Indira Gandhi

3rd Prime Minister of IndiaIn office

January 14, 1980 – October 31, 1984

President N. Sanjiva Reddy Zail Singh

Preceded by Charan Singh

Succeeded by Rajiv Gandhi

In office January 24, 1966 – March 24, 1977

President SarvepalliRadhakrishnan Zakir Husain V. V. Giri Fakhruddin AliAhmed

Deputy Morarji Desai

Preceded by Gulzarilal Nanda(Acting)

Succeeded by Morarji Desai

Minister of External AffairsIn office

March 9, 1984 – October 31, 1984

Preceded by P. V. NarasimhaRao

Indira GandhiIndira Priyadarshini Gandhi (Hindustani: [ˈɪnːdɪrə ˈɡaːndʱi] ( listen); née Nehru;

November 19, 1917 – October 31, 1984), was an Indian politician, stateswomanand a central figure of the Indian National Congress.[1] She was the first and, todate, the only female Prime Minister of India. Indira Gandhi was the daughter ofJawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India. Despite her surname Gandhi,she is not related to the family of Mahatma Gandhi; Gandhi is a common surnamein Gujarat. She served as Prime Minister from January 1966 to March 1977 andagain from January 1980 until her assassination in October 1984, making her thesecond longest-serving Indian Prime Minister after her father.[2]

Gandhi served as her father's personal assistant and hostess during his tenure asPrime Minister between 1947 and 1964. She was elected President of the IndianNational Congress in 1959. Upon her father's death in 1964 she was appointed as amember of the Rajya Sabha (upper house) and became a member of Lal BahadurShastri's cabinet as Minister of Information and Broadcasting.[3] In the CongressParty's parliamentary leadership election held in early 1966 (upon the death ofShastri), she defeated her rival Morarji Desai, to become leader, and thussucceeded Shastri as Prime Minister of India.

As Prime Minister, Gandhi was known for her political intransigency andunprecedented centralisation of power. She went to war with Pakistan in supportof the independence movement and war of independence in East Pakistan, whichresulted in an Indian victory and the creation of Bangladesh, as well as increasingIndia's influence to the point where it became the regional hegemon of South Asia.Citing fissiparous tendencies and in response to a call for revolution, Gandhiinstituted a state of emergency from 1975 to 1977 where basic civil liberties weresuspended and the press was censored. Widespread atrocities were carried outduring the emergency. In 1980, she returned to power after free and fair elections.After Operation Blue Star, she was assassinated by her own bodyguards and Sikhnationalists on 31st October, 1984. The assassins, Beant Singh and Satwant Singh,were both shot by other security guards. Satwant Singh recovered from his injuriesand was executed after being convicted of murder.

In 1999, Indira Gandhi was named "Woman of the Millennium" in an online pollorganised by the BBC.[4]

Early life and career

First term as Prime Minister between 1966 and 1977First year1967–19711971–1977

Verdict on electoral malpracticeState of Emergency (1975–1977)

Contents

Succeeded by Rajiv Gandhi

In office August 22, 1967 – March 14, 1969

Preceded by M. C. Chagla

Succeeded by Dinesh Singh

Minister of DefenceIn office

January 14, 1980 – January 15, 1982

Preceded by ChidambaramSubramaniam

Succeeded by R. Venkataraman

In office November 30, 1975 – December 20,

1975

Preceded by Swaran Singh

Succeeded by Bansi Lal

Minister of Home AffairsIn office

June 27, 1970 – February 4, 1973

Preceded by YashwantraoChavan

Succeeded by Uma ShankarDikshit

Minister of FinanceIn office

July 17, 1969 – June 27, 1970

Preceded by Morarji Desai

Succeeded by YashwantraoChavan

Minister of Information andBroadcasting

In office June 9, 1964 – January 24, 1966

Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri

Preceded by Satya NarayanSinha

Succeeded by Kodardas KalidasShah

Personal details

Born Indira PriyadarshiniNehru 19 November 1917 Allahabad, UnitedProvinces of Agraand Oudh, British

Rule by decreeRise of Sanjay

1977 election and opposition yearsIn opposition and return to power

1980 elections and third termOperation Blue StarAssassination

Foreign relationsSouth AsiaMiddle EastAsia-PacificAfricaThe CommonwealthThe Non-aligned MovementWestern EuropeSoviet UnionUnited States

Economic policyGreen Revolution and the Fourth Five-Year PlanState of Emergency and the Fifth Five-Year PlanOperation Forward and the Sixth Five-Year PlanInflation and unemployment

Domestic policyNationalisationAdministrationSocial reformLanguage policyNational securityNuclear Program of India

Family, personal life and outlook

Views on women

Awards

Legacy

Posthumous honours

See also

ReferencesNotesReferencesSources

Further reading

External links

Indira Gandhi was born as Indira Nehru in a Kashmiri Pandit family on 19November 1917 in Allahabad.[5] Her father, Jawaharlal Nehru, was a leadingfigure in India's political struggle for independence from British rule, and becamethe first Prime Minister of the Dominion (and later Republic) of India.[6] She wasthe only child (a younger brother was born, but died young),[7] and grew up withher mother, Kamala Nehru, at the Anand Bhavan; a large family estate in

Early life and career

India (present-day Uttar

Pradesh, India)

Died 31 October 1984(aged 66) New Delhi, India

Cause of death Assassination

Resting place Shakti Sthal

Political party Indian NationalCongress Indian NationalCongress (I)

Spouse(s)

Relations See Nehru–Gandhifamily

Children Rajiv Gandhi Sanjay Gandhi

Parents Jawaharlal Nehru(Father)

Kamala Nehru(Mother)

Alma mater Visva-BharatiUniversity Somerville College,Oxford

Occupation Politician

Awards Bharat Ratna(1971)

Signature

Allahabad.[8] She had a lonely and unhappy childhood.[9] Her father was oftenaway, directing political activities or incarcerated, while her mother was frequently

bed-ridden with illness, and later suffered an early death from tuberculosis.[10] Shehad limited contact with her father, mostly through letters.[11]

Indira was mostly taught at homeby tutors, and intermittentlyattended school untilmatriculation in 1934. She was astudent at the Modern School inDelhi, St Cecilia's and St Mary'sChristian convent schools inAllahabad,[12] the InternationalSchool of Geneva, the EcoleNouvelle in Bex, and the Pupils'Own School in Poona andBombay, which is affiliated toUniversity of Mumbai. [13] Sheand her mother Kamala Nehrumoved to Belur Math

headquarters of Ramakrishna Mission where Swami Ranganathananda was herguardian[14] later she went on to study at the Visva-Bharati University inSantiniketan. It was during her interview that Rabindranath Tagore named herPriyadarshini, and she came to be known as Indira Priyadarshini Nehru.[15] A yearlater, however, she had to leave university to attend to her ailing mother inEurope.[16] While there, it was decided that Indira would continue her education atthe University of Oxford.[17] After her mother died, she briefly attended theBadminton School before enrolling at Somerville College in 1937 to studyhistory.[18] Indira had to take the entrance examination twice, having failed at herfirst attempt with a poor performance in Latin.[18] At Oxford, she did well inhistory, political science and economics, but her grades in Latin—a compulsorysubject—remained poor.[19][20] She did, however, have an active part within thestudent life of the university, such as the Oxford Majlis Asian Society.[21] On 26thSeptember 1981, Mrs Indira Gandhi, was conferred with the Honorory Degree ofDoctor at the Laucala Graduation at the University of the South Pacific in Fiji.

During her time in Europe, Indira was plagued with ill-health and was constantly attended to by doctors. She had to make repeatedtrips to Switzerland to recover, disrupting her studies. She was being treated there in 1940, when the German armies rapidlyconquered Europe. Gandhi tried to return to England through Portugal but was left stranded for nearly two months. She managed toenter England in early 1941, and from there returned to India without completing her studies at Oxford. The university later awardedher an honorary degree. In 2010, Oxford further honoured her by selecting her as one of the ten Oxasians, illustrious Asian graduatesfrom the University of Oxford.[22] During her stay in Great Britain, Indira frequently met her future husband Feroze Gandhi (norelation to Mahatma Gandhi), whom she knew from Allahabad, and who was studying at the London School of Economics. Themarriage took place in Allahabad according to Adi Dharm rituals though Feroze belonged to a Zoroastrian Parsi family ofGujarat.[23] The couple had two sons, Rajiv Gandhi (born 1944) and Sanjay Gandhi (born 1946).

In the 1950s, Indira, now Mrs Indira Gandhi after her marriage, served her father unofficially as a personal assistant during his tenureas the first Prime Minister of India.[24] Towards the end of the 1950s, Indira Gandhi served as the President of the Congress. In thatcapacity, she was instrumental in getting the Communist led Kerala State Government dismissed in 1959. That government had thedistinction of being India's first ever elected Communist Government.[25] After her father's death in 1964 she was appointed as a

Feroze Gandhi (m. 1942;died 1960)

Young Indira with Mahatma Gandhiduring his fast in 1924. Indira, who isdressed in a khadi garment, isfollowing Gandhi's advocacy thatkhadi be worn by all Indians insteadof British-made textiles

member of the Rajya Sabha (upper house) and served in Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri'scabinet as Minister of Information and Broadcasting.[26] In January 1966, after Shastri's death,the Congress legislative party elected Indira Gandhi over Morarji Desai as their leader.Congress party veteran K. Kamaraj was instrumental in achieving Indira's victory.[27] Becauseshe was a woman, other political leaders in India saw Gandhi as weak and hoped to use her asa puppet once elected:

Congress President Kamaraj orchestrated Mrs. Gandhi's selection as primeminister because he perceived her to be weak enough that he and the otherregional party bosses could control her, and yet strong enough to beat Desai[her political opponent] in a party election because of the high regard for herfather…a woman would be an ideal tool for the Syndicate.[28]

The first eleven years of Indira's position as prime minister saw her evolving from theperception of Congress party leaders as their puppet to a strong leader with the iron resolve to split the party for her policy positionsor to go to war with Pakistan to liberate Bangladesh. At the end of this term in 1977, she was such a dominating figure in Indianpolitics that a Congress party president had coined the phrase "India is Indira and Indira is India."[29]

Indira formed her government with Morarji Desai as deputy prime minister and finance minister. At the beginning of her first term asprime minister, Indira was widely criticized by the media and the opposition as a "Goongi goodiya" (Hindi word for a dumb doll orpuppet) of the Congress party bosses who had got her elected and tried to constrain her.[30][31]

The first electoral test for Indira was the 1967 general elections for the Lok sabha and state assemblies. The Congress Party won areduced majority for the Lok sabha in these elections owing to widespread disenchantment over rising prices of commodities,unemployment, economic stagnation and a food crisis. Indira Gandhi had started on a rocky note after agreeing to a devaluation ofthe rupee, which created much hardship for Indian businesses and consumers, and the import of wheat from the United States fellthrough due to political disputes.[32]

The party also for the first time lost power or lost majority in a number of states across the country. Following the 1967 elections,Indira Gandhi gradually started moving towards socialist policies. In 1969, she fell out with senior Congress party leaders on anumber of issues. Chief among them was the decision by Indira to support V. V. Giri, the independent candidate rather than theofficial Congress party candidate Neelam Sanjiva Reddy for the vacant position of President of India. The other was theannouncement by the prime minister of Bank nationalization without consulting the finance minister, Morarji Desai. These stepsculminated in Party president S. Nijalingappa expelling her from the party for indiscipline.[33][34][35] Gandhi, in turn floated her ownfaction of the Congress party and managed to retain most of the Congress MPs on her side with only 65 on the side of Congress (O)faction. The Indira faction, called Congress (R), lost its majority in the parliament but remained in power with the support of regionalparties such as DMK.[36] The policies of the Congress under Indira Gandhi, prior to the 1971 elections, also included proposals forthe abolition of Privy Purse to former rulers of the Princely states and the 1969 nationalization of the fourteen largest banks in India.

Indira Nehru c. early 1930s

First term as Prime Minister between 1966 and1977

First year

1967–1971

1971–1977

Garibi Hatao (Eradicate Poverty) was the theme for Gandhi's 1971 political bid. On the other hand, the combined opposition alliancehad a two word manifesto of "Indira Hatao" (Remove Indira).[37][38] The Garibi Hatao slogan and the proposed anti-povertyprograms that came with it were designed to give Gandhi an independent national support, based on rural and urban poor. This wouldallow her to bypass the dominant rural castes both in and of state and local governments; likewise the urban commercial class. And,for their part, the previously voiceless poor would at last gain both political worth and political weight. The programs created throughGaribi Hatao, though carried out locally, were funded and developed by the Central Government in New Delhi. The program wassupervised and staffed by the Indian National Congress party. "These programs also provided the central political leadership with newand vast patronage resources to be disbursed... throughout the country.",[39]

The biggest achievement of Indira Gandhi after the 1971 election came in December 1971 with India's decisive victory over Pakistanin the liberation war, that led to the formation of independent Bangladesh. She was hailed as Goddess Durga by opposition leaderAtal Bihari Vajpayee at that time.[40][41][42][43][note 1] In the elections held for State assemblies across India in March 1972, theCongress (R) swept to power in most states riding on the post-war "Indira wave".[45]

Despite the victory against Pakistan, the Congress government faced numerous problems during this term. Some of these were due tohigh inflation which was in turn caused by war time expenses, drought in some parts of the country and more importantly, the 1973oil crisis. The opposition to Gandhi in 1973–75 period, after the Indira wave had receded, was strongest in the states of Bihar andGujarat. In Bihar, Jayaprakash Narayan, the veteran leader came out of retirement to lead the protest movement there.[45]

On 12 June 1975, the Allahabad High Court declared Indira Gandhi's election to the LokSabha in 1971 void on grounds of electoral malpractice. In an election petition filed by her1971 opponent, Raj Narain (who later on defeated her in 1977 parliamentary election fromRaebareli), alleged several major as well as minor instances of using government resources forcampaigning.[46][47] The court ordered her stripped of her parliamentary seat and banned fromrunning for any office for six years. According to constitution, the Prime Minister must be amember of either the Lok Sabha (the lower house in the Parliament of India) or a member ofthe Rajya Sabha (the upper house). Thus, this decision effectively removed her from office.Gandhi had asked one of her colleagues in government, Mr. Ashoke Kumar Sen to defend herin court.

But Gandhi rejected calls to resign and announced plans to appeal to the Supreme Court. Theverdict was delivered by Mr Justice Jagmohanlal Sinha at Allahabad High Court. It camealmost four years after the case was brought by Raj Narain, the premier's defeated opponent inthe 1971 parliamentary election. Gandhi, who gave evidence in her defence during the trial,was found guilty of dishonest election practices, excessive election expenditure, and of usinggovernment machinery and officials for party purposes.[46][48] The judge, however, rejected

more serious charges of bribery against her.

Gandhi insisted that the conviction did not undermine her position, despite having been unseated from the lower house of parliament,Lok Sabha, by order of the High Court. She said: "There is a lot of talk about our government not being clean, but from ourexperience the situation was very much worse when [opposition] parties were forming governments". And she dismissed criticism ofthe way her Congress Party raised election campaign money, saying all parties used the same methods. The prime minister retainedthe support of her party, which issued a statement backing her. After news of the verdict spread, hundreds of supporters demonstratedoutside her house, pledging their loyalty. Indian High Commissioner BK Nehru said Gandhi's conviction would not harm her politicalcareer. "Mrs Gandhi has still today overwhelming support in the country," he said. "I believe the prime minister of India will continuein office until the electorate of India decides otherwise".

Verdict on electoral malpractice

Indira Gandhi with RichardNixon, 1971

State of Emergency (1975–1977)

Gandhi moved to restore order by ordering the arrest of most of the opposition participating in the unrest. Her Cabinet andgovernment then recommended that President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed declare a state of emergency because of the disorder andlawlessness following the Allahabad High Court decision. Accordingly, Ahmed declared a State of Emergency caused by internaldisorder, based on the provisions of Article 352(1) of the Constitution, on 25 June 1975.

Within a few months, President's rule was imposed on the two opposition party ruled states of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu therebybringing the entire country under direct Central rule or by governments led by the ruling Congress party.[49] Police were grantedpowers to impose curfews and indefinitely detain citizens and all publications were subjected to substantial censorship by theMinistry of Information and Broadcasting. Finally, the impending legislative assembly elections were indefinitely postponed, with allopposition-controlled state governments being removed by virtue of the constitutional provision allowing for a dismissal of a stategovernment on recommendation of the state's governor.

Indira Gandhi used the emergency provisions to change conflicting party members.

Unlike her father Jawaharlal Nehru, who preferred to deal with strong chief ministers in control of their legislativeparties and state party organizations, Mrs. Gandhi set out to remove every Congress chief minister who had anindependent base and to replace each of them with ministers personally loyal to her...Even so, stability could not bemaintained in the states...[50]

President Ahmed issued ordinances that did not require debate in the Parliament, allowing Gandhi to rule by decree.

The Emergency saw the entry of Gandhi's younger son, Sanjay Gandhi, into Indian Politics. Sanjay wielded tremendous powerduring the emergency without holding any Government office. According to Mark Tully, "His inexperience did not stop him fromusing the Draconian powers his mother, Indira Gandhi, had taken to terrorise the administration, setting up what was in effect a policestate."[51]

It was said that during the Emergency he virtually ran India along with his friends, especially Bansi Lal.[52] It was also quipped thatSanjay Gandhi had total control over his mother and that the government was run by the PMH (Prime Minister House) rather than thePMO (Prime Minister Office).[53][54][55]

In 1977, after extending the state of emergency twice, Indira Gandhi called elections to give the electorate a chance to vindicate herrule. Gandhi may have grossly misjudged her popularity by reading what the heavily censored press wrote about her.[56] In any case,she was opposed by the Janata alliance of Opposition parties. The alliance was made up of Bharatiya Jana Sangh, Congress (O), TheSocialist parties, and Charan Singh's Bharatiya Kranti Dal representing northern peasant and farmers. Janata alliance, with JaiPrakash Narayan as its spiritual guide, claimed the elections were the last chance for India to choose between "democracy anddictatorship." The Congress Party split during the election campaign of 1977: veteran Indira supporters like Jagjivan Ram, HemvatiNandan Bahuguna and Nandini Satpathy were compelled to part ways and form a new political entity, CFD (Congress forDemocracy), primarily due to intra-party politicking and also due to circumstances created by Sanjay Gandhi. The prevailing rumourwas that Sanjay had intentions of dislodging Gandhi and the trio stood between that. Gandhi's Congress party was crushed soundly inthe elections. The public realized the statement and motto of the Janata Party alliance. Indira and Sanjay Gandhi both lost their seats,and Congress was cut down to 153 seats (compared with 350 in the previous Lok Sabha), 92 of which were in the South. The Janataalliance, under the leadership of Morarji Desai, came into power after the State of Emergency was lifted. The alliance parties latermerged to form the Janata Party under the guidance of Gandhian leader, Jayaprakash Narayan. The other leaders of the Janata Partywere Charan Singh, Raj Narain, George Fernandes and Atal Bihari Vajpayee.[57]

Rule by decree

Rise of Sanjay

1977 election and opposition years

Since Gandhi had lost her seat in the election, the defeated Congress party appointedYashwantrao Chavan as their parliamentary party leader. Soon afterwards, the Congress partysplit again with Gandhi floating her own Congress faction. She won a by-election from theChikmagalur Constituency to the Lok Sabha in November 1978.[58][59] However, the Janatagovernment's Home Minister, Choudhary Charan Singh, ordered the arrest of her and SanjayGandhi on several charges, none of which would be easy to prove in an Indian court. Thearrest meant that Indira Gandhi was automatically expelled from Parliament. These allegationsincluded that she "had planned or thought of killing all opposition leaders in jail during theEmergency".[60] In response to her arrest, Indira Gandhi's supporters hijacked an IndianAirlines jet and demanded her immediate release.[61] However, this strategy backfireddisastrously. Her arrest and long-running trial gained her great sympathy from many people.The Janata coalition was only united by its hatred of Gandhi (or "that woman" as some calledher). The party included right wing Hindu Nationalists, Socialists and former Congress partymembers. With so little in common, the Morarji Desai government was bogged down byinfighting. In 1979, the government started to unravel over the issue of dual loyalties of somemembers to Janata and the RSS. The ambitious Union Finance minister, Charan Singh, who as the Union Home Minister during theprevious year had ordered arrest of Gandhi, took advantage of this and started courting the Congress. After a significant exodus fromthe party to Charan Singh's faction, Desai resigned in July 1979. Charan Singh was appointed Prime Minister, by President Reddy,after Indira and Sanjay Gandhi promised Singh that Congress would support his government from outside on certainconditions.[62][63] The conditions included dropping all charges against Indira and Sanjay. Since Charan Singh refused to drop thecharges, Congress withdrew its support and President Reddy dissolved Parliament in August 1979.

Before the 1980 elections Gandhi approached the then Shahi Imam of Jama Masjid, Syed Abdullah Bukhari and entered into anagreement with him on the basis of 10-point programme to secure the support of the Muslim votes.[64] In the elections held inJanuary, Congress returned to power with a landslide majority.

The Congress under Gandhi swept back to power in January 1980.[65] Elections soon after to legislative assemblies in States ruled byopposition parties brought back Congress ministries to those states. Indira's son, Sanjay Gandhi selected his own loyalists to head thegovernments in these states.[66] On 23 June, Gandhi's son Sanjay was killed in an air crash while performing an aerobatic manoeuvrein New Delhi.[67] In 1980, as tribute to hers son's dream of launching an indigenously manufactured, Gandhi nationalized Sanjay'sdebt ridden company called Maruti Udyog for Rs. 4.34 crore and invited joint venture bids from automobile companies around theworld. Suzuki of Japan was selected as the partner. The company launched its first Indian manufactured car in 1984.[68]

Gandhi by the time of Sanjay's death only trusted family members, and therefore persuaded her reluctant son, Rajiv, to enter politics.

In the 1977 elections, a coalition led by the Sikh-majority Akali Dal came to power in the northern Indian state of Punjab. In an effortto split the Akali Dal and gain popular support among the Sikhs, Indira Gandhi's Congress helped bring the orthodox religious leaderJarnail Singh Bhindranwale to prominence in Punjab politics.[69][70] Later, Bhindranwale's organisation Damdami Taksal becameembroiled in violence with another religious sect called the Sant Nirankari Mission, and he was accused of instigating the murder ofJagat Narain, the owner of Punjab Kesari newspaper[71] After being arrested in this matter, Bhindranwale disassociated himself fromCongress and joined hands with the Akali Dal.[72] In July 1982, he led the campaign for the implementation of the AnandpurResolution, which demanded greater autonomy for the Sikh-majority state. Meanwhile, a small section of the Sikhs, including someof Bhindranwale's followers, turned to militancy after being targeted by government officials and police in support of theResolution.[73] In 1982, Bhindranwale and approximately 200 armed followers moved into a guest house called the Guru NanakNiwas, in the precinct of the Golden Temple.[74]

In opposition and return to power

1984 USSR commemorativestamp

1980 elections and third term

Operation Blue Star

By 1983, the Temple complex had become a fort for a large number of militants.[75] The Statesman later reported that light machineguns and semi-automatic rifles were known to have been brought into the compound.[76] On 23 April 1983, the Punjab Police DeputyInspector General A. S. Atwal was shot dead as he left the Temple compound. The following day, after the murder, Harchand SinghLongowal (then president of Shiromani Akali Dal) confirmed the involvement of Bhindranwale in the murder.[77]

After several futile negotiations, Indira Gandhi ordered the Indian army in June 1984 to enter the Golden Temple in order to removeBhindranwale and his supporters from the complex. The army used heavy artillery, including tanks, in the action code-namedOperation Blue Star. The operation badly damaged or destroyed parts of the Temple complex, including the Akal Takht shrine andthe Sikh library. It also led to the deaths of a large number of Sikh fighters and innocent pilgrims. The number of casualties remaindisputed with estimates ranging from many hundreds to many thousands[78]

Gandhi was accused of using the attack for political ends. Dr. Harjinder Singh Dilgeer stated that Indira Gandhi attacked the templecomplex to present herself as a great hero in order to win general elections planned towards the end of 1984.[79] There was fiercecriticism of the action by Sikhs in India and overseas.[80] There was also incidents of mutiny by Sikh soldiers in the aftermath of theattack.[78]

The day before her death (30 October 1984) Indira Gandhi visited Orissa where shegave her last speech at the then Parade Ground in front of the Secretariat of Orissa.In that speech, she strikingly associated her blood with the health of thenation.[note 2]

On 31 October 1984, two of Gandhi's bodyguards, Satwant Singh and Beant Singh,shot her with their service weapons in the garden of the Prime Minister's residence at1 Safdarjung Road, New Delhi.[83] The shooting occurred as she was walking past awicket gate guarded by Satwant and Beant. She was to be interviewed by the Britishactor Peter Ustinov, who was filming a documentary for Irish television.[84] BeantSingh shot her three times using his side-arm and Satwant Singh fired 30 rounds.[85]

Beant Singh and Satwant Singh dropped their weapons and surrendered. Afterwards,they were taken away by other guards into a closed room where Beant Singh wasshot dead. Kehar Singh was later arrested for conspiracy in the attack. Both Satwantand Kehar were sentenced to death and hanged in Delhi's Tihar Jail.

Indira Gandhi was brought at 9:30 AM to the All India Institutes of MedicalSciences where doctors operated on her. She was declared dead at 2:20 PM. Thepost-mortem examination was conducted by a team of doctors headed by Dr. TirathDas Dogra. Dr Dogra stated that as many as 30 bullet wounds were sustained byIndira Gandhi, from two sources, a Sterling submachine gun[86][87] and a pistol. Theassailants had fired 31 bullets at her, of which 30 had hit; 23 had passed through herbody while 7 were trapped inside her. Dr Dogra extracted bullets to establish theidentity of the weapons and to match each weapon with the bullets recovered byballistic examination. The bullets were matched with respective weapons at CFSLDelhi. Subsequently, Dr Dogra appeared in the court of Shri Mahesh Chandra as anexpert witness (PW-5), and his testimony lasted several sessions. The cross examination was conducted by Shri Pran Nath Lekhi, thedefence counsel.[88] Salma Sultan gave the first news of the assassination of Indira Gandhi on Doordarshan's evening news on 31October 1984, more than 10 hours after she was shot.[89][90] She died two weeks and five days before her 67th birthday.

Gandhi was cremated on 3 November near Raj Ghat.[91] The site where she was cremated is today known as Shakti Sthal.[92]

Assassination

The Saree that Indira wore on theday of her assassination

Today, the spot where Indira Gandhiwas assassinated is marked by aglass opening in the crystal pathwayat the Indira Gandhi Memorial

Her funeral was televised live on domestic and international stations, including the BBC.Following her cremation, millions of Sikhs were displaced and nearly three thousand werekilled in anti-Sikh riots.[93] Rajiv Gandhi on a live TV show said of the carnage, "When a bigtree falls, the earth shakes."[94][95]

Indira Gandhi is remembered for her ability to effectively promote Indian foreign policymeasures.[96]

In early 1971, disputed elections in Pakistan led the then East Pakistan to declareindependence as Bangladesh. Repression and violence by the Pakistani army led 10 millionrefugees to cross border in to India over the coming months.[97] Finally in December 1971,Gandhi directly intervened in the conflict to liberate Bangladesh. India emerged victorious inthe resulting conflict to become the dominant power of South Asia.[98] India had signed a treaty with the Soviet Union promisingmutual assistance in the case of war,[99] while Pakistan received active support from the United States during the conflict.[100] U.S.President Richard Nixon disliked Gandhi personally, referring to her as a "witch" and "clever fox" in his private communication withSecretary of State Henry Kissinger.[101] Nixon later wrote of the war: "[Gandhi] suckered [America]. Suckered us.....this womansuckered us.".[102] Relations with the U.S. became distant as Gandhi developed closer ties with the Soviet Union after the war. Thelatter grew to become India's largest trading partner and its biggest arms supplier for much of Gandhi's premiership.[103] India's newhegemonic position as articulated under the "Indira Doctrine" led to attempts to bring the Himalayan states under the Indian sphere ofinfluence.[104] Nepal and Bhutan remained aligned with India, while in 1975, after years of building up support, Gandhi incorporatedSikkim into India, after a referendum in which a majority of Sikkimese voted to join India.[105][106] This was denounced as a"despicable act" by China.[107]

India maintained close ties with neighbouring Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan)following the Liberation War. Prime Minister Sheikh Mujibur Rahman recognizedGandhi's contributions to the independence of Bangladesh. However, MujiburRahman's pro-India policies antagonised many in Bangladeshi politics and themilitary, who feared that Bangladesh had become a client state of India.[108][109]

The Assassination of Mujibur Rahman in 1975 led to the establishment of Islamistmilitary regimes that sought to distance the country from India.[110] Gandhi'srelationship with the military regimes was strained, due to her alleged support ofanti-Islamist leftist guerrilla forces in Bangladesh.[110] Generally, however, therewas a rapprochement between Gandhi and the Bangladeshi regimes, although issuessuch as border disputes and the Farakka Dam remained an irritant in bilateralties.[111] In 2011, the Government of Bangladesh conferred its highest state awardposthumously on Gandhi for her "outstanding contribution" to the country'sindependence.[112]

Gandhi's approach to dealing with Sri Lanka's ethnic problems was initiallyaccommodating. She enjoyed cordial relations with Prime Minister SirimavoBandaranaike. In 1974, India ceded the tiny islet of Katchatheevu to Sri Lanka inorder to save Bandaranaike's socialist government from a political disaster.[113] However, relations soured over Sri Lanka's turn awayfrom socialism under J. R. Jayewardene, whom Gandhi despised as a "western puppet."[114] India under Gandhi was alleged to havesupported LTTE militants in the 1980s to put pressure on Jayewardene to abide by Indian interests.[115] Nevertheless, Gandhi

Shakti Sthala, the placewhere Indira Gandhi wascremated at New Delhi

Foreign relations

South Asia

Indira Gandhi with JacquelineKennedy in New Delhi, 1962

rejected demands to invade Sri Lanka in the aftermath of Black July 1983, an anti-Tamil pogrom carried out by Sinhalese mobs.[116]

Gandhi made a statement emphasizing that she stood for the territorial integrity of Sri Lanka, although she also stated that India

cannot "remain a silent spectator to any injustice done to the Tamil community."[116][117]

India's relationship with Pakistan remained strained following the Shimla Accord in 1972. Gandhi's authorization of the detonation ofa nuclear device at Pokhran in 1974 was viewed by Pakistani leader Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as an attempt to intimidate Pakistan intoaccepting India's hegemony in the subcontinent. However, in May 1976, Gandhi and Bhutto both agreed to reopen diplomaticestablishments and normalize relations.[118] Following the rise to power of General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in Pakistan in 1978,India's relations with its neighbour reached a nadir. Gandhi accused General Zia of supporting Khalistani militants in Punjab.[118]

Military hostilities recommenced in 1984 following Gandhi's authorization of Operation Meghdoot.[119] India was victorious in theresulting Siachen conflict against Pakistan.[119]

In order to keep the Soviet Union and the United States out of South Asia, Mrs Gandhi was instrumental in establishing the SouthAsian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1983[120]

Gandhi remained a staunch supporter of Palestinians in the Arab–Israeli conflict and was critical of the Middle East diplomacysponsored by the United States.[114] Israel was viewed as a religious state and thus an analogue to India's archrival Pakistan. Indiandiplomats also hoped to win Arab support in countering Pakistan in Kashmir. Nevertheless, Gandhi authorized the development of asecret channel of contact and security assistance with Israel in the late 1960s. Her lieutenant, P. V. Narasimha Rao, later becamePrime Minister and approved full diplomatic ties with Israel in 1992.[121]

India's pro-Arab policy had mixed success. Establishment of close ties with thesocialist and secular Baathist regimes to some extent neutralized Pakistanipropaganda against India.[122] However, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 put theArab and Muslim states of the Middle East in a dilemma as the war was fought bytwo states both friendly to the Arabs.[123] The progressive Arab regimes in Egypt,Syria, and Algeria chose to remain neutral, while the conservative pro-AmericanArab monarchies in Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and United Arab Emirates openlysupported Pakistan. Egypt's stance was met with dismay by the Indians, who hadcome to expect close co-operation with the Baathist regimes.[122] But, the death ofNasser in 1970 and Sadat's growing friendship with Riyadh, and his mountingdifferences with Moscow, constrained Egypt to a policy of neutrality.[122] Gandhi'sovertures to Muammar Gaddafi were rebuffed.[123] Libya agreed with the Arabmonarchies in believing that Gandhi's intervention in East Pakistan was an attackagainst Islam.[123]

The 1971 war temporarily became a stumbling block in growing Indo-Iranian ties.[122] Although Iran had earlier characterized theIndo-Pakistani war in 1965 as Indian aggression, the Shah had launched an effort at rapprochement with India in 1969 as part of hiseffort to secure support for a larger Iranian role in the Persian Gulf.[122] Gandhi's tilt towards Moscow and her dismemberment ofPakistan was perceived by the Shah as part of a larger anti-Iran conspiracy involving India, Iraq, and the Soviet Union.[122]

Nevertheless, Iran had resisted Pakistani pressure to activate the Baghdad Pact and draw in the Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO)into the conflict.[122] Gradually, Indian and Iranian disillusionment with their respective regional allies led to a renewed partnershipbetween the nations.[124] Gandhi was unhappy with the lack of support from India's Arab allies during the war with Pakistan, whilethe Shah was apprehensive at the growing friendship between Pakistan and Arab states of the Persian Gulf, specially Saudi Arabia,and the growing influence of Islam in Pakistani society.[124] There was an increase in Indian economic and military co-operationwith Iran during the 1970s.[124] The 1974 India-Iranian agreement led to Iran supplying nearly 75 percent of India's crude oildemands.[125] Gandhi appreciated the Shah's disregard of Pan-Islamism in diplomacy.[124]

Middle East

Indira Gandhi meeting the Shah ofIran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi andShahbanu Farah Pahlavi during theirstate visit to India in 1970

One of the major developments in Southeast Asia during Gandhi's premiership was the formation of the Association of SoutheastAsian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967. Relations between ASEAN and India was mutually antagonistic. ASEAN in the Indian perceptionwas linked to the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), and it was therefore, seen as a pro-American organisation. On theirpart, the ASEAN nations were unhappy with Gandhi's sympathy for the Viet Cong and India's strong links with the USSR.Furthermore, they were also apprehensions in the region about Gandhi's future plans, particularly after India played a big role inbreaking up Pakistan and facilitating in the emergence of Bangladesh as a sovereign country in 1971. India's entry into the nuclearweapons club in 1974 contributed to tensions in Southeast Asia.[126] Relations only began to improve following Gandhi'sendorsement of the ZOPFAN declaration and the disintegration of the SEATO alliance in the aftermath of Pakistani and Americandefeats in the region. Nevertheless, Gandhi's close relations with reunified Vietnam and her decision to recognize the Vietnaminstalled Government of Cambodia in 1980 meant that India and ASEAN were not able to develop a viable partnership.[126]

Although independent India was initially viewed as a champion of anti-colonialism, its cordial relationship with the Commonwealthof Nations and liberal views of British colonial policies in East Africa had harmed its image as a staunch supporter of the anti-colonial movements.[127] Indian condemnation of militant struggles in Kenya and Algeria was in sharp contrast to China, who hadsupported armed struggle to win African independence.[127] After reaching a high diplomatic point in the aftermath of Nehru's role inthe Suez Crisis, India's isolation from Africa was complete when only four nations; Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria and Libya supported herduring the Sino-Indian War in 1962.[127] After Gandhi became Prime Minister, diplomatic and economic relations with the stateswhich had sided with India during the Sino-Indian War were expanded.[127] Gandhi began negotiations with the Kenyan governmentto establish the Africa-India Development Cooperation. The Indian government also started considering the possibility of bringingIndians settled in Africa within the framework of its policy goals to help recover its declining geo-strategic influence. Gandhideclared the people of Indian origin settled in Africa as "Ambassadors of India."[127] Efforts to rope in the Asian community to joinIndian diplomacy, however, came to naught, partly because of the unwillingness of Indians to remain in politically insecuresurroundings and partly due to the exodus of African Indians to Britain with the passing of the Commonwealth Immigrants Act in1968.[127] In Uganda, the African Indian community even suffered persecution and eventually expulsion under the government of IdiAmin.[128]

Foreign and domestic policy successes in the 1970s enabled Gandhi to rebuild India's image in the eyes of African states.[127]

Victory over Pakistan and India's possession of nuclear weapons showed the degree of India's progress.[127] Furthermore, theconclusion of the Indo-Soviet treaty in 1971 and threatening gestures by the major western power, the United States, to send itsnuclear armed Task Force 74 into the Bay of Bengal at the height of the East Pakistan crisis had enabled India to regain its anti-imperialist image.[127] Gandhi firmly tied Indian anti-imperialist interests in Africa to those of the Soviet Union.[129] Unlike Nehru,she openly and enthusiastically supported liberation struggles in Africa.[129] At the same time, Chinese influence in Africa haddeclined owing to its incessant quarrels with the Soviet Union.[127] These developments permanently halted India's decline in Africaand helped reestablish its geo-strategic presence.[127]

The Commonwealth is voluntary association of mainly former British colonies. India maintained cordial relations with most of themembers during Indira Gandhi's time in power. In the 1980s, Indira Gandhi along with Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau,Zambia's President Kenneth Kaunda, Australian prime minister Malcolm Fraser and Singapore Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew wasregarded as one of the pillars of the commonwealth[130] India under Indira also hosted the 1983 Commonwealth heads ofGovernment summit in New Delhi in 1983. Gandhi used to use the Commonwealth meetings as a forum to put pressure on membercountries to cut economic, sports, and cultural ties with Apartheid South Africa [131]

Asia-Pacific

Africa

The Commonwealth

The Non-aligned Movement

In the early 1980s under Gandhi, India attempted to reassert its prominent role in theNon-Aligned Movement by focusing on the relationship between disarmament andeconomic development. By appealing to the economic grievances of developingcountries, Gandhi and her successors exercised a moderating influence on the Non-aligned movement, diverting it from some of the Cold War issues that marred thecontroversial 1979 Havana meeting where Cuban leader Fidel Castro attempted tosteer the movement towards the Soviet Union.[132] Although hosting the 1983summit at Delhi boosted Indian prestige within the movement, its close relationswith the Soviet Union and its pro-Soviet positions on Afghanistan and Cambodialimited its influence

Indira spent a number of years in Europe during her youth and formed manyfriendships during her stay there. During her premiership she formed friendship withmany socialist leaders such as German chancellor, Willy Brandt[133] and Austrianchancellor Bruno Kreisky.[134] She also enjoyed closed working relationship withmany British leaders including conservative premiers, Edward Heath and MargaretThatcher.[135]

The relationship between India and the Soviet Union deepened during Gandhi's rule.The main reason was the perceived bias of United States and China, the rivals ofUSSR, towards Pakistan. The support of USSR with arms supplies and casting ofveto at United Nations helped in winning and consolidating the victory over Pakistanin the 1971 Bangladesh liberation war. Prior to the war Indira signed a treaty offriendship with the USSR. The USSR was not happy with the 1974 nuclear test conducted by India but did not support further actionbecause of the ensuing cold war with the United States. Indira was not happy with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan but once againcalculations involving relations with Pakistan and China kept from criticizing the Soviet Union harshly. USSR became the main armssupplier during the Indira years by offering cheap credit and transactions in rupees rather than in dollars. The easy trade deals alsoapplied to non-military goods. Under Indira by the early 1980s the USSR became the largest trading partner of India.[136]

When Indira came to power in 1966, Lyndon Johnson was the US President. At that time, India was reliant on USA for food aid.Indira resented the US policy of food aid as a tool in forcing India to adopt policies favored by the US. She also resolutely refused tosign the NPT (Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons). Relations with US strained badly under President RichardNixon and his favoring of Pakistan during the Bangladesh liberation war. Nixon despised Indira politically and personally.[137] Indiramet President Ronald Reagan in 1981 for the first time at the North–South Summit held to discuss global poverty. Indira had beendescribed to him as an 'Ogre' but he found her charming and easy to work with and they formed a close working relationship duringher premiership in the 1980s.[138]

Gandhi presided over three Five-Year Plans as Prime Minister, two of which succeeded in meeting the targeted growth.[139]

There is considerable debate regarding whether Gandhi was a socialist on principle or out of political expediency.[36] Sunanda K.Datta-Ray described her as "a master of rhetoric...often more posture than policy", while The Times journalist, Peter Hazelhurst,famously quipped that Gandhi's socialism was "slightly left of self-interest."[140] Critics have focused on the contradictions in the

Indira Gandhi on a visit to Brazil,1968, National Archives of Brazil

Gandhi with Nicolae Ceaușescu in1969

Western Europe

Soviet Union

United States

Economic policy

evolution of her stance towards communism; Gandhi being known for her anti-communist stance in the 1950s with Meghnad Desaieven describing her as "the scourge of [India's] Communist Party."[141] Yet, she later forged close relations with Indian communistseven while using the army to break the Naxalites. In this context, Gandhi was accused of formulating populist policies to suit herpolitical needs; being seemingly against the rich and big business while preserving the status quo in order to manipulate the supportof the left at times of political insecurity, such as the late 1960s.[142][143] Although Gandhi came to be viewed in time as the scourgeof the right-wing and reactionary political elements of India, leftist opposition to her policies emerged. As early as 1969, critics hadbegun accusing her of insincerity and machiavellianism. The Indian Libertarian wrote that: "it would be difficult to find a moremachiavellian leftist than Mrs Indira Gandhi...for here is Machiavelli at its best in the person of a suave, charming and astutepolitician."[144] Rosser wrote that "some have even seen the declaration of emergency rule in 1975 as a move to suppress [leftist]dissent against Gandhi's policy shift to the right."[36] In the 1980s, Gandhi was accused of "betraying socialism" after the beginningof Operation Forward, an attempt at economic reform.[145] Nevertheless, others were more convinced of Gandhi's sincerity anddevotion to socialism. Pankaj Vohra noted that "even the late prime minister's critics would concede that the maximum number oflegislations of social significance was brought about during her tenure...[and that] she lives in the hearts of millions of Indians whoshared her concern for the poor and weaker sections and who supported her politics."[146]

In summarizing the biographical works on Gandhi, Blema S. Steinberg concluded she was decidedly non-ideological.[147] Only 7.4%(24) of the total 330 biographical extractions posit ideology as a reason for her policy choices.[147] Steinberg noted Gandhi'sassociation with socialism was superficial; only having a general and traditional commitment to the ideology, by way of her politicaland family ties.[147] Gandhi personally had a fuzzy concept of socialism. In one of the early interviews she had given as PrimeMinister, Gandhi had ruminated: "I suppose you could call me a socialist, but you have understand what we mean by that term...weused the word [socialism] because it came closest to what we wanted to do here – which is to eradicate poverty. You can call itsocialism; but if by using that word we arouse controversy, I don't see why we should use it. I don't believe in words at all."[147]

Regardless of the debate over her ideology or lack of thereof, Gandhi remains a left-wing icon. She has been described by HindustanTimes columnist, Pankaj Vohra as "arguably the greatest mass leader of the last century."[146] Her campaign slogan, Garibi Hatao(Eng: Remove Poverty), has become the iconic motto of the Indian National Congress. To the rural and urban poor, untouchables,minorities and women in India, Gandhi was "Indira Amma or Mother Indira."[148]

Gandhi inherited a weak and troubled economy. Fiscal problems associated with the war with Pakistan in 1965, along with a drought-induced food crisis that spawned famines, had plunged India into the sharpest recession since independence.[36][32] The governmentresponded by taking steps to liberalize the economy, and by agreeing to the devaluation of the currency in return for the restoration offoreign aid.[32] The economy managed to recover in 1966 and ended up growing at 4.1% over 1966–1969.[142][149] But, much ofthat growth was offset by the fact that the external aid promised by the United States government and the International Bank forReconstruction and Development (IBRD), meant to ease the short-run costs of adjustment to a liberalized economy, nevermaterialized.[32] American policy makers had complained of continued restrictions imposed on the economy. At the same time, Indo-US relations were straining due to Gandhi's criticism of the American bombing campaign in Vietnam. While it was thought, at thetime, and for decades after, that President Johnson's policy of withholding food grain shipments was to coerce Indian support for thewar, in fact, it was to offer India rainmaking technology that he wanted to use as a counterweight to China's possession of the atomicbomb.[150][151] In light of the circumstances, liberalization became politically suspect and was soon abandoned.[32] Grain diplomacyand currency devaluation became matters of intense national pride in India. After the bitter experience with Johnson, Gandhi decidednot to request food aid in the future. Moreover, Gandhi's government resolved never again to become "so vulnerably dependent" onaid, and painstakingly began building up substantial foreign exchange reserves.[152] When food stocks slumped after poor harvests in1972, the government made it a point to use foreign exchange to buy US wheat commercially rather than seek resumption of foodaid.[153]

The period of 1967–75 was characterized by socialist ascendency in India which culminated in 1976 with the official declaration ofstate socialism. Gandhi not only abandoned the short lived liberalization programme but also aggressively expanded the public sectorwith new licensing requirements and other restrictions for industry. She began a new course by launching the Fourth Five-Year Planin 1969. The government targeted growth at 5.7% while stating as its goals, "growth with stability and progressive achievement of

[142][154]

Green Revolution and the Fourth Five-Year Plan

self-reliance."[142][154] The rationale behind the overall plan was Gandhi's Ten PointProgramme of 1967. This had been her first economic policy formulation, sixmonths after coming to office. The programme emphasized greater state control ofthe economy with the understanding that government control assured greater welfarethan private control.[142] Related to this point were a set of policies which weremeant to regulate the private sector.[142] By the end of the 1960s, the reversal of theliberalization process was complete, and India's policies were characterised as"protectionist as ever."[152]

To deal with India's food problems, Gandhi expanded the emphasis on production ofinputs to agriculture that had already been initiated by her father, JawaharlalNehru.[36] The Green Revolution in India subsequently culminated under hergovernment in the 1970s and transformed the country from a nation heavily reliant

on imported grains and prone to famine to being largely able to feed itself, and become successful in achieving its goal of foodsecurity. Gandhi had a personal motive in pursuing agricultural self-sufficiency, having found India's dependency on the U.S. forshipments of grains humiliating.[155]

The economic period of 1967–75 became significant for its major wave of nationalisations amidst the increased regulation of theprivate sector.[36]

Some of the other objectives of the economic plan for the period was to provide for the minimum needs of the community through arural works program and the removal of the privy purses of the nobility.[142] Both these, and many other goals of the 1967 programwere accomplished by 1974–75. Nevertheless, the success of the overall economic plan was tempered by the fact that annual growthat 3.3–3.4% over 1969–74 fell short of the targeted figure.[142]

The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974–79) was enacted in the backdrop of the state of emergency and the Twenty Point Program of1975.[142] The latter was the economic rationale of the emergency, a political act which has often been justified on economicgrounds.[142] In contrast to the reception of Gandhi's earlier economic plan, this one was criticized for being a "hastily throwntogether wish list."[142] Gandhi promised to reduce poverty by targeting the consumption levels of the poor and enact wide-rangingsocial and economic reforms. The government additionally targeted an annual growth of 4.4% over the period of the plan.[139]

The measures of the emergency regime was able to halt the economic trouble of the early to mid-1970s, which had been marred byharvest failures, fiscal contraction, and the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchanged rate; the resulting turbulencein the foreign exchange markets being further accentuated by the oil shock of 1973.[149] The government was even able to exceed thetargeted growth figure with an annual growth rate of 5.0–5.2% over the five-year period of the plan (1974–79).[139][142] Theeconomy grew at the rate of 9% in 1975–76 alone, and the Fifth Plan, became the first plan during which the per capita income of theeconomy grew by over 5%.[156]

Gandhi inherited a weak economy when she again became Prime Minister in 1980.[157] The preceding year in 1979–80 under theJanata Party government had led to the strongest recession (−5.2%) in the history of modern India with inflation rampant at18.2%.[36][156][158] Gandhi proceeded to abrogate the Janata Party government's Five-Year Plan in 1980 and launched the SixthFive-Year Plan (1980–85). The government targeted an average growth of 5.2% over the period of the plan.[139] Measures to checkthe inflation were also taken; by the early 1980s inflation was under control at an annual rate of about 5%.[158]

Although Gandhi continued professing socialist beliefs, the Sixth Five-Year Plan was markedly different from the years of GaribiHatao. Populist programs and policies were replaced by pragmatism.[142] There was an emphasis on tightening public expenditures,greater efficiency of the state-owned enterprises (SOE), which Gandhi qualified as a "sad thing", and in stimulating the private sector

Indira Gandhi meeting PresidentLyndon B. Johnson in the Oval Officeon 28 March 1966

State of Emergency and the Fifth Five-Year Plan

Operation Forward and the Sixth Five-Year Plan

through deregulation and liberation of the capital market.[159] The government subsequently launched Operation Forward in 1982,the first cautious attempt at reform.[160] The Sixth Plan went on to become the most successful of the Five-Year Plans yet; showingan average growth of 5.7% over 1980–85.[139]

During Lal Bahadur Shastri's last full year in office (1965), inflation averaged 7.7%,compared to 5.2% at the end of Gandhi's first stint in office (1977).[161] On average,inflation in India had remained below 7% through the 1950s and 1960s.[162] But, itthen accelerated sharply in the 1970s, from 5.5% in 1970–71 to over 20% by 1973–74, due to the international oil crisis.[161] Gandhi declared inflation the gravest ofproblems in 1974 (at 25.2%) and devised a severe anti-inflation program. Thegovernment was successful in bringing down inflation during the emergency;achieving negative figures of −1.1% by the end of 1975–76.[157][161]

Gandhi inherited a tattered economy in her second term; harvest failures and a second oil shock in the late 1970s had again causedinflation to rise.[157] During Charan Singh's short reign in office in the second half of 1979, inflation averaged 18.2%, compared to6.5% during Gandhi's last year in office (1984).[158][161] General economic recovery under Gandhi led to an average inflation at6.5% from 1981–82 to 1985–86; the lowest since the beginning of India's inflation problems in the 1960s.[162]

Unemployment stayed constant at 9% over a nine-year period (1971–80) before declining to 8.3% in 1983.[142][163]

Despite the provisions, control and regulations of Reserve Bank of India, most banks in India had continued to be owned andoperated by private persons.[164] Businessmen who owned the banks were often accused of channeling the deposits into their owncompanies, and ignoring the priority sector. Furthermore, there was a great resentment against class banking in India, which had leftthe poor (the majority population) unbanked.[165] After becoming Prime Minister, Gandhi expressed the intention of nationalising thebanks in a paper titled, "Stray thoughts on Bank Nationalisation" in order to alleviate poverty.[166] The paper received theoverwhelming support of the public.[166] In 1969, Gandhi moved to nationalise fourteen major commercial banks. After thenationalisation of banks, the branches of the public sector banks in India rose to approximate 800 percent in deposits, and advancestook a huge jump by 11,000 percent.[167] Nationalisation also resulted in a significant growth in the geographical coverage of banks;the number of bank branches rose from 8,200 to over 62,000, most of which were opened in the unbanked, rural areas. Thenationalization drive not only helped to increase household savings, but it also provided considerable investments in the informalsector, in small and medium-sized enterprises, and in agriculture, and contributed significantly to regional development and to theexpansion of India's industrial and agricultural base.[168] Jayaprakash Narayan, who became famous for leading the opposition toGandhi in the 1970s, was solid in his praise for her bank nationalisations.[165]

Having been re-elected in 1971 on a nationalisation platform, Gandhi proceeded to nationalise the coal, steel, copper, refining, cottontextiles, and insurance industries.[36] Most of these nationalisations were made to protect employment and the interest of theorganised labour.[36] The remaining private sector industries were placed under strict regulatory control.[36]

During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, foreign-owned private oil companies had refused to supply fuel to the Indian Navy andIndian Air Force. In response, Gandhi nationalised oil companies in 1973.[169] After nationalisation the oil majors such as the IndianOil Corporation (IOC), the Hindustan Petroleum Corporation (HPCL) and the Bharat Petroleum Corporation (BPCL) had to keep aminimum stock level of oil, to be supplied to the military when needed.[170]

Inflation and unemployment

The price of oil during the 1970senergy crisis. The graph showssharp increases in 1973 and again in1979

Domestic policy

Nationalisation

Administration

In 1966, Gandhi accepted thedemands of the Akalis toreorganize Punjab on linguisticlines. The Hindi-speakingsouthern half of Punjab became aseparate state, Haryana, while thePahari speaking hilly areas in thenorth east were joined to HimachalPradesh.[171] In doing so, she hadhoped to ward off the growingpolitical conflict between Hinduand Sikh groups in the region.[171]

However, a contentious issue thatwas considered unresolved by theAkalis was the status of Chandigarh, a prosperous city on the Punjab-Haryana border, which Gandhi declared a union territory to beshared as a capital by both the states.[172]

Victory over Pakistan in 1971 consolidated Indian power in Kashmir. Gandhi indicated that she would make no major concessions onKashmir. The most prominent of the Kashmiri separatists, Sheikh Abdullah, had to recognize India's control over Kashmir in light ofthe new order in South Asia. The situation was normalized in the years following the war after Abdullah agreed to an accord withGandhi, by giving up the demand for a plebiscite in return for a special autonomous status for Kashmir. In 1975, Gandhi declared thestate of Jammu and Kashmir as a constituent unit of India. The Kashmir conflict remained largely peaceful if frozen under Gandhi'spremiership.[173]

In 1972, Gandhi granted statehood to Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura, while the North-East Frontier Agency was declared a unionterritory and renamed Arunachal Pradesh. The transition to statehood for these territories was successfully overseen by heradministration.[174] This was followed by the annexation of Sikkim in 1975.[106]

The principle of equal pay for equal work for both men and women was enshrined in the Indian Constitution under the Gandhiadministration.[175]

Gandhi questioned the continued existence of a privy purse for former rulers of princely states. She argued the case for abolitionbased on equal rights for all citizens and the need to reduce the government's revenue deficit. The nobility responded by rallyingaround the Jana Sangh and other right-wing parties that stood in opposition to Gandhi's attempts to abolish royal privileges.[143] Themotion to abolish privy purses, and the official recognition of the titles, was originally brought before the Parliament in 1970. It waspassed in the Lok Sabha but felt short of the two-thirds majority in the Rajya Sabha by a single vote.[176] Gandhi responded byhaving a Presidential proclamation issued; de-recognizing the princes; with this withdrawal of recognition, their claims to privypurses were also legally lost.[176] However, the proclamation was struck down by the Supreme Court of India.[176] In 1971, Gandhiagain motioned to abolish the privy purse. This time, it was successfully passed as the 26th Amendment to the Constitution ofIndia.[143] Many royals tried to protest the abolition of the privy purse, primarily through campaigns to contest seats in elections.They, however, received a final setback when many of them were defeated by huge margins.

Gandhi claimed that only "clear vision, iron will and the strictest discipline" can remove poverty.[143] She justified the imposition ofthe state of emergency in 1975 in the name of the socialist mission of the Congress.[143] Armed with the power to rule by decree andwithout constitutional constraints, Gandhi embarked on a massive redistribution program.[143] The provisions included rapidenforcement of land ceilings, housing for landless labourers, the abolition of bonded labour and a moratorium on the debts of thepoor.[143] North India was at the centre of the reforms; millions of acres of land were acquired and redistributed.[143] Thegovernment was also successful in procuring houses for landless labourers; according to Frankel, three-fourths of the targeted fourmillion houses was achieved in 1975 alone.[143] Nevertheless, others have disputed the success of the program and criticized Gandhi

Administrative divisions of India 1961–1975. Gandhi established six states,Haryana (1966), Himachal Pradesh (1971), Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura (all1972), and finally Sikkim (1975), bringing up the total of states to 22. She alsoestablished Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram (1972) as Union Territories

Social reform

for not doing enough to reform land ownership. The political economist, Jyotindra Das Gupta, cryptically questioned "...whether ornot the real supporters of land-holders were in jail or in power?"[143] Critics also accused Gandhi of choosing to "talk left and actright", referring to her concurrent pro-business decisions and endeavours.[143] Rosser wrote that "some have even seen thedeclaration of emergency rule in 1975 as a move to suppress dissent against Gandhi's policy shift to the right."[36] Regardless of thecontroversy over the nature of the reforms, the long-term effects of the social changes gave rise to prominence of middle-rankingfarmers from intermediate and lower castes in North India.[143] The rise of these newly empowered social classes challenged thepolitical establishment of the Hindi Belt in the years to come.[143]

Under the Constitution of India of 1950, Hindi was to have become the official national language by 1965. This was not acceptable tomany non-Hindi speaking states, who wanted the continued use of English in government. In 1967, Gandhi made a constitutionalamendment that guaranteed the de facto use of both Hindi and English as official languages. This established the official governmentpolicy of bilingualism in India and satisfied the non-Hindi speaking Indian states.[147] Gandhi thus put herself forward as a leaderwith a pan-Indian vision.[177] Nevertheless, critics alleged that her stance was actually meant to weaken the position of rivalCongress leaders from the northern states such as Uttar Pradesh, where there had been strong, sometimes violent, pro-Hindiagitations.[147] Gandhi came out of the language conflicts with the strong support of the south Indian populace.[177]

In the late 1960s and 1970s, Gandhi had the Indian army crush militant Communist uprisings in the Indian state of West Bengal.[178]

The communist insurgency in India was completely suppressed during the state of emergency.[179][180][181]

Gandhi considered the north-eastern regions important, because of its strategic situation.[182] In 1966, the Mizo uprising took placeagainst the government of India and overran almost the whole of the Mizoram region. Gandhi ordered the Indian Army to launchmassive retaliatory strikes in response. The rebellion was suppressed with the Indian Air Force even carrying out airstrikes in Aizawl;this remains the only instance of India carrying out an airstrike in its own civilian territory.[174][183] The defeat of Pakistan in 1971and the secession of East Pakistan as pro-India Bangladesh led to the collapse of the Mizo separatist movement. In 1972, after theless extremist Mizo leaders came to the negotiating table, Gandhi upgraded Mizoram to the status of a union territory. A small-scaleinsurgency by some militants continued into the late 1970s but was successfully dealt with by the government.[174] The Mizo conflictwas definitively resolved during the administration of Gandhi's son Rajiv. Today, Mizoram is considered as one of the most peacefulstates in the north-east.[184]

Responding to the insurgency in Nagaland, Gandhi "unleashed a powerful military offensive" in the 1970s.[185] Finally, a massivecrackdown on the insurgents took place during the state of emergency ordered by Gandhi. The insurgents soon agreed to surrenderand signed the Shillong Accord in 1975.[186] While the agreement was considered a victory for the Indian government and endedlarge-scale conflicts,[187] there has since been spurts of violence by rebel holdouts and ethnic conflict amongst the tribes.[187]

Gandhi contributed and further carried out the vision of Jawaharlal Nehru, former Premier of India to develop the program. Gandhiauthorised the development of nuclear weapons in 1967, in response to the Test No. 6 by People's Republic of China. Gandhi saw thistest as Chinese nuclear intimidation, therefore, Gandhi promoted the views of Nehru to establish India's stability and security interestsas independent from those of the nuclear superpowers.

The program became fully mature in 1974, when Dr. Raja Ramanna reported to Gandhi that India had the ability to test its firstnuclear weapon. Gandhi gave verbal authorisation of this test, and preparations were made in a long-constructed army base, theIndian Army Pokhran Test Range. In 1974, India successfully conducted an underground nuclear test, unofficially code named as"Smiling Buddha", near the desert village of Pokhran in Rajasthan. As the world was quiet by this test, a vehement protest cameforward from Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan and its Prime Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, described this test as "Indianhegemony" to intimidate Pakistan. In response to this Bhutto launched a massive campaign all over the Pakistan to make Pakistan a

Language policy

National security

Nuclear Program of India

nuclear power. In these campaigns Bhutto asked the nation to get united and great slogans were raised such as hum ghaas aur pattaykha lay gay magar nuclear power ban k rhe gay (We will eat grass or leaves even go hungry but will get nuclear power). Gandhidirected a letter to Bhutto and, later to the world, describing the test for peaceful purposes and India's commitment to develop itsprogramme for industrial and scientific use.

She married Feroze Gandhi at the age of 25, in 1942. Their marriage lasted 18 years,until Feroze died of a heart attack in 1960. They had two sons – Rajiv (b. 1944) andSanjay (b. 1946). Her younger son Sanjay had initially been her chosen heir; butafter his death in a flying accident in June 1980, Gandhi persuaded her reluctantelder son Rajiv to quit his job as a pilot and enter politics in February 1981. Rajivtook office as prime minister following his mother's assassination in 1984; he serveduntil December 1989. Rajiv Gandhi himself was assassinated by a suicide bomberworking on behalf of LTTE on 21 May 1991.

Gandhi's yoga guru, Dhirendra Brahmachari, helped her in making certain decisionsand also executed certain top level political tasks on her behalf, especially from 1975to 1977 when Gandhi "declared a state of emergency and suspended civilliberties."[188][189]

In January 2017, a woman called Priya Singh Paul claimed to be Indira'sgranddaughter as Sanjay Gandhi's biological daughter. She claims that she was givenaway for adoption because Indira Gandhi hid her as a child and her mother as a wifeof Sanjay Gandhi for political reasons.[190]

In 1952 in a letter to her American friend Dorothy Norman, Gandhi wrote: "I am inno sense a feminist, but I believe in women being able to do everything...Given theopportunity to develop, capable Indian women have come to the top at once." Whilethis statement appears paradoxical, it reflects Gandhi's complex feelings toward hergender and feminism.[191] Her egalitarian upbringing with her cousins helpedcontribute to her sense of natural equality. "Flying kites, climbing trees, playingmarbles with her boy cousins, Indira said she hardly knew the difference between aboy and a girl until the age of twelve."[192][193]

Indira Gandhi did not often discuss her gender, but she did involve herself inwomen's issues before becoming the prime minister. Before her election as the PrimeMinister, she became active in the organizational wing of the Congress party,working in part in the Women's Department.[194] In 1956, Gandhi had an active rolein setting up the Congress Party's Women's Section.[195] Unsurprisingly, a lot of her involvement stemmed from her father. As anonly child, Gandhi naturally stepped into the political light. And, as a woman, Gandhi naturally helped head the Women's section ofthe Congress Party. She often tried to organize women to involve themselves in politics. Although rhetorically Gandhi may haveattempted to separate her political success from her gender, Gandhi did involve herself in women's organizations. The political partiesin India paid substantial attention to Gandhi's gender before she became prime minister, hoping to use her for political gain. Eventhough men surrounded Gandhi during her upbringing, she still had a female role model as a child. Several books on Gandhi mentionher interest in Joan of Arc. In her own accounts through her letters she wrote to her friend Dorothy Norman, in 1952 she wrote: "Atabout eight or nine I was taken to France; Jeanne d'Arc became a great heroine of mine. She was one of the first people I read aboutwith enthusiasm."[196] Another historian recounts Indira's comparison of herself to Joan of Arc: "Indira developed a fascination forJoan of Arc, telling her aunt, 'Someday I am going to lead my people to freedom just as Joan of Arc did!' "[197] Gandhi's linking of

Family, personal life and outlook

Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru,Rajiv Gandhi and Sanjay Gandhi

Portrait of Feroze and Indira Gandhi

Views on women

herself to Joan of Arc presents a nice model for historians to assess Gandhi. As one writersaid: "The Indian people were her children; members of her family were the only peoplecapable of leading them."[198]

Gandhi had been swept up in the call for Indian independence since she was born in1917.[199] Thus by 1947 she was already well immersed in politics, and by 1966, when shefirst assumed the position of prime minister, she had held several cabinet positions in herfather's office.

Gandhi's advocacy for women's rights began with her help in establishing the Congress Party'sWomen's Section. In 1956, she wrote in a letter: "It is because of this that I am taking a muchmore active part in politics. I have to do a great deal of touring in order to set up the CongressParty Women's Section, and am on numerous important committees."[195] Gandhi spent agreat deal of time throughout the 1950s helping organize women. She wrote to Norman in1959, irritable that women had organized around the communist cause but had not mobilizedfor the Indian cause: "The women, whom I have been trying to organize for years, had alwaysrefused to come into politics. Now they are out in the field."[200] Once appointed president in1959, she "travelled relentlessly, visiting remote parts of the country that had never beforereceived a VIP...she talked to women, asked about child health and welfare, inquired after thecrafts of the region"[201] Gandhi's actions throughout her ascent to power clearly reflect a desire to mobilize women. Gandhi did notsee the purpose of feminism. Gandhi saw her own success as a woman, and also noted that "Given the opportunity to develop,capable Indian women have come to the top at once."[191]

Gandhi felt guilty about her inability to fully devote her time to her children. She noted that her main problem in office was how tobalance her political duties with tending to her children, and "stressed that motherhood was the most important part of her life."[202]

At another point, she went into more detail: "To a woman, motherhood is the highest fulfilment…To bring a new being into thisworld, to see its perfection and to dream of its future greatness is the most moving of all experiences and fills one with wonder andexaltation."[203]

Her domestic initiatives did not necessarily reflect favourably on Indian women. Gandhi did not make a special effort to appointwomen to cabinet positions. She did not appoint any women to full cabinet rank during her terms in office.[96] Yet despite this, manywomen saw Gandhi as a symbol for feminism and an image of women's power.[96]

After leading India to victory against Pakistan in the Bangladesh liberation war in 1971, Prime Minister (Mrs. Indira Gandhi)recommended & President V. V. Giri awarded Mrs. Gandhi India's highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna.[204][205][206] In 2011,the Bangladesh Freedom Honour (Bangladesh Swadhinata Sammanona), Bangladesh's highest civilian award, was posthumouslyconferred on Indira Gandhi for her "outstanding contributions" to Bangladesh's Liberation War.[207]

Indira Gandhi's main legacy was standing firm in face of American pressure to defeat Pakistan and turn East Pakistan intoindependent Bangladesh.[208] She was also responsible for India joining the club of countries with nuclear weapons. Despite Indiabeing officially part of the Non-Aligned Movement, she gave Indian foreign policy a tilt towards the Soviet bloc.[136]

Being at the forefront of Indian politics for decades, Gandhi left a powerful but controversial legacy on Indian politics. The mainlegacy of her rule was destroying internal party democracy in the Congress party. Her detractors accuse her of weakening State chiefministers and thereby weakening the federal structure, weakening independence of judiciary, and weakening her cabinet by vestingpower in her secretariat and her sons.[209] Gandhi is also associated with fostering a culture of nepotism in Indian politics and inIndia's institutions.[210] She is also almost singularly associated with the period of Emergency rule and the dark period in Indian

Democracy that it entailed.[211] The Congress party was a "broad church" during the

Prime Minister Indira Gandhiwith grandson Rahul Gandhion her 53rd birthday, in NewDelhi on 19 November 1970.

Awards

Legacy

Democracy that it entailed.[211] The Congress party was a "broad church" during the

independence movement; however, it started turning into a family firm controlled by IndiraGandhi's family during the emergency.This was characterized by servility and sycophancy

towards the family which later turned into hereditary succession of Gandhi family members topower.[212] Her actions in storming the Golden Temple alienated Sikhs for a very longtime.[213] One of her legacies is supposed to be the systematic corruption of all parts of India'sgovernment from the executive to the judiciary due to her sense of insecurity.[214] Although

the Maruti Udyog company was first established by Gandhi's son, Sanjay, it was under Indirathat the then nationalized company came to prominence.[215] She remains the only womanever to occupy the office of the Prime Minister of India.[216]

The two extreme points of India: the northernmost Indira Col (35.674520°N76.845245°E) and the southernmost Indira Point (6.74678°N 93.84260°E) arealso named after Indira Gandhi.The Indira Awaas Yojana, a central government low-cost housing programme forthe rural poor, was named after her.The international airport at New Delhi is named Indira Gandhi InternationalAirport in her honour.The Indira Gandhi National Open University, the largest university in the world, isalso named after her.Indian National Congress established the annual Indira Gandhi Award for National Integration in 1985, given in hermemory on her death anniversary.The Indira Gandhi Memorial Trust also constituted the annual Indira Gandhi Prize.

Massa RangharList of assassinated Indian politiciansList of elected and appointed female heads of state and government

1. Atal Bihari Vajpayee though categorically denied ever having said that when he made an appearance in RajatSharma's show Aap ki Adalat.[44]

2. In her last speech she said, "I am alive today, I may not be there tomorrow...I shall continue to serve until my lastbreath and when I die, I can say, that every drop of my blood will invigorate India and strengthen it".[81] Even if I diedin the service of the nation, I would be proud of it. Every drop of my blood... will contribute to the growth of this nationand to make it strong and dynamic.[82] After her death, the Parade Ground was converted to the Indira Gandhi Parkwhich was inaugurated by her son, Rajiv Gandhi.

1. "19th November 2017: 100 years of Indira Gandhi.She was the mother of every Indian supremo" (https://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/bloody-mary/19th-november-2017-100-years-of-indira-gandhi-she-was-the-mother-of-every-indian-supremo/). 18 November 2017.

2. Tandon, P.D. (21 May 2001). "The truth about Indira" (https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/the-truth-about-indira/211665). Outlook India. Retrieved 1 June 2018.

3. "Indira Gandhi" (https://www.biography.com/people/indira-gandhi-9305913). Biography.com. Retrieved 21 July 2017.

Indira Gandhi's wax statueat Madame Tussauds,London

Posthumous honours

See also

References

Notes

References

4. "BBC Indira Gandhi 'greatest woman' " (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/543743.stm). BBC News. Retrieved 19 July 2017.

5. Frank 2010, p. 13.

6. Gupte 2012, p. 3.

7. Frank 2010, p. 31.

8. Frank 2010, p. 16.

9. Frank 2010, p. 25.

10. Frank 2010, p. 32.

11. Frank 2010, p. 55.

12. Gupte, Pranay (2011). Mother India : a political biography of Indira Gandhi / Pranay Gupte (https://books.google.com/books?id=OOmK1lPWq80C&pg=PA151) (Rev. ed.). New York: Penguin Books. pp. 151–152.ISBN 9780143068266. Retrieved 16 August 2016.

13. Frank 2010, pp. 29,75,83.

14. Indira Gandhi: Daughter of India 2002, pp. 42,43,45.

15. Frank 2010, p. 90.

16. Gupte 2012, p. 170.

17. Gupte 2012, p. 181.

18. Frank 2010, p. 116.

19. Somervill 2007, p. 36.

20. Gupte 2012, p. 184.

21. http://oxfordmajlis.wix.com/majlis

22. "Exhibit celebrates 120 years of South Asians at Oxford" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130102074542/http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_releases_for_journalists/100422_1.html). University of Oxford. 22 April 2010. Archived from theoriginal (http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_releases_for_journalists/100422_1.html) on 2 January 2013. Retrieved24 December 2012.

23. "Sonia assures help for father-in-law's grave" (http://archive.indianexpress.com/oldStory/82389/).archive.indianexpress.com. Retrieved 19 July 2017.

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27. Kochanek, Stanley A. (May 1966). "Post Nehru India: The Emergence of the New Leadership". Asian Survey. 6 (5):298. doi:10.2307/2642538 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2642538). JSTOR 2642538 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2642538).

28. Genovese, Michael A., ed. Women As National Leaders. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1993. Print. 110.

29. Ghosh, P.S., 1999. Whither Indian Polity?. Economic and Political Weekly, pp.3340-3342.

30. Derichs, Claudia (editor); Thompson, Mark R. (2013). Dynasties and female political leaders in Asia : gender, powerand pedigree (https://books.google.com/books?id=UKBcLhCxSvQC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q=%22goongi%20gudiya%22%20indira). [S.l.: s.n.] pp. 32, 50. ISBN 978-3-643-90320-4.

31. Shankar, Kalyani (2013). Pandora's daughters (https://books.google.com/books?id=_knCBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT8#v=onepage&q=goongi). London: Bloomsbury Pub. India. ISBN 9789382951049.

32. Kapila, Raj; Kapila, Uma (2004). Understanding India's economic Reforms (https://books.google.com/books?id=de66PkzcfusC&pg=PA126). Academic Foundation. p. 126. ISBN 978-8171881055.

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215. Chikermane, Gautam (2018). 70 POLICIES THAT SHAPED INDIA 1947 to 2017, Independence to $2.5 Trillion (https://www.orfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/70_Policies.pdf) (PDF). Observer Research Foundation. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-81-937564-8-5.

216. "This day in history: Jan 19 1966 Indira Gandhi becomes Indian prime minister" (http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/indira-gandhi-becomes-indian-prime-minister). history.com. Retrieved 1 July 2015.

Sources

Further reading

Inder Malhotra, Indira Gandhi: A personal and political biography (1991) ISBN 0-340-53548-2

Shourie, Arun (1984). Mrs Gandhi's second reign. New Delhi: Vikas.

Indira Gandhi – Iron Lady of India by Dr Sulakshi Thelikorala

Midnight's Children, Salman Rushdie

Indira Gandhi at CurlieRare pictures of Indira GandhiRare letters by Indira GandhiFamous and Historic speeches given by Indira Gandhiwebsite of Indira gandhi

Party political offices

Preceded by Uchharangrai

Navalshankar Dhebar

President of the Indian NationalCongress

1959

Succeeded by Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

Preceded by Devakanta Barua

President of the Indian NationalCongress 1978–1984

Succeeded by Rajiv Gandhi

Political offices

Preceded by Gulzarilal Nanda

Acting

Prime Minister of India 1966–1977 Succeeded by

Morarji DesaiChair of the Planning Commission 1966–1977

Preceded by Mahommedali Currim

Chagla

Minister of External Affairs 1967–1969

Succeeded by Dinesh Singh

Preceded by Morarji Desai

Minister of Finance 1969–1970 Succeeded by

Yashwantrao ChavanMinister of Home Affairs 1970–1973

Preceded by Swaran Singh

Minister of Defence 1975

Succeeded by Bansi Lal

Preceded by Charan Singh

Prime Minister of India 1980–1984 Succeeded by

Rajiv GandhiChair of the Planning Commission 1980–1984

Preceded by ChidambaramSubramaniam

Minister of Defence 1980–1982

Succeeded by Ramaswamy

Venkataraman

Preceded by Narasimha Rao

Minister of External Affairs 1984

Succeeded by Rajiv Gandhi

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This page was last edited on 29 November 2018, at 13:52 (UTC).

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