INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATIONPosted onOctober 30, 2011 bysitweINDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATIONThe principle aim of this paper is discuss the assertion that African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived. The paper will be discussed in the light of what is known about indigenous African education. However, to discuss this topic thoroughly, a comparative approach in this discussion will be sustained in relation to the education brought by the missionaries or modern education today.What one would say without any arguments is that education existed for as long as human beings started living in their societies in Africa. This type of education is known as indigenous African education or traditional African education. This type of education existed in Africa way back before the coming of the missionaries. However, the missionaries came along with what is known as modern education or western education. Each form of education had its own strengths and weaknesses. When the missionaries came, they only looked at the weaknesses of traditional African indigenous education and concluded based on what they saw that Africans were uneducated. Little did the missionaries consider the merits of indigenous African education even neglecting the fact that African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived.Kelly (1999:1) define education as a life long process in which the older generation impart skills, values and knowledge into the young ones for their own survival. Education is not the same as schooling, but it is a life long process conducted by many agencies. Education is the action exercised by adult generation on those who are not yet ready for social life.African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived because they acquired Informal education which is the life-long process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experiences and other educational influences and resources in each ones environment for their own survival. This is the type of education where one 1earns how to survive in life through experiences and instructions from the elders by adapting to the environment.Survivalistic education teaches individuals to adapt to the environment by finding out means of surviving on their own void of others. It is clear in Africa and Zambia in particular today that there is no any other form of education taught for the survival of the children as it were in the indigenous African education. Individuals acquired most of their knowledge, skills, attitudes and values through informal education, that is, in the home, from the media, on the streets etcetera. African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived simply because their type of education looked mainly at the wellbeing of an individual and it can be eloquently said that education existed in every society around the world. If education never existed, then people would never have managed to survive. However, the provision of education may have differed depending on the social needs of the people in a particular society. Thus, it would be imperative to argue based its nature that African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived in every respect.Before the introduction of education brought by the missionaries in Africa, there was a form of education that was aimed at preparing people for a better life in the society. This type of education started from childhood until such a time when an individual attained adulthood. Kelly (1999) states that although indigenous education systems can vary from one place to another, the goals of these systems are often strikingly similar. He further argued that the aim of indigenous education concerned with instilling the accepted standards and beliefs governing correct behaviour and creating unity and consensus. This looked mainly at the role of an individual in society. On the contrary, modern education or the type of education that was brought by the missionaries was aimed at making Africans learn how to read and write so that Africans can easily be converted to Christianity. Thus, the missionaries were motivated to give formal education, that is literacy and numeracy so that Africans could read the Bible (evangelization) and spread the gospel to others. The missionaries rejected much of tradition way of life because their desire was to convert as many Africans as possible to Christianity religion. Thus, the education provided was biased towards religion. The more the indigenous people learnt how to read the Bible the higher the chances that they would be drown -to the Christian faith. This kind of education did not teach African children to adapt to their environments.African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived as seen in the way their education system was organised. In terms of organisation, Ocitti (1973) argued that in African indigenous education, the powers were limited to tribal social division family, lineage or village, clan, chiefdom. Organisations mainly describe the social relationships that existed, that are the rights and duties of husbands, wives and children. It also looks at whether a particular tribe is patrilineal or matrilineal that is children belong to the husband or matrilineal where descent is towards the mothers side or family. The relation between relatives (for example mothers or fathers brother) was also seen to have special importance to a childs growing up. This strongly strengthened learners to be oriented towards what they were doing.African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived as their education was organised and administered in the way that learners could easily adapt to it. In African indigenous education, administration was done by the elders who determined what was best for their generation and those generations to come. The entire tribe or chiefdom would be administered by the kings or chiefs who would either be elected or put in power through hereditary. The chief was mainly assisted by the council which composed of the elder men of the tribe. It was some of these elders who would play a bigger role in the provision of indigenous education by establishing was children were encountering in their daily lives. This is because the education was mainly towards the inculcation of good morals.The content of indigenous education had much stress on the communal and social aspect rather than on an individual. This was done mainly to prepare boys and girls for adult life in households, villages and tribes. That is why the type of education provided was described as static. This means that it was unchanging from generation to generation, in other words it was rather conservative with little innovation. Thus it was the same education that was practiced over and over for years. (Mwanakatwe, 1974)The content of indigenous education had its paramount importance on the detailed knowledge of physical environment and the skills to exploit it. For instance, hunting on the part of men and farming the part of females. It also had its stress on togetherness or unity as well as understanding the rights and obligation of each individual in a particular society. The concept of togetherness would teach the indigenous people on how to live and work with others within the societies or chiefdoms. The rights and obligations will put in place the extent and limitations of individual rights. This was responsible for making sure that boys and girls understand what is required of them in a particular society.In its content, indigenous education also included laws, moral principles obligation to ancestral spirits, to relatives and to others in groups or tribe. (Mwanakatwe: 1996). It is from these lessons that children would learn to respect elders as well as pay allegiance to the spirits if they wanted their days of their lives to be extended.In contrast, the content of the education provided by the missionaries was only biased towards religion. Snelson (1974) argued that the education provided had stress on bible doctrines, agriculture, Carpentry, black smithering and other skills that would help people raise their standards after which they would be drawn to the Christian religion. This type of education had no appeal to the way people had hitherto transmitted wisdom knowledge and experiences from one generation to the next. This means that the missionaries did not consider the indigenous African education to benefit them in any way neither did they consider how helpful it was even to the Africans themselves.Indigenous education encouraged togetherness or corporation rather than competition as it is today. In short, competition was discouraged in any way possible; instead unit was always the talk of the day in indigenous education rather than todays education which encourages competition.African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived because the methods of teaching used in indigenous education were plain and similar because they were action oriented and all based on doing. It was planned from childhood to adulthood for children to adapt to their environments. So children would learn through imitations Men would work, hunt or play and boys would imitate. Women would also do the house chores in the presence of their daughters and later tell them to do likewise. Sometimes, especially at evening time, children would learn through oral literature as elders told education stories while sited around a fire. This was actually the time when fear and punishment was used as motivators for learning and behaviour. For instance, children would be told to stand still if elders are passing and never to answer harshly if elders are rebuking them. They used to be told that defaulters would grow hair on the neck or the earth would open and swallow them. Thus the children would adhere to the instructions out of fear.The other methods used were through social ceremonies and initiation ceremonies. The later is where a boy or girl was taken in seclusion after attaining puberty. The men were taught to work hard and provide for their families while the women were taught to care for their husbands, children and the entire family. It was during this time that men and women were taught to participate in adult activities fully (that is, fishing, hunting, housekeeping etcetera). (Kelly 1999). All these justifies that African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they livedAfrican children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived due to the fact that traditional education was meaningful, unifying, holistic, effective, practical and relevant to the individual as well as the community at large. It created strong human bonds because it involved the whole community. It was also recommended for the fact that there was separation between education ands the world of work. Thus, it reached out to and educated the whole person.African indigenous education was valuable to both the individual as well as the society. An individual benefited in that emphasis was much more concerned with instilling the accepted standards and beliefs governing correct behaviour. In addition, indigenous did not encourage competitiveness in intellectual and practical matters instead it created unity consensus among members of a particular society or tribe. Thus indigenous education was not only concerned with socialization of younger generation into norms, religion, moral beliefs and collective opinions of the wider society, it also laid a very strong emphasis on acquisition of knowledge which was useful to the individual and society as whole. (Kelly 1999).In a recap, indigenous forms of education served the needs of the community as a whole justifying that African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived. Hence, indigenous education theory hold that each of the individuals relationship affects and is affected by all the other members of the community. There is need to harmonize and integrate the best elements of both indigenous and todays education system in order to create more viable system of education in Africa .AustraliaFamily historians and genealogists searching for their ancestors often make the mistake of assuming that schools as they exist today also existed in days of early settlement. This mistaken belief can lead them down many false trails as they search for records. Understanding how school systems developed is a great aid in tracking down records.If you have searched in vain for your ancestor's high school records, it may very well be that such records do not exist for one reason: High schools did not exist until fairly recently in the histories of many countries. Schools developed as the needs of society demanded. An examination of the development of school systems in Australia provides insight on school development in other colonial societies as well.In these days of open-plan, computer-equipped classrooms, encouragement of interaction between teacher and pupil, availability of a wide variety of subjects, gender equality and restrictions on discipline, it is sometimes difficult to imagine what schools were like in the 1800s. Nowadays there are pre-schools, primary schools, high schools and technical colleges in most towns, and universities in the bigger cities.If you lived in the country in the 1800s, you might be lucky enough to have a small, one room school house on land donated by a local farmer. In the city, if you could not afford to attend one of the schools set up by the various churches, you would most probably be tutored by the wife of the local doctor, lawyer, magistrate or other professional. No standard for education existed. Education was only available to the wealthier middle and upper classes, who could afford to pay tuition.By the 1830s, the idea that crime was the result of ignorance, ignorance was the result of a lack of education and, therefore, education would decrease crime, was seen as a means of forging the penal colony of Australia into an organised and orderly society. This society would be based on, but hopefully better than, the existing British system. It was, therefore, imperative that the government set up schools so that all children could be taught, not only the three "R's," (reading, writing and arithmetic) but how to be good moral, law-abiding citizens. Opponents of this idea, however, felt that the child of a blacksmith didn't need any more education than what was necessary for him to become a blacksmith, the child of a farmer only what was necessary for him to be a successful farmer, etc.The government allocated money for education and this was used to pay teachers, erect and equip schoolhouses and buy necessary textbooks. A government school was one which had been either set up by the government or was an established school which received monies from the government to continue educating children. The majority of the church-run schools were outside this system, and remained so until well into the 1900s.The government also laid down strict guidelines as to the curriculum, teachers' and students' behavior and what activities could or could not be performed in the school grounds. It did not matter if the school was a small one room building in the country with less than 20 students, or a larger city school with classrooms of 100 students. The curriculum and rules were the same for all.Both boys and girls received instruction in the basic subjects. In addition, girls spent 80 minutes of the day in sewing, knitting and darning instruction while the boys spent this time learning geometry and more geography and arithmetic. The days commenced with the teacher inspecting the pupils to see that their face and hands had been washed, their hair combed and their clothes neat and, where necessary, darned. Thirty minutes of each day were also taken up with singing. However, they primarily tried to instill into the children the advantages of being orderly, clean, punctual, decent and courteous, and avoiding all things which would make them disagreeable to other people.One way to achieve this was the use of discipline. Rules governed how children were to enter the room, bow to the teacher, sit down on the benches, sit when reading what was on the blackboard, sit when writing, hold their pens, the position of their writing pads, and which hand was to be used for writing and which to point to the words being copied. Most learning was by rote. Pupils learned to repeat their tables, lists of dates and capital cities of the world, and poems parrot fashion.Play was also deemed to be character building because it assisted with discipline and duty and instruction in the virtues of self-denial, self-restraint and obedience. However, the general observation was that the children were running, jumping and shouting in a confused manner, and not learning anything. A good game of rounders or cricket was an approved activity, but marbles was seen as a nuisance. Since very few teachers had the necessary skills, and the schools lacked the necessary equipment, other forms of physical activity, such as gymnastics, were practically non-existent.At 13 years of age, a pupil could apply to become a pupil teacher. This method of training teachers proved unsuccessful because the pupil, who stayed at school and learned from his teacher, did not have contact with other teachers and their methods. In some cases in the city, 15-year-old girls were put in charge, albeit temporarily, of a class of 100 students not much younger than themselves. School inspectors and masters did not understand why these young girls could not control the class. Pupil teachers also picked up many of their teachers' bad habits, and became clones of their teachers.Pupils could be at school from about six years of age to over 16 years. However, school was not compulsory, and some parents required the help of their children to eke out a living. As a results, absenteeism was fairly high, and it was not unusual for children to leave school after less than two years. Thus, the children learnt only the rudiments of reading, writing and arithmetic. The view was that these 'elementary' schools were set up to cater to the lower classes; therefore, it was not considered necessary to add more subjects to the curriculum or to make the school more attractive.Compulsory education was introduced in the 1870s and was difficult to enforce. In many cases those who were charged with enforcing compulsory education found that they were only able to visit a particular area once a year. The few established teachers' colleges were not well attended because the extra study involved did not translate into increased pay. Training colleges did not exist until the twentieth century in Tasmania, Queensland and Western Australia. Higher education was mainly available only to the wealthier classes.The depression of the 1890s and the need for skilled workers impelled merchants to demand that technical education in schools be improved. In the face of criticism from distinguished British visitors and eminent politicians as well, commissions were set up to investigate developments in education overseas. Their reports left no doubt that the education systems needed major changes.Fees for high schools were abolished, subjects were improved and courses were extended to four years. The courses were designed with the student in mind: commercial courses for business, technical courses for industrial, domestic for home management and general courses for higher, professional education. Would-be teachers now had to complete secondary education and then attend training college.Three levels of certificates were introduced. Qualifying certificates were awarded for successfully passing examinations after completing six years in elementary school. Scholarships were awarded which entitled successful students to four years of higher education. The Intermediate certificate was awarded for the successful completion of four years of high school, and the Leaving certificate for the completion of another two years. A student who wanted to enter University also needed a Leaving certificate.At this time, a number of Superior Public schools were operating. Pupils receiving their Qualifying certificates from these primary/elementary schools, and not wishing to enter a High school course, could spend the next couple of years at the school learning subjects that would help them in the future. The syllabus for these schools was changed so the students could, if they wished, obtain their Intermediate certificate. In time, this type of school became another high school.Apart from increasing the time spent in primary/elementary schools to eight years, and decreasing the total amount of time spent in high school to four years, this system remained basically the same until the 1950s. Since then, changes to the curriculum and examination methods seem to have occurred every few years. The introduction of calculators and then computers to the school room have changed schools so that if our great, great grandparents could only see them, they would shake their heads in disbelief.South koreaSpecial schools were established to provide various government agencies with skilled workers. They offered curricula in such fields as mining, law, postal service and electricity. There were many other schools founded by private citizens and missionaries to encourage Korean nationalist conciousness. TheCh'oongnyon Hagwon, founded in 1904 and operated by pastor Chon Tok-ki, provided education for young men in close liaison with the activities of theShinminhoe, a secret independence organization. Its membership included prominent intellectuals and patriotic leaders. However, the school was forced to closed by the Japanese in 1914.Through the Office of the Resident-General, Japan assumed actual power over Korean education affecting reorganization of the educational system by imperial edict. The Japanese attempted to bring all schools under government management, reduce the number of schools, subordinate the content of education to their colonial policy, and retard Korean education by lowering the level of academic content. Through the decree for private schools promulgated in 1908, the Japanese strengthened their control over private schools and shut many of them down.Schools were, however, continuously established in the Maritime Province and in the Kando district across the Tuman-gang river. In 1919 the number of Korean schools reached to 130 in Manchuria alone. Like their colleagues at home, patriotic leaders in exile in Manchuria laid emphasis on education as a prerequisite for the independence struggle.Back to TopIn 1905, Chu Shi-gyong made a proposal to the government concerning studies of the Korean language and compilation of a dictionary. As a result of his efforts and those of the National Language Research Institute established in 1907, a new system was introduced for the national script. Under this system, the exclusive use of Chinese characters in official documents and communication was replaced by the mixed use of Chinese characters andHan-gul.Newspapers and books used the new writing system in order to spread knowledge of European institutions more rapidly among the populace. Through his work on Korean grammar and phonology published in the years 1908-1914, Chu Shi-gyong exerted a profound impact on scientific research of the Korean language. He also taught that language and script were the foundation of national spirit and culture.On the basis of a modern understanding of the national language, a new literary movement began, aimed at arousing national consciousness among the masses. New-style poems, novels and travel accounts were published inHan-gul. These creative literary achievements were made possible by the translation and imitation of European and American literature, from the latter part of the 19th century to the 1910s. This early stage of the enlightenment movement provided a basis for the modern literature of the 1920s.

ducational History:The Korean educational tradition has been shaped by two main cultural characteristics. First is the extreme class consciousness of the Korean people. Birth into a good family was regarded as a heavenly mandate or at least a reward for merit in a previous life. In pre-modern times nobility was strictly hereditary, and upward mobility into a higher class was not possible, except in very rare cases of merit. The second and most important characteristic is that Koreans have long believed society's leaders to be the most educated.Formal education in Korea started in the Three Kingdoms era. It is recorded that the people of Kogury (37 B.C.-A.D. 668), the kingdom closest to China, were already studying the Five Classics of Confucianism, as well as &NA;-ma Qin's "Historical Records" (Sh j) and Bng's "History of the Han Dynasty" (Hn sh), the Ypin Chinese character dictionary, and an anthology of Chinese literature called theWn xuan(Lee 1984, 58).The first public educational institution, calledT'aehak(Great Learning, Highest School of Learning, or the National Confucian Academy), was founded in 372 by King Sosurim of Kogury. This was the first formal school in East Asia outside of China (HEK). The king, who officially adopted Buddhism, embarked on a series of reforms to speed national recovery from devastating invasions by educating youth for officialdom.T'aehakwas modeled upon Chinese institutions, teaching the Chinese language and the Confucian classics (Han 63).Soon after the establishment ofT'aehak,private schools calledkyngdangwere erected in each locality at a main crossroads, in order to educate the unmarried, non-aristocratic youth of Kogury.Kyngdang,likeT'aehak,emphasized a balanced education in letters and martial arts. The curriculum at both institutions typically consisted of the reading of Chinese texts as well as archery practice (Lee 1984, 58).Paekche, the second to Sinicize of the three kingdoms, had a curriculum for thePaksa(Savant or Erudite Scholar), a term now used to refer to the holder of a doctorate, which was given to teachers of the Chinese classics, as well as philosophy and history.Shilla (57 B.C.-A.D. 935), being the farthest from China, is thought to have been the most authentically Korean kingdom. It had a well-organized and original educational system, calledhwarangdo(The Way of Flower Knights), to train young men for beauty and strength of mind and body with the eventual objective of national defense; this, indeed, led to the unification of the three kingdoms by Shilla in 668. Confucianism came relatively late to Shilla as compared with Kogury and Paekche. Not long after unification, Confucianism appeared to rival Buddhism as a distinct system of thought in the establishment ofKukhak(National Learning) in 682. Around 750, this state institution was renamed theT'aehakkam(National Confucian University) and offered three different courses of study with the "Analects" and "Classic of Filial Piety" as required subjects in each course. A kind of state examination system was established in 788 for selecting government officials (Lee 1984, 83).The goals of the national educational institutions were twofold: (1) attainment of general knowledge, especially in Confucian classics for able leadership; and (2) training of bureaucrats. At first both aims were equal, but later, education became largely certification and test-oriented (Kim-Renaud 1991).During the Three Kingdoms period, students went to study in China. The students typically stayed about 10 years in China and then returned home, unlike those going abroad in recent times. At least 59 students from Shilla passed the Chinese civil service examinations (Kim-Renaud 1991).Kory Dynasty:The Chinese-style civil service examination was first administered in Korea in A.D. 958 during the Kory Dynasty and served for recruiting government bureaucrats who were much needed to solidify the new dynasty. The dynasty's national school was founded in 930 specifically to train future bureaucrats. A full-scale national school called theKukchagam(National University) was established in 992. This system, although based on the Tang model again, was accessible only to aristocrats, who were further distinguished by their family's social rank. Programs training lesser bureaucrats enrolled the offspring of lower bureaucrats, while higher level trainees had a curriculum mainly involving Confucian classics. Technical fields were to be studied only by those of lower social position. The stipulation of such entrance qualifications offers still another insight into Kory class consciousness.TheKukchagamcame to resemble a modern university at the time of King Injong (1122-46). It was comprised of a number of colleges, namely the so-called Six Colleges of the Capital: University College (Kukchahak), High College (T'aehak), Four Portals College (Samunhak), Law College (Yurhak), Writing College (Shak), and Arithmetical College (Sanhak). Students' familial social status rather than their interest decided in which school they would be matriculated (Lee 1984, 119-20).New to the Kory was the rise of private, rather than public, academies as the principal agencies for the education of aristocratic youth. The first and most famous of Twelve Assemblies was theKuje haktang(nine course Academy), established by Ch'oe Ch'ung, calledhaedong kongja("the Confucius of the East"), during Munjong's reign (1046-83). Ch'oe Ch'ung and the other masters of the Twelve Assemblies had officiated at the state examinations. These facts, together with the emphasis placed on lineage, made it a greater honor for the sons of aristocratic families to attend one of these private academies than the government'sKukchagam(Lee 1984, 129-30).

Chosn Dynasty:As the Chosn Kingdom or Yi Dynasty adopted neo-Confucianism, the goal of education was to create moral men, who would practice proper judgment in actionsqualities thought essential in all leaders, including the king himself (Haboush 1985). Respect for knowledge and scholarship was absolute. Members of theChiphynjn(Hall or Academy of Worthies), a royal research institute founded by King Sejong (r. 1418-50), the inventor of the Korean alphabet, enjoyed exceptional privileges, including the freedom to pursue their individual intellectual interests at home or in remote areas (Hejtmanek 21).A national school called theSnggyun'gwan(National Confucian Academy) was established in 1398 shortly after the dynasty's foundation in 1392 for reasons similar to those inducing Kory to found a national institution at its outset. Again Confucian classics became a major educational focus. However, the system became increasingly examination-oriented and continued to serve mainly the aristocrats with the specific goal of passing the civil service examinations. Although in principle anyone could sit for these examinations, in actuality opportunities to prepare for them were available only to the offspring ofyangbanaristocrats.At an early age, ayangbanyouth entered a private elementary school (sdang) that could be found in any community nationwide. There he achieved literacy in Chinese characters. At the age of seven, he would advance to one of the Four Schools (sahak) in Seoul or to a county school (hyanggyo) elsewhere, which prepared students for their first examination. After a few years, youths passing the "licentiate" examination were admitted to the Snggyun'gwan in Seoul, the highest institution of learning. Only those who attended this National Academy could sit for the highest level examination calledmunkwa.The private academies, calledswn,emerged in the mid-sixteenth century and prospered through the late nineteenth, when their number reached about 300. These schools seem to have differed from the national college in detail and scale only. Again, liberal, humanistic, and Confucian studies were considered the ultimate, while technical subjects such as agriculture, manufacturing, commerce, mathematics, and medicine were despised ascaphakor "miscellaneous learning." Practical knowledge was considered merely "functional," allowing people to perform limited and superficial activities, while a liberal education was thought to offer general competence to handle unanticipated situations.Manyswnwere established by ex-officials out of court favor or in retirement. Some historians see their development largely as the result of the withdrawal of the Confucian literati collectively known as thesarim(forest of scholars) from national politics to avoid persecution, pursue their studies of neo-Confucian philosophers, and lead a quiet rural life. Others view the rise of private academies rather as a manifestation of the rise ofsarim,a new breed of scholar-officials, ambitiously committed to the cause of neo-Confucianism and determined to realize the goals of the Confucian thinkers. Asswnwere perceived as centers of neo-Confucian scholarship and moral cultivation, every administrative district had at least a private academy, and many had two or more by the middle of the seventeenth century (Ch'oe 27).Because women were supposed to stay within the boundary of the home in Chosn Korea, they were excluded from formal education meant to prepare men for public service and scholarship. Even in an increasingly confucianized Korea, however, the notion persisted that women, as essential figures in family and society, needed proper education (Haboush 2000, 46). A textbook entitledNaehun(Instructions for Women, 1475), by Queen Sohye is an example of how elite women of Chosn Korea sought, within the constraints of the Confucian gender system, to define a space wherein they could play meaningful social, cultural, and political roles (Duncan).Modern Era (1880-1945):In the late Chosn, patriotic leaders and members of the enlightenment movement saw education as a key to modernization and national independence. The government established the English School in 1883 andYugyng Kong'wn(Garden of Youth Education) in 1886. King Kojong authorized, in the Royal Decree of 1895, the establishment of other state-run modern schools, comprising primary, normal, and vocational schools. He emphasized the importance of education for the training of competent citizens and national revival. In 1895 the government established Hansng Normal School, a foreign language school, and a training school for various government officials and bureaucrats, including army officers, teachers, and trade officials (Han 427).The first modern school in Korea, however, was theWnsan Haksa(Academy), a private school founded in 1883 by Chng Hyn-sk, a county magistrate in Wnsan, at the request of the Wnsan traders' group and other locals. Korea's first modern school was thus established at the initiative of the residents of a newly opened port city with their own resources in response to a challenge from abroad (Lee 1984, 332).Koreans also welcomed foreign missionaries who brought modern medicine and the liberal arts. In 1886, under King Kojong's patronage, American missionaries started three private schools:Paeje haktang(Hall of Learning), Kyngshin School, and Korea's first educational institution for women,Ewha(Ihwa)haktang,which is today's Ewha Women's University. In 1890, Chngshin Girls' School was added.In 1905, Posng College, which is today's Korea University, was founded by Yi Yong-ik. The first two departmentsLaw and Commercewere intended to introduce Western legal, commercial, and technical knowledge to the Korean people struggling to maintain their country's independence (MOE).By 1908, two years before the country succumbed to Japanese colonial domination, Korea's 5,000 vocational schools enrolled about 200,000 students (Kim-Renaud 1991). Of these schools, 796 were established by Christian missionaries; schools for girls outnumbered those for boys (HEK). Modern-style education thus began for women at the same time as for men in Korea (Kim-Renaud 1991).The medical school of today's Yonsei (a portmanteau name originating from Ynhi-Severance) University goes back to 1885, when King Kojong opened the first modern hospital, the Kwanghoewn, under the direction of Dr. Horace N. Allen of the Korean Mission Presbyterian Church in the United States. In March 1886, the Kwanghoewn accepted 16 students to be trained as Korea's first modern medical doctors. In 1904 the medical center was renamed the Severence Union Medical College and Hospital. In 1915, the Chosun Christian College was founded through the efforts of Dr. H. G. Underwood, a pioneering Protestant missionary and the College's first president. Two years later, renamed Ynhi College, it became Korea's first modern college.Throughout the colonial period, the democratic ideals and individuals' self-esteem heralded by private schools offering Western-style education became a catalyst for Korea's independence movement. Conservative elements, which comprised the great majority of the society, considered the new education inappropriate and corrupting, especially for women; nevertheless, private schools for both genders continued to flourish, producing a new elite class, as the traditional belief in educated leaders persisted. Thus, even for women, education became a means of upward social mobility. New fields besides Confucian classics became important, such as medicine, mathematics, geography, and foreign languages. Women began to have a professional life outside the home. Women participated fully in the 1919 independence movement, which was initiated by Yu Kwansun, a young woman from Ewha Haktang. Taking notice of the private schools' nurturance of nationalist thinking, the Japanese Government General began controlling them and closed many.After the aborted 1919 independence movement, however, the Japanese established new schools to prove their "cultural administration," which was adopted under the pressure of world opinion, to make deceptive gestures in the direction of liberalizing their rule in Korea (Han 479). The most significant was Kyngsng Imperial University, which is today's Seoul National University, founded 1924. Even there, however, more than twothirds of the students (68-70 percent in 1935) were Japanese (Ono). Furthermore, secondary schools emphasized menial skill training; the majority of boys' schools had adjoining land for farming practice, and sewing and embroidery occupied much of girls' curriculum (HEK). However eager Koreans were to learn, they could not meet the challenge of Japanese imperialism, and the harsh Japanese rule of 35 years left the majority of Koreans illiterate.Contemporary Era:No sooner were Koreans liberated from the Japanese than the country was artificially divided. There were new occupational forces on the peninsula: Soviets in the north and Americans in the south. To overcome Japanese influence, the U.S. military occupation (1945-48) undertook a drastic revision of the basic educational structure and curricula using the American system and democratic ideology as a model. Initially Koreans ardently studied American educational theory by scholars such as John Dewey, E. L. Thorndike, William Kilpatrick, and Harold Rugg. Equal educational opportunity for all was their primary concern (HEK). Since 1945, the Korean language has been used exclusively for classroom instruction, except in foreign language classes.Once the Korean War (1950-53) ended, Koreans embarked on a major recovery. The explosive expansion of Korean education at all levels in less than 50 years produced drastic changes in both the quantity and the quality of education. Whereas once the goal was to make education available to everyone, now the aspiration is to produce enlightened and efficient future citizens who will contribute to national welfare and reconstruction.

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