work militarily:

ARVN rife with corruption Poorly organised Heavily dependent on US initiative/support e.g. Battle of Lam Son – ARVN

defeated by NVA/VC in Laos and had to be airlifted out by US US policy dominated by Nixon and Henry Kissinger – Kissinger believed in Realpolitik – USA

do whatever it has to do Declining morale of troops Fragging – attempted murder by troops of their own officers

US Policy under Nixon 1969-1971 1969 – Operation Phoenix – neutralise VC chiefs, US and ARVN fighting like guerrillas,

effectively weakened VC strength, 6000 killed, 20 000 captured


Early 1969 NVA launched new offensive against Sth – Nixon’s response – sever supply links through secret bombing of Cambodia – Operation Menu. Aimed to destroy Communist headquarters and disrupt HCM Trail. Failed – then put Madman Theory in action.

Nixon’s policy was complex – Madman Theory, bombing Cambodia, Vietnamisation, diplomatic pressure on China and S.U.

Continued to invade Cambodia to root out communist bases – anti-war protests expanded Feb 1971 5000 ARVN troops sent into Laos to attack NVA supply lines as part of

Vietnamisation policy – Operation Lam Son. Unmitigated disaster – images relayed home May 1971 Nixon offered Nth a withdrawal date for US forces, US POWs to be freed,

ceasefire, end to Nth troops moving south, Thieu remain in power, Laos and Cambodia left alone – no specific mention of US bombing so Nth didn’t take offer.

US Policy under Nixon 1972 Had to get Americans out otherwise he’d lose his position 30 March NVA Easter Offensive against South 31 March Nixon responded – bomb selected targets – “these bastards have never been

bombed like they are going to be bombed this time” Ended in July but US bombing continued 8 October US bombing ended Paris Peace talks being held – Henry Kissinger, Le Duc Tho reached an agreement and Nixon

also agreed on 21 Oct Thieu annoyed he wasn’t part of negotiations and ordered ARVN attack on NVA Nixon advised to hold off signing – weak agreement Kissinger provided long list of amendments to Oct plan – Le Duc Tho walked out. Nixon sent

ultimatum – Hanoi didn’t reply. US response – Operation Linebacker Two – bombing campaign. 11 days, > 40 000 tons

bombs Early Jan Le Duc Tho resumed talks, Nixon informed Thieu that USA was going to sign no

matter what so Thieu had no choice but to sign. 15 Jan USA ended all action against Nth 27 Jan 1973 Paris Peace Accord to end Vietnam War was signed

o US POWs releasedo US troops withdrawno NVA troops allowed in Stho International Control Commission to monitor ceasefireo Hostilities in Laos and Cambodia to endo US aid promised to Stho Council of National Reconciliation and Concord set up – sort out political issues

“The country could not afford to be seen to be defeated…he was convinced that a first American defeat would lead to a collapse of confidence in American leadership and to communist expansion throughout the world” (Phillip B Davidson, 1991)

“In light of this absurd situation, the Canadian members of the Commission announced in May 1973 that they would no longer participate and were in fact leaving Vietnam” (Anthony J Joes, 2001)

“Four years earlier they had badly miscalculated the costs of achieving peace with honour; now it seemed likely that they had also miscalculated the balance of forces in Vietnam” (Charles E Neu, 2005)

Impact of direct US military involvement in Vietnam and the consequences for Vietnam and Cambodia


VIETNAMMilitary Impact:

Advisers were sent in 1960, numbered 900. In 1961 Kennedy committed 1 600 advisers + 300 helicopters aimed to train the ARVN . +

increase support with the peasantry. Kennedy did not commit ground troops. Despite this VC forces grew from 2000 [after denunciation campaign 1957] 16, 000 [Nov

1961] + VC had more support of peasantry [not foreigners]. By 1964 VC strength 180 000. By 1962, 11 300 US personnel in Vietnam. July 1965: Westmoreland > McNamara > LBJ more troops needed. 28 July 1965: LBJ increased troops. ‘Search and Destroy’ tactics - huge social impact on villagers, alienated them from the

Americans. Sth resented US tactics - protests WHAM aimed to win support of villagers through ‘nation building’ (detailed above).

Undermined by other programs and strategies e.g. Strategic Hamlets Program. To consolidate, competition for support of Sth villagers. Pressure for support generated

unease and a sense of fear. 1/3 of population dislocated by 1968 because of US strategies such as the Strategic Hamlets

Program -> resentment of US and the Sth Viet govt. Operation ‘Rolling Thunder’ and the use of chemical agents such as Agent Orange ->

destruction of lives, houses, crops, forests, livestock and whole villages. Constant bombing took its toll on the villagers leading to starvation, health problems, and contributing to South Vietnam’s refugee problems.

Approximately 4 million (varying figures, anywhere from 2-5.8 million) peasants became refugees, many being forced to leave their villages and migrate to the cities where slums sprang up. “They were shunted into makeshift camps of squalid shanties where primitive sewers bred dysentery, malaria and other diseases.” (Karnow)

Massacres/atrocities: E.g. My Lai Massacre of 1968 – US soldiers shot 370 unarmed Vietnamese civilians. This caused outrage in US and worldwide.

Social impact: The US “rip[ped]South Vietnam’s social fabric to shreds” [Karnow] Tried to win support from the Sth Vietnamese: ‘pacification.’ Eliminate the enemy: ‘search and destroy.’ Established ‘Revolution Development’ teams into villages as part of pacification. Training & leading village defence units. Implementing land reforms Organisation local elections. However the policy was undermined by search & destroy missions and bombing. The destruction of villages suspected also was not popular. Impact: 1/3 of pop dislocated by 1968.

Economic impact: The American money had an impact. Establishment of brothels, bars. Increased prices - consumption of goods and services Traditional family & economic values challenged. Consumer goods from the US damaged local industry. Increased dependence on US imports. Employment opportunities linked to the US. Corruption and black market.


US money, presence of soldiers impacted culture – establishment of brothels, bars etc. Traditional family and economic values challenged - loss of culture was “especially evident in the youth who could not remember living in villages and only recognized the US lifestyle.” [Brand]

Consumer goods from USA damaged local industry, increased prices of goods and services. Linked to this also is an increased dependence on US imports and growing corruption and the establishment of a black market.

‘Rampant capitalism (and corruption) became a part of life’ (Cantwell) The ‘US superimposed American superficial culture onto South Vietnam’ (Cantwell)

Escalation of US efforts under Johnson In 1964: 23 000 troops in South US aid of $1/2 billion a year by 1965 By 1965: 175 000 personnel Westmoreland claimed war would be over by 1967 privately govt in doubt

Reasons for this escalation Diem failure growth of communism Alienation of peasants – strategic hamlet policy + Us foreigners DRV sending support along Ho Chi Minh trail Buddhist revolts + instability of govt after Diem NVA sent to south in 1964. US already heavily committed in South.

Political impact: Sth Vietnamese resented US tactics. Increased protest movement. Sth Vietnamese govt (supported by US) used military force against protesters.

Human/Personal Impact At least 1.5 million (ARVN 184 000 & 430 000 civilians) are killed. 3 million injured 5. 8 internal refugees (1/2 Sth Vietnamese peasantry), 50% Sth Vietnamese lost their homes. 1 million widows, 1/2 million orphans & at least 1000 Amerasian children left. 200 000 prostitutes in the Sth, in 1976 100 000 drug addicts in Saigon alone. 1/2 million hectares of farmland lost. 124 000 hectares of mangroves eliminated (46 species) Economy 40 yrs behind other Sth-East Asian countries. " Huge numbers of refugees fled to the rapidly swelling cities & young men were drafted

into the armies of both sides, creating rural labour shortages (Alongside high unemployment). Whole villages were destroyed." - Melanie Beresford

"Sth Viet's cities swelled to a degree unusual even by Third World Standards." - Melanie Beresford

CAMBODIA US direct involvement in 1970 and 1973 escalated problems – food shortages – food riots in

Sept 1972 Unemployment and displacement - “within six months the population of Phnom Penh

swelled from round 700 000 to over one and a half million.” - J. Tully US financial support upheld Cambodian economy - overexerting budget twice over. USA

provided much needed commodities such as oil, medical supplies and other basic supplies.


KR claimed Cambodia was “under threat of national extinction by…the US and colonist capitalist systems associated with the West”. - B. Thornton

US troops invaded April 1970 in response to growing military activity by NVA and expansion of KR.

US arrival and bombing radicalised population – more recruits for KR. Cambodia = important theatre of war against communism - carpet-bombed between

February and August 1973 in hopes of defeating KR. Bombing effects -> collapse of agriculture -> destroyed traditional rural lifestyle -> nearly

2mill refugees, inflation rampant, estimated 600 000 dead; 10% of population. Bombing - anger and resentment towards USA – KR’s anti-American stance attractive

During the bombing America dropped > 250 000 tons of bombs on Cambodia. USA’s actions seen as excessive and belittling, legitimising KR’s call for independence for

interference from foreign powers. US destruction allowed KR to demonise USA, strengthen their communist manifesto. US financial support for Lon Nol govt’s fight against communism -> five year civil war. Over

500 000 Cambodians killed during this period. Resulted in KR coming to power Stress upon traditional elements of Cambodian society - stress “shattered most of what

remained of Cambodian society and provided ideal preconditions for the further expansion of the Khmer Rouge insurgency.” [Pollock]

‘Operation Menu’ - widespread destruction (civilian and economic). Infrastructure destroyed— over 40% roads, 30% bridges unusable. Compounded economic debt

Death tolls of ‘Operation Menu’ often cited between 600 000 and 750 000. KR support rose concurrently with US bombing programs, from 3000 in 1971 to over 60 000

in 1973. By 1975, the Khmer Rouge controlled of most of Cambodia. Nixon administration's bombing campaign in 1973 probably saved the Lon Nol regime but it also allowed Pol Pot's group to consolidate their grip on power. “Terrified and half crazy, the people were ready to believe what they were told… That was what made it so easy for the Khmer Rouge to win the people over… it was because of this dissatisfaction with the bombing that they kept on cooperating with the Khmer Rouge.” [Kiernan]

THE SECOND INDOCHINA WAR Nature and effectiveness of the strategy and tactics employed by the North

Vietnamese Army and the National Liberation Front (NLF), and by the South Vietnamese and the USA

North Vietnamese TacticsVietcong/NLF

Vietnamese were fighting for nationhood, for independence, willing to make any sacrifice Time wasn’t an issue – dedicated and high morale Local population – respect, part of population/no uniform, intimidation,

propaganda/education Avoidance of major confrontation

o Tunnel systems – Cu Chio Use of jungle/mountain terraino Hit and run tactics/attacks at night/ambush/booby traps e.g. punji stakeso Guerrilla fighter could be anyoneo Ho’s elephant and tiger analogy

Contrasts to US/ARVN VC’s tactics in relation to treatment of peasants – “velvet touch often concealed talons of

steel” (Stanley Karnow, 1983) “Through the most heinous attacks on innocent civilians, the Vietcong effectively taught

the peasants the dangers of associating with the government” (Anthony Joes, 2001)


Ho Chi Minh Trailo VC had to be supplied by Northo Received a pounding by US bombingo By 1966 Giap had over 20,000 working to keep the trail workableo “preventing a Communist victory, required stopping or at least seriously inhibiting

the flow of men and supplies into the South” (Joes, 2001)NVA

From 1964 they began moving into South Vietnam 1964-68 – Giap willing to engage in set piece battles Strategy – prolong conflict and wear down US Tet Offensive – huge VC losses – from 1969 onwards bulk of fighting carried out by NVA By 1972 0 NVA able to launch full-scale conventional campaigns Large numbers of NVA troops in South – justify US invasion of North Counteract this – Hanoi ensured good relations with Soviet Union and China. Hanoi received

Chinese aid – mixed feelings – security against US invasion but historic Viet fears of Chinese domination

South Vietnamese and US TacticsUSA

“All this power intoxicated the Americans who initially went to Vietnam with a proud and overweening sense of confidence…they were certain that US omnipotence would triumph…” (Karnow, 1983)

Modern, technologically superior fighting force US soldier could rely upon

o Tanks/armoured vehicles on either sideo Armed unit – mortars, grenades, rocket launchers, M16 auto rifleo Science – weapons that could “smell” the enemyo Weapons to destroy jungleo Bombs, nuclear weaponso Helicopter transportationo Enemy softened by US artillery/air power

Weaponry, technology and logistical supporto Helicopters – efficient movement into isolated areas, quick evacuation but were

noisy and VC hid large punji stakes in favourite landing spotso Scale of US air power was immense – B52 bombers – 27 tons in a single mission, too

high to hear, craters still existo Cluster bombs – shattered and hurled hundreds of metal blades/steel balls randomlyo ‘Puff the magic dragon’ – converted DC 3 which dropped flareso Napalm – canisters forced open on hitting ground and napalm ignited, quickly

incineratedo Herbicides and defoliants – Operation Ranch Hand. e.g. Agent Orange – get rid of VC

advantage of jungle cover during ‘search and destroy’ missionso 75million litres of defoliants dropped on Indochina, ultimately self-defeating, Nixon

ended defoliation in 1969o ‘People sniffer’ – pick up smell of urine but couldn’t distinguish between animals and

humans By 1966 US had 385,000 troops in Vietnam General Westmoreland – attrition warfare – ‘search and destroy’ missions whereby: locate

enemy, clear area of civilians, destroy villages, carpet bomb, defoliate, capture any surviving VC

Once an area had been neutralised, US withdrew – short time VC were back


Refugees pouring into cities – Sth more destabilised. Filial piety broke down Similar actions taken near Cambodian border in Feb 1967 – pushed VC further into

Cambodia Operation Rolling Thunder – wasn’t denting Nth’s will Constant bombing HCM Trail – no effect due to Giap’s repair work Anti-war protests on home front increasing Secretary of Defence, McNamara, only way bombing would stop Hanoi supporting war

would be to totally destroy the country and its people. Sept 1967 – captured VC’s told US that NVA were moving troops and supplies into area

around Khe Sanh. Westmoreland believed it was beginning of major communist offensive like Dien Bien Phu

Operation Niagara - moved 6000 troops into area and carpet bombed it, B52s dropped 162 tonnes of bombs every three hours, fighter aircraft attacked every five mins, marine howitzers and army cannon

Jan 1968 NVA attacked US base – three months – NVA loss > 10,000 troops, pulled out on April 17. US abandoned Khe Sanh base in June.

“Hanoi’s ambition was Westmoreland’s opportunity; he would achieve a Dien Bien Phu in reverse” (Neil Sheehan, 1990) – in relation to Khe Sanh

ARVN Gen depicted as poor soldiers, quick to avoid battle, open to corruption, quick to desert Crucial supplies of medicine, petrol, food often diverted and sold ‘Ghost soldiers’ – enable senior commanders to claim these soldiers’ pay which would be

diverted into their own bank accounts Many ARVN recruits forced into service/were volunteers from the urban poor. Training was limited ARVN fought bravely in Tet Offensive & NVA’s Easter Offensive of 1972 Most of the reporting came from US perspective – public perception grew that Sth wasn’t

fighting in battles they should have been in View of ARVN is unfair – Neil Davis opposes this typical view

o War meant a great deal to ARVN, had to fight it on their own terms, lacked sophisticated weaponry of Americans

o Could recall only 3 wks in 3yrs where US casualties exceeded those of ARVNo Never saw them once run awayo “The South Vietnamese would often move quietly into an area and take the

Vietcong unawares” (Neil Davis, 1987)

Impact of the 1968 Tet Offensive “Tet demonstrated conclusively that revolutionaries motivated to suffer and die could

checkmate a great military power” (Leonard Bushkoff, 1988) “The nature of the warfare and criticism back home led to the apparent collapse of the

home front and the American forces in Vietnam” (Phillip B Davidson, 1991) “We can no longer do the job we set out to do in the time we have left and we must begin

to take steps to disengage” (Neil Sheehan, 1990) Jan/Feb 1968 Pre-Tet – US war aim to win, post-Tet – US war aim to get out of Vietnam with the minimum

loss of face Changed US politics – pre – Johnson busily planning for his re-election; post – Johnson’s

career in tatters Most significant military action of the war up to that point – provided US with most decisive

military victory, VC devastated


Pre-Tet – anti-war movement restricted to radicals; post-Tet – mainstream political figures calling for withdrawal and anti-war movement became mainstream

US psychological and political defeat Communists broke traditional truce during Tet NY festival – attacks across Sth 69,000 regular troops + 17,000 guerrillas Mistake regarding timing – change of day – poor communication prevented news of change

reaching all units – some units acted prematurely alerting US and ARVN Communists hoped:

o Offensive would spur a rise of the Sth against the southern regimeo Collapse of Thieu regime (president since 1967)o Convince US of Communist determination, convince them to leave

Tet effectively over within three weeks but fighting continued in Hue US lost nearly 4000, ARVN almost 5000, 14 000 Sth Viet civilians died VC/NVA lost almost 60,000

Reasons why Tet was a disaster for USA US population questioned why Communists were able to launch such a massive attack if the

USA was winning the war” – Johnson admin had been telling people that victory was in sight Up to 1967 US media often guilty of self-censorship rather than deliberately promoting anti-

administration line on war – Tet changed this Platoon of VC got into US embassy in Saigon – Americans view their overseas embassies as

sacrosanct – VC invaders killed but TV news showed pictures of US forces having to battle VC for their embassy, US ambassador had to escape in PJs

VC attacking Saigon airbase and ARVN staff headquarters TV maps lit up showing where Communist attacks were taking place Khe Sanh – Westmoreland asked for 200,000 more troops. Previous week highest weekly toll

of war so far – 543 Photo of Sth Viet general shooting a bound VC prisoner at point blank caused outrage – no

longer image of the good guys

Results of Tet Major Communist defeat militarily but psychological victory. Chances of Westmoreland receiving more troops were nil, support for war escalation ended Crucial turning point – US policy could only de-escalate now, gradual withdrawal of troops –

without US support, Sth regime would collapse Johnson’s speech on 31 March 1968 – renewed offer to end US bombardment of Nth,

prepared to start peace negotiations, 90% of Nth would be spared from US bombing, “I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President” – effectively destroyed Johnson’s career

Democrat Party’s leading contenders both pushing for end to war, Republican Party nominee, Nixon, calling for ‘Peace with Honour’

10 May 1968 official peace talks opened in Paris US morale deteriorating – May 1800 US soldiers killed 31 Oct 1968 – Johnson ended all air attacks on Nth Vietnam

Impact of the war on civilians in IndochinaVIETNAM

Social/Humano Arrival of US – westernised – western material/commercial values gained supremacyo Western goods, cars, investment, music, fashion, etco Seedy – prostitution, drug trade


o Western wealth -> corruptiono Decline of village life/movement to citieso Civilians affected by political oppression from Diem’s denunciating, one party

nepotistic state to the corrupt/brutal regimes of the futureo To combat NLF, Diem implemented Agroville Program and later Strategic Hamlet –

peasants lives uprooted, homes and livelihoods destroyed, ancestors’ sites lost o Savagery of war – US weapons – horror – bombing, defoliation, search and destroy

missions, constant bombingo Ultimately brought people of South under Northern Communist rule o Loss of life – estimated up to 3 million Vietnamese deado Sick, wounded, traumatised, those without limbso Babies born with birth defects due to Agent Orangeo Vietnamese veterans suffered from cancers due to defoliants

Culturalo Americanisation of Viet cities and breakdown of traditional village structureso Threatened survival of Viet cultureo Moving peasants e.g. Strategic Hamlets, took them from ancestor siteso All-pervasiveness of US presence

Environmentalo Forest regions demolished by bombingo Irrigation/dyke systems destroyedo B52 bombing left craters, impossible to cultivateo Herbicides and defoliants – wastelando Legacy of unexploded ordinance remains a problem

Economico Need to dedicate expenses to war prevented expenditure on projectso 1970s – Sth faced massive inflation/black marketo Post-war economy devastatedo US post-war bans on trade and investment worsened situationo Bombing reduced food output (couldn’t cultivate ruined land)

CAMBODIA VC set up camps in Cambodia and HCM Trail went through Cam War brought to Cam through 4yrs of heaving US bombing + US invasion US intervention brought about Lon Nol regime -> war against Vietnamese -> conflict +

growth of KR brought added misery Biggest impact – chance for KR to come to power -> horrific Ultimately brought on the Viet invasion of 1978 ‘Boat People’ Life following 1975 was bleak Executions, thousands of people were sent to ‘re-education’ camps Vietnam remained desperately poor, partly due to effects of the War US economic sanctions also played a large role

o US refused to establish relations with Vietnam for two decadeso Trading with the Enemy Act forbade US trade and investment with Vietnamo US utilised position in UN to ensure Vietnam received no World Bank loans

Tens of thousands of Vietnamese and Cambodians tried to escape their countrieso Some reached safety of Asian neighbours e.g. Malaysia, Indonesia, Hong Kong,

where they faced lengthy stays in refugee camps


o Some were fortunately accepted by other countries such as Australia, Canada and the USA (Australia took 250,000 Indochinese refugees)

LAOS After 1953 independence – fighting occurred between Royal Lao forces and communist

Pathet Lao Geneva Conference held in 1961 but civil war broke out 2yrs later Nth Vietnam backed communists (US constantly bombed Laos along HCM trail) As Vietnam and Cambodia fell to communism, so did Laos (Domino Theory) – monarchy fell Life expectancy 46, poor, backward farming, economy linked to Vietnam (USA banned aid to

Laos until 1986) Re-education and collectivisation policies – resulted in refugees fleeing 1980: 80 000 refugees in UN camps Many border issues with Thailand Eventual Doi Moi policy (socialist-oriented market economy i.e. state plays decisive role in

economy but private sector plays a role in commodity production) ‘Lam Son 719’ – ARVN attempted destruction a northern section of HCM Trail and VC supply

bases. Massive failure as they fell into VC’s trap (quite similar to Dien Bien Phu) – caused much bombing of Laos as USA tried to intervene.

Impact of the spread of the Vietnam War to CambodiaTimeline 1953 – Sihanouk in power, rigged elections 1969 – US bombing of Cambodia with permission of Sihanouk 1970 – Lon Nol stages US-backed coup, very anti-Communist, US-supported, harsh on Khmer

Rouge 1973 – Peace deal struck between US and North Vietnam – all US troops out of Vietnam 1975 – US congress blocks support of war in Indochina – Us pulls out of Cambodia, Vietnam

united under Communist government, Lon Nol flees, Kr take capital Phnom Penh 17th April – Year Zero

1978 – 25th December Vietnam invades Cambodia and overthrows Khmer Rouge, Hun Sen (Cambodian) set up as puppet prime minister for Vietnam

US involvement resulted in environmental degradation as well as a human and psychological impact as B52 destabilised the nation, destroying homes and lives.

Khmer Rouge grew to be powerful because they were:o the only nationalist partyo non US-backedo endorsed by Sihanouk

How the conflict spread into Cambodia 1965-1969 – Sihanouk allowed the NLF to establish bases in Cambodia and to receive arms

and equipment via the Ho Chi Minh Trail and port of Sihanoukville. The Vietnamese agreed to respect Cambodian independence after the War.

Corrupt Cambodian army officers profited from the sale of military equipment to the VC. 1969 – Sihanouk remained silent while the US bombed Communist positions within

Cambodia (Operation Menu). Vietnamese Communists were forced to move further into Cambodia widened the War.

The war intensified in Cambodia after the Lon Nol coup (1970). Lon Nol abandoned a neutral stance, the government became pro-USA and encouraged US involvement.

April 1970 – US and ARVN forces invaded Cambodia to attack Communist forces. 1971 – the Cambodian army attacked Vietnamese (VC) within Cambodia.


1973 – Nixon carpet-bombed rural areas of Cambodia, devastating the countryside and leading to the growth of the Khmer Rouge.

Lon Nol’s government had become increasingly dependent on US aid. It collapsed in 1975 with the withdrawal of the US from Indochina.

1975 – Khmer Rouge entered the capital Phnom Penh and declared Year Zero.

Moving the war into Cambodia had objectives:o Destroy HCM trail that ran through parts of Cambodiao Destroy Central Office of South Vietnam (COSVN) – the VC’s secret headquarters

within Cambodia. While 20, 000 US and ARVN troops attacked Cambodia, Viet Cong/ NVA troops simply

withdrew further into Cambodia and Laos. The COSVN headquarters were never destroyed. It was not, as the US had expected, a

fortress but a system of supply lines and meeting places spread out throughout the region. NVA/VC lost some 11,000 troops, while the US/ARVN 1,000 dead and 4,500 wounded. None of the major long-term goals were achieved. After forces invaded Cambodia, Sihanouk cut ties with Washington. The US then backed the

coup lead by General Lon Nol, which prompted retaliation from Pol Pot's KR. Invasion - little impact on Nth Vietnam's military effort - just spread conflict further

throughout Vietnam destabilising the region.

Nature and significance of anti-war movements in the USAReasons and nature of anti-war movement

Failure of USA to win esp after Tet Offensive – if the public was being told that the war would end soon and that the USA was winning then why could the communists stage such a huge uprising?

Tet Offensive – psychological defeat for USA, accelerated “the downward spiral of doubt, disenchantment and disapproval”

Images from Tet Offensive, Khe Sanh, My Lai massacre Media - Nixon administration had alienated large sections of the US media

o When Nixon ordered 11 days of intensive bombing of North Vietnam around Christmas 1972, the New York Times called it “Stone Age barbarism” and the Washington Post declared it “savage and senseless”

o ‘Kurt Volkert – Combat Cameraman Vietnam’ 1968: “A cameraman feels so inadequate, being able to record only a minute part of the misery, a minute part of the fighting. You have to decide what the most important action is. Is it the woman holding her crying baby? Is it the young girl cringing near her house because of the exploding grenades? Or is it the defiant looking Vietcong with blood on his face just after capture?”

Blum et al, The National Experience - “America’s myth of itself as benevolent, wise, and invincible drained away in the jungles of Indochina”

Hugh Higginso “most tragic consequence for Americans were the war casualties” o 1966 5,000 killed, 1968 14,000 killed by end of 1967 total dead and wounded

exceeded 100,000o People began to wonder whether the South Vietnamese regime was worth so many

sacrifices Casualty lists increasing US war aims increasingly vague War was draining US economy – what happened to Johnson’s ‘Great Society’ social reforms?


Battle footage – effects of US destruction, napalm attacks, B52 raids – immorality e.g. Saigon Police Chief shooting a bound VC suspect at point blank, nine year old naked girl fleeing village after napalm attack

Publication of the Pentagon Papers Vietnam War was “the lounge room war” – TV able to bring images home ‘Black Power’ leaders e.g. Martin Luther King Junior War wasn’t treating all Americans fairly – many middle-class and higher men were able to

avoid conscription – CCR song ‘Fortunate Son’ 1960s violent US period – many blame impact of war for this – assassinations of JFK, Robert

Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Malcolm X and race riots 1960s wasn’t as conservative as 1950s – baby boomers. Anti-war feelings accompanied by

growing radicalism of civil rights movement – Black Panther movement, Women’s Movement

Zeitgeist of Vietnam War very different to WWII No definitive result awaiting the Americans as occurred against Germany and Japan Beginning of war – Americans solidly behind Johnson’s interventionist policy of

Americanisation Few in the media challenged the administration Minority pacifist and church groups Need to contain communism – fear of Domino Theory, idea of forward defence, public

believed Tonkin Gulf incident Early opposition peaceful and moderate Many young people could avoid being conscripted Mid-60s student campuses became focus of anti-war movement Leading politicians now speaking out against war By 1968 protests became violent – violence reduced its support Tet made media more critical, willing to investigate and less eager to accept military

assurances. 1969 protests more peaceful Led to concept of moratorium – people stop work simultaneously and join a protest march,

attracted huge numbers Anti-war sentiment reached almost 50% in opinion polls May 1969 – Life Magazine ran an edition which contained nothing but the photos of all 241

US soldiers killed that week Invasion of Cambodia 1970 – movement into violence again Early 1970s – anti-movement was declining as Nixon’s Vietnamisation reduced number of

troops James Landers (2004) – media ‘framed’ the way in which anti-war movements were

portrayed. Framing “restricted the portrait of antiwar activists to those with scraggly hair, unkempt appearance or ‘costumed’ apparel…people on society’s fringe’s were protesting the war”

Andrew Z Kantz (1997) – Nixon’s use of polling “was used to gauge the receptivity of the public to Nixon’s Vietnam initiatives, to legitimate policies, and to verify when its military and diplomatic strategy required adjustment”

Stanley Karnow (1983) – Nixon’s reaction to moratorium demonstrations “North Vietnam cannot defeat and humiliate the United States” (Nixon). Karnow’s assessment “The response to the presidential address…was overwhelmingly favourable…Nixon’s ratings in the polls soared”.

Chronology of anti-war movements in the USADate Event


August 1964 Early opposition incl. Hiroshima Day protests Clergymen, pacifists, women’s groups opposed the war on moral grounds Small scale protests, unimportant to administration

Easter 1965 Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) protested in Washington (small, peaceful, idealistic) membership grew to 30,000 by end of 1966

1965-66 Student opposition on campuses grew: sit-ins, burning of draft cards, teach-ins (first teach-in held at University of Michigan, March 1965)

1973: over 13,500 men had been prosecuted because of draft resistance potential draftees fled to Canada and Sweden

Black groups such as Black Panthers (led by Stokely Carmichael) strongly opposed the war

November – Norman Morrison (a Quaker) self-immolated outside the Pentagon

1967 SDS leader Tom Hayden went to Nth Vietnam Some politicians (e.g. Senator Fulbright) began to question Johnson’s right

to engage in war October – major protest, march on the Pentagon (generally peaceful,

minority were violent) Vietnam Veterans Against the War established

1968 Anti-war candidates started to seek presidential nomination e.g. Eugene McCarthy

Robert Kennedy entered the race (assassinated in June) Democrat Convention held in Chicago, considerable violence on the streets,

Mayor Daly ordered police to treat protesters as harshly as possible Anti-war protests became more violent, dominated by radical elements incl.

radical blacks many ordinary Americans claimed the protest movement had been ‘hijacked’ by radicals

In order for the anti-war movement to be stimulated it needed to be decentralised, protest needed to become local basis of moratorium movement (protest en masse)

1969 October – 50,000 took part in moratorium march in Washington November – 250,000 strong march in Washington Major demonstrations on campuses nationwide in response to Nixon’s

invasion of Cambodia Kent State University, Ohio – four students shot dead by National

Guardsmen sparked mass demonstrations incl. 100,000-strong march in Washington

Counter demonstrations supporting the war, incl. 100,000-strong march in New York

1971-72 Scale of protests significantly dropped with policy of Vietnamisation troops coming home, casualty figures vastly decreasing

Impact of Anti-War Movement Anti-war movements in the 1960s were a shock as the USA had previously prided

themselves on patriotism To argue that the anti-war movement was decisive in affecting US involvement is to suggest

that the US could have otherwise won the war (no evidence for this)o Fallout from The Tet Offensiveo Nixon implemented Vietnamisation despite hatred for protestorso Nixon’s hardline policies did not stop him being elected in Nov 1972


Heartened Nth Vietnam – knowing thousands of Americans were calling for end to war – proved they had to leave eventually

Weakened US troops’ morale Had been no demonstrations against the Korean War or WWI Several factors made Vietnam different:

o Americans questioned the morality of the waro Saw reality of conflicts on nightly televisiono Zeitgeist (spirit of the age) was different, conformity and unquestioning acceptance

were disappearingo Americans began to doubt they would wino Cold war consensus broke down

The defeat of the South Vietnamese forces “US public opinion turned decisively…when Johnson was psychologically defeated by the

enemy’s Tet Offensive in 1968; and when the alliance between the US and the Republic of Vietnam came unglued [after the Paris Accords]” (Harry G Summers Jr. 1990)

“the politicians were simply reflecting the opinion of the overwhelming majority of Americans, who favoured no further aid to the Saigon government” (Stanley Karnow, 1983)

Points to consider (you can expand on the majority of these – seen in notes above): Geneva Conference – split of Nth and Sth Vietnam (created hostilities between the two

nations). Also led to US involvement which was a significant cause of the fall of the Sth as Sth Vietnam became entirely dependent on US aid, bombing destabilised and radicalised population, support for US involvement increased as atrocities of war relayed to homefront.

Corruption and nepotism of Diem – led to many more unstable regimes that were unable to consolidate both political power and peasant support. This further undermined by NLF/VC

Nationalism of VC/NVA/Vietnamese, VC - huge peasant support Communist morale Soviet Union and Chinese aid HCM Trail and US inability to destroy it Guerrilla warfare tactics – Ho’s ‘Elephant and tiger’ analogy vs. US conventional tactics – VC

could hear when the helicopters flew overhead Patience of Nth in achieving goals US bombing, defoliants US cultural insensitivity – Tim Bowden – cultural gap between Westerners and Asians in

Vietnam was huge US troops declining morale – anti-war movement Significance of Nixon’s ‘Peace with Honour’ & Vietnamisation Easter Offensive – talks between USA and China sparked a North initiated attack. 120 000

NVA & VC troops attacked Sth Vietnam over 3 fronts. Hanoi trying to bring ARVN to a point of surrender – nearly succeeded. May – VC withdrawing – US air support saved Sth

Determination of US Congress to limit presidential powers Failure of ARVN to take fighting burden after US departure USA’s inability to sustain a credible and viable regime in Sth. Sth remained corrupt,

nepotistic, never earned population’s loyalty – contrasted to Nth Tet Offensive – political and psychological defeat for USA. Boosted anti-war movement,

showed the lies of the US govt (furthered by Pentagon Papers, Watergate scandal in later years), destroyed Johnson, changed US war aims from victory to just getting out with minimum loss of face. + images from My Lai massacre & Khe Sanh.


Anti-war movement’s strength – cold war consensus that originally backed support broke down. Movement also affected troops’ morale, forced Nixon’s Vietnamisation

USA unable to understand true nature of conflict. Idea that conflict was part of cold war blinkered them from realising that it had always been about Vietnamese nationalism and opposition to foreign rule. It had always been like this in Vietnamese history.

USA’s departure in Jan 1973 had a large impact on Sth’s economy even though Nixon promised the continuation of economic and military aid. Sth didn’t give up immediately – still had 1million men in ARVN, 4th largest air force in world

Factors working against South Vietnamese survival:o US people and politicians had had enougho 60,000 US soldiers diedo Deep divisions in American societyo Unprecedented humiliation for USAo Paris Peace Accords US would never re-enter the conflict

Nixon had promised Thieu that Sth wouldn’t be overrun but soon unable to keep promise as the War Powers Resolution was passed in US Congress – limited Presidential power in foreign conflicts

15 August 1973 – laws ending all US combat operations, including bombing. Also, aid to Indochina cut.

South Vietnam facing collapse by 1974o Inflation o Industrial production droppedo Unemployment reached 30% o Black market o Fatalistic attitude, morale dropped, refugees

Fall of South Vietnam North Vietnam moved more troops into the South during 1973 and 1974 August 1974 ARVN fully stretched after NVA attacks on Ben Cat and Da Nang January 1975 NVA troops attacked and seized Phuc Long province General Dung ordered general offensive

o Aim to cut South Vietnam in half Thieu abandoned northern South Vietnam panic-stricken retreat in the South 25 March Hue taken by Communists 31 March Da Nang taken by Communists April 1975 Dung ordered capture of Saigon by 1 May ‘Ho Chi Minh Campaign’ – General Dung ordered troops further south and ARVN units,

without US support, broke ranks and retreated. 21 April Thieu resigned, succeeded by ‘Big’ Minh North demanded unconditional surrender from South Vietnam, airstrips destroyed US tried to implement Option IV (Operation Frequent Wind?) to fly desperate Vietnamese

out of Saigon to US shipso Photo of final helicopter leaving roof of US Embassy

North Vietnamese flag was flown over Presidential palace 30 April 1975 Vietnamese had a strong sense of purpose, uncompromised dedication, cause to keep

foreign interference limited – greater than reason for US to fight

Philip Davidson, Vietnam at War, 1991 USA & Sth lacked united objective and implementation of long term grand strategy –

motivations and intensions sketchy, weakening them against force of communist ideology Strategy not well suited to Vietnam, no room for movement or change


Failure to adopt or allow for revolutionary style warfare, VC and North masters in this style Lack of engagement with people –no total war or unity – lacked power Time eroded US but strengthened the North’s determination Massive aid from China and the USSR (US had to take the burden within themselves ) The use and cooperation of the Cambodian and Loation government and leaders Maintenance of morale Underestimated them politically and nationalistically.

POL POT’S REGIME Rise to power of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia Sihanouk “tolerated no rivals, recognised no equals and branded political opponents as

traitors. Democracy and pluralism had no place in the script” (John Tully). “By 1967, these problems had become severe, and Sihanouk’s reaction was still to ignore

them. Increasingly, he turned over political power to Lon Nol and Sirik Matak. He hoped that something would turn up to save the country’s economy” (David Chandler).

1975 KR seized power of Cambodia KR established in 1951 under North Vietnamese direction 9th Nov 1953 Cambodia gained independence Norodom Sihanouk chosen as King’s successor Party-boy lifestyle, 1955 abdicated, 1960 retook position as Prince not K Sihanouk’s regime – corrupt, self-indulgent, ensure Vietnam’s neutrality Foreign policy “wavered between seeking protection from the United States and from

China” (Wood, 1990). Pol Pot joined party, became General Secretary in 1963 – organised revolts against

Sihanouk’s regime 1960 broke away from Vietnamese patrons, changed name to CPK Cut diplomatic relations with US 1965 – allowed VC to establish bases in eastern Cambodia – concerning so he re-established

diplomatic relations with US in 1969 “Khmer Rouge” – coined by Sihanouk 1969 – Operation Menu (US B-52 bombing on HCM Trail) – KR able to extend its control in

countryside Jan 1970 Sihanouk went to Paris for medical treatment 18 March 1970 – deposed by Cam’s National Assembly in a coup d'état. He had neglected

land reform, was corrupt, didn’t stabilize nation, unsure whether he was strongly anti-Vietnamese or not

Sihanouk formed National United Front of Kampuchea with KR – oust Lon Nol, propaganda – align with ‘father of the nation’

Lon Nol 1970-75 CIA backed. Frank Snepp (CIA political analyst at time) – Lon Nol was welcoming of the US and would

accomplish all that they hoped Lost contact with people, corruption No pretence of neutrality Army poorly led and supplied KR contrasted LN – selfless personification of nation US involvement – destabilised nation, supported 1970 coup, largely funded LN regime,

bombing in 1973 In six months, the USA dropped more bombs on Cambodia than on Japan during the whole

of WWII (Pilger, 1986) KR appealed to population – anti-Viet, selfless, nationalistic Terror tactics


Large refugee influx into Phnom Penh after economic disaster Civil War – ended with KR gaining control of PP Jan 1973 – Paris Peace Accords signed – detailed exit of all foreign troops from Cambodia i.e.

LN lost his US support – impossible to survive as he was a US puppet Opportune time – KR launched attacks on PP First in early ’74 failed but early ’75 KR began to “tighten its noose around the city” (Webb,

2010) 1st April 1975 – LN flew out of country, with $1,000,000? KR took control on 17 April 1975 Pol Pot instated as Prime Minister, renamed country Democratic Kampuchea, began reign of

terror

Nature, aims and methods of Pol Pot “Massive evil is not necessarily the work of monstrous psychopaths, but of organised

groups convinced of the righteousness of what they do” re Pol Pot (Paul Monk, 1993) “His paranoia and brutality sent it into a chasm of darkness in which as many as two

million people died. Pol Pot’s enduring legacy is the thousands of mass graves that litter Cambodia” (R, Templer, 1998)

Ordered mass evacuation of Phnom Penh and other cities – avoid potential urban famine? Protect people from US bombing?

Evacuation rapid and brutal - >2mill forced out of city, no food or belongings, those who didn’t obey were shot, no exceptions, up to 500,000 died in the forced evacuations

Aims of Khmer Rouge First year of rule – Year Zero – brand new start for country Preservation of Khmer racial purity

o Fanatical hatred of Vietnamese – Vietnamese still in Cambodia persecuted, many fled, others killed

o “New arrivals” e.g. Chinese were killed or driven out Preservation of Khmer cultural purity

o Eliminate modern influences such as modern transport, economic institutions, medicine destroyed. Foreign influences were to be rooted out – material and non-material influences e.g. foreign ideas, foreign education, foreign languages.

Development of communal way of lifeo Traditional family decried – loyalty of children was to Angkor not parentso No private life, usual activities carried on communally

Creation of new Cambodian societyo Agricultural, harmonious, pure existenceo No room for urban communities – evacuations intended to be permanent

Believed to be honest, disciplined, fighting to assist the peasants few middle class professional Kampucheans fled

Remould urban population through manual labour Kampuchea was to be entirely independent and economically self-sufficient. Wanted to achieve independence, self-reliance and ability to defend Cambodia against the

Vietnamese.

Year Zero in PracticeDestruction of Modern & Intellectual Life

Western medicine banned – antibiotics flushed away, hospitals left to decay, only natural remedies allowed

Anyone owning up to being a doctor risked death


Sickness and pregnancy viewed as idleness Electricity banned – labour to be done by hand or very primitive equipment No signs of economic life permitted. Many stone buildings destroyed esp schools but this

didn’t stop KR using modern weapons, still received eco and military aid from China Intellectuals risked death

o Only 50 out of 725 professors/assistant professors remained aliveo 207/2300 secondary school teachers survivedo 147/195 classical ballet dancers killedo Only 14/416 of the fine Arts Department remainedo 2793/21311 survivedo Material base of intellectual life destroyed – theatres, museums, cinemas, sports

stadiums, historical monuments Only Cambodian peasant worthy of place in KR world Soft hands – evidence of urban, intellectual lifestyle Wearing glasses, western fashion unacceptable Privacy disappeared, meals eaten communally Work was all important, family life and affection frowned upon Constant surveillance, political instruction, propagandist songs Religion targeted Cambodia became known as “The Killing Fields” 1975 – population was approx 8 million. By end of KR rule it is unknown how many died. The

new Cambodian govt in 1982 suggested 3 million S-21 Tuol Sleng – originally a school, converted into a torture chamber/prison. 1975 to June 1978 – approx 15,000 people arrested and sent to Tuol Sleng torture centre in

Phnom Penh.o Forced to confess to treason before being executed.o Khmer Rouge kept meticulous records (over 4,000 have survived).

1977 – collectivisation of eating and property -> malnutrition, shortages of livestock, tools, seeds, traditional medicine didn’t control diseases

1977 – new constitution in which the country was renamed Democratic Kampuchea and Pol Pot declared himself the leader.

o All orders were carried out in the name of Angkar Loeu, - “Angkar was everywhere, a pervasive presence that none could escape” (M Stuart-Fox)

Khmer Rouge were “devoted to achieving an objective at whatever cost, devising drastic strategies, willing to use people as expendable commodities…” (Becker)

Divided the country into seven zones (mainly for administrative purposes) - city population was equitably distributed.

NEZs had re-education camps, to which former regime officers and ranking soldiers of ARVN were sent after 1975.

NEZs were established to rapidly increase the amount of land under direct cultivation. Major crops – rubber, coffee and tea for commercial export. People were given tools, basic housing materials and food supply for six months.

o Majority were released by 1979o “we will…make sure your thinking is correct, and…teach you to love the

Revolution” (Nguyen Ngoc Ngan) Living conditions varied greatly between each zone and within the regions of each zone. Methods of execution:

o Clubbed on the back of the neck with rifle butt or hoe.o Strangulation/suffocation.


By 1978 there was a sub-standard of living, thousands of deaths and fear of/antagonism towards Vietnam. However, Pol Pot was still satisfied with Democratic Kampuchea’s progress.

Systematic destruction of Cambodia’s old society through purification from tainted nature of foreign influences and capitalist systems.

Tyrannical internal policy – characterised by violence to establish authority. Pol Pot was “entranced by the exercise of power and the praxis [custom] of prolonged and

unrelenting warfare” (Chandler) Retired as Prime Minister in October 1976.

Conflict within Khmer Rouge Wasn’t common knowledge amongst people that Pol Pot was ruler 1976 – first major party purge because of disagreement on whether to consider 1951 or

1969 as date of party’s founding. To Pol Pot any disagreement equalled treason – many high ranking officials killed during purge

‘microbes within the party’ – needed to be sought out and destroyed. 1978 – thousands of party members ended up in Tuol Sleng accused of treachery Pol Pot very paranoid

Khmer Rouge Foreign Policy Cambodia isolated under KR rule – foreign contact forbidden – KR purity Exclusion didn’t apply to China – China’s Cultural Revolution inspired Pol Pot. Close links

essential – any friend of Soviet Union was an enemy to China. Nth Viet was SU’s friend and so they were an enemy of China. Cambodia was Nth Viet’s enemy and so were China’s friend.

Relations strained between KR and Vietnam – traditional hatred. Border clashes developing – not ordered by Hanoi or Pol Pot but each clash furthered distrust between the two sides

Relations between Cambodia and Vietnam deteriorated throughout 1978o Cross-border raids continued o Vietnam signed a 25 Year Friendship Treaty with the Soviet Union, Dec 1978 -

Kampuchean Front for National Salvation had been set up to remove KR regimeo New Chinese leader, Deng Xiaoping, called Vietnam ‘the hooligans of the east’

Third Indochina War Tensions increased between Cambodia and Vietnam for many reasons:

o Ideological differences – Khmer Rouge supported Maoist communism, Vietnamese followed Soviet style centrally controlled communism.

o Sino-soviet rivalry – Vietnam was backed by USSR. China did not trust USSR. China feared encirclement by Soviets and Vietnamese. China supported Khmer Rouge to stop further Vietnamese power (money, advisors, military support).

o Cambodia feared Vietnam would attempt to create an Indochinese Federation controlled by Vietnam.

o The Khmer Rouge wanted South Vietnam back as part of the Angkor Empire. April 1975 – Pol Pot sent soldiers to the Vietnamese border to prepare for the invasion of

Vietnam. Border raids began Vietnam launched counter attack Oct 1977, second attack Dec 1977 – withdrew again Feb 1978 – Vietnam use diplomatic pressure to resolve dispute Khmer Rouge responded with continued attacks in March and April 1978. Vietnam’s relations with China deteriorated as China feared an Indochina dominated by

Vietnam.o June 1978 – China cut all aid to Vietnam.


o End of 1978 – polarisation of forces: China and Cambodia on one side, Russia and Vietnam on the other.

25 December 1978 – 100 000 Vietnamese invaded Cambodia.o Split the main Khmer Rouge force.

6 January 1979 – Pol Pot fled Phnom Penh, Sihanouk released from house arrest and flown to Beijing.

7 January – Vietnamese occupied Phnom Penh. 10 January – declared the People’s Republic of Kampuchea with Heng Samrin as president. October 1979 – Cambodia virtually in Vietnamese hands, Khmer Rouge forced into jungle

along the Thai border. Most welcomed Vietnamese invasion and end of Pol Pot – “for them, what had happened in

the 1970s made as little sense as an earthquake, a prairie fire, or a typhoon” (David Chandler, 1992).


Documents

Indochina Notes