Individual Differences in Adults’ Self-Report of Negative

Individual Differences in Adults’ Self-Report of

Negative Affect and Effortful Control: Consequences for

Physiology, Emotion, and Behavior During Regulatory Tasks

Aimee Kristin Santucci

Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

in

Psychology

Bruce H. Friedman, Ph. D., Chair Thomas H. Ollendick, Ph. D. David W. Harrison, Ph. D.

Martha Ann Bell, Ph. D Robin Cooper, Ph. D.

April 29, 2003

Blacksburg, Virginia

Keywords: emotion regulation, heart rate variability, temperament

Copyright 2003, Aimee Kristin Santucci




Aimee Kristin Santucci

(ABSTRACT)

Emotion regulation is processes by which individuals influence which emotions they have, when

they have them, and how they experience and express those emotions. In the field of

developmental psychology, there is a large literature on affect regulation focused almost

exclusively on infants and young children with a focus on temperamental differences in

reactivity, both affective and physiological, and accompanying regulatory strategies. The

purpose of the current study was to examine the role of two dimensions of temperament,

negative affect (NA) and effortful control (EC), and how these dimensions relate to physiology,

self-report of emotion, and behavior during resting and stressor tasks (Stroop, video game, hand

cold pressor, and delayed gratification), the latter in which emotion suppression instructions were

given. Using the Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ) to screen 656 subjects, 24 males and

53 females were recruited to take part in the second phase of the study, creating four groups with

their screening ATQ scores: high NA/high EC, low NA/low EC, high NA/low EC, low NA/high

EC. Physiological measures derived from electrocardiogram (ECG) and impedance cardiography

were recorded during each task and behaviors were coded using the Emotion Expressive

Behavior Coding System. EC Group and NA Group were not significant for the majority of the

physiological, self-report, and behavioral variables. However, the EC subscale inhibitory control

was predictive of lower resting HRV for females only, and the Extraversion/Surgency subscale

Sociability was a significant predictor of cardiac sympathetic activity during the tasks, with low

sociability subjects showing a stronger sympathetic response. Neither self-report of emotion nor

behavioral variables show a clear group difference in response to the tasks. Future studies will

examine the use of other types of regulatory tasks, such as social interactions, as well as the need

for a balance between emotion expressivity and emotion regulation.

Aimee K. Santucci iii

Acknowledgements

I extend sincere appreciation to my mentor, Dr. Bruce Friedman, for sharing his

knowledge with me throughout my graduate career. Through his influence, and his willingness to

take a chance on someone with almost no background in physiology, I have become a

cardiovascular psychophysiologist. Dr. Martha Ann Bell also has my undying gratitude for her

time, patience, and invaluable influence on my chosen career of developmental

psychophysiology. Her Effortful Control Seminar was truly a life-changing experience for me.

I sincerely thank the members of my committee, Dr. Thomas Ollendick, Dr. Robin

Cooper, Dr. David Harrison, and Dr. Martha Ann Bell for their advice and input during the

course of this project. Special thanks go to Dr. Kurt Hoffman who so willingly sat in on my

committee at the last minute to replace an absent committee member.

This project would never have been finished so quickly without the invaluable assistance

of the members of the Mind-Body Lab: Leah Lozier, Krista D’Albenzio, Jen Brielmeier,

Gabrielle Laskey, Felicia Rankin, and Dave Jost. They have my eternal gratitude for the

countless hours they spent collecting and entering data. I also wish to thank Israel Christie of the

Mind-Body Lab for the innumerable hours he spent writing a spectral analysis program, as well

as listening to me complain and cry. We have been fellow lab members and office mates for four

years, and this whole experience would never have been the same without him.

Final thanks are for the dear friends I have made during my time at Virginia Tech,

especially Melisa Chelf, Kirsten Bradbury, Liz Vella, and Susan Anderson. I will miss them

more than I can say.

Aimee K. Santucci iv

Table of Contents

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………ii

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………….iii

Introduction………………………………………………………………………..1

Hypotheses……………………………………………………………………….26

Results……………………………………………………………………………33

Discussion………………………………………………………………………..36

References………………………………………………………………………..44

Appendix A Screening Informed Consent……………………………………….70

Appendix B Adult Temperament Questionnaire Short Version…………………72

Appendix C BIS/BAS Scales…………………………………………………….77

Appendix D Emotion Regulation Questionnaire…………………………………78

Appendix E Berkeley Expressivity Questionnaire……………………………….79

Appendix F Emotion Adjective Checklist………………………………………..80

Appendix G Second Stage Informed Consent……………………………………81

Appendix H Task Instructions……………………………………………………83

Institutional Review Board Approval ……………………………………………84

Curriculum Vitae…………………………………………………………………85

Aimee K. Santucci v

List of Figures

Figure 1: Electrode Placement Diagram……………………………………………..66

Figure 2: Means by Condition and Gender for High Frequency Spectral Power……67

Figure 3: Means by Condition and Gender for Heart Rate…………………………..68

Figure 4: Means by Condition and Gender for Pre-ejection period………………….69

Aimee K. Santucci vi

List of Tables

Table 1: Screening Data Negative Affect and Effortful Means by Gender…………52

Table 2: Second phase Negative Affect and Effortful Control Means by Group

and Gender…………………………………………………………………53

Table 3: Significant correlations between ATQ factors, Performance variables,

Physiological variables, and Questionnaires……………………………….54

Table 4: Mixed Analysis of Variance Tests for Physiological Variables…………...57

Table 5: Regression Analyses for Physiological Variables………………………….58

Table 6: Mixed Analysis of Variance Tests and Means for Self-Report Variables…59

Table 7: Interrater Reliabilities for Emotional Expressive Behavior Coding System

by Task……………………………………………………………………..63

Table 8: Mixed Analysis of Variance Tests and Means for Behavioral Variables….64

Aimee K. Santucci 1




Affective states function to influence attention, bias perception, and alter probability of

actions (Cacioppo & Gardner, 1999). However, although emotions in themselves may be

adaptive and have benefit for survival, they are not always appropriate to a given situation. For

example, when angry, it is often inappropriate to fight or yell. Similarly, a person may wish to

hide the excitement of a good grade on an exam to avoid hurting others’ feelings. Affective

states may also persist long after their functional, communicative, or informational role is

achieved (Larsen, 2000). Emotion regulation describes the processes by which individuals

influence the experience and expression of their emotions (Gross, 1998a; Thompson, 1990).

These strategies are important because they enlist emotion to support adaptive, organized

behavioral strategies (Gross, 1998a). Emotion regulation is not just a by-product of trying to

decrease negative emotion, but is an intrinsic part of self-regulatory behavior, for rarely does an

emotion get generated in the absence of recruiting associated regulatory processes. This ability to

regulate affective states - what Larsen refers to as “the ability to hang up the phone after getting

the message” - is a crucial to effective and adaptive psychological functioning (Larsen, 2000, p.

129).

In the field of developmental psychology, there is a large literature on affect regulation

focused almost exclusively on infants and very young children (e.g., Cole et al., 1996; Fabes et

al., 1999). Goals of self-regulation include inhibiting behavior related to strong positive and

negative affect and self-soothing physiological arousal. This view of regulation was defined to

address temperamental differences in affect regulation in infancy and early childhood. However,

there appears to be some agreement that individual differences in reactivity and regulation show

continuity over the lifespan (Campos, Campos, & Barrett, 1989). Furthermore, these individual

differences may be specified at the levels of biology and social development: individual

differences in temperament have implications for early development and they form the core of

personality as it unfolds (Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000).

Since reactivity and accompanying self-regulation has been a prolific area of research in

the developmental literature, and these temperamental individual differences show continuity

and are the basis for personality, many of the definitions and methods can be adapted and applied

Aimee K. Santucci 2

in research on adult emotion regulation (Larsen, 2000). Rothbart’s developmental model of

temperament is used in this endeavor because temperament has been shown to have similar

parameters over the lifespan, and the physiological basis for these parameters can be identified

(Rothbart & Derryberry, 1981; Rothbart, Derryberry, & Posner, 1994; Rothbart & Bates, 1998).

The present study made use of both the definitions and methods of the infant/child regulation

literature. The goal of the current study was to address regulatory skills in adulthood and

determine if regulatory skills are consistent across physiological, behavioral, emotional, and self-

report levels of functioning. There has been a relative paucity of studies on emotion regulation in

adults, despite the fact that these regulatory skills are crucial for adaptive psychological and

social functioning, and diminished regulatory functioning is a hallmark of many

psychopathologies, such as anxiety and depression. This study seeks to understand the behavioral

and physiological concomitants of imposed regulation during stressful tasks in normal adults as a

function of temperament differences, specifically in the dimensions of negative affect and

effortful control.

Adult Models of Emotion Regulation

Emotion regulation serves to decrease or increase both negative and positive emotion,

focuses on regulation of the self, and may be conscious or unconscious (Gross, 1998a). Other

definitions tend to also emphasize that emotion regulation involves attempts to influence others’

emotion (e.g., Thompson, 1994). However, Gross (1998a) argues that this mixes two different

sets of goals, motives, and processes. Another issue is whether emotion regulation is conscious

or unconscious. Although the developmental literature tends to emphasize the conscious aspect

of emotion regulation (i.e., effortful control), Gross views emotion regulation on a continuum

from conscious, effortful, and controlled regulation to unconscious, effortless, and automatic

regulation. The latter may include turning attention away from potentially upsetting material.

Individual differences in emotion regulation may also be a function of how individuals

display representations of felt experience (Feldman Barrett et al., 2001). Some individuals

represent their emotions along a single pleasant-unpleasant continuum, using emotion language

to describe the general pleasantness-unpleasantness of their feelings. Other individuals tend to

pare their emotional experience in a discrete differentiated fashion, with smaller correlations

between negative states (and between positive states). For these individuals, having a more

highly activated discrete emotional knowledge may be an important clue as to which emotion is

Aimee K. Santucci 3

activated may be an advantage in regulating their emotions. When a group of students rated their

emotion daily for two weeks and also indicated the extent to which they had regulated their

negative and positive emotions over this period, negative emotion differentiation was found to be

positively related to the frequency of negative emotion regulation, particularly at higher levels of

emotion intensity (Feldman Barrett et al., 2001).

Emotion Regulation Processes

There are many emotion regulatory processes that can be used to increase or decrease our

positive or negative emotions (Gross, 1998a). Many behavioral acts can be considered affect

regulatory. For example, a depressed person may seek social support. Another approach is to

categorize emotion regulation efforts on the basis of the emotional component targeted for

regulation. For example, an angry person may take deep breaths, calm facial features, or change

the experience of the emotion using cognitive strategies. However, individuals may try to change

many aspects of the emotional experience at once, so although specification of the target system

is important, this may be a difficult level of analysis.

Gross (1998a) favors a process-oriented approach to studying emotion regulation. There

is significant individual variation in many aspects of an emotional response. This includes

intensity, persistence, modulation, onset and rise time, range, and lability of and recovery from

emotional responses (Thompson, 1994). Emotion regulation may have its effects at different

times in the emotion generative processes. Once stimuli have been evaluated and emotional

response tendencies generated, emotion regulatory acts may be seen as having their primary

impact at different points in the emotion generative processes. Thus, emotion regulation may

involve as the manipulation of antecedents to the emotional response, or the physiological,

subjective, or behavioral consequences of the emotional response (Gross & Levenson, 1993).

Gross distinguished among five sets of regulatory processes: situation selection, situation

modification, attention deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation. Situation

selection involves tailoring a situation to modify its emotional impact. Self-knowledge is also

required to make decisions about which situations to avoid and which to seek out. Here, short-

term emotion regulation solutions can be at the cost of long-term solutions. For example, a

socially anxious person may avoid a social situation to decrease anxiety, but consistent use of

this strategy may result in long-term social problems. Situations vary in complexity and how

much they can be changed, called situation modification.

Aimee K. Santucci 4

Attentional deployment may be used to select which aspect of the situation on which a

person focuses, and is one of the first regulatory processes to appear (Rothbart, Aiaie, &

O’Boyle, 1992). These processes include distraction, concentration, and rumination. Distraction

may involve turning attention from emotional aspects of the situation or moving from the

immediate situation. This may also include moving from internal to external or different internal,

foci. Concentration can be used to engage cognitive resources. Rumination involves directing

attention toward feelings and their consequences. This strategy is seen in depression where the

individual focuses on negative information, and in worry in anxiety (Friedman, Thayer, &

Borkovec, 2000).

Cognitive change involves selecting which meaning may be attached to a situation, which

gives rise to emotional response tendencies (including behavioral, physiological, and experiential

tendencies). Defense mechanisms, downward social comparison, and reappraisal are subsumed

under this category. Reappraisal has been a focus in Gross’ emotion regulation research and

involves cognitively transforming the situation so as to alter its emotional impact.

Response modulation influences the response tendencies once they have been elicited and

occurs late in the emotion generative process. These are attempts at regulating the physiological

and experiential aspects of emotion, such as drugs, exercise, or biofeedback. Having a cigarette

to calm oneself down is an example of response modulation. Gross (1998b) also points out that

while some of these terms (such as situations and meanings) are difficult to define, this model is

meant to afford some working distinctions between regulatory processes, and that this model

applies to both internal and external “situations”. There also may be asymmetries across response

domains (e.g., easier for a person to directly modulate emotion-expressive behavior than emotion

experience). Davidson (1999) made a similar point regarding affective style, noting that the same

pattern of individual differences may not necessarily be found across response domains. For

example, an individual may have a low threshold for the elicitation of the subjective experience

but a relatively high threshold for the elicitation of a particular physiological change.

One means of response modulation (a response-focused emotion regulation, Gross,

1998b) is emotional suppression, the conscious inhibition of one’s own emotional expressive

behavior while emotionally aroused. There is no general consensus, however, as to what happens

to the other aspects of emotional responding when the behavioral signs are being suppressed

(i.e., are the other aspects diminished or increased?). For example, Gross and Levenson (1993)

Aimee K. Santucci 5

had subjects watch two emotion-eliciting films (arm amputation, treatment of burn victims, and

an emotionally neutral control film) found that suppression instructions had no effect on emotion

self-reports, including disgust. Suppression was linked with greater increases in skin

conductance, finger pulse amplitude, and greater decreases in heart rate compared to a no

suppression condition. Gross and Levenson (1993) suggest that the latter may have been due to

reduced bodily activity, which is known to be productive of decreases in heart rate (Obrist,

1981). Behaviorally, suppression instructions led to a decreased facial behavior, but increased

blinking.

Situation selection, attentional deployment, and cognitive change are all forms of

antecedent-focused emotion regulation (Gross, 1998b). This category of emotion regulation

strategies also includes reappraisal: reevaluating the situation so as to decrease its emotional

relevance, leading to lesser subjective, physiological, and expressive signs of negative emotion.

Suppression and other types of response-focused emotion regulation are a focus of the physical

health literature (Gross, 1998b). Reappraisal is often regarded as a positive emotion-regulation

strategy in that it leads to decreased levels of the negative emotion. For example, when

participants watched the two “disgust” films described above, the reappraisal group reported

decreased feelings of disgust compared to no change in disgust in the suppression group.

However, antecedent-focused emotion regulation is not without costs. Inflexible or unrealistic

appraisals may lead to denial of important features of one’s environment, such as abusive

tendencies in a partner. While this approach may afford short-term relief from negative emotion,

this may be at the cost of the long-term benefits of a “flight” response associated with negative

emotions.

Gross favors a process-oriented model of emotion regulation and suggests that regulatory

skills fall on a continuum from effortful to automatic. However, Larsen’s (2000) control model

of mood regulation emphasizes automated processes in affective response, but proposes that self-

regulation implies effortful processes. This control model is based on the assumption that an

individual has some desired subjective state, and that they regularly compare their current state

to this desired state. When discrepancies occur, regulatory mechanisms (e.g., cognitive

strategies, behaviors) are engaged to reduce those discrepancies via changes in the environment

or person. This control loop is open so that affect-relevant stimuli (coming from the environment

or from within the person) may impinge on the system and alter current subjective stage.

Aimee K. Santucci 6

However, the control model may have greater utility in terms of delineating points where

individual differences may arise. These points include detection of affective clues, individual

differences mood-regulatory strategies, reactivity to affective stimuli, attention to or perception

of current state, and individual differences in distinctions between affective states. The subscales

of the Orienting Sensitivity factor of the ATQ (Rothbart et al., 2000; Evans & Rothbart, 2002)

include Neutral Perceptual Sensitivity (detection of slight, low intensity stimuli from both within

the body and the external environment), Affective Perceptual Sensitivity (spontaneous

emotionally valenced, conscious cognition associated with low intensity stimuli), and

Associative Sensitivity (spontaneous cognitive content that is not related to standard associations

with the environment). The affective perceptual sensitivity subscale may be particularly useful in

identifying individual differences in attention to affective clues, and the neutral perceptual

sensitivity for attention to current state. Responses on this ATQ subscale may be especially

important in the current study in which regulatory behaviors are assessed in the context of affect-

inducing tasks.

Emotion Regulation vs. Other Related Constructs

The field of emotion regulation has been criticized, however, for simply being another

name for existing constructs, such as coping. Coping is defined as “cognitive and behavioral

efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or

exceeding the resources of the person” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 141). Emotion-focused

coping is one aspect of this, with an emphasis on decreasing negative emotion experience. The

emotion regulation research differs in that it addresses both positive and negative emotions, as

well as emotion expression and experience (Gross, 1998b). However, Gross points out that

coping and regulation are by no means redundant because coping also includes nonemotional

actions taken to achieve nonemotional goals. Emotion regulation is also not simply subsumed

under coping: emotion regulation involves regulating the expressive or physiological aspect of

emotion, or influencing positively valenced emotion. Coping is also focused on objective events

rather than mood states (Larsen, 2000).

Clore and Robinson (2000) suggest that emotion regulation needs to be defined narrowly

enough that is emerges as a distinct phenomenon, separable from related concepts such as

coping, but broadly enough that it captures the way people actually regulate their emotions in

daily life. Another point these authors caution against is to keep in perspective the role of

Aimee K. Santucci 7

emotion regulation. One function of affect is to provide information that guides judgement and

processing. Therefore, affect is not necessarily something to always be regulated. An important

form of emotion regulation is not to maximize pleasure and minimize pain in the short term, but

to invest effort in affect strategies that will pay off long term.

Problems with adult studies

While intriguing models have been developed to address emotion regulation, the actual

studies themselves have not addressed many of the concerns outlined in these models. While

Gross has developed a questionnaire to evaluate regulatory styles, both he and other researchers

have failed to address the reactivity dimension that is crucial to understanding regulation. This

point will be discussed in more detail in the developmental section. These models also attempt to

portray emotion regulation in the context of the whole individual, but do not test this in their

regulation studies (e.g., assigning participants to regulatory groups, using single or few tasks,

using homogeneous tasks). Finally, physiology plays a critical role in regulatory ability,

particularly the role of frontal lobes, as is demonstrated in both the neuropsychological literature

and the temperament literature. However, some of the few peripheral measures used in adult

regulatory studies were heart rate and somatic activity, which fail to capture the full range of

autonomic functioning. The present study attempted to address many of these shortcomings by

looking to the developmental literature for methods for studying emotion regulation as well as

physiological correlates of different regulatory styles.

Development of Self-Regulation

The ability to regulate one’s affective state may have its basis at the physiological level

of functioning. Rothbart’s work on temperament in infancy, childhood, and adulthood linked the

components of temperament with various neural systems. Temperament is defined as “individual

differences in reactivity and self-regulation assumed to have a constitutional basis”, with

constitutional defined as “the relatively enduring biological makeup of the organism, influenced

over time by heredity, maturation, and experience” (Rothbart et al., 2000, p. 40). Reactivity

refers to the excitability, responsivity, or arousability of the behavioral and physiological

systems, and self-regulation is the neural and behavioral processes that function to modulate this

reactivity (Rothbart & Bates, 1998). Thus, without reactivity, there can be no regulation.

Reactivity can be described at the behavioral, autonomic, endocrine levels in terms of latency of

response, rise time, peak intensity, overall intensity, and recovery from peak of excitation.

Aimee K. Santucci 8

Three of the higher order factors in temperament that have been found are positive affect,

fear, and irritability (Ahadi & Rothbart, 1994). The last two factors correspond to a general

distress negative affect factor that differentiates at approximately six months of age. Different

motivational dispositions are associated with these emotionally-relevant factors: positive affect is

associated with approach, fear with behavioral inhibition and avoidance, and anger with attack.

Neural Systems of Temperament

Temperament researchers have focused on elucidating the different neural subsystems

associated with each aspect of temperament. Each of these systems is a distributed set of circuits,

connecting cortical to limbic and brain stem regions. The positive affect (PA)/approach system is

involved with the processing of reward-related information in the limbic system which, when

activated by a rewarding stimulus, regulate endocrine, autonomic, and motor activity by means

of projections to the brain stem (Rothbart, Derryberry, & Posner, 1994). Structures important to

this system are the basolateral amygdala, the orbitofrontal cortex, the nucleus accumbens and the

pedunculopontine nucleus (Gray, 1982). Each of the structures has a different contribution to the

final output of approach behavior. The basolateral amygdala assists in creating a link between

stimulus and reward and damage to this area will impair this association. The pedunculopontine

nucleus, in the reticular formation, receives information from the basal ganglia and has been

described as a center for integrating motor information. The nucleus accumbens, a structure

located near the septum that is involved in reinforcement and attention, receives dopaminergic

(DA) terminal buttons from the ventral tegmental area. DA is an important neurotransmitter in

learning, motivation, attention, and the processing of reward-related information, especially with

drugs of abuse (e.g., Koob, 1992). These circuits act as a Behavior Activating System (BAS)

(Gray, 1982) and recruit motivational resources and DA systems to facilitate approach.

The Fear System responds to aversive stimuli and to innate fear-related inputs (Rothbart

et al., 1994). The structures for this system include the hippocampus, the septum, and the

subiculum, which are all part of the hippocampal anxiety system. However, the most crucial

structure in this system is the central nucleus of the amygdala (Camy). Multiple lines of evidence

demonstrate that the Camy is the most important area in the response system to aversive stimuli

and if this area is abolished the organism will not demonstrate fear (e.g., LeDoux, 1992; Davis,

1992). One reason that this area is so integral to the emotion response system is that the Camy

has connections all over the brain to areas that are involved in this response. For example, the

Aimee K. Santucci 9

Camy has input to the lateral hypothalamus (resulting in an increase in sympathetic response

such as increased heart rate and blood pressure), the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, important

in the parasympathetic response, and the paraventricular nucleus, the action of which results in

cortisol release. Gray (1982) refers to this system as a Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) that

processes information of conditioned punishment and non-reward. Activation of this system

inhibits ongoing behavior and increases cortical arousal. The amygdala also influences

information processing within the cortex, among which is a direct projection from the amygdala

to the cortex, including the frontal and cingulate regions in the anterior attentional system

(Rothbart et al., 1994).

The Anger/Irritability System is a network of structures that include the periaqueductal

gray matter (PAG), the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), the basolateral and centromedial

nuclei of the amygdala, and somatic and motor nuclei of the brain stem (Rothbart et al., 1994).

Panksepp (1986) describes the system of these structures as the brain’s rage system and

implicates the ventral medial hypothalamus as the area most integral to inhibiting the aggressive

response. The VMH has a role in inhibiting the PAG and lesion to this area will result in strong

aggressive response to aversive stimuli. Gray (1982) refers to this network as the brain’s “fight

or flight” system and proposes that is system processes information of unconditioned punishment

and nonreward. The PAG projects to the medullary reticular formation, where it produces

behaviorally coordinated patterns of autonomic response during species-typical behaviors such

as fighting and mating (Kandel, Schwartz, & Jessel, 2000). The dorsal PAG appears to have a

role in defensive aggression whereas the ventral PAG is involved in predation (Bernard &

Bandler, 1998).

Rothbart et al. (1994) regards these systems (PA, Fear, and Anger) as separate systems

that process information through a series of cortical, limbic, and brain stem circuits.

Furtheremore, these systems act as parallel processors that may function independently. A

limitation of this description of the temperament systems, which are largely based on Gray’s

(1982) theory, is that this is a subcortical view to understanding temperament.

Neuropsychological evidence also indicates the critical role of the cortex in these emotion

systems. However, each of the major ascending monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems

(norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine) has significant projections to the frontal cortex

Aimee K. Santucci 10

(Goldman-Rakic, Lidow, & Gallagher, 1990). These connections indicate that this analysis can

be extended to the subcortical level (Watson, Wiese, Vaidya, & Tellegen, 1999).

Davidson, Jackson, and Kalin (2002) focus on the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala as

the key circuits involved in approach and withdrawl. The orbitofrontal cortex has been closely

linked with emotion; for example, the orbitofrontal cortex appears to decrease hostility levels

(Butter, Snyder, & McDonald, 1970). Greater incidence of depressive symptoms has been found

following left-sided prefrontal damage. Research with intact humans has shown that film-

induced disgust and fear increases relative right-sided prefrontal and anterior temporal activation

(Davidson, Ekman, Saron, Senulis, & Friesen, 1990), whereas induced positive affect elicits and

opposite pattern of asymmetric activation. In positron emission tomography (PET) studies, the

production of positive affect was associated with left-sided metabolic increase in the pre- and

post-central gyri (Hugdahl, 1998).

In human neuroimaging studies, the amygdala is activated in response to cues that

connote threat, such as facial signs of fear (Whalen, 1999), during induced fear (Buchel, Morris,

Dolan, & Friston, 1998), and generalized negative affect (Irwin et al., 1996). There also appears

to be a descending pathway between the medial prefrontal cortex and the amygdala that is

inhibitory. In the absence of this inhibitory input, the amygdala remains activated. The left

prefrontal cortex may have the strongest role in this inhibitory control of the amygdala, as

normal humans with increased left prefrontal metabolic rate have decreased metabolic rate in the

amygdala. However, patients with greater metabolic rate in the right amygdala report higher

levels of dispositional negative affect (Abercrombie et al., 1998).

Evidence for lateralized emotion emerged prior to the above cited studies. For example,

when positive, negative, or neutral cartoons were presented to a participants left or right visual

field, a greater number of emotionally-valenced cartoons were identified when presented to the

left visual field compared to the right visual field (Ley & Bryden, 1979). These results suggest

that the right hemisphere primarily processes emotional information. Dichotic listening tasks

have also been used to assess hemispheric preference for emotion (Ley & Bryden, 1982; Bryden

& McRae, 1988). Information presented to the right ear is more strongly represented in the right

temporal lobe. When participants were asked to identify the emotional tone of a sentence,

judgement of this was better when sentences were presented to the left ear, regardless of

affective valence (Ley & Bryden, 1982; Bryden & McRae, 1988). Furthermore, the left side of


the face, which is predominantly controlled by the right hemisphere, is more expressive and

patients with right hemisphere damage demonstrate less vocal intonation and emotional facial

expressions than normal intact individuals (Heilman et al., 1993). A more recent study showed

heightened left ear dominance after stress in high-hostile subjects compared to low-hostile

subjects, suggesting right cerebrum arousal (Demaree & Harrison, 1997). High-hostile subjects

also perceive neutral faces presented to the right cerebrum as angry (Harrison, Gorelczenko, &

Cook, 1990), and are more accurate at assessing angry and happy affective faces in their left

visual field compared to low-hostile participants (Herridge, Harrison, & Demaree, 1997).

The Temperament Questionnaires

Temperament theories establish links between individual differences in behavior and

their psychological and biological substrates. Rothbart’s temperament questionnaires address the

physiological and emotional dimensions of PA, fear, and anger/irritability, as well as motor

tendencies and attention.

Structurally, the scales of the Child Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ) reliably cluster into

three large factors: extraversion/surgency, negative affect, and effortful control (Ahadi &

Rothbart, 1994). The Fear and Anger/Irritability factors from the Infant Behavior Questionnaire

(IBQ) are generally found on one general negative affect factor along with sadness. However,

consistent with the developmental course of affect, sadness, fear, and anger all appear on the

Negative Affect factor of the CBQ. Positive affect appears on the Extraversion/Surgency factor

along with approach, smiling, laughter, impulsivity, and shyness (the latter is negatively related

to this factor). The negative affectivity factor from childhood appears to map on the broad adult

dimension of neuroticism in the Five Factor Model of personality. The surgency/approach

factors correspond to the broad adult dimension of extraversion/positive emotionality. Finally,

the persistence, self-regulation, and effortful control were found to mirror the adult dimension of

control/constraint (Ahadi & Rothbart, 1994). Factor analyses of the Adult Temperament

Questionnaire (ATQ) show an additional factor, Orienting Sensitivity, defined by loadings for

internal, external, and affective perceptual sensitivity, along with associative sensitivity

(Rothbart et al., 2000; Evans & Rothbart, 2002). For the current study, the Adult Temperament

Questionnaire was used to select subjects who report high negative affect/low effortful control

and low negative affect/high effortful control.


The third factor on the CBQ and the fourth factor on the ATQ is Effortful Control,

represented by the subscales of Attentional Shifting from Punishment/Reward, Attentional

Shifting, and Attentional Focusing (Rothbart et al., 2000). While behavior can be regulated by

one of the reactive emotional systems (e.g., fear), this volitional regulatory system begins to

emerge in the second half of the first year of life (Rothbart & Bates, 1998). Children in the

United States who are high in Effortful Control tend to be low in negative affectivity, and adults

high in self-reported attentional control are likely to be low in negative affect (Rothbart et al.,

2000). Culture may play a role in the development of these systems. In a Chinese sample,

negative affect was found to be higher than effortful control (Ahadi, Rothbart, & Renmin, 1993).

Attentional Systems, Behavioral Inhibition, and Effortful Control

One of a child’s most important developmental tasks is learning to pay attention, an

important aspect of effortful control. However, these attentional skills do not emerge in the

organism all at once, but develop gradually as a function of many complex processes, among

which are maturation and social interaction. A more volitional form of attention is different from

the orienting and externally-controlled attention that characterizes the neonate’s attentional

processes, which are a function of the posterior attentional network described by Posner and

Rothbart (2000), and reflect a more reactive form of attention. In contrast, the anterior attentional

system underlies the more conscious “effortful control” which can be used to regulate more

reactive responses. Effortful control has been defined by Rothbart and Bates (1998) as the

inhibition of a dominant response for a nondominant one. This capacity is a more flexible means

of regulation than early reactive systems, and regulation of distress can be initiated through

volitional control of attention. The development of effortful control is linked to the child’s

developing ability to maintain a focus of attention over an extended period: sustained attention

and the ability to delay a response are positively related.

The fear system is an important form of inhibitory control: some infants that were

previously “high approaching” now come to inhibit their approach responses to unfamiliar and/or

intense stimuli (i.e., have a means of withdrawing from an intrusive environment) (Rothbart &

Bates, 1998). Although at first this might suggest a greater range of responses to the

environment, behavioral inhibition is still a reactive response and affords little flexibility for the

developing organism (i.e., fearfulness, hypoactivity, and stress, which are not desirable responses

long-term).


With maturation and social interaction comes an additional control over more reactive

behavior (i.e., effortful control). Attentional capacities have a significant role in self-regulation

because they can organize the functioning of reactive systems (e.g., fear, and therefore

behavioral inhibition) in new ways (Posner & Rothbart, 2000; Rothbart, Posner, & Rosicky,

1994; Derryberry& Rothbart, 1997). Furthermore, attentional skill may also help attenuate

negative affect by regulating reaction to fear (i.e., emotion regulation). While fear motivation can

have adaptive value in regulating approach behaviors, such as enhancing attention to immediate

sources of threat in the environment, fear (and therefore reactivity) can over-regulate approach

resulting in withdrawl as a consistent strategy in dealing with novel or intense information.

Consistent patterns of withdrawl may present an organism at risk for emotion disorders such as

anxiety or shyness. However, effortful control is a more flexible means of regulation than that

afforded by fear. Regulation of distress is a function of shifting attention and, most importantly,

comes under volitional control (i.e., effortful control is a means of emotion regulation). If an

older child has a weak capacity for effortful control, activity may continue to be driven by the

intensity, novelty, or discrepancy of the stimulus. However, with good effortful control, response

to novel or intense stimuli becomes an internalized response instead of being purely a reactionary

response to the stimulus, and suggests a flexible and adaptive organism for the existing social

context. However, it should be noted that an adaptive organism is not simply one where

reactivity has been replaced by control, for this, too, is a rigid response. Rather, the dynamic

process of regulation may be well described as such: “Our human goal is to be under-controlled

as possible and as over-controlled as necessary” (Block & Kremen, 1996, p. 353). In sum,

behavioral inhibition appears to be a reactionary response and effortful control to be a means of

regulating that response, although both are necessary for successful adaptation.

Effortful control suggests an ability to regulate arousal. A child who is emotionally

reactive (i.e., high in behavioral inhibition) may not be able to regulate arousal due to

socialization problems, or this may be a function of an inadequately developed nervous system

(Rothbart et al., 1994). Children who are better able to modulate this behavioral and emotional

arousal (i.e., show evidence of effortful control) have attention skills such as being able to orient

away from the stimulus and learn strategies to control behavior (e.g., delay of gratification).

These strategies are important for compliance in the older child, which is a necessary skill in

both home and school situations (Stifter, Spinrad, & Braungart-Reiker, 1999).


Behavioral inhibition and effortful control appear to be different systems that emerge at

different points in development. Although behavioral inhibition may initially serve the function

of dealing with intrusive stimuli in a reactive manner, effortful control, which emerges later,

appears to be important in regulating these reactive responses. Differences in both behavioral

inhibition and effortful control can be identified in terms of behavioral, emotional, and

physiological responses. It is important to identify these responses and appropriate contexts for

measuring these responses since behavioral inhibition/high reactivity may put a child at risk for

later problems in interacting with peers, dealing with novel social situations, or disorders of

negative affect, such as anxiety and depression.

Attentional Networks in Reactivity and Self-Regulation

The posterior orienting network that underlies reactive attention involves a set of cortical,

midbrain, and thalamic areas that serve to orient attention to a location in space: portions of the

parietal cortex, pulvinar and reticular nuclei, and part of the superior colliculus. Response to

novelty is a reactive aspect of attention, and children differ both in their latency to orient and

their duration of orienting to novelty (Ruff & Rothbart, 1996). Later, development of the

executive or anterior attentional system allows for increasing control beyond the early reactive

system. Areas of the midfrontal lobe, including the anterior cingulate gyrus, may underlie this

executive network, since this area represents the outflow of the limbic system and is closely tied

to emotion. Stroop-like conflict tasks that require the inhibition of otherwise dominant response

are linked to anterior cingulate activity (Pardo, Pardo, Janer, & Raichle, 1990). This executive

attention system shows evidence of development in the last half of the first year of life (e.g.,

Diamond, 1990); additional evidence for the development of executive control has been found at

18 months, and between 24 and 36 months.

Control of distress is a major task for the infant and caregiver in the early months of life,

and attention plays an important role in this regulation (Posner & Rothbart, 2000). Caregivers

may hold or rock infants to divert their attention and reduce distress. These types of social

interactions may play an important role in the development of voluntary control of emotion, the

capacity for which increases with the development of the anterior attentional system.


Although research on effortful control is predominantly focused on the toddler or young

child, the origins of effortful control may be observed early in infancy, although this skill is still

very immature at 24 months (Posner & Rothbart, 2000). This point suggests that studying

effortful control is not the study of a construct that can be measured at one point in development.

Rather, effortful control emerges as a result of individual differences in biological organization,

the developing anterior attentional system, and learned attentional skills acquired as a function of

sensitive caregiving (Rothbart & Bates, 1998).

The link between biology and behavior can be assessed with various temperament tasks.

For example, children’s performance on Stroop-like tasks linked to the neural circuits involved

in attentional Effortful Control is related to their mother’s CBQ reports of inhibitory control and

lower negative affect expression. In the current study, a Stroop task (Stroop, 1935) was used as

an inhibitory control task, where is it hypothesized that adults who are high in ATQ Effortful

Control should perform the tasks more quickly and with fewer mistakes. This hypothesis is

congruent with findings from the developmental literature on regulatory abilities.

Physiology and Self-Regulatory Skills

Research with autonomic measures has also demonstrated how reactivity and regulation

can be reflected in physiological functioning. For example, an early study of skin conductance

response and extraversion in adolescents showed high responders to be quiet with high emotional

control, whereas low responders were impulsive and attention-seeking (Jones, 1960). Skin

conductance reactivity has also been shown to be a marker of personal distress. When

kindergarten children were shown a film about a child being hurt in an accident, skin

conductance reactivity was positively related to facial distress and negatively related to behavior

in a helping task after the film (Fabes et al., 1994).

Children who are governed by behavioral inhibition (high reactivity, low self-regulatory

ability) also have unique behavioral, emotional, and physiological characteristics: high and stable

heart rate, elevated baseline cortisol level, amplified EEG to a startle stimulus, and right frontal

EEG activation (Fox, Henderson, Rubin, Calkins, & Schmidt, 2001). Similarly, two-year olds

who were identified as inhibited continued at six years old to be more cautious and vigilant and

also demonstrate more physiological stress than uninhibited children (Balaban, Snidman, &

Kagan, 1997; Kagan & Snidman, 1991).

Vagal control and affect regulation


One of the most strongly researched areas of markers of peripheral reactivity and

regulation has been that of vagal control. Heart rate variability (HRV) measures are useful in

depicting sympathetic and vagal cardiac regulation. Changes in heart rate (HR) due to feedback

from internal mechanisms and rhythms are mediated by the interplay of cardiac sympathetic and

vagal activity (Saul, 1990). The parasympathetic nervous system is primarily responsible for the

beat-to-beat variability of HR, and the heart responds more gradually to sympathetic stimulation.

Since ANS functioning reflects the integrity of ANS/CNS integration, absence of or decrease in

this beat-to-beat variability may be indicative of abnormal central nervous system modulation of

HR (Saul, 1990). Furthermore, greater HRV indicates high levels of cardiac vagal control, which

is important for self-regulation and flexibility in meeting environmental demands (Porges, 1992).

Conversely, decreased heart rate variability has predictive value for mortality in healthy adults,

there has been found to be a consistent association of decreased vagally mediated HRV with both

sudden death and coronary heart disease mortality in middle-aged and elderly men (Stein &

Kleiger, 1999).

Alterations in HRV can be seen in a variety of psychological conditions. For example,

anxiety marked by panic attacks is associated with low HRV (Friedman & Thayer, 1998a, b).

Other studies have supported this finding of decreased HRV in panic disorder as well as in post-

traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Klein, Cnaani, Harel, Braun, & Ben Haim, 1995; Cohen et al.,

2000).

Perseverative thinking is a hallmark of many psychological disorders (e.g., worry in

anxiety, rumination in depression), and this has been linked with poor health outcomes, such as

cardiovascular disease (Thayer & Friedman, 2002). One pathway for this relationship is that of

decreased vagally mediated heart rate variability (HRV), which indexes important negative

feedback mechanisms for the regulation of behavior. Vagal activity has negative chronotropic

and dromotropic effects (i.e., restraint of rate and conduction velocity) that promote efficient

cardiac functioning. These negative effects are necessary for cardiac responsiveness and

flexibility. For example, individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) exhibited shorter

cardiac interbeat intervals (IBIs) and lower high frequency spectral power compared to

nonanxious controls (Thayer, Friedman, & Borkovec, 1996). Relative to baseline and relaxation

conditions, worry was associated with lower high frequency spectral power. This suggests that

GAD and its primary feature (worry), are associated with lower cardiac vagal control.


Another proposed pathway for linking perseverative thinking and health is via decreased

medial prefrontal cortex activity (Thayer & Friedman, 2002), an area previously implicated in

the development and use of effortful control. The anterior structures have been broadly

associated with affective, attentional, and autonomic regulation (Thayer & Lane, 2000). The

neuropsychology literature is rich with examples of patients with emotion and personality

damage that can result from frontal lobe damage (e.g., Borod, 2000; Damasio, 1999). An intact

frontal cortex may play an important role in the tonic inhibition of amygdala activity, which is in

turn associated with autonomically-mediated defensive behaviors. Most importantly, direct and

indirect pathways connect these anterior regions with parasympathetic (vagal) motor output

regions. Research with intracarotid sodium amobarbital injections in the left and right

hemispheres has provided compelling evidence that cortical structures tonically inhibit

sympathoexcitatory circuits via vagal mechanisms (Sollers, Ahern, & Thayer, 2000). This

relationship suggests that poor inhibitory control (e.g., effortful control) should be linked with

reduced vagal control and increased sympathetic activity. This relationship is also hypothesized

for the current study, in which subjects are selected on the Negative Affect and Effortful Control

scales of the ATQ: the group with poor inhibitory control (high Negative Affect/low Effortful

Control) should have lower resting HRV and increased sympathetic response to tasks.

Developmental Studies

High vagal control (measured via respiratory sinus arrhythmia, RSA) was found to be

associated with positive emotionality and approach to parents at 6 months (e.g., Richards &

Cameron, 1989), more rapid approach to strangers at 14 months (Fox & Stifter, 1989), and more

rapid adjustment to preschool in 3-year-olds (Fox & Field, 1989). The children who showed

better adjustment to preschool also showed higher positive affect and greater adaptability.

However, during infancy, the relationship between regulation and vagal control is not

straightforward. Newborns with high baseline vagal tone also tend to be more reactive (Porges,

Doussard-Roosevelt, & Maiti, 1994). For the first few months of life, being reactive elicits more

caregiving; therefore, high reactivity is an adaptive response. As the infant gains the capacity to

self-regulate (via the development of the anterior attentional system and sensitive caregiving),

high baseline vagal tone indexes the propensity to self-regulate under changing environmental

demands. These infants have a flexible system that allows for suppression of vagal control under

regulatory demands, in contrast to fussy, irritable, and poor self-soothing infants who are


hyperreactive to environmental stimuli and visceral feedback. High RSA infants, in contrast,

who are behaviorally and emotionally reactive are able to regulate their reactivity appropriately

allocating cognitive and motivational resources, as reflected in the application of

parasympathetic input from the nucleus ambiguus (Beauchaine, 2001).

The relationship between high RSA/vagal control and regulation suggests a flexible

system, not one in which reactivity is replaced by regulation. This flexibility allows for meeting

environmental demands in an appropriate fashion. For example, in anxiety, the individual is

neither cognitively nor physiologically flexible, and this is reflected in worry, hypervigilance for

threat information in the environment, and low vagal control (Friedman & Thayer, 1998;

Friedman, Thayer, & Borkovec, 2001). The idea that reactivity and regulation work hand in hand

reflects the idea that in order to study regulation, needs to know what emotion looks like first

(Gross, 1998a). Without this reactive system, regulation would not exist. During infancy, these

emerging regulatory strategies are reflected in an increasing affective tolerance for high arousal.

The intensity dimension to emotion (in addition to the hedonic dimension) emerges mid-way

through the first year (Schore, 1994). Positive affect begins to show normative increases in

expression across the first year of life (Rothbart & Bates, 1998). There are also concomitant

increases in total spectral power in the heart period signal (both low and high frequency

variability), especially the high frequency (parasympathetic) power (Bar-Haim, Fox, & Marshall,

2000). However, these changes in HRV across the first year are not linear, but reflect the many

emotional and cognitive changes that occur over the first year of life and also the emerging

regulatory systems to deal with this reactivity.

The literatures on temperament, emotion and vagal control have also demonstrated how

these constructs may be linked with attention. Early emerging attentional skills permit the infant

to disengage visually from emotionally arousing events (Thompson, 1994). Children’s

performance on Stroop-like tasks linked to neural circuits involved in attentional effortful control

is related to their mothers’ CBQ reports of inhibitory control and lower negative affect

expression (Gerardi et al., 1996, cited in Rothbart & Bates, 1998). A study with school-age

children (Suess, Porges, & Plude, 1994) supported the hypothesis that high vagal control is

associated with good attentional capacity. Children with higher resting HRV (indexed by Porges'

V) and slower resting heart rates performed better on a continuous performance task (CPT) and,


across all subjects, HRV decreased during the CPT, suggesting that change in HRV is a means to

determine mental effort and attention.

Attention and HRV in Adults

Early studies with adults supported the idea that attentional processing in adults can be

indexed via heart rate variability (e.g., Porges & Raskin, 1969). For example, anxiety, which is

linked with poorly regulated emotion and maladaptive attentional deployment, is also linked with

reduced HRV (Friedman & Thayer, 1998a,b).

The physiological links between the attentional and cardiovascular systems suggests why

this relationship may exist. The vagus conveys efferent information from brain stem structure to

the sinoatrial (SA) node of the heart, and changing vagal influences on the SA node control most

of the rapid changes in heart rate (Saul, 1990). Therefore, it is expected that there is a strong

relationship between the functional status of the vagal system (reflecting status of the brain-stem)

and both autonomic and behavioral reactivity elicited by environmental and cognitive stimuli. As

a function of this relationship, attentional processing has been proposed to disrupt normal

functioning (i.e., rapid changes in heart rate from vagal influences) and to result in reduced

parasympathetic control; therefore, attending to demands from the environment would be

enhanced by vagal withdrawl (Porges, 1992). Furthermore, the limbic structures that are

responsible for CV control (i.e., amygdala and hypothalamus), and which have links to the

attentional system (i.e., frontal areas, parietal attentional system, and mesencephalic reticular

formation; Richards & Casey, 1991) are also important in the regulation of emotion and

emotional behavior (Hugdahl, 1998).

In view of the role of attention in regulating reactivity in infancy and childhood, it is not

surprising that similar patterns have been found with adults. In a sample of 231 college students,

a reciprocal relationship was found between negative affect and attentional control (i.e.,

attentional focusing and shifting capacities) (Rothbart & Ahadi, 2000). On a finalized version of

the adult temperament questionnaire (ATQ), four factors were found: Orienting Sensitivity

(internal, external, and affective perceptual sensitivity, associative sensitivity), Extraversion

(sociability, high intensity pleasure, activity level, and pleasure reactivity), Negative Affectivity

(fear, frustration, discomfort, and sadness), and Effortful Control (attentional shifting from

reward and punishment, attentional focusing, and attentional shifting. Effortful Control was

negatively related to neuroticism from the Big Five Model of personality (Evans & Rothbart,


manuscript in press). Basic temperament may be at the core of the Big Five global traits. For

example, effortful control can be seen as an attentional substrate for conscientiousness and

orienting reactivity as a substrate for intellect/openness. Similarly, distress proneness may be

central to neuroticism and a reward and incentive system to extraversion (Evans & Rothbart,

manuscript in press).

Attention, Affect Regulation, and Psychopathology

The anxiety literature is rich with examples of how maladaptive attentional skills are

associated with poor emotional regulatory capabilities. Although negative affect can act as an

important signal by directing the organism to attend to information so that current state or

activity can be changed or adjusted (Pratto & John, 1991), continued emotional dysregulation

(e.g., anxiety and depression) impairs normal functioning and may lead to a preoccupation with

upsetting experiences. Specifically, biases in the cognitive system may play an important role in

the etiology and/or maintenance of both anxiety and depression (Mogg & Bradley, 1999).

For example, anxiety has been linked with an attention bias toward threat or danger

(Williams et al. 1997). Williams et al. (1997) have proposed a model in which the bias in anxiety

operates at an automatic, preattentive stage. Processing resources are drawn toward threatening

material before that information has reached conscious awareness (Mathews & MacLeod, 1994).

Various tasks have been used to assess pre-attentive biases in anxiety, such as the visual dot

probe (Mogg, Bradley, & Williams, 1995) and dichotic listening (Mathews & MacLeod, 1986).

These studies have shown anxiety to be consistently marked by a preconscious bias towards

perceiving negative information, which leads to hypervigilance towards threat in the

environment. According to the Williams et al. (1997) model, since priority to threat material

occurs at a preconscious stage of processing, anxious individuals should not be aware of this

effect, resulting in an implicit memory bias for threat-relevant information. Adaptations of the

Stroop task have also generally supported the hypothesis that threatening words command more

processing resources in anxious subjects (e.g., MacLeod, Mathews, & Tata, 1986; Mogg,

Bradley, Williams, & Mathews, 1993). In the modified Stroop task used in these studies,

participants were presented with neutral and emotionally-relevant words and asked to indicate

the color or the word. Words that command more processing resources resulted in longer

response latencies for the color-naming of that word.


Patients with borderline personality disorder also exhibit a poor ability to regulate

negative affect (Posner et al., 2002). The efficiency of attentional networks in borderline

personality disorder patients was compared with controls who were matched to the patients in

having very low self-reported effortful control and very high negative affect, and controls who

were average in both these temperamental dimensions. A significant correlation was found

between measures of the ability to control conflict in a reaction-time task and self-report of

effortful control. However, patients did not show a deficit in either overall reaction time or

number of errors.

Methods for Studying Regulatory Behaviors in the Developmental Literature

Since regulatory behaviors have been widely studied in both infants and children using a

variety of methods, a brief review of regulatory tasks will be presented that are particularly

important to the method for the current study. As noted previously, the Stroop paradigm can be

used to index executive control skills. A verbal conflict task modeled on the Stroop paradigm

was used with 3.5- to 7-year-old children (Gerstadt, Hong, & Diamond, 1994). Two cards were

prepared to suggest day and night to the children: one depicted a line drawing of the sun, the

other a picture of the moon surrounded by stars. Children in the conflict condition were

instructed to say day to the moon card and night to the sun card. Children in the control condition

were divided into two groups and instructed to say day or night to either a checkerboard or

ribbon card. At all age groups tested, accuracy scores were significantly lower for conflict

relative to control trials. Children less than 5-years-old had difficulty with the conflict task and

could not sustain performance over the 16 trials, whereas even 3.5-year-old children performed

at a high level in the control condition. When this task was revised to have a child press a key

that matched the stimulus they were shown, sometimes on the side of the target and sometimes

on the opposite side, children 3.5-years-old and older performed with high accuracy in both

compatible and incompatible conditions. These results suggest that executive attention undergoes

dramatic change during the third year of life.

Regulation of arousal can be studied even in very young infants. These early regulatory

behaviors include approach- withdrawl, attentional, self-soothing behaviors, and, later,

intentional communicative behaviors (Rothbart & Derryberry, 1981). An arm restraint task was

used with 5-month-old infants and a toy-removal task with 10-month-old infants to examine the

presence and effectiveness of regulatory behaviors in reducing arousal (Stifter & Braungart,


1995). For the arm-restraint task task, the primary caregiver gently restrains the infant by holding

the infant’s arms down to her sides while the primary caregiver maintains a neutral facial

expression. In the toy removal task, the mother and infant first played with an attractive toy, then

it was removed. For both tasks, the procedure continued for 2 min or 20-s of hard crying. Self-

comforting regulatory behaviors were found to be the preferred means of coping during

decreasing negative arousal at both ages, but avoidance and communicative behaviors were

exhibited most often during increasing distress.

Effortful control can be broken down into several different components: slowing down

motor activity, suppressing or initiating activity to signal, effortful attention, lowering voice, and

delaying (Kochanska, Murray, & Harlan, 2000). Delay of gratification tasks include snack delay,

wrapped gift, and gift-in-bag. In the snack delay, the child, with both hands on the table, waited

for the experimenter to ring the bell before retrieving an M & M candy from under a transparent

cup (four trials, with delays of 10-30 s). In mid-delay, the experimenter lifted the bell but did not

ring it. The other delay tasks involved having the child turn around and wait while a gift was

wrapped, and then wait alone in a room with the wrapped gift.

The above tasks are only a small sample of the regulatory tasks used with infants and

children. These methods provide a rich and compelling framework for study adult regulatory

skills. Analogous tasks to these delay of gratification and inhibitory control tasks were developed

for the current study.

Key Issues in Studying Emotion Regulation

Although emotion regulation has been a fruitful topic of research in the developmental

literature, the research on emotion regulation in adulthood is still in its beginnings. One key issue

that has been addressed is that emotion regulation is not a unitary phenomenon (i.e., emotion

regulation processes are heterogeneous). For example, in work on emotion suppression, it was

shown that suppressing positive emotion-expressive behavior such as amusement decreases

amusement experience, whereas suppressing negative emotion-expressive behavior does not

have comparable effects (Gross & Levenson, 1993). This begs the question: Do individuals use

the same regulation skills to regulate both positive emotions and negative emotions that are

similar in intensity: (Thompson, 1994)? This issue was addressed in the current study by giving

subjects tasks that are similar in intensity but markedly different in hedonic value (hand cold

pressor and video game challenge). A variety of self-report measures was used to determine what


emotional response the subject is experiencing in response to the task, as well as what emotion

regulation strategies are being used.

A second issue that must be addressed is how the same pattern may not necessarily be

found in particular response systems within the individual. For example, an individual may have

a low threshold for the elicitation of the subjective experience of a particular emotion but a

relatively high threshold for the elicitation of a particular physiological change. It is important

not to assume that individual differences in any parameter of affective responding will

necessarily generalize across response systems, within the same emotion. Thus it is necessary to

measure regulatory behaviors in a variety of response systems - physiological, behavioral, and

self-report – as was done in the current study.

Equally important is the question of whether individual differences associated with the

generation of a particular specific emotion will necessarily generalize to other emotions. Certain

aspects of affective style may be emotion or at least valence specific (Davidson, 1999), including

the physiological response, cognitions, attentional processes, and response tendencies

(Thompson, 1994). Emotion regulation may involve changes in how response components are

interrelated as the emotion unfolds over time, such as when large changes in physiological

responding occur in the absence of overt behavior. Specifying precisely what is regulated and

whether emotion regulation has taken place at all, is one of the most serious challenges this area

faces.

This also speaks to individual differences in knowledge of the need for emotion

regulation in specific situations, their awareness of alternative strategies, and their flexibility in

applying different regulation strategies. Emotion regulation always takes place in the context of a

particular individual (Gross, 1999). Because individuals differ in both the emotions they

experience and the way they regulate these emotions, these aspects cannot be separated. A better

understanding is needed of what individuals want to accomplish when they regulate their

emotions, keeping in mind that emotion regulation goals may be nonconscious, and are likely to

be highly context sensitive. Gross (1999) discusses these individual differences more as

demographic differences, highlighting two strategies (rumination and repression). One means of

addressing this issue is to study emotion regulation from a within-subjects approach. In order to

know what emotion regulation looks like, one first needs to know what emotion looks like by a

particular person in a given situation. The within-subjects approach was used in the current study


by administering a variety of regulatory tasks to each subject in the four groups [high Negative

Affect (NA)/Low Effortful Control (EC), low NA/High EC, high NA/high EC, low NA/low EC].

The above relates to another issue of how one can tell when emotion is regulated (Gross,

1999). If emotion regulation is defined in terms of changes in emotion responses, these are

changes compared to what? Although emotion regulation may be inferred when an emotional

response should go in one direction but instead has gone in another, this is also where individual

differences may come into play. An expressionless face by a usually very expressive person may

be more strongly suggestive of emotion regulation than in a generally passive person. According

to Gross (1999), emotion regulation requires a formidable level of certainty about emotion in its

unregulated state. It will continue to be a challenge to draw a clear line between emotion and

emotion regulation.

A final issue is to explore the relationship between emotion regulation, attention, and

HRV in an adult sample. Although using attentional skills to modulate emotional reactivity is a

often-discussed topic in the developmental literature, this issue is not as well addressed in the

adult literature (except on the maladaptive side, such as in anxiety). Rothbart’s ATQ has four

components: negative affectivity, orienting sensitivity, effortful control, and extraversion.

Participants in the current study were given various versions of the Stroop task, a task that is

well-known to occupy attentional resources. This included a standard Stroop task as well as an

emotional Stroop task.

Current Study

Subjects in the present study were given a battery of tasks that are adult analogs of

regulation tasks commonly used in the developmental regulation literature. One task used with 5-

month-olds to study negative reactivity and regulatory behaviors is the arm restraint procedure

(Stifter & Braungart, 1995). For this task, the primary caregiver gently restrains the infant by

holding the infant’s arms down to her sides while the primary caregiver maintains a neutral facial

expression. This continues for 2 min or 20 seconds of hard crying. The adult analog task to this

was the hand cold pressor. In this task, the subject immerses the hand in icy water up to the wrist

for several minutes. Self-reported emotional responses to this task include more anger,

uneasiness, and arousal compared to resting tasks (Santucci & Friedman, 2002). Another task

that was used is a challenging video game. This task is similar to hand cold pressor in intensity


of emotional response to the task, but subjects rated feeling more interest, excitement, happiness,

and enjoyment compared to emotional responses to other tasks.

A common inhibitory control task used with young children is the snack delay (Gerardi-

Caulton, 2000). A Cheerio or M & M is placed under a clear plastic cup, and the experimenter

instructs the child to wait for a bell to ring before lifting the glass for the snack. Halfway through

each timed trial (10-30s), the experimenter lifts but does not ring the bell. For the delayed

gratification task with adults, a program modeled after a Stroop task was used. However, for this

task, the word and the color of the word matched (e.g., “red” was written in the color red).

Subjects received a large set of these and were told that the better their performance is on the

task, the better their chances would be in a lottery with a cash prize. It was predicted that subjects

found this task boring, but did the task for the incentive of the cash prize. The final task was the

Stroop task (Stroop, 1935). This is analogous to the day-night Stroop-like task used with children

where subjects are shown a black card with stars and asked to say “day”, and a white card with a

bright sun and asked to say “night”. These tasks reflect executive control abilities and better

performance on the Stroop task (i.e., faster latency to respond) should be positively related to

self-regulatory abilities. The subjects were selected based on Rothbart’s ATQ (Rothbart &

Ahadi, 2000) on the basis of their scores on the negative affect and effortful control dimensions.

All subjects were asked to not show outward sign of emotion during each of the tasks.

This is similar to the suppression instructions used by Gross and Levenson (1993). The challenge

was to inhibit outward sign of emotion during stressful tasks, such as a fun and challenging video

game, a mildly uncomfortable hand cold pressor task, a difficult Stroop task for which inhibitory

control skills are needed, and a lengthy and boring delayed gratification task. The focus of the

present study was to determine which of the four groups showed the strongest regulatory abilities

(physiological and behavioral) both between and across all tasks.

Both electrocardiogram (ECG) and impedance cardiography (ICG) measures were

collected during each task so that a wide range of autonomic measures were represented. High

frequency spectral power, a measure of parasympathetic control of the heart (Saul, 1990), was

derived from ECG as a measure of HRV. Other ECG measures included heart rate and root mean

successive difference of cardiac interbeat interval. Impedance cardiography is a noninvasive

technique for measuring cardiac output (Sherwood et al., 1990). Indices of cardiac function

derived from ECG include systolic time intervals [pre-ejection period (PEP) and left ventricular


ejection time], defined as the time interval from the onset of electromechanical depolarization of

the ventricles to the completion of ejection of blood from the left ventricle. PEP, which functions

as a sensitive measure of cardiac sympathetic effects, is one of the component time intervals and

is the interval from the onset of the ECG Q-wave (beginning of contraction of the ventricles) to

the onset of left ventricular ejection. It was anticipated that the use of both HRV and ICG

provided a more complete view of reactivity and regulation on a physiological level. This is in

contrast to previous adult regulation studies in which only HR (beta-adrenergic sympathetic and

parasympathetic) and skin conductance were recorded (sympathetic cholinergic) (e.g., Gross &

Levenson, 1993).

Hypotheses

Physiological Measures.

1. It is hypothesized that subjects who are high in negative affect and low in effortful

control will have lower resting vagally-mediated heart rate variability and a stronger

sympathetic response, indexed via pre-ejection period, to each of the regulatory tasks

than those subjects who are low in negative affect and high in effortful control.

2. According to the temperament literature, the ability to regulate behavior and emotion has

its basis at the physiological level of functioning (Rothbart et al., 2000): the ability to

self-soothe physiological arousal is tied with poor regulatory skills. Therefore, subjects

high in negative affect, who are easily physiologically and emotionally aroused, should

not only have a stronger negative response to novel or intense information (e.g., cold

pressor tasks), but should also have a compromised ability to regulate emotion and

behavior. This regulatory ability is reflected in heart rate variability (HRV) measures.

High cardiac vagal control is important for self-regulation and flexibility in meeting

environmental demands (Porges, 1992). Disorders of high negative affect and poor

regulatory ability (e.g., anxiety, depression) are associated with reduced vagally-mediated

HRV (Friedman & Thayer, 1998), which suggests that individuals who temperamentally

have high negative affect and poor regulatory ability (low effortful control) should also

have low HRV.

3. Subjects high in self-reported effortful control should have higher HRV. High vagal

control is associated with good attentional capacity: children with higher resting HRV

and slower resting heart rates performed better on a continuous performance task (Suess,


Porges, & Plude, 1994). Therefore, adults with higher effortful control should also have

higher HRV.

Emotion and Cognitive Measures

1. It is hypothesized that subjects with high EC and low NA will have faster response

times and less errors on the Stroop task, indicating superior abilities to inhibit a

dominant response. Children’s performance on Stroop-like conflict tasks have been

linked to the attentional circuits involved in effortful control is related to their

mother’s Child Behavior Questionnaire reports of inhibitory control and low negative

affect expression (Gerardi et al., 1996). It is hypothesized that this finding will

generalize to adults in that adults with self-reported high EC should be able to

complete a Stroop task more quickly and with fewer errors.

2. High EC subjects should also have a faster response time to a delay of gratification

task (i.e., long boring task with possible monetary incentive for finishing quickly). In

the temperament literature, EC can be broken down into several different

components: slowing down motor activity, suppressing or initiating activity to signal,

effortful attention, lowering voice, and delaying (Kochanska, Murray, & Harlan,

2000). Tasks to index the ability to delay include snack delay, wrapped gift, and gift-

in-bag. It is hypothesized that adults with high EC will be better able to delay

gratification by finishing the boredom task more quickly with fewer errors.

Questionnaires

1. For the questionnaires administered, it is hypothesized that subjects high in NA on the

ATQ should also report high levels of behavioral inhibition on the Behavioral Inhibition

System subscale of the BIS/BAS Scales (Carver & White, 1994).

2. It is also hypothesized that those individuals endorsing more reappraisal emotion

regulation strategies on the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross & John, in press)

should have higher EC scores on the ATQ than those individuals with a suppression

emotion regulation strategy. One aspect of reappraisal is the ability to deploy attention to

influence emotions, a skill that is congruent with EC abilities.


Behavioral measures.

1. Since the high EC should have a greater ability to regulate their emotions, it is

hypothesized that this group should show less behavioral and subjective signs of emotion

in each of the conditions than the high NA. This hypothesis is consistent with Gross’

(1998a) findings that reappraisal participants reported less disgust experience and showed

fewer behavioral signs of disgust when shown negative films (e.g., amputation).

Method

Participants

Approximately 656 subjects (ages 18-23) were screened in the first stage of the study

using the Adult Temperament Questionnaire. A median split of the Effortful Control and

Negative Affect variables resulted in score cutoffs for the two groups: high NA/low EC, low

NA/high EC, high NA/high EC, low NA/low EC (David Evans, personal communication). The

medians from this initial screening sample (n=205) for EC were 80 and 81 for females and

males, respectively, and for NA the medians were 105 and 101.5 for females and males. Subjects

who were taking tricyclic antidepressants were not eligible to participate in the second phase of

the study. All subjects were screened for age, weight, height, history of head trauma, and weekly

alcohol and caffeine intake. Screening data for all 656 subjects on the NA and EC factors are in

Table 1. NA and EC scores for the four groups in the second phase of the study are listed in

Table 2. The informed consent for the screening phase is in Appendix A

All experimenters for this study were blind to group status during data collection,

processing of physiological data, and videotape coding. Since all screening subjects were invited

to participate in the second phase of the study, the experimenter was blind to group status.

Materials

Questionnaires. The Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ; Rothbart, Ahadi, &

Evans, 2000; Evans & Rothbart, 2002) has 77 items in its short version (Appendix B). The NA

dimension has 25 items and is comprised of four subscales: fear, sadness, discomfort, and

frustration. The EC dimension has 18 items and is comprised of 3 subscales: attentional control,

inhibitory control, and activation control. The Extraversion/Surgency dimension has 17 items

and three subscales: sociability, high intensity pleasure, and positive affect. The Orienting

Sensitivity dimension has 15 items and three subscales: neutral perceptual sensitivity, affective

perceptual sensitivity, and associative sensitivity. Coefficient alphas for the scales range from .75


to .81. Each item is scored 1 (“extremely untrue”) through 7 (“extremely untrue”), or X (“not

applicable”). Mean item responses from the whole sample are used to replace these missing

values. The short form of the ATQ contains the same scales and subscales as the long form.

Correlations between scales and subscales for the short and long form range between .85 and .96.

The ATQ factors are highly correlated with the Big Five scales. As to citing longitudinal

stability, Big Five neuroticism and conscientiousness are highly correlated with negative affect

and effortful control, and therefore test-retest reliability can be inferred from the stability of the

Big Five constructs across time (David Evans, personal communication).

In terms of validation of the effortful control and reactive attention constructs,

preliminary analysis of about 30 subjects has found that reaction time measures of simple set

switching tasks are substantially correlated with effortful control. Also negative affect appears to

be substantially and positively related to fewer errors (data from David Evans, personal

communication).

The BIS/BAS Scales assess individual differences in the sensitivity of the general

motivational systems that underlie behavior (Carver & White, 1994) (Appendix C). The

Behavioral Approach System (BAS) regulates appetitive motives, in which the goal is to move

toward something desired. The Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) regulates aversive motives,

in which the goal is to move away from something unpleasant. The BIS/BAS Scales are a 24-

item questionnaire. Each item is scored from 1 (very true of me) to 4 (very false for me). BIS

items are 2, 8, 13, 16, 19, 22, and 24. Possible BIS scores range between 7 and 28. For the BAS

subscales, BAS Drive items are 3, 9, 12, and 21, BAS Fun Seeking items are 5, 10, 15, and 20,

and BAS Reward Responsiveness items are 4, 7, 14, 18, and 23. Items 1, 6, 11, and 17 are fillers.

The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) is a 10 item questionnaire designed to

assess individual differences in two emotion regulation strategies: emotional suppression and

reappraisal (Gross & John, in press) (Appendix D). Each item is scored on a Likert-type scale,

with 1 indicating “strongly disagree” and 7 indicating “strongly agree”. Reappraisal items are 1,

3, 5, 7, 8, and 10.

The Berkeley Expressivity Questionnaire (BEQ) is a 16 item questionnaire designed to

assess three facets of emotional expressivity: negative expressivity, positive expressivity, and

impulse strength (Appendix E) (Gross & John, 1997). Each item is scored on a Likert-type scale

with 1 indicating “strongly disagree” and 7 indicating “strongly agree”.


Emotion Adjective Questionnaire. The emotion adjective questionnaire is a list of twelve

emotion adjectives with a 5-point likert scale for each item (1=experiencing none of the emotion,

5=experiencing a lot of the emotion) (Nyklicek, Thayer, & Van Doornen, 1997) (Appendix F).

The questionnaire was designed to broadly sample the domain of affective space. This

questionnaire was administered after each task

Also included on sheet with the Emotion Adjective Questionnaire were the following

questions, each rated on a 7 point Likert-type scale: 1) How difficult was this task?, with 1

indicating very “easy”, and 7 indicating “very difficult”, and 2) How well do you feel you were

able to not show outward sign of emotion during this task?, with 1 indicating “very well”, and 7

indicating “not well at all”.

Emotion Behavior coding system. Subjects’ behavioral responses during each task were

coded using a system developed for emotion suppression study (Gross & Levenson, 1993),

which consisted of 11 codes: a) blinks, b) body movement, c) disgust, d) face touching, e)

happiness, f) looking around the room, g) mouth movement, h) overall facial movement, i)

smiles, j) yawns, k) anger, l) fear, m) sadness, n) surprise, o) emotional pleasantness-

unpleasantness, and p) emotional intensity. Blinks, smiles and yawns are frequency measures.

All other measures were continuous measures whose values represented an aggregate of

intensity, duration, and frequency of response. Two coders who were unaware of the subject’s

group (high NA or high EC) independently scored the videotapes. Pearson-r correlations were

used to assess interrater reliability.

Equipment. ECG and ICG were recorded with the Ambulatory Monitoring System

(AMS) v4.4 (Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands), using Ag-AgCl electrodes. The

amplified ECG was bandpass filtered at 17 Hz. The R-spike was recognized with a level detector

with automatic adjustment in the analog ECG; the resolution of the IBI time series was 1 msec.

For the impedance signal, 128 dZ/dt samples (with a sampling rate of 250 Hz) were measured

around each R-wave, giving a dZ/dt time series of 512 ms for heart heartbeat. Finally, ensemble

averages for all measured complexes that fell within each 30-s time period were calculated (de

Geus, Willemsen, Klaver, & van Doornen, 1995). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, a measure of

heart period variability associated with respiration, was derived from the ECG signal using the

peak-trough method, in which the shortest interbeat interval (IBI) during inspiration and the

longest IBI during expiration were used to calculate RSA (Vrijkotte, Riese, & De Geus, 2001).


High frequency (HF) and low frequency (LF) variability were derived from the IBI time series

using a modified periodogram to compute the spectral density estimates. A Hamming window

was using to smooth and stabilize the spectral estimates. The range for HF was .15-.4 Hz, and for

LF was .02-.09 Hz.

Procedure

During the recruitment process, subjects chosen for the second phase of the study were

informed that they would have physiological measures taken via placement of electrodes on their

torso, and that each session would be unobtrusively videotaped. Upon arrival, all subjects first

completed the informed consent (Appendix G). All subjects and experimenters who assisted in

the process of electrode placement were gender-matched. The Ag/AgCl electrodes (ConMed

Corporation) are single-use and pre-gelled with adhesive on one side. Each area where an

electrode was place was lightly abraded with Nuprep and then swabbed with alcohol. A diagram

of electrode placement is in Figure 1.

Conditions. During each of the tasks, a video camera placed behind a two-way mirror to

unobtrusively record participants’ facial behavior and upper body movement. The Emotion

Behavior Coding System was be used to determine movement and facial expression during each

each. At the conclusion of each task, the subject was asked to complete the Emotion Adjective

Checklist (Nyklicek et al., 1997). There was a 3 min. rest period between each task.

During the first condition, the subject was asked to sit quietly in a chair with eyes closed

for 5 min. while physiological variables are recorded. The subject was then asked to move to a

stool, with a computer monitor and keyboard on a desk in front of him/her. The video camera,

located behind the two-way mirror, was turned on for the first of the stressor tasks. The

following paragraph was then read to the subject:

“Today you will be doing several tasks. You may feel some emotions during these

tasks. It is important that you pay attention to each of the tasks, but if you should find any

of the tasks uncomfortable, just say “stop”. If you have any feelings while you do the

task, please try your best not to let those feelings show. In other words, as you do the

task, try to behave in such a way that a person watching you would not know you were

feeling anything. Pay attention to the task, but please try to behave so that someone

watching you would not know that you are feeling anything at all.” (directions modified

from Gross & Levenson, 1993).


The first task was the Stroop (ST) task (Stroop, 1935). All stimulus words were written in

uppercase Arial 12 point font on a black background and was displayed on a 23.5 cm X 30 cm

computer monitor. Each word was presented on the screen until the subject responded by

pressing one of the color-coded keys on the keyboard (e.g., for the word “red” written in blue, to

respond correctly the subject presses the blue key). Color names (red, yellow, blue, and green)

were be randomly presented 300 times to the subject. The second task that was used is a

challenging race car video game (VG). The third task was the hand cold pressor task (HC). The

subject was asked to submerse his/her left hand up to the wrist in icy water for 3 minutes. For the

final task, delay of gratification (DG), the Stroop program was used to randomly present the

same color names in compatible colors (e.g., “red” was always be presented in red). Since the

presentation is random, subjects were informed ahead of time that they may see the same word

written several successive times. A total of 600 words were presented to the subject. Subjects

were informed that while each subject will be entered in a lottery for two $50 checks, subjects

performing in the top 10 (out of 60 subjects) will each have their names put in the drawing five

additional times. Instructions read to the subject for each task are in Appendix H. At the

conclusion of the last task, subjects were asked to complete the ATQ. Subjects were debriefed

following the administration of these questionnaires.

Design

The design for this study was a 2 (EC group: high and low) X 2 (NA Group: high and

low) X 2 (Gender) X 5 (condition) mixed design with condition as the within subjects variable.

To deal with potential order effects for administration of the conditions, a Latin square design

was used that requires four separate orders of administration of the within-subjects conditions.

Quiet rest was not included in this part of this design since all subjects needed to do this task as a

resting baseline. Subjects in each of the four groups were randomly assigned to a task order. The

four tasks in this study were Stroop (A), Video Game (B), Cold Pressor (C), and Delayed

Gratification (D). Approximately one-fourth of the subjects in each of the four groups

experienced the tasks in one of the four orders: ABCD, BCDA, CDAB, and DABC.


Results

A mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA), with condition as the repeated measures

variable, was done on each of the physiological, self-report, and behavioral variables. Between

subjects variables were EC group, NA group, and Gender.1 Follow up correlational analyses are

listed in Table 3. Exploratory regression analyses on variables of interest were then performed.

Physiological measures

A mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) was done on each of the physiological variables,

with EC Group, NA Group, and Gender as the between subjects variables. The physiological

variables were: HR, MSSD, PEP, LF, HF, and RSA. Respiration rate (RR) was analyzed as a

covariate for RSA. Significant main effects for condition are shown in Table 4. Figures 2, 3 and

4 show means by group, gender, and condition for HF, HR, and PEP. Interaction terms were not

significant. The effect of NA and EC Group on resting vagally-mediated (HRV), MSSD, RSA,

PEP or HF, was not significant. Therefore, hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 for the physiological measures

were not supported. Regression analyses for the EC subscale inhibitory control on resting HF

activity showed a significant moderator effect for gender (ß =1.452, p=.05, R2=.09), with females

with high inhibitory control showing greater resting HF activity. Therefore, hypothesis 1 was

partially supported.

Other regression analyses (Table 5) using ATQ subscales as predictors of physiological

responding during tasks showed the Extraversion/Surgency high intensity pleasure subscale as a

significant predictor of PEP in both the Stroop (ß = -.273, p=.024, R2=.075), and video game

tasks (ß = -.252, p=.038, R2=.065). Extraversion/Surgency sociability was also a significant

1 An examination of the tertiles for the NA and EC scores by Gender suggested that approximately 50% of the subjects in both the male and female groups within the middle third of scores on either NA, EC or both factors. Further examination of the tertiles showed only a four-point difference in total EC scores between the upper and lower third for the males, while for females this was a 10-point difference. Please see Table 2 for NA and EC means, standard deviations, and tertiles by Gender. Since there was little variability between high and low EC males, analyses for only the female data were performed. Results of analyses for the physiological variables showed comparable findings to previous analyses using both the male and female data (i.e., a main effect of condition for high and low frequency spectral power, RSA, HR, and PEP). The only difference was a significant interaction for MSSD for Condition X EC Group X NA Group, with low EC/low NA females showing the lowest MSSD across tasks. Results of analyses for self-report variables also showed comparable findings to previous analyses using both the male and female data. One difference was a significant Condition X NA Group interaction for both relaxation and enjoyment, with low NA females reporting higher relaxation and enjoyment at the conclusion of the resting condition. A significant Condition X NA Group X EC Group interaction for pleasantness showed that high NA/low EC subjects reported the least pleasantness following the resting task, whereas high NA/high EC females reported the least pleasantness. In regard to the behavioral data, this will be addressed more in-depth in the discussion section.


predictor of resting HF activity (ß = -.258, p=.032, R2=.067). NA frustration also predicted HF

activity during the Stroop task (ß = .234, p=.05, R2=.056).

Self-report emotion measures

The self-report variables were pleasantness, interest, uneasiness, happiness, peacefulness,

relaxation, excitement, tired, enjoyment, arousal, boredom, anger, and sadness (Table 6). A four-

way interaction, Condition X EC Group X NA Group X Gender, was found for interest, F(4, 63)

= 3.331, p=.01. Pairwise comparisons showed significantly greater interest for VG compared to

QR, ST, HC, and DG.

A significant three-way interaction for Condition X NA Group X Gender was found for

happiness, F(4, 63) = 3.54, p=.012. Pairwise comparisons of condition effects showed greater

happiness for QR compared to ST, HC, and DG, for VG compared to ST, HC and DG (Table 6).

The same four-way interaction was also found for uneasiness, F(4, 63) = 2.85, p=.03. Pairwise

comparisons showed significantly greater uneasiness for HC compared to QR, ST, HC, and DG.

A significant two-way interaction of Condition X Gender was found for task difficulty,

F(4, 60) = 2.75, p=.036. ST, VG, HC, and DG were all rated as more difficult than QR, with

females finding these tasks more difficult than males (Table 6).

A significant main effect of condition was found for peacefulness, relaxation, excitement,

tiredness, enjoyment, boredom, and arousal. All F tests are listed in Table 6. A main effect for

condition was also found for self-rating of difficulty of not showing emotion during tasks, F(3,

64) = 3.25, p=.028, with only VG rated as more difficult to not show emotions during than ST.

Performance Measures

A MANOVA on all ST and DG performance measures (ST median score, ST mean

score, ST total score, ST number of errors, DG median score, DG mean score, and DG total

score), with EC Group, NA Group, and Gender as between subjects variables, showed a

significant EC Group X Gender interaction, F(5, 63) = 2.49, p=.04. DG number of errors was not

included in this analysis because the variability was near zero. Further ANOVA tests of between

subjects effects showed significant effects for ST median score [F(1, 67) = 5.929, p=.018], ST

median score [F(1, 67) = 5.65, p=.02], and ST total score [F(1, 67) = 5.65, p=.02], with low EC

males showing the fastest times (ST median = 706.28 ms, ST mean = 850.09 ms, ST total =

258428.0 ms) and high EC males showing the slowest times (ST median = 910 ms, ST mean =

1014.84 ms, ST total = 308510.0 ms). This is contradictory to hypotheses 1 and 2, where it was


predicted that high EC subjects should have faster response times on both ST and DG based on

superior inhibitory skills.

Questionnaires

High NA subjects reported a significantly higher BIS total (M= 23.1) compared to low

NA subjects (M=20.78), F(1, 57) = 8.83, p=.004. This supports hypothesis 1 that subjects high in

NA on the ATQ should also report higher levels of behavioral inhibition on the BIS/BAS scales

(Carver & White, 1994).

High EC subjects were more likely to endorse a reappraisal strategy on the ERQ

(M=29.98) compared to low EC subjects (M=26.81), F(1, 75) = 6.79, p=.01. This supports

hypothesis 2 that reappraisal is related to high EC skills.

Behavioral Measures

Behavior by each subject during the ST, VG, HC, and DG tasks were rated using the

EEB coding system (Gross & Levenson, 1993). Interrater reliabilities were calculated for each

task between the two coders (Table 7). Only those variables with a significant r across tasks were

used for further analysis. The variables of interest, smiles, blinks, mouth movement, emotional

intensity, emotional pleasantness-unpleasantness, and face touching met this criteria.

A significant three-way interact was found for interest for Condition X NA Group X

Gender, F(3, 58) = 2.668, p=.05 (Table 8). Pairwise comparisons for condition effects showed

significantly more interest for VG compared to HC and DG, and for ST compared to HC and

DG. A significant three-way interaction was found for smiles for Condition X EC Group X NA

Group, F(3, 63) = 3.31, p=.026. Pairwise comparisons for condition effects showed significantly

more smiles in VG compared to ST and DG. The high EC/low NA group showed the lowest

smiles across tasks, partially supporting hypothesis 1 that this groups should show less

behavioral signs of emotion. However, high NA males tended to show the least amount of

interest to tasks.

Main effects for condition were found for blinks, mouth movement, emotional

pleasantness-unpleasantness, and emotional intensity (Table 8). Face touching was the only

variable that was not significant.

Protection Against Type I Error

To portray a multisystem view of emotion regulation, measures were obtained in the

domains of subjective experience, behavior, and physiology. While this approach has the


advantage of exploring consistencies and inconsistencies of regulatory skills at different levels of

functioning, it also runs the risk of increased experimentwise error due to multiple significance

tests. While there are many approaches to the control of experimentwise error, there is little

agreement as to which approach is best in the context of a four group study with multiple

dependent measures.

A modified Bonferroni procedure was used as the approach to experimentwise error

protection (Keppel, 1991). This approach was also taken by Gross and Levenson (1993) in two-

group multimethod study of emotion suppression. Using the Gross and Levenson (1993) study as

a model, a familywise error rate of .20 was set for each class of dependent variables (behavioral,

self-report, and physiological). At the adjusted alpha level for the physiological variables

(p=.033), the main effect for PEP was no longer significant. For the self-report variables, the

adjusted alpha was p=.014. At the new alpha level, the Condition X Gender interactions for

uneasiness (p=.03) and and task difficulty (p=.036) were no longer significant, as was the

Condition X EC Group X NA Group interaction for pleasantness (p=.027). For the behavioral

variables, the interaction of Condition X NA Group X Gender for interest (p=.05) was no longer

significant at the new alpha level of p=.033.

Discussion

Learning to regulate one’s emotions is a lifelong process, and is important in supporting

adaptive, organized behavioral strategies. Regulatory abilities are partially a function of

temperamental individual differences, which show continuity across the lifespan and are the

basis for personality. However, in the developmental literature, research on affect regulation is

focused almost exclusively on infants and young children. The purpose of the current study was

to extend the infant/child emotion regulation literature by adapting many of the definitions and

methods for research on adult emotion regulation. The child emotion regulation literature is rich

with studies on the relationships between parent reports of Effortful Control, Negative Affect,

and Surgency and behavioral and physiological performance to tasks. Similar research with the

ATQ and adult samples would enhance the understanding of regulatory behaviors in healthy

adults and physiological responses to regulatory tasks.

Specifically, the purpose of the current study was to examine the role of two dimensions

of adult temperament, negative affect and effortful control, and how these dimensions relate to

physiology, emotion self-report, and behavior, during resting and stressor tasks, the latter in


which emotion suppression instructions were given. It was hypothesized that subjects high in

regulatory ability (effortful control) would have higher resting HRV and less behavioral signs of

emotion during the emotion suppression tasks compared to subjects high in reactivity (negative

affect). This latter group was expected to show a stronger sympathetic response to the tasks and

have more behavioral signs of emotion during the suppression conditions.

The results of this study suggest that negative affect and effortful control dimensions of

temperament may be categories that are too broad to capture physiological and behavioral

differences in response to regulatory tasks. Rather, subscales of the ATQ, such as the

Extraversion/Surgency subscales, appeared to be more strongly predictive of both resting

physiology as well as physiological responses to suppression conditions.

Temperament and Physiology

Results of analyses for physiological measures did not show a significant effect for NA

Group and EC group. However, the EC subscale inhibitory control was significantly predictive

of high resting HRV only for female subjects. Inhibitory control is a crucial aspect of self-

regulatory behavior. This includes inhibiting both positive and negative behavior, such as

resisting cravings for food, or holding back laughter in a situation where laughter would not be

appropriate. Autonomically mediated HRV is critical as an index of neurovisceral integration

and organism self-regulatory ability (Thayer & Siegle, 2002). Decreased HRV is found in

depression, anxiety, and hostility, and is consistent with the psychological symptoms of poor

attentional control, ineffective emotional regulation, and behavioral inflexibility (Friedman &

Thayer, 1998a,b). The prefrontal cortex, critical for effortful control skills (Rothbart & Bates,

1998) modulates subcortical motivational circuits in the service of goal-directed behavior. When

the prefrontal cortex is not functioning appropriately, a relative sympathetic dominance occurs

(Thayer & Siegle, 2002). While males and females showed similar patterns of HF spectral power

between tasks (Figure 2), resting HRV was linked with inhibitory control only for females.

Females have been shown to have 23% more volume in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex than

men (Schlaepfer et al., 1995), a prefrontal area important for working memory and inhibitory

control (Diamond, 1990). Since the frontal area tonically inhibits sympathoexcitatory circuits, a

larger dorsal lateral prefrontal area in females may be contributing factor to why the link

between inhibitory control and resting HRV was found for females and not males.


While not significant, there was also a trend for both male and female low NA/low EC

subjects to have the highest resting HRV (Figure 2). NA and EC total scores may be relatively

gross measures for group selection purposes, as is demonstrated by the lack of significant group

effects for the physiological variables. However, it is intriguing that the group lowest in both EC

and NA both tended to have higher resting HRV during the QR task, the only non-challenge

situation of the five tasks. This group may have poor regulatory skills, as it demonstrated by their

low EC scores, but they are also low in reactivity. In a non-challenge situation, where reactivity

is not an issue, regulatory skills are also not needed. Since reactivity and regulation go hand in

hand, this highlights the importance of studying emotion regulation in the context of different

types of tasks as well as how regulation interacts with reactivity.

Other ATQ subscales were also shown to be significant predictors of physiological

variables during the tasks. The ES subscale Sociability was a significant predictor of shorter

PEP, a measure of cardiac sympathetic activity, during both the ST and VG tasks, as well as

resting HRV. Sociability is a subscale that focuses on interactions with other people, but also

relates to the capacity to deal with stimulation (Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000). It appears that

subjects low in sociability found these tasks more stressful, based on their physiological

responses to the tasks. Subjects high in sociability also may have found the relative boredom and

isolation of the resting task to be stressful, based on their lower resting HRV during this task.

Temperament and Attention

Low EC males had the fastest response times and high EC males had the slowest

response times on the Stroop task. These results are contradictory to what would be expected for

high EC subjects, who should have faster response times on the Stroop task. Although NA Group

was not significant, EC and NA are strongly negatively correlated (Evans & Rothbart, 2003), and

negative affect is associated with a slowness to disengage attention (Compton, 2000). In the child

literature, children’s performance on Stroop-like tasks linked to neural circuits involved in

attentional effortful control is related to their mothers’ CBQ reports of inhibitory control and

lower negative affect expression (Gerardi et al., 1996). This finding for the male subjects cannot

be linked to superior performance on computer tasks, since male subjects did not respond

significantly faster on the DG task as well. Furthermore, while the group difference was not

significant, high EC males made more errors on the Stroop task (M=11.4) compared to low EC

males (M=6.85). In the behavioral ratings, high NA males were rated as very low on interest


during the Stroop task (M=1.0), compared to the other three groups (interest ratings range: 3.24-

3.61); however, these results did not extend to EC, although there is a strong negative

relationship between these variables. It is clear that the link between effortful control,

physiology, and performance is not a straightforward one, as was demonstrated by the above

findings, as well as the link between inhibitory control and resting HRV in females.

Temperament, Emotion, and Behavior

For the self-report measures of emotion, there were significant interaction effects for

interest, happiness, and task difficulty. In a Condition X EC Group X NA Group interaction, low

NA/low EC males appeared to rate their interest level highest across all tasks, although across

groups interest was lowest during the HC task. There was a significant Condition X NA Group X

EC Groups interaction for both pleasantness and uneasiness. Not surprisingly, all subjects rated

the HC task as the least pleasant. High EC/low NA subjects reported a fairly high level of

uneasiness following the VG task, compared to the other groups who reported the strongest

uneasiness following the HC task. A significant interaction for Condition X NA Group X Gender

was found for happiness, with high NA females reporting the least happiness across tasks,

although all groups reported lower happiness for the HC task compared to other tasks. A

Condition X Gender interaction for task difficulty suggests that females found these tasks more

difficult than males. Main effects for condition demonstrated that across subjects quiet rest was

associated with more peacefulness, relaxation, tiredness, and less arousal.

These results do not paint a clear picture of emotional responses to the tasks, particularly

on a group level. High NA subjects were not necessarily more emotionally reactive to the tasks,

as might be expected, since fear, discomfort, sadness, and frustration as temperamental qualities

should be manifested in response to challenging situations. The only support for this was that

high NA females reported less happiness across all tasks. While females generally report higher

NA than males (Rothbart et al., 2000), this effect was not seen in the other emotion variables,

either positive or negative, so these results should be interpreted with caution.

In the behavioral measures coded from the videotapes, high NA males were rated as

showing the least interest across tasks, although all subjects tended to show the least interest

during HC and DG. All groups tended to show more smiles during the VG task; however, low

EC/low NA subjects also tended to show more smiles during the HC task compared to the other

groups. Subjects tended to show more emotional intensity, and more emotional pleasantness


during the video game compared to the other tasks. More blinks were shown during the ST and

DG tasks.

Any significant findings with the behavioral measures, however, should be interpreted

with caution. Reliabilities between the two coders at no point reached .70, which is the minimum

acceptable reliability (Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991). This is more likely a function of the coders

for the present study, and not the coding system. When using the EEB Coding System, Gross and

Levenson (1993), and Gross (1998?) obtained reliabilities of .9-.95. This suggests that coders for

the present study may benefit from further training in this coding system. Electromyogram may

also be useful in detecting muscle movement that is too subtle to detect through observation, and

may serve to both validate and supplement behavioral coding.

Overall, the results for the behavioral variables suggested that the subjects were able to

suppress their outward signs of emotion during each of the stressor tasks. While Gross and

Levenson (1993) did find increased blinking in a suppression group watching emotional film

clips, which suggests greater arousal, this effect was not shown here. Although there were more

blinks in the ST and DG tasks, these were computerized tasks that involved consistent

engagement with the computer screen, and would be more likely to cause increased blinking due

to this. However, it was expected that there would be group differences in the ability to regulate

outward signs of emotions, with low EC and high NA subjects (either low regulatory ability or

high EC) having more difficulty not showing outward signs of emotion. However, even though

subjects rated the stressor tasks as moderately difficult, with females rating the stressor tasks as

more difficult than males, subjects overall rated themselves as having done well in regulating

their emotions. On a 7 point Likert scale, with 1= very well and 7=not well at all, mean rating for

the ST, HC, and DG were 2.9, 2.9, 2.8, respectively, with subjects rating themselves the least

able to suppress emotions during the video game.

Main effects for condition for each of the physiological variables showed significant

differences for QR compared to the stressor tasks, as well as differences between the four

stressor tasks. However, without stressor tasks in which subjects were not given suppression

instructions, it cannot be determined if the physiological response to the tasks were a

consequence of emotional responding to the tasks, or the result of suppressing emotional

responses to the task. For example, emotional suppression has been linked with greater increases

in skin conductance, and greater decreases in somatic activity and heart rate (Gross & Levenson,


1993). It is a drawback of the current study that subjects did not have stressor tasks in which no

emotion regulation instructions were given. This highlights the importance of studying emotion

regulation from a within-subjects approach. In order to know what emotion regulation looks like,

one first needs to know what emotion looks like in a particular person in a given situation.

Emotion regulation requires a formidable level of certainty about emotion in its unregulated

state, and a major difficulty in this area of research is determining if emotion regulation has

taken place at all (Gross, 1999).

Effortful Control and Reappraisal

High EC subjects were more likely to endorse a reappraisal strategy on the ERQ

compared to low EC subjects. This supports the hypothesis that reappraisal skills are related to

EC. Situation selection, attentional deployment, and cognitive change are all forms of

antecedent-focused emotion regulation (Gross, 1998b). However, attentional deployment

includes distraction, concentration, and rumination, the latter process seen in depression where

the individual focuses on negative information (Friedman et al., 2000). Even though reappraisal

strategies appear to be strongly tied with EC abilities, reappraisal is not without cost (Gross &

Levenson, 1993). For example, inflexible or unrealistic appraisals might lead one to deny

important parts of one’s environment.

Considerations and Directions for Future Research

Future research on emotion regulation will involve the consideration of other regulatory

tasks. One goal in the present study was to design tasks that were adult analogues of infant/child

regulatory tasks. For the delay of gratification task, this was particularly difficult as the incentive

for performance was not immediate or tangible (i.e., faster response times gave a subject more

chances to win a $50 prize, the drawing for which would take place several weeks later).

Possible modification to this may include immediate feedback of a subject’s ranking on a task

compared to other subjects, or a small cash prize awarded to subjects who surpass a certain score

on a task at the end of a session.

Consideration of task appropriateness is an important issue in developmental research. In

studying the development of any behavior process, such as EC, a key point that must be

addressed is that one is studying change. Therefore, examination of EC in a research program

should include longitudinal and/or cross-sectional research. This enables researchers to address

what aspects of EC change, which stabilize, and also to determine when transitions may occur.


An aspect of this is to provide developmentally appropriate tasks. For example, both inanimate

objects and social situations appear to bring about inhibition in infants and young children, while

social situations may continue to elicit inhibition in older children and adults. This suggests that

social stressors, rather than individual laboratory tasks, may be a more potent means of studying

regulatory behaviors in adults as well.

A consideration for future studies of emotion regulation is that of gender differences.

Females showed a stronger link between physiological and psychological markers of regulatory

ability (i.e., resting HRV and inhibitory control). While women tend to be more emotionally

expressive than men, women do not report experiencing more emotion than men (Kring &

Gordon, 1998). If women and men are both experiencing similar amount of emotion, and women

are expressing more of that emotion, this suggests that men are more likely to regulate their

emotional expressiveness. Future studies on emotion regulation should consider this expressive

difference in emotion between men and women.

Group selection via the ATQ was also an issue in the current study. While using a median

split on the NA and EC scales ensured that every subject would fall into one of the four groups,

this also meant that even those subjects with NA and EC scores very close to the median were

recruited for participation in the second phase of the study. This means of group selection

resulted in groups that were often very close to each other in terms of NA and EC scores,

especially for the male subjects. For example, the upper and lower tertiles of the male EC scores

only differed by 4 points (Table 2). This suggests that high and low EC groups did not have

scores that widely differed. The standard deviations for the NA and EC scores within Gender

were also very large, further supporting high within-group variability. This suggests that, in

future research where the ATQ is used for group-selection purposes, more stringent criteria

should be used to ensure greater group separation, such as using the tertiles as a means of group

selection, rather than the median.

Finally, what is critical to address in research on emotion regulation is a healthy balance

between emotion expressivity and emotion regulation. If we regulated every emotion, we would

not communicate to others what we are feeling. Emotions provide information about the

environment and the demands being placed on us by environmental events. Emotions also signal

what is going wrong or right, and what is approaching us or going away from us in terms of

threatening or rewarding objects in our external environment (Larsen, 2000). Emotions also play


a significant role in human action and interaction; emotions are not just feelings, but are feelings

associated with tendencies to behave in particular ways toward particular ends. For social

interactions to result in behavioral coordination and shared satisfaction, each individual must

have clues about the intentions and needs of the others. While we clearly need regulatory

abilities to deal with emotional and social challenges, since emotion dysregulation is found in

many psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, and hostility, someone who regulated

all their emotions would be just as rigid and inflexible as a person who could not regulate their

emotions. An adaptive organism is not one where reactivity has simply been replaced by control,

for this, too, is a rigid response. Constant self-monitoring would also require an ongoing

expenditure of cognitive resources as one compares the current state of a system (e.g., one’s

facial expression of anger) with a desired state of that system (e.g., a calm facial express), and

then attempts to narrow the gap between the current and desired state (Richards & Gross, 2000).

The repressor coping style is an example of a rigid overregulated approach to dealing with one’s

emotions. This coping style is marked by a low capacity to tolerate emotional arousal from

threatening information, so the repressor withdraws attention from threatening aspects of

situations (Hock, Krohne, & Kaiser, 1996). This results in denial of anxiety to avoid the

threatening information, even though repressors often respond nonverbally as if they are highly

anxious (i.e., both physiologically and behaviorally) (Weinberger, Schwartz, & Davidson, 1979).

Finally, longitudinal developmental studies of the links between emotion regulation,

physiology, and temperament can provide useful information about healthy psychological

development. However, Diener (2000) notes that developmental researchers of temperament and

adult personality Researchers have been relatively isolated from each other. This may be

attributable to the challenging nature of obtaining data linking child and adult personality.

However, the temperamental constructs in adults are also basic to early development, and

longitudinal temperament research will be required to examine these links.


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neurovisceral concomitants. Scandanavian Journal of Psychology, 43, 123-130.

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Table 1. Screening Data Negative Affect and Effortful Control Means by Sex (N=656) Females (N=363) NA total EC total Mean 107.5289 78.83747 Std. Error of Mean 0.864548 0.693701 Males (N=221) NA total EC total Mean 95.39819 80.62443 Std. Error of Mean 1.003377 0.822801 additional subjects* (N=72) NA total EC total Mean 98.54167 80.47222 Std. Error of Mean 2.058318 1.542559 *Sex variable missing from data set


Table 2. Means for Negative Affect and Effortful Control by Group and Gender in Second Phase Low EC/Low NA N NA EC females 10 97.3 74.9 males 2 83.5 77.5 Low EC/High NA N NA EC females 15 118.6 67.8 males 5 96.2 78.8 High EC/Low NA N NA EC females 18 91.2 90.8 males 15 87.86667 88.2 High EC/High NA N NA EC females 10 112.7 87.5 males 2 113.5 83.5 Females NA EC N=53 Mean 104.17 80.66 Std. Error of Mean 2.01 1.57 Std. Deviation 14.59 11.45 Percentiles 33 97.82 75.82 66 111.64 87.00 Males NA EC N=24 Mean 91.38 84.96 Std. Error of Mean 3.14 2.21 Std. Deviation 15.36 10.82 Percentiles 33 83.25 81.25 66 96.00 85.00


Table 3. Significant correlations between ATQ factors, performance variables, physiological variables, and questionnaires QR=quiet rest hr=heart rate ST=Stroop pep=pre-ejection period VG=video game rsa=respiratory sinus arrhythmia HC=hand cold pressor mssd=mean successive differences of DG=delayed gratification interbeat intervals ATQ=Adult Temperament Questionnaire BEQ=Berkeley Expressivity Questionnaire ERQ=Emotion Regulation Questionnaire BAS=Behavioral activation system ES=Extraversion/surgency EC=Effortful control NA=Negative affect OS=Orienting sensitivity r p Task performance variables DGmedian QRmssd -0.231 0.020 DGmedian DGrsa -0.324 0.003 DGmedian BAS reward resp -0.266 0.023 DGtotal DGmssd -0.230 0.020 DGtotal EC activation control -0.340 0.002 STmean BAS reward resp -0.342 0.004 STmedian STpep 0.220 0.030

Questionnaire factors and physiological responding during tasks BAS fun seeking QRmssd 0.270 0.020 BAS reward responsiveness QRmssd 0.330 0.005 BAS reward responsiveness HCmssd 0.390 0.001 BAS reward responsiveness DGmssd 0.351 0.003 BAS reward responsiveness QRrsa 0.392 0.002 BAS reward responsiveness VGrsa 0.360 0.003 BAS reward responsiveness HCrsa 0.390 0.002 BAS reward responsiveness DGrsa 0.373 0.003 ES high intensity pleasure SThr 0.230 0.030 ES high intensity pleasure STpep -0.273 0.010 ES high intensity pleasure VGpep -0.252 0.020 ES high intensity pleasure QRhr 0.290 0.007 ES high intensity pleasure SThr 0.227 0.029 ES high intensity pleasure VGhr 0.010 0.010 ES high intensity pleasure STpep -0.273 0.012 ES high intensity pleasure VGpep -0.252 0.019 ES high intensity pleasure DGpep -0.361 0.001 ES sociability QRhf -0.258 0.032 NA frustration HCmssd 0.210 0.040 OS associative sensitivity VGrsa -0.249 0.020 OS associative sensitivity DGrsa -0.217 0.040 OS associative sensitivity QRmssd -0.241 0.022 OS associative sensitivity VGmssd -0.259 0.015 OS associative sensitivity DGmssd -0.202 0.048 OS neutral perceptual sensitivity VGrsa 0.216 0.019 OS neutral perceptual sensitivity HCrsa 0.215 0.043 OS neutral perceptual sensitivity VGhf 0.270 0.025

Emotional Responses to Tasks and ATQ factors


DG interest DG pep -0.227 0.008 Table 3 (continued) DG not show emotion DG hr 0.264 0.011 HC happy HC pep 0.357 0.001 ST happy STrsa -0.201 0.044 ST interest STpep -0.216 0.031 ST interest ST median -0.24 0.019 ST not show emotion SThr 0.209 0.036 ST not show emotion STpep -0.206 0.039 ST peaceful ST median 0.197 0.045 VG anger VGpep 0.211 0.035 VG uneasy VGpep 0.198 0.044

Emotional Responses to Tasks and ATQ factors DG anger EC attentional control -0.422 0.000 DG enjoyment EC activation control 0.207 0.011 DG enjoyment EC activation control 0.207 0.044 DG not show emotion ES sociability -0.267 0.014 DG pleasant NA frustration -0.221 0.034 DG tired EC activation control -0.214 0.039 HC anger EC attentional control -0.257 0.016 HC boredom NA frustration 0.244 0.022 HC not show emotion EC inhibitory control -0.293 0.007 HC sadness EC attentional control -0.253 0.018 HC uneasy NA frustration 0.274 0.011 HC uneasy EC attentional control -0.273 0.012 QR anger OS neutral perceptual sensitivity 0.308 0.005 QR anger OS affective perceptual sensitivity -0.276 0.011 QR anger OS associative sensitivity -0.221 0.034 QR enjoyment NA frustration -0.207 0.044 QR happy ES sociability 0.204 0.048 QR peaceful ES sociability 0.263 0.014 QR pleasant NA frustration -0.213 0.039 QR relaxed ES sociability 0.282 0.009 QR uneasiness OS neutral perceptual sensitivity -0.222 0.033 QR uneasiness OS affective perceptual sensitivity 0.204 0.047 ST anger NA frustration 0.208 0.043 ST anger EC attentional control -0.216 0.037 ST difficulty EC activation control -0.205 0.046 ST difficulty EC attentional control -0.216 0.037 ST difficulty EC inhibitory control -0.258 0.016 ST happy NA frustration -0.359 0.001 ST happy ES sociability 0.261 0.010 ST happy ES positive affect 0.246 0.021 ST peaceful ES sociability 0.288 0.008 ST relaxed ES sociability 0.292 0.008 ST uneasy NA frustration 0.227 0.030 ST uneasy ES positive affect -0.234 0.027 VG anger NA frustration 0.319 0.004 VG happy NA frustration -0.329 0.003 VG happy ES positive affect 0.213 0.040 VG pleasant ES positive affect 0.259 0.016 VG uneasy NA frustration 0.272 0.012


Table 3 (continued) ERQ and ATQ ERQ reappraisal EC attentional control 0.219 0.034 ERQ reappraisal EC inhibitory control 0.21 0.040 ERQ reappraisal ES sociability 0.279 0.010 ERQ reappraisal ES positive affect 0.459 0.000 ERQ reappraisal EC activation control 0.356 0.001 ERQ suppression BEQ negative expressivity -0.571 0.000 ERQ suppression BEQ positive expressivity -0.466 0.000


Table 4: Mixed Analysis of Variance Tests for Physiological Variables Significant main effect for condition Heart rate F (4, 63) = 28.695, p<.0001 QR = 76.8 QR<ST, VG, HC, DG, all p<.0001 ST = 86.1 ST>VG, p<.0001 VG = 82.1 ST>HC, p=.003 HC = 82.6 VG>DG, p=0001 DG = 86.4 DG>HC, p=.02 root Mean Successive Squared Differences of interbeat intervals QR = 49.9 F(4, 63) = 13.884, p<.0001 ST = 27.1 QR>ST, VG, DG, all p<.0001 VG = 34.7 ST<VG, HC, all p<.0001 HC = 41.7 VG, HC>DG, all p<.0001 DG = 26.9 Pre-ejection period F(4, 61) = 2.51, p=.05 QR = 98.1 QR>ST, p=.05 ST = 91.1 QR>HC, p=.045 VG = 91.5 QR>VG, p=.05 HC = 90.9 QR>DG, p=.04 DG = 90.5 Respiratory sinus arrhythmia F(4, 61) = 10.89, p<.0001 QR = 84.5 QR>ST, VG, DG, all p<.0001 ST = 43.2 VG = 51.6 Condition X Respiration rate (RR) covariates HC = 73.3 Condition X RRQR F(4, 54) = 2.93, p=.029 DG = 42.3 Condition X RRST F(4, 54) = 2.94, p=.028 Condition X RRVG F(4, 54) = 4.82, p=.002 Condition X RRHC F(4, 54) = 1.03, p=.402 Condition X RRDG F(4, 54) = 7.08, p<.0001 Low frequency spectral power QR = 1358089 F(4, 61) = 4.361, p=.004 ST = 688742 ST<HC, p=.009 VG = 1012174 VG>DG, p=.009 HC = 1713609 VG<HC, p=.05 DG = 654822 HC>DG, p=.004 High frequency spectral power QR = 1144136 F(4, 61) = 5.309, p=.001 ST = 280636 QR>ST, p=.001 VG = 504319 QR>VG, p=.004 HC = 956992 QR>DG, p<.0001 DG = 300742 ST<VG, p=.005 VG>DG, p=.014


Table 5. Regression Analyses predictor dependent variable moderator ß R2 D R2 conf. interval EC inhibitory control QR HF Sex 1.452 0.09 0.06 95% ES high intensity pleasure VG PEP -0.252 0.065 95% ES high intensity pleasure ST PEP -0.273 0.075 95% ES sociability QR HF -0.258 0.032 95% NA frustration ST HF 0.234 0.056 95% EC=effortful control ES=extraversion/surgency NA=negative affect QR=quiet rest VG=video game ST=Stroop HF=high frequency activity PEP=pre=ejection period


Table 6. Mixed Analysis of Variance Tests and Means for Self-Report Variables Four-way interactions Condition X Effortful Control Group X Negative Affect Group X Sex Interest F(4, 63) = 3.331, p=.01 EC Group NA Group Sex Condition Mean Pairwise comparisons low low female QR 3.40 Condition effects: ST 2.20 VG>QR, p=.026 VG 3.20 VG>ST, p=.004 HC 1.90 VG>HC, p<.0001 DG 2.50 VG>DG, p=.001 male QR 4.00 ST 4.50 VG 4.00 HC 3.00 DG 4.00 high female QR 2.79 ST 3.14 VG 3.36 HC 2.64 DG 3.07 male QR 3.80 ST 2.80 VG 4.20 HC 3.00 DG 2.80 high low female QR 2.65 ST 2.24 VG 2.88 HC 2.06 DG 2.18 male QR 3.40 ST 2.67 VG 3.67 HC 3.27 DG 2.87 high female QR 3.00 ST 2.22 VG 3.33 HC 2.78 DG 2.56 male QR 2.00 ST 4.00 VG 4.50 HC 3.00 DG 3.00


Table 6 (continued) Three-way interactions Condition X Effortful Control Group X Negative Affect Group Pleasantness F (4, 63) = 2.944, p=.027 EC group NA group Condition Mean low low QR 3.25 ST 2.40 VG 3.25 HC 1.70 DG 2.20 high QR 2.72 ST 2.48 VG 3.03 HC 1.89 DG 2.26 high low QR 3.00 ST 2.42 VG 2.95 HC 1.96 DG 2.26 high QR 3.97 ST 2.17 VG 2.61 HC 1.58 DG 2.47 Uneasiness F(4, 63) = 2.85, p=.03 EC group NA group Condition Mean low low QR 1.20 ST 2.40 VG 1.55 HC 3.10 DG 1.65 high QR 2.14 ST 1.83 VG 1.86 HC 2.23 DG 2.07 high low QR 1.75 ST 1.69 HC 1.47 VG 2.37 DG 1.72 high QR 1.69 ST 1.94 VG 1.89 HC 2.61 DG 1.75


Table 6 (continued) Condition X NA Group X Sex Happiness F(4, 62) = 3.54, p = .012 NA group Sex Condition Mean low female QR 3.07 ST 2.23 VG 2.93 HC 1.83 DG 2.31 male QR 3.48 ST 2.83 VG 3.35 HC 3.03 DG 3.12 high female QR 2.91 ST 2.33 VG 2.65 HC 1.91 DG 2.38 male QR 3.15 ST 3.05 VG 3.70 HC 2.00 DG 2.30 Two-way interactions Condition X Sex Task difficulty F(4, 60) = 2.75, p = .036 Sex Condition Mean female QR 1.43 ST 4.30 VG 4.50 HC 4.73 DG 3.50 male QR 1.02 ST 3.08 VG 2.54 HC 3.48 DG 2.10


Table 6 (continued) Main Effects Condition Peacefulness F(4, 63) = 18.5, p<.0001 QR = 3.8 DG = 2.4 QR>ST, VG, HC, DG, p<.0001 ST = 2.5 Relaxation F(4, 62) = 16.14, p<.0001 QR = 3.7 DG = 2.3 QR>ST, VG, HC, DG, all p<.0001 ST = 2.4 Excitement F(4, 63) = 12.8, p<.0001 QR = 1.9 DG = 2.4 VG>QR, ST, HC, DG, all p<.0001 ST = 2.2 Tiredness F(4, 63) = 8.07, p<.0001 QR = 2.9 DG =2.6 QR>VG, HC, both p<.0001 ST = 2.8 ST>HC, p=.013 Enjoyment F(4, 62) = 15.68, p<.0001 QR = 2.32 DG = 2.1 QR<VG, p<.0001 ST = 2.2 QR>HC, p=.025 Arousal F(4, 62) = 4.188, p=.005 QR = 1.7 DG = 2.3 QR<ST, p=.05 ST = 2.3 QR<HC, p=.002 QR<DG, p=.05 Boredom F(4, 62) = 2.51, p=.05 QR = 2.3 DG = 2.6 DG>VG, p=.05 ST = 2.3 Not showing emotion F(3, 64) = 3.25, p=.028 ST = 2.9 VG>ST, p=.026 VG = 3.8


Table 7. Interrater Reliabilities for Emotional Expressive Behavior Coding System by Task Stroop Video Game Hand Cold Pressor Delayed Gratification r r r r smiles 0.452 *** smiles 0.835 *** smiles 0.753 *** smiles 0.646 *** yawns -0.033 yawns # yawns 0.648 *** yawns # obscures vision -0.038 obscures vision # obscures vision 0.044 obscures vision 0.506 *** blinks 0.407 *** blinks 0.736 *** blinks 0.758 *** blinks 0.601 *** anger 0.22 anger 0.166 anger -0.035 anger 0.538 *** confusion 0.111 confusion 0.245 * confusion -0.037 confusion -0.094 disgust -0.024 disgust -0.038 disgust # disgust -0.033 fear # fear # fear # fear # happiness 0.181 happiness 0.622 *** happiness 0.629 *** happiness 0.571 *** interest -0.382 ** interest -0.499 *** interest -0.441 *** interest -0.560 *** sadness -0.165 sadness 0.141 sadness 0.171 sadness -0.073 surprise -0.07 surprise 0.342 ** surprise -0.003 surprise 0.144 body movement 0.258 * body movement 0.201 body movement 0.501 *** body movement 0.159 face touching 0.604 *** face touching 0.301 * face touching 0.515 *** face touching 0.594 *** facial movement 0.309 ** facial movement 0.186 facial movement 0.149 facial movement 0.491 *** mouth movement 0.4 *** mouth movement 0.527 *** mouth movement 0.402 ** mouth movement 0.339 ** pleasantness- 0.417 *** pleasantness- 0.474 *** pleasantness- 0.523 *** pleasantness- 0.32 ** unpleasantness unpleasantness unpleasantness unpleasantness emotional intensity 0.506 *** emotional intensity 0.624 *** emotional intensity 0.548 *** emotional intensity 0.485 ***

*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001 # reliabilities could not be computed because at least one of the variables is constant Only the variables with significant reliabilities will be included in follow up analyses


Table 8. Mixed Analysis of Variance Tests and Means for Behavioral Variables* Three-way interactions Condition X NA Group X Sex Interest F(3, 58) = 2.668, p=.05 Pairwise comparisons NA Group Sex Condition Mean condition effects: low female ST 3.242 ST>HC, p<.0001 VG 3.742 ST>DG, p=.004 HC 1.183 VG>HC, DG, p<.0001 DG 1.008 male ST 3.615 VG 4.769 HC 0.692 DG 1.308 high female ST 3.493 VG 4.300 HC 1.043 DG 0.714 male ST 1.000 VG 1.200 HC 0.200 DG 1.000 Condition X EC group X NA group Smiles F(3, 63) = 3.31, p=.026 EC Group NA group Condition Mean Pairwise comparisons low low ST 0.167 Condition effects: VG 1.722 VG>ST, p=.05 HC 2.361 VG>DG, p=.06 DG 0.222 high ST 0.850 VG 2.093 HC 0.550 DG 0.807 high low ST 0.466 VG 0.620 HC 0.349 DG 0.326 high ST 0.002 VG 1.750 HC 0.350 DG 0.100 Main Effects Condition Blinks F(3, 62) = 14.913, p<.0001 HC = 33.3 ST>VG, p<.0001 DG = 59.1 DG>VG, p<.0001 DG>HC, p=.004 Mouth movement F(3, 62) = 3.06, p=.035 HC = 2.2 VG>ST, p=.056 DG = 1.9


Table 8 Continued Emotional F(3, 61) = 5.28, p=.003 HC = 1.9 Pleasantness- VG<ST, p=.005 DG = 1.8 Unpleasantness VG<HC, p=.005 VG<DG, p=.003 Emotional Intensity F(3. 61) = 3.488, p=.021 HC = 1.1 VG>ST, p=.014 DG = 1.1 VG>DG, p=.043 Face Touching n.s. *Only the variables with significant correlations between coders across conditions were analyzed


Figure 1. Electrode Placement Diagram


Figure 2. Means by Condition and Sex for High Frequency spectral power

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Appendix A

Assessment of Individual Differences in Reactivity and Regulation with the Adult Temperament Questionnaire

Please read and electronically "sign" the Informed Consent form below to begin the screening

Any information you provide here will be kept strictly confidential during the course of this study. Information provided on-line is stored in a secured database and will only be made

available to the experimenters for review and analysis.

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Informed Consent for Participants Of Investigative Projects

Title of project: Assessment of Individual Differences in Reactivity and Regulation with the Adult Temperament Questionnaire Principle Investigators: Aimee K. Santucci, M.S., & Bruce Friedman, Ph.D. 1. The purpose of this research: The purpose of this study is to investigate reactivity and regulation abilities in an adult sample. This study involves approximately 300 subjects, including yourself. The purpose of this stage is to measure levels of negative affect, effortful control, extraversion, and orienting sensitivity from the Adult Temperament Questionnaire. 2. Procedures: I understand that in this first stage I will be asked to complete the following self-report questionnaire: the Adult Temperament Questionnaire, a screening form, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and the BIS/BAS scales. I understand that it will take approximately 45 minutes to complete these questionnaires in this phase of the study. I understand that I may be chosen for the second part of the study, worth two (2) extra credit points). This will involve completing several tasks in a laboratory setting while electrocardiogram and impediance cardiography measures are collected from electrodes placed on the subject’s torso. I understand that I am not obligated to participate in the second part of the second if I complete the first phase of the study. If I qualify for the second part of the study, I understand that I will be contacted via e-mail by the experimenters. 3. Risks: The risks of this study are minimal. However, I understand that these questionnaires and measures may evoke uncomfortable feelings and images. If this occurs, services are available on campus through the Psychological Services Center and the on-campus health facility. Safeguards that will be used to minimize my risk or discomfort are that I will be able to contact one of these services, if I so desire. 4. Benefits of this Project: I understand that my participation in this study will assist in determining the prevalence of various adult temperament groups using the factor scales listed above. I understand that I am able to receive a synopsis of the results when completed. If I choose to receive a summary of the findings, I understand that I must provide either an e-mail address or a self-addressed stamped envelope to the investigators. 5. Extent of Anonymity and Confidentiality: The information obtained by this research may be used for scientific and/or educational purposes and information relating to the responses of all participants may be presented at scientific meetings and/or published in professional journals or books. I understand that the results of this study will be kept strictly confidential. The information I provide will have my name removed and only a subject number will identify me during the analyses and any written reports of the research.


research. 6. Compensation: For their participation in this project, participants are eligible to receive extra course credit toward courses in psychology as indicated by their instructor. One extra credit point per hour of participation will be awarded, not to exceed one extra credit point. 7. Freedom to Withdraw: I understand that I am free to withdraw from this study at any time. If I choose to withdraw, I will not be penalized by reduction in points or grade from any psychology course. 8. Approval of Research: This research has been approved, as required, by the Institutional Review Board for projects involving human subjects at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, and by the Human Subjects Committee in the Department of Psychology. 9. Participant’s Permission: I have read and understood the Informed Consent and conditions of this project. I have had all my questions answered. I hereby acknowledge the above and give my voluntary consent for participation in this project. I agree to abide by the rules for this project. Aimee K. Santucci, 231-3630, [email protected] Bruce H. Friedman, Ph.D., 231-9611 David W. Harrison, Chair, Human Subjects Committee, 231-4422 David Moore, Chair, Institutional Review Board, Research Division, 231-4991

Please complete the following items and click "continue screening" ONCE to electronically sign the Informed Consent form.

FAILURE TO PROVIDE VALID, ACCURATE INFORMATION ON THIS FORM WILL RESULT IN LOSS OF EXTRA CREDIT FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION.

After clicking "continue screening", you will be forwarded to some brief questionnaires. Please follow the instructions on each questionnaire to complete the on-line screening and receive

extra credit for your participation.

First Name Last Name

Student ID (SSN) (123456789) - no dashes or spaces please

Email Address Daytime Phone Number Nighttime Phone Number

Continue Screening


Appendix B

ADULT TEMPERAMENT QUESTIONNAIRE (VERSION 1.3) Directions On the following pages you will find a series of statements that individuals can use to describe

themselves. There are no correct or incorrect responses. All people are unique and different,

and it is these differences which we are trying to learn about. Please read each statement

carefully and give your best estimate of how well it describes you. Circle the appropriate

number below to indicate how well a given statement describes you.

circle #: if the statement is:

1 extremely untrue of you

2 quite untrue of you

3 slightly untrue of you

4 neither true nor false of you 5 slightly true of you

6 quite true of you

7 extremely true of you

If one of the statements does not apply to you (for example, if it involves driving a car and you don't drive), then circle "X" (not applicable). Check to make sure that you have answered every item.


1. I become easily frightened. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

2. I am often late for appointments. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

3. Sometimes minor events cause me to feel intense happiness. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

4. I find loud noises to be very irritating. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

5. It’s often hard for me to alternate between two different tasks. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

6. I rarely become annoyed when I have to wait in a slow moving line. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

7. I would not enjoy the sensation of listening to loud music with a laser light show. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

8. I often make plans that I do not follow through with. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

9. I rarely feel sad after saying goodbye to friends or relatives. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

10. Barely noticeable visual details rarely catch my attention. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

11. Even when I feel energized, I can usually sit still without much trouble if it’s necessary. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

12. Looking down at the ground from an extremely high place would make me feel uneasy. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

13. When I am listening to music, I am usually aware of subtle emotional tones. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

14. I would not enjoy a job that involves socializing with the public. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

15. I can keep performing a task even when I would rather not do it. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

16. I sometimes seem to be unable to feel pleasure from events and activities that I should enjoy. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

17. I find it very annoying when a store does not stock an item that I wish to buy. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

18. I tend to notice emotional aspects of paintings and pictures. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

19. I usually like to talk a lot. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

20. I seldom become sad when I watch a sad movie. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

21. I’m often aware of the sounds of birds in my vicinity. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

22. When I am enclosed in small places such as an elevator, I feel uneasy. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

23. When listening to music, I usually like turn up the volume more than other people.


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 24. I sometimes seem to understand things intuitively.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 25. Sometimes minor events cause me to feel intense sadness.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 26. It is easy for me to hold back my laughter in a situation when laughter wouldn't be appropriate. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 27. I can make myself work on a difficult task even when I don’t feel like trying.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 28. I rarely ever have days where I don’t at least experience brief moments of intense happiness.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 29. When I am trying to focus my attention, I am easily distracted.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 30. I would probably enjoy playing a challenging and fast paced video-game that makes lots

of noise and has lots of flashing, bright lights. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

31. Whenever I have to sit and wait for something (e.g., a waiting room), I become agitated. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

32. I'm often bothered by light that is too bright. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

33. I rarely notice the color of people’s eyes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

34. I seldom become sad when I hear of an unhappy event. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

35. When interrupted or distracted, I usually can easily shift my attention back to whatever I was doing before. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

36. I find certain scratchy sounds very irritating. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

37. I like conversations that include several people. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

38. I am usually a patient person. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 39. When I am resting with my eyes closed, I sometimes see visual images.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 40. It is very hard for me to focus my attention when I am distressed.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 41. Sometimes my mind is full of a diverse array of loosely connected thoughts and images.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 42. Very bright colors sometimes bother me.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 43. I can easily resist talking out of turn, even when I’m excited and want to express an idea.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 44. I would probably not enjoy a fast, wild carnival ride.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X


45. I sometimes feel sad for longer than an hour. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

46. I rarely enjoy socializing with large groups of people. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

47. If I think of something that needs to be done, I usually get right to work on it. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

48. It doesn't take very much to make feel frustrated or irritated. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

49. It doesn’t take much to evoke a happy response in me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

50. When I am happy and excited about an upcoming event, I have a hard time focusing my attention on tasks that require concentration. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

51. Sometimes, I feel a sense of panic or terror for no apparent reason. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

52. I often notice mild odors and fragrances. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

53. I often have trouble resisting my cravings for food drink, etc. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

54. Colorful flashing lights bother me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

55. I usually finish doing things before they are actually due (for example, paying bills, finishing homework, etc.). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

56. I often feel sad. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

57. I am often aware how the color and lighting of a room affects my mood. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

58. I usually remain calm without getting frustrated when things are not going smoothly for me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

59. Loud music is unpleasant to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

60. When I'm excited about something, it's usually hard for me to resist jumping right into it before I've considered the possible consequences. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

61. Loud noises sometimes scare me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

62. I sometimes dream of vivid, detailed settings that are unlike anything that I have experienced when awake. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

63. When I see an attractive item in a store, it’s usually very hard for me to resist buying it. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

64. I would enjoy watching a laser show with lots of bright, colorful flashing lights. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

65. When I hear of an unhappy event, I immediately feel sad. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X


66. When I watch a movie, I usually don’t notice how the setting is used to convey the mood of the characters. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

67. I usually like to spend my free time with people. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

68. It does not frighten me if I think that I am alone and suddenly discover someone close by. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

69. I am often consciously aware of how the weather seems to affect my mood. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 70. It takes a lot to make me feel truly happy. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

71. I am rarely aware of the texture of things that I hold. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

72. When I am afraid of how a situation might turn out, I usually avoid dealing with it. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

73. I especially enjoy conversations where I am able to say things without thinking first. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

74. Without applying effort, creative ideas sometimes present themselves to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

75. When I try something new, I am rarely concerned about the possibility of failing. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

76. It is easy for me to inhibit fun behavior that would be inappropriate. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

77. I would not enjoy the feeling that comes from yelling as loud as I can. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X


Appendix C

BIS/BAS

Each item of this questionnaire is a statement that a person may either agree with or disagree with. For each item, indicate how much you agree or disagree with what the item says. Please respond to all the items; do not leave any blank. Choose only one response to each statement. Please be as accurate and honest as you can be. Respond to each item as if it were the only item. That is, don't worry about being "consistent" in your responses. Choose from the following four response options:

1 = very true for me 2 = somewhat true for me 3 = somewhat false for me 4 = very false for me

1. ____ A person's family is the most important thing in life. 2. ____ Even if something bad is about to happen to me, I rarely experience fear or nervousness. 3. ____ I go out of my way to get things I want. 4. ____ When I'm doing well at something I love to keep at it. 5. ____ I'm always willing to try something new if I think it will be fun. 6. ____ How I dress is important to me. 7. ____ When I get something I want, I feel excited and energized. 8. ____ Criticism or scolding hurts me quite a bit. 9. ____ When I want something I usually go all-out to get it. 10. ____ I will often do things for no other reason than that they might be fun.

11. ____ It's hard for me to find the time to do things such as get a haircut. 12. ____ If I see a chance to get something I want I move on it right away. 13. ____ I feel pretty worried or upset when I think or know somebody is angry at me. 14. ____ When I see an opportunity for something I like I get excited right away. 15. ____ I often act on the spur of the moment. 16. ____ If I think something unpleasant is going to happen I usually get pretty "worked up." 17. ____ I often wonder why people act the way they do. 18. ____ When good things happen to me, it affects me strongly. 19. ____ I feel worried when I think I have done poorly at something important. 20. ____ I crave excitement and new sensations.

21. ____ When I go after something I use a "no holds barred" approach. 22. ____ I have very few fears compared to my friends. 23. ____ It would excite me to win a contest. 24. ____ I worry about making mistakes.


Appendix D

ERQ

We would like to aske you some questions about your emotional life, in particular, how you control (that is, regulate and manage) your emotions. We are interested in two aspects of your emotional life. One is your emotional experience, or what you feel like inside. The other is your emotional expression, or how you show your emotions in the way your talk, gesture, or behave. Although some of the following questions may seem similar to one another, they differ in important ways. For each item, please answer using the following scale: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly neutral strongly disagree agree 1. ____ When I want to feel more positive emotion (such as joy or amusement), I change what I’m

thinking about. 2. ____ I keep my emotions to myself. 3. ____ When I want to feel less negative emotion (such as sadness or anger), I change what I’m thinking about. 4. ____ When I am feeling positive emotions, I am careful not to express them. 5. ____ When I’m faced with a stressful situation, I make myself think about it in a way that helps me stay calm. 6. ____ I control my emotions by not expressing them. 7. ____ When I want to feel more positive emotion, I change the way I’m thinking about the situation. 8. ____ I control my emotions by changing the way I think about the situation I’m in. 9. ____ When I’m feeling negative emotions, I make sure not to express them. 10. ____ When I want to feel less negative emotions, I change the way I’m thinking about the situation.


Appendix E

BEQ

For each statement below, please indicate your agreement or disagreement. Do so by filling in the blank in front of each item with the appropriate number from the following rating scale: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly neutral strongly disagree agree ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ____ 1. Whenever I feel positive emotions, people can easily see exactly

what I am feeling.

____ 2. I sometimes cry during sad movies. ____ 3. People often do not know what I am feeling. ____ 4. I laugh out loud when someone tells me a joke that I think is funny. ____ 5. It is difficult for me to hide my fear. ____ 6. When I'm happy, my feelings show. ____ 7. My body reacts very strongly to emotional situations. ____ 8. I've learned it is better to suppress my anger than to show it. ____ 9. No matter how nervous or upset I am, I tend to keep a calm exterior. ____10. I am an emotionally expressive person. ____11. I have strong emotions. ____12. I am sometimes unable to hide my feelings, even though I would like to. ____13. Whenever I feel negative emotions, people can easily see exactly

what I am feeling.

____14. There have been times when I have not been able to stop crying even though I tried to stop.

____15. I experience my emotions very strongly. ____16. What I'm feeling is written all over my face.


Appendix F Subject #_______________ Condition:______________ Indicate, by circling on the answer sheet, how much of each emotion you feel right now. If you do not feel any of a particular emotion, circle 1. If you feel a lot, circle 5, or an intermediate amount, circle 3, etc.

1. Peacefulness 1 2 3 4 5 2. Interest 1 2 3 4 5 3. Relaxation 1 2 3 4 5 4. Excitement 1 2 3 4 5 5. Happiness 1 2 3 4 5 6. Uneasiness 1 2 3 4 5 7. Anger 1 2 3 4 5 8. Sadness 1 2 3 4 5 9. Tiredness 1 2 3 4 5 10. Enjoyment 1 2 3 4 5 11. Pleasantness 1 2 3 4 5 12. Physiological 1 2 3 4 5

Arousal 13. Boredom 1 2 3 4 5

How difficult was this task?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 very easy neither very easy nor difficult difficult How well do you feel you were able to not show out ward sign of emotion during this task? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 very neither not well well well nor at all not well


Appendix G

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Informed Consent for Participants Of Investigative Projects

Title of project: Individual Differences in Adults’ Self-Report of Negative Affect and Effortful

Control: Consequences of Physiology, Emotion, and Behavior

Principle Investigators : Aimee K. Santucci, M.S., Bruce Friedman, Ph.D. 1. The purpose of this research:

The purpose of this research is to investigate the effects on physiology and behavior of emotion and the ability to regulate that emotion in different groups of individuals. Subjects will be selected based on responses on the Adult Temperament Questionnaire. 2. Procedures This study will take approximately two hours to complete. I understand that I will have six electrodes placed on my chest and back via adhesive and then be hooked up to an ambulatory monitoring system from which electroencephalogram and impedance cardiography measures will be derived. For this part of the study, all participants and experimenters will be gender-matched.

During each of the tasks, a video camera placed behind a two-way mirror to unobtrusively record participants’ facial behavior and upper body movement. I understand that videotaping will begin after the electrode attachment procedure has been completed.

I will be asked to complete several computerized tasks as well as a hand cold pressor task, and will allow continuous measures of my heart rate, respiration, and thoracic impedance to be taken. I will then be asked to complete the Beck Depression Inventory, the Adult Temperament Questionnaire, and a screening questionnaire. 3. Risks: The risks of this study are minimal. However, I understand that these questionnaires and measures may evoke uncomfortable feelings and images. If this occurs, services are available on campus through the Psychological Services Center and the on-campus health facility. Safeguards that will be used to minimize my risk or discomfort are that I will be able to contact one of these services, if I so desire. Should you report that you may harm yourself or others (on the Beck Depression Inventory), the researcher has the obligation to break confidentiality and report this information to the appropriate agency. 4. Benefits of this Project: I understand that my participation in this study will help evaluate the effect of temperament on physiology and cognitive performance.


I understand that I am able to receive a synopsis of the results when completed. If I choose to receive a summary of the findings, I understand that I must provide a self-addressed stamped envelope to the investigators or e-mail the primary investigator with a request for further information. 5. Extent of Anonymity and Confidentiality: The information obtained by this research may be used for scientific and/or educational purposes and information relating to the responses of all participants may be presented at scientific meetings and/or published in professional journals or books. I understand that the results of this study will be kept strictly confidential. The information I provide will have my name removed and only a subject number will identify me during the analyses and any written reports of the research. The videotape for each subject’s session will be marked with subject number. The only individual with access to the list matching subject numbers with subject names will be the primary investigator. All videotapes will be stored in a locked cabinet in a locked room in a secure laboratory setting. Only the investigators on this project will have keyed access to this room. All videotapes will be destroyed one year after the completion of this study (anticipated completion date: 4/03). I understand that should I report that I may harm myself or others (on the Beck Depression Inventory), the researcher has the obligation to break confidentiality and report this information to the appropriate agency. 6. Compensation: For their participation in this project, participants are eligible to receive extra course credit toward courses in psychology as indicated by their instructor. One extra credit point per hour of participation will be awarded, not to exceed two extra credit points. 7. Freedom to Withdraw: I understand that I am free to withdraw from this study at any time. If I choose to withdraw, I will not be penalized by reduction in points or grade from any psychology course. 8. Approval of Research: This research has been approved, as required, by the Institutional Review Board for projects involving human subjects at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, and by the Human Subjects Committee in the Department of Psychology. 9. Participant’s Permission: I have read and understood the Informed Consent and conditions of this project. I have had all my questions answered. I hereby acknowledge the above and give my voluntary consent for participation in this project. I agree to abide by the rules for this project. Aimee K. Santucci, 231-3630, [email protected] Bruce H. Friedman, Ph.D., 231-9611 David W. Harrison, Chair, Human Subjects Committee, 231-4422 David Moore, Chair, Institutional Review Board, Research Division, 231-4991 Participant Signature: __________________________________ Date: _____________

Witness: ____________________________________________ Date: _____________


Appendix H Task Instructions

“For this first task, I would like you to sit back and relax for a few minutes. I will tell you when to begin and when we are done. Do you have any questions?” “Today you will be doing several tasks. You may feel some emotions during these tasks. It is important that you pay attention to each of the tasks, but if you should find any of the tasks uncomfortable, just say “stop”. If you have any feelings while you do the task, please try your best not to let those feelings show. In other words, as you do the task, try to behave in such a way that a person watching you would not know you were feeling anything. Pay attention to the task, but please try to behave so that someone watching you would not know that you are feeling anything at all.” (directions modified from Gross & Levenson, 1993) Stroop task: “For this task you will be seeing words on the computer screen in front of you, one word at a time. Each word will be written in red, blue, yellow, or green letters. If the word is written in red letters, please press the red key on the keyboard. If the word is written in blue letters, press the blue key, and so on. Use only one hand to press keys for your response, and let the other hand rest in your lap. Try to do this task as fast as you can without making any errors. Do you understand the directions? When you are the end of the word list, the word “End” will appear on the screen. Once again, remember to not show any emotions when you are doing this task. Delayed gratification task: “This task is very similar to the other word task you did, except this time there will be more words. Once again, each word will be written in red, blue, yellow, or green letters. If the word is written in red letters, press the red key on the keyboard, and so on. When you finish this task, your name will be put into a drawing for two cash prizes of $50 each; one winner will be selected at random for each of these prizes. The people who have the top ten fastest times and who are the most accurate on this task will each have their names put into the drawing an additional five times. This means their chances will be better for winning one of the cash prizes. When you are doing this task you can quit at any time, and you will still have your name entered in the drawing one time. You can only have your name entered additional times if you finish the task AND are one of the 10 fastest and most accurate. Do you understand the directions? Remember to not show any emotions you are feeling when you are doing this task.” Video game task: “The following task is a car race video game. Use the up, down, and side arrows on the keyboard to move yourself forward, backward, and to the right or left. The object is to get to the end of the “course” as quickly as possible. Do you understand the directions? Remember to not show any emotions you are feeling when you are playing this videogame. Hand Cold Pressor: “For this task you will be placing your hand, up to the wrist, in cool icy water for three minutes. At 1.5 minutes, you will be permitted to take out your hand and dry it off for no more than 10 seconds. I will let you know when it is time. It is important that your hand stays fully submerged up to the wrist during this task. Please remember to not show any emotions you are feeling when you are doing this task.”


IRB Approval Documentation


Curriculum Vitae

Aimee K. Santucci Address: 5105 Derring Hall, Department of Psychology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060-0436 Phone: (540) 231-3630 Fax: (540) 231-3652 E-mail: [email protected] Webpage: http://www.psyc.vt.edu/mbl/

Education Dissertation Defense: April, 2003: Individual Differences in Negative Affect and Effortful

Control: Consequences for Physiology, Emotion, and Behavior” Doctoral preliminary examination: December 13, 2001 Master’s defense: April, 2001; “Cognitive Biases and Autonomic Responding in Anxiety and

Depression” Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, M.S. in Psychology, 2001

University of West Florida, M.A. in Psychology, 1999 Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, B.A. in Psychology with Honors (cum laude),

B.A. in French, minor in Anthropology, 1995

Academic Employment University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA: Beginning 6/1/03: Research Fellowship with Department of Psychiatry, Western Psychiatric

Institute and Clinic Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA:

8/98 - Present, Graduate Teaching Assistant, Department of Psychology Developmental Psychology, Personality, Advanced Developmental Psychology,

Introductory Psychology, Lab in Developmental Psychology 5/99 – 7/02, Summer graduate research stipend, Department of Psychology, Mind-Body Lab

University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL: 8/96-12/97, Graduate Teaching Assistant, Department of Psychology University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL

Research Interests

Psychophysiology of emotion and mood states Behavioral and physiological correlates of emotion regulation strategies

Developmental psychophysiology


Publications Refereed Journal Articles

Friedman, B.H., Allen, M.T., Christie, I.C., & Santucci, A.K. (2002). Quantification issues in time- and frequency-domain measures of heart rate variability. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine, 21, 35-40.

Manuscripts Accepted for Publication

Friedman, B.H., & Santucci, A.K. (2003). Idiodynamic profiles of cardiovascular activity: A p-technique approach.

Manuscripts Submitted for Publication

Santucci A.K., & Friedman, B.H. (2003). Affective responses to autonomic tasks: an idiodynamic approach.

Manuscripts in Preparation

Santucci, A.K. & Friedman. Autonomic characteristics of anxiety, depression, and co-morbid anxiety-depression.

Published Abstracts

Christie, I.C., Friedman, B.H., & Santucci, A.K. (2002). Multivariate demonstration of stimulus-response specificity and individual-response stereotypy: implications for reactivity research. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 24 (Suppl), S072.

Santucci, A.K., & Friedman, B.H. (2002). Cognitive biases and autonomic responding in anxiety and depression. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 24 (Suppl), S076.

Santucci A.K., Friedman, B.H. (2001). Cardiovascular and affective responses to laboratory tasks. Psychophysiology, (Suppl. 1), S84.

Scott-Curtis, E. M., Friedman, B. H., Santucci, A. K., & Christie, I. C. (2001). Autonomic and self-reported responses to music and laboratory tasks. Psychophysiology, (Suppl. 1), S87.

Santucci, A.K. (2001). Autonomic characteristics of anxiety, depression, and co-morbid anxiety-depression. Graduate Student Assembly: 17th Annual Research Symposium of Virginia Tech, 63.

Santucci, A.K. (2001). Autonomic characteristics of anxiety, depression, and co-morbid anxiety-depression. Psychosomatic Medicine, 63, 157.

Christie, I.C., Friedman, B.H., & Santucci, A.K. (2000). Comparative assessment of two heart rate variability measures. Psychophysiology, 37 (Suppl. 1), S32.

Santucci, A.K., Friedman, B.H., & Pumphrey, B.G. (2000). Heart rate variability in anxiety and depression during rest and stroop. Psychophysiology, 37 (Suppl. 1), S86.


Friedman, B., Santucci, A. & Christie, I. (2000). Chain P-technique Factor Analysis of Cardiovascular Activity. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 22, (Suppl. 1), S136.

Santucci, A., Friedman, B., Curtis, E., & Pumphrey, B. (2000). Cardiovascular and Affective

Responses to Relaxing and Arousing Tasks. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 22, (Suppl. 1), S144.

Friedman, B., Santucci, A., Curtis, E., & Pumphrey, B. (1999). Idiodynamic Profiles of Cardiovascular Activity. Psychophysiology, 36, (Suppl. 1), S52.

Other Publications

Santucci, A.K. (1999). "Precis1, Section 6: Cognition". Exploring Psychology: Reader Workbook. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Santucci, A.K. (1999). "Precis 2, Section 5: Memory". Exploring Psychology: Reader

Workbook . New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Symposia and Conference Presentations

Santucci, A.K., & Friedman, B.H. (October, 2002). Autonomic and cognitive differentiation of anxiety, depression, and mixed anxiety/depression. The psychophysiology of anxiety: Basic findings and clinical applications. Symposium conducted at the 42nd annual meeting of the Society for Psychophysiological Research, Washington, DC.

Santucci, A.K., Friedman, B.H., & Kyrgos, E.C. (2001). Autonomic and cognitive

characteristics of anxiety, depression, and co-morbid anxiety-depression. Presented at the 13th annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Santucci, A.K., Friedman, B.H., & Kyrgos, E.C. (2001). Autonomic and cognitive characteristics of anxiety, depression, and co-morbid anxiety-depression. Presented at

the 2001 Virginia Psychological Association Annual Meeting, Roanoke, VA

Santucci, A. K., & Mikulas, W. L. (2000). Cultivating mindfulness through body awareness. Presented at the 71st annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Society, Baltimore, MD. Santucci, A.K., & Mikulas, W.L. (1998). Cultivating mindfulness in a workshop setting. Presented at the 39th annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Mobile, AL. Tloczynski, J., Santucci, A., & Astor-Stetson, E. (1995). The perception of visual illusions by novice and long-term meditators. Presented at the 66th annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Boston, MA. Astor-Stetson, E., Waggoner, J., Santucci, A., & Wueschinski, S. (1994). Perception of holusions in set and no-set conditions. Presented at the 1994 University of Scranton Conference, PA.


Professional Activities: Colloquia

Cognitive biases and autonomic responding in anxiety and depression. Department of Psychology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, March, 2000.

Reviewer Depression and Anxiety

Grants and Funding Graduate Research Development Project, Dissertation Grant, November 2002, $500

Graduate Student Assembly Travel Fund Award, November 2002, $200 Graduate Student Assembly Travel Fund Award, March 2002, $293

Galper Fund Award, Virginia Tech, April 2001: for professional development activities: $250 Graduate Student Assembly Travel Fund Award, October 2000, $300

Galper Fund Award, Virginia Tech, April 2000: for professional development activities: $200 Thesis Grant, University of West Florida, January 1997-December 1997: "Cultivating

Mindfulness Through Body Awareness": $500 Academic Awards Virginia Tech Graduate School 17th Annual Research Symposium: 2nd place winner for poster presentation in the Arts and Sciences: $200 Professional Memberships

Society for Psychophysiological Research American Psychosomatic Society Society of Behavioral Medicine

Teaching: Workshops

Using mindfulness in an exercise setting. Pensacourt Health and Fitness Club, Pensacola, FL, 1996.

Stress reduction techniques. Workshop for Senior Club of Pensacola, FL, 1997.

Documents

Individual Differences in Adults’ Self-Report of Negative