India Notes Emma

8/16/2019 India Notes Emma

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National Study- India 1919-1947

1. Gandhi and Nationalism in the 1920s

– Political, economic and social issues in India in 1919

Nature of Satyagraha

- Weapon of the strong. Admits no violence under any circumstances and always insists upon the

truth, patience and self-suffering

Economic Issues

- Economic situation- propagating an atmosphere of unrest and discontent- Context

- Post WWI- inflation rapidly increasing

-

Monsoon failure of 1918-1919- hit farmers-

Those that were less well off were outraged by the ability of a few Indians to make largefortunes

- Middle class- caught between high cost of living and their fixed incomes

- Merchants- faced the possibility of decreases in their high wartimes profits- need

for materials failing

- Working class- likely to lose their war bonuses

- Untouchables- particularly difficult- shortages of food and other basic necessities

- Spanish Influenza

- Affection society with thousands of deaths

- Fundamental changes to the economic makeup of India

-

British influence- Met with opposition

Social and Political Issues

- Indian longing for Home Rule- after WWI

- Khilafat Issue (Illustrated the Nature and impact of Nationalism- Reasons for the Growth

and Impact of Nationalism)

- Muslim wants

- Result of the defeat of Turkey- Muslims fearful of what wold happen to their holyplaces in the Middle East

-

Wanted the Sultan of Turkey (despite defeat) should retain power to defend thefaith

- Remain guardian of Islam’s holy places- Ali brothers- realised that Gandhi could deliver their cause a considerable measure

of All-India support

- Anxious to maintain Gandhi’s position as the Hindu leader of the Khilafat

movement

- Gandhi’s role

- Issue of Hindu-Muslim unity

- Opportunity for India to rise above the politics of separate communities and

establish a national political movement

-

Demonstrate to the British their ability to work together in the interest of an

independent India

- Propelled Gandhi to the forefront of National politics- Non-cooperation campaign


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- Problems

- Khilafat movement embraced violence- while Gandhi was a strong advocate from

non-violence

- Muslims regarded this as foolish

- Restlessness grew

- Rowlatt Bills (Illustrates the changing nature of imperialism, the nature and impact of

nationalism and the differing views of democracy) - The Defence of India Act, 1919

- Under the act- India had been given social powers in regards to anti-terrorism

legislation

- Suspended civil liberties

- Indians did have have human rights

- The Media was censored

- Power of provincial governors to imprison suspected terrorists without trial

- In any area of India notified as subversive to the British

- The government should be authorised to take action and impose martial law

- Laws effected very few India’s

-

Most of India’s population were peasants (could not read or write)- Problems

- Committee’s proposal- attempt to prolong the government’s wartime

powers

- Indian politicians strongly against

- Argued that terrorist acts were isolated and did not justifypowers to impose restrictions on the whole country

- British misuse of power

- Implementation of the Rowlatt Bills

- Gandhi’s opposition to the Bills- Satyagraha campaign

- Hartal- “An effort to discover, discern, obtain or apply the truth”

-

British governments bemused by the concept

- Stated that the laws deprived the people of their “God given right of

free expression, thus breaking the law of God”

- The Hartal (A campaign of resistance and an event showing the nature and impact of

nationalism)

- Gandhi’s dream

- “the idea came to me in a dream, that we should call upon the country to

observe a general hartal”

- Planning

- With a lack of forethrough- Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal, 6th April

-

How the hartal was to be obserced by local leaders- Gandhi gavethem no guidance

- Informed the Viceroy that he would start recruiting signatories if the

government did not chnage its position

- Indian oposition

- Opposition from many senior Indian political figues

- Saw Gandhi as a naive Gujarati upstart, playing with fire by

trying to mobilise the masses- Many disciples who were committed to non-violence

- Troubled by the idea of using satyagraha against measures

designed to contol terrorism

-

The Hartal- Mass confusion

- Delhi, March 30th


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- Started a week early

- Crowds clashed with police and troops

- Mistaken belief that 2 of their numbers had been

arrested

- Police swung steel-tipped tathis

- 6th April

-

Response poor in Calcutta and Bengal- Bombay- 4/5th of shops closed

- The Amritsar Massacre (Event showing the changing nature of imperialism and the

nature and impact of Satyagraha)

- Sir Michael O’Dwyer

- About to retire after 6 years as a Lieutenant

- Relish the prospect of a final showdown before he left

- Ordered armed police onto the streets of Lahore and Amritsar

- News of Gandhi’s arrest

- O’Dwyer issued an exclusion order banning him from the Punjab- Gandhi

taken off the train and arrested

-

News spread thought the city- protesters began taking to the streets- Punjab- Mob soon out of control in full-scale riots

- Attacking any Europeans they saw

- Burning down government buildings

- Cutting telegraph wires

- Looting houses and shops- Murdering British police sergeant

- Graffiti- “Kill all Europeans. Murder them wherever they are

found”

- Context of the Amritsar Massacre

- Beginning of Hartal in Lahore

-

Began peacefully but protests began heading towards the civil lines

- O’Dwyer feared an invasion of the European quarter

- Sent troops out to dive them back behind the walls

- Students explained that their intentions were entirely

peaceful and that they only wanted to show their

sorrow at Gandhi’s arrest

- Police opened fire

- Crowd advancing through the city

- Indian version- Crowd was sorrowing and peaceful

- Men had removed Turbans and shoes in tradition sign of

mourning- British version- saw crowd as a menacing mob

- Had thrown off its turbans- ready for battle

- 40,000 men- mood of excitement and aggression

- Troops opened fire- 4 people killed

- Mob of fury

- A mass of destruction- headed to the heart of the city

- 5 European men killed- Attack on a white woman

- Seen as being sacred

- Beaten and left for dead

-

Arrival of General Dyer- Classic product of the Raj- attitude made O’Dwyer look like

a watery liberal


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- Enforcement of the crawling orders

- All Indians reguardless of age or status who passed

along the street where Miss Sherwood had been

attacked- forced at bayonet to crawl on their bellies

- Platform erected

- Selected Indian men who might have been

involved in the attack were publicly flogged- Gandhi Response

- Gandhi was mortified after reading the reports from the Punjab

- Blamed himself- described as ‘a Himalayan miscalculation’ in

asking the people to disobey the law before they were properly

prepared for satyagraha

- Acknowledged that a great deal needed to be done in

“educating the people before it could be safely used as a

mass weapon”

- Impact of Gandhi

- Gandhi had established himself as a national figure with his own political

platform- Poised to challenge the existing order at all levels

- Political leaders still did not know what to make of him or how his

idiosyncratic ideas could be harnessed

- Success of the campaign

- Showed India that there was an alternative to the kind of politics that hadbeen practiced for decades without result

- Represented a turning point of modern India

- Destroyed any moral justification that the British might have

claimed for their presence in India

- The Hunter Committee- Investigate the recent disturbances in Bombay, Delhi and the

Punjab- (An event indicating the change nature of imperialism and the nature and

impact of Nationalism)- May 1920, concluded that “His majesty’s government repudiates (refuses to accept

or be associated with) emphatically the doctrine of “frightfulness” upon which

General Dyer based his actions”

- Montagu accepted it in its entirety

- A complete violation of the principle of minimum force

- Which remained the prime factor of government policy

- Crawling order ‘offended against every canon of civilised government

- The Morning post- launched a fund to raise money for ‘the man who saved India’

-

Dyer presented with a jeweled sword- Inscribed ‘To the Saviour of Punjab’

- Gandhi- “When a government takes up arms against its unarmed subjects then it

has forfeited its right to govern. It has admitted that it cannot rule in peace and

justice. Nothing less than the removal of the British and complete self-government

could satisfy injured India

- Observed a 24 hour fast on the anniversary of the massacre

- The 1919 Government of India Act- (an event showing the changing nature of imperialism and

differing views of democracy)

- New reforms- Montagu Chelmsford reforms were to be introduced

- After the end of the Rowlatt campaign- review on the administration of India

-

Introduction of Diarchy- Aspected of governments were allocated to elect provincial

assembles (limited home rule)


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- Advance in the constitution of India

- Right to vote severely restricted

- Many important aspects of government still remained in the hands of the British

government- Viceroy + council

- Authority to veto the actions of any province

- Therefore reforms offered very little genuine loosening of British authority

in India- Executive power remained firmly in the hands of the Viceroy- responsible to the

British parliament

– Nature, impact and significance of campaigns of resistance 1919–1922

Non-Cooperation Campaign 1920-1922

- Nature

- As a result of the inhuman killings at the Amritsar site- Gandhi responded with a policy of

non-cooperation

-

He identified the “two wrongs” which the British government had imposed on thepeople of India

- Khilafat issue and the Hunter Commission Report

- Techniques of non-cooperation

- Boycotting British products (swadeshi)

- Refusing to work for British employers

- Pulling children out of British schools

- Refusing the supply the British with services

- Not paying taxes

- No participation in the changes introduced under the Montagu-Chelmsford

reforms- no one stand for eletion

-

All titles and honours conferred on Indians by the British were to be given

up

- Congress reaction

- Not finally determined until its annual meeting at Nagpur, 1920

- Overwhelmingly committed itself to a policy of non-cooperation

- Clear that for the first time, the western educated elite of Indian society no

longer predominated

- Impact

- Heavily impacted on the people of India

- Thousands gathered to shout ‘Mahatma Gandhi ki jai”

-

Gandhi realised that if the British continued to club and jail vast numbers of peacefuldemonstrators- would make the government look like bullies in the eyes on the world

- Campaign appealed to the British conscience

- Impact on the people

- Thousands renounced titles and medal

- Lawyers abandoned their legal practices and left the British court system

- Many students and teachers left the cities to teach literacy and non-cooperation in

the villages

- When Gandhi told audiences that they must not wear foreign clothing- they

applauded

- Stripped off clothing into a pile- Gandhi burned them

-

Indians begun to spin and weave their own clothing- Annual meeting of congress- all but 1 of 6000 delegates dressed in Khadi

- Khadi- opened up opportunities for women


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- By spinning and wearing khadi- women participated in the creation of the

nation

- New era of action

- Gandhi argued that this new era should begin if they were to achieve swaraj

- Actions

- Recruiting men and women for the restructured Congress

-

Raising enough money to sustain local Congress committees- Transform India into a totally self-governing society of peaceful,

harmonious and industrious people

- The arrest of Gandhi

- Issued a pre-trail statement urging the Indian people to course of non-violent non-

cooperation

- Sentenced to 6 years in prison, released after 2

- Trial for sedition- played a major role in communicating his political

message- “I invite and cheerfully submit to the highest penalty that can

inflicted upon me”

-

Demonstration of Gandhi’s strong will and determination to achieveHome Rule

- Inspired others not to be afraid of jail if it mean pursuing their

national goal

- Significance

- End of the campaign- Gandhi called off the 1922 non-cooperation movement- after the Chauri Chaura

killings (22 Indian policemen hacked to death and burnt)

- Campaign shaped the growth of Indian nationalism

- Gandhi offered nationalism a prospect of success- in lace of the decades of

an ineffectual constitutionalism and self-destructive terrorism

-

Barbara D. And Metcalf

- Argue that “as the collapse of Non-cooperation makes clear, the movement

towards independence was not to by marked by a steady unrelenting

pressure sustained year after year”

-

- The role, ideas and impact of Gandhi

-

Roles and Impact- Spinning Wheel and Khadi- principle of Swadeshi

- Revival of the spinning wheel

- Economic benefits for an impoverished rural people

- Boycott of foreign goods

- Brought self-reliance and hope

- “sound of spinning became the sound of freedom”

- Gandhi no longer focused on rapid revolutionary changes- but on the slow daily

incremental socioeconomic changes every peasant could bring to his and her life

- Each contributing to India’s eventual Swaraj by hand spinning

- Gandhi- “the cloth binds all brothers and sister of India into one, which

purifies and ennobles their soul and will lift them to freedom from thepresent life of poverty and bondage”

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- Khadi- constructed an India that was united, disciplined and cohesive- for a British

would have previously viewed India as a land of separate communities whose

varied clothing styles announced their unfitness for self rule

- Spinning was a means to self-reliance and self-respect

- In speeches, gandhi reminded people that before the advent of the British,

every village of self-sufficient

-

Leader of National Congress- Able to appeal effectively to the people outside the marrow population of the

educated elite

- Influenced the Congress into accepting his ideas on non-cooperation

- Meant that his role was crucial- affected what action the Indian political

leader took

- Related to the poverty stricken Indian masses

- Through use of symbolism- wearing a dhoti, diet and traveling 3rd class

- Gain independence

- By forcing the British to realise that they had no reason to continue to

occupy India through non-violent means

-

Nature and Impact of Satyagraha and Nationalism 1924-1930- social reform initiatives- After release from prison 1924- Gandhi temporarily withdraw from the nationalist

movement to concentrate on a life of prayer, contemplation and social reform

- Encourages hand spinning and weaving

- Believed that poverty was cased by the introduction of machinery

- Remove prejudice from untouchables- Improvements in villages

- Cleanliness a feature of his campaign

- Neatly swept streets, uncluttered drains and personal hygiene

- Impact of symbolism

- Chadha- “the wearing of khadi was the only visible and tangible tie that bound the

educated elite to the masses

- Used fasting as a form of self-suffering to express his views and concerns with the

public

- Rights for women

- Spoke on problems such as widow marriage, prostitution, divorce, dowries, child

brides and wife beater

- Begun a deliberate appeal to woman to participate in swaraj

- All of India must be involved in order to obtain swaraj- including women of all

casts and religions

- Fasting

-

Technique worked very effectively- public cared for Gandhi and would listen tohim if it meant that he would stop fasting

- Used to make the opponent feel guilty about their actions- press attention

- Further events in the 1920s

- The Simon Commission (illustrates differing views of Democracy)

- Britain announced a proposal to advance India towards self-government

- Due to the upcoming British election- feared that the Labour party would

win and allow changes in India to occur more rapidly- Report on India’s readiness for further progress to self-government

- Commission- only consisted of British MP’s

- Congress- boycotted the commission

-

Nehru report (differing views of Democracy) - Establish a committee to draft an alternative proposal to whatever

the Simon commission might propose


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- Demanded Dominion status for India (not complete

independence)

- Suggested the abolition of separate electorates and their

replacement by joint and reserved seats

- Brought back Gandhi to the forefront on Indian politics

- Worked out compromise

-

If British granted dominion status- Congress wouldaccept

- If Britain had not granted it by the end of 1929-

Congress would opt for complete independence

- British declared that Dominion status was their objective

- Complete independence was declared the Congress

objective

2. Congress and Consolidation in the 1930s

- The Significance of the Salt Satyagraha (An event showing the changing nature of

imperialism, the nature and impact of nationalism and nature and impact of Satyagraha)

Salt Satyagraha

- Second of Gandhi’s campaigns- The Civil Disobedience Campaign

- Showed the absolute brutality of the British government- received worldwide publicity

- Nature- Personally and publicly break the salt laws

- Made it illegal for individuals to manufacture salt in India

- Government had a monopoly

- All Indians regarded salt as as absolute necessity in their diet-

Therefore, an attack on the salt laws would have a powerful and

emotional appeal

- Encourage some of his followers to join him in breaking the law

- Only those who had been rigorously schooled in the techniques of Satyagraha

- No violence on the part of the Indians involved

- British government would be seen to be defending he indefensible against the starving

millions of India

- Would not seriously threaten government finances and would not alienate those who

feared a serious struggle with the British

- Introduce many more to Gandhi’s technique of Satyagraha

-

Provide him with an opportunity to educate people- The Campaign

- Gandhi sent a letter to Irwin to warn him that the civilian insubordination would start

- “I regard this tax to be the most iniquitous of all from the poor man’s standpoint”

- Not a threat- but an invitation for open communication- Irwin- refused to see him or arrest him

- 12 March, 1930- dressed only in khadi

- Gandhi began his long March to Dandi

- Ashram in Agmedabad to Dandi on the seashore- Accompanied by 78 carefully selected and trained satygrahis

- 2 untouchables

-

2 Muslims- 1 Christian

- Marchers stopped in villages


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- Gandhi addressed the people

- Wished to be arrested- believed it would contribute to achieving Home Rule

- Number of marchers grew with every village visited

- Reached the sea- anniversary of the Hartal

- Stooped down and picked up a lump of salt

- Proclaimed that he had made salt an illegal act

-

Broadened his campaign- Prohibition and swadeshi

- Urged students to leave their schools

- “suspend your studies and join in the fight for freedom”

- Fearful that the movement might die away

- Government arrested more than 60,000 people

- Gandhi arrested- government detained him without a trail and no fixed sentence

- Significance

- Effective because it reached a wide audience- beginning of a social revolution

- Gave Indians the conviction that they could lift the foreign yoke from their shoulders

- Made the British aware that they were crushing India

-

Raid on the Dharasana Salt Works- Naidu- “you must not even raise a hand to ward off blows”

- Satygrahis approached the salt pans

- Webb Miller- “Marchers simply walked forward until stuck down. Not one

of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off the blows. They went down

like ten-pins”- Not enough stretchers to carry off the wounded

- 25 men would advance and sit down

- Police lashed out at the men sitting with their lathis

- Miller- “The police commenced savagely kicking the seated men in the

abdomen and testicles”

-

Impact

- When the Indians allowed themselves to be beaten with batons and riflebutts and did not cringe- they showed England was powerless and

India invincible

- Changes in British Power: The Round Table Conferences & the Government of India Act1935 (show the changing nature of imperialism, the nature and impact of nationalism, and

the differing views of democracy)

The Round Table Conferences

- First R.T.C

- Held in London

- Aims

- To discuss ways that Indian self rule could be granted

- Congress- most of its leaders in prison, refused to attend

- Significance

- Shown that peaceful progress could be made- Irwin realised that without the involvement of Gandhi and Congress- no lasting

solutions were likely to emerge

- Gandhi-Irwin Pact

-

Irwin- could not be seen bargaining with Congress but wanted the RTC to succeed- Decided to release Congress leaders from jail

- Invited Gandhi to hold talks with him


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- From these talks emerged the Gandhi Irwin Pact 1931

- Congress would end Civil Disobedience

- All future negotiations would include Congress

- The future constitution would be federal

- Strong provincial governments with weak central governments

- People living in coastal areas would be permitted to collect salt for their own use

-

Second Round Table Conference- Gandhi- went to London as the sole Congress delegate

- Role not successful

- Muslims did not accept the claim that Congress fairly represented the

Muslims

- Muslims would not accept that reserved electorates would guarantee them

just treatment

- British view (Churchill) was much less sympathetic to Indian ambitions

- Gandhi- “I want to turn the truce that was arrived in Delhi, into a permanent

settlement. But for heaven’s sake give me, a frail man, a little bit of a chance.”

- The Communal Award

-

A decision confirming separate electorates for Muslims and Untouchables- Bitter blow to Gandhi- fasted

- Not wanting to be responsible for his death, British relented

- Third RTC

- Tidy up loose ends to satisfy the British Conservatives

- No Congress representatives- Outcome

- Gandhi resigned from Congress

- Clearly many Indians disagreed with his strict ideals of moral, spiritual and

economic renewal

- Still prepared to resort to violence

The Government of India Act 1935

- Act passed in 1935, final outcome of the Simon Commission and the RTCs

- Responsible government granted to the provinces

- Gave limited emergency power to each province’s governor (appointed by the

British)

- Diarchy retained

- Power share between the Viceroy and two federal assemblies

- Members from the princely states

-

Elected members from the provinces of India- Viceroy

- Retain control over Defence and foreign affairs

- Governors- appointed by British

- Veto powers

- Congress Attitude

- Few delegates

- Very critical- Nehru, branded the act as a “charter of slavery”- Regarded at impossibly complicated

- Opposed the weight given to the princely states

- Wanted full dominion status- not to be under British control

-

Majority- Wanted to give it a try

- Civil Disobedience had failed


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- Supported by Gandhi

- The 1937 Elections and the Formation of Congress Ministries (changing nature of

imperialism and nature and impact of nationalism)

- Congress won 716 seats- sweeping victory

-

Significance- Chadha- “poor showing by the Muslim League and the attitude of Congress ensured that

the seeds of discord were sown and nurtured, contributing to the country’s partition a

decade later.”

4. The Road to Independence and Partition

- The Impact of WWII on Anglo-Indian Relations

- Outbreak of WWII- Indian army 205,000 men

- Grew to be the largest all-volunteer force rising to over 2.5 million

-

1939, Viceroy Linilthgow proclaimed (without consulting any Indian) that India was at war withGermany

- A meeting was held between over 50 Indian leaders and the Viceroy

- Nehru- “India cannot associate herself with a war said to be for democratic freedom when

that very freedom is denied to her”

- Viceroy- “Dominion status was the goal of the British policy in India and that the Act of1935 would be open to modification at the end of the war”

- Outcome

- All Congress provincial ministries resigned

- Gandhi supported non-violence

- Left governors in charge

-

Nehru’s proposition

- Demanded recognition of Indian right, which would include independence after the

war

- If the British agreed to this demand, Congress would assist Britain’s war

effort

- Gandhi resigned from a party now prepared to accept violence

- Jinnah and the Muslim League left in charge- Day of Deliverance

- Lahore resolution, 1940

- Presented the “two nations theory”

- Demanded that India be partitioned and “the areas in which the Muslims are

numerically in a majority should be grouped to constitute IndependentStates”

- Gandhi opposed resolution

- August 1940 offer

- Faced with the prospect of a German invasion of India- British cabinet offered an

Indianised Executive Council immediately and an Indian Constitute Assembly after the

war to draw up a constitution with regards for minority rights

- Although British virtually conceded to the right of Indians to determine their ownfuture- Congress was unenthusiastic and rejected the offer

- Despite their concessions, it was obvious that the government would remain

firmly under the Viceroy's council

-

Atlantic Charter- Indian hopes raised when Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter with Roosevelt


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- Promised all peoples the right to live under the governments of their choice after

the war

- Dashed when Churchill made a speech to British parliament expressly

excluding India from the provisions of the Charter

- Japanese declaration of war

- Fall of Singapore and invasion of Burma

-

Bose- planned a collaboration with the Japanese- Gandhi believed that India should remain passive with neutral in the world conflict

- The Cripps Mission

- Roosevelt- impressed upon Churchill the urgent necessity of winning more positive

support for the war effort in India- through new and more generous concessions to

Nationalist demands

- Churchill had no desire to transfer what he regarded as a ‘Brahman oligarchy’- but

was in no position to resits American demands

- Dispatched Sir Cripps to India with Cabinet’s new proposals

- Cripps

- Labour member of the British coalition government

-

Friend of Nehru and the Congress party- Confusion over what he was entitled to offer India in support for the war

- Offered

- Promised India Dominion Status immediately after the war

- Envisaged setting up of an elected constitution making body- fame a

constitution for Indian union- British cabinet conscious of the importance of retaining the

allegiance of Muslims (during WWII)- provided the possibility for

Pakistan

- Any province in India which wished to remain outside the

Union was free to frame its own constitution and exist as an

independent dominion

- Immediate interim reforms- war time government

- Work under the supervision and control of the Viceroy

- Gandhi and Nehru reaction

- Could not accept the government’s long term proposals

- Feared they would eventually lead to the fragmentation of the Indian

Union

- Willing to accept the interim suggestions

- Provided all responsibility for defence was given to an Indian

member of council

-

Dismayed by the possibility of a Japanese invasion- Believed if the Indians had control of defence it would

secure greater Indian participation in the war effort

- Outcomes

- Long and futile negotiations- Cripps was compelled to give up his mission

and return to London

- Congress saw the offer as little too late

- Gandhi- “a post-dated cheque of a failing bank”- Increased the atmosphere in India of bitterness and discontent

- Churchill ensured that the Mission achieved nothing

- Satisfied Americans- saw that the British had made a genuine offer

- The Impact of the ‘Quit India’ Movement


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- Context

- Gandhi noted that the people were in no mood to resist a Japanese invasion

- Believed that the only solution was an immediate declaration of independence

- While the British troops should remain on Indian soil, the British must hand

over the administration

- Believed that given a stake in the defence of their country- the people would rally

behind their leaders and see the country through the crisis- British refused to grant independence- Gandhi and Congress authorised a civil

disobedience campaign- Quit India

- Gandhi’s beliefs

- Britain had to leave immediately- not after the war

- India had nothing to fear from the Japanese

- Nehru opposition

- Claimed that there was nothing in the recent Japanese record to

support Gandhi’s optimistic view

- Gandhi stated that with the British gone, the Japanese would

no longer have any interest in India

-

If the Japanese did invade, they should be resistedwith unadulterated non-violent non-cooperation

- 1942, Congress passed the Quit India resolution- committed itself to a non-violent mass

struggle for freedom

- Gandhi determined to gain independence- do or die situation

- “we shall either free India or die in the attempt”- Impact

- British were not going to treat any civil disturbances lightly

- War to be fought- trouble in India not tolerated

- Morning after- Gandhi and important Congress leaders in jail

- Resulted in mass demonstrations- government attempted to suppress rigorously

-

Imprisoned leaders powerless to control it

- Campaign went through 2 phases

- Period of widespread violence- brutally suppressed

- 6 week campaign fought in the countryside

- Main targets= roads, railways and other limes of communication

- Harshly suppressed

- Last well into 1943, period of terrorism and guerilla warfare

- Created only limited problems for the British

- End of 1943- 1065 killed, 91,836 arrests

- Gandhi begins to fast

-

Protesting the government accusations that he was responsible for the violence ofthe campaign

- Viceroy offered to release Gandhi for the duration of his 3 week fast

- Gandhi declined- government made secret security arrangements for his

possible death

- Quit India movement was a failure in its attempts to non-violently gain independence

- Gandhi- Jinnah Talks

- Gandhi turn to ‘brother Jinnah’ to discover whether Congress and the Muslim Leaguecould come to an arrangement- lead the British to revise their attitude

- Brought about hope for the Muslims- believed that it now amounted to Gandhi’s

acceptance of Pakistan in principle

-

Jinnah- understood that he was maneuvering to a position of strength in his talks withGandhi

- Had the blessing of the British


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- Saw him as a useful counter-blast to Congress

- Chadha- “the fact that these talks took place at Gandhi’s initiative and at Jinnah’s

house indicated that advantage which the Muslim League had acquired while the

Congress was in the wilderness”

- Talks lasted 18 days

- Gandhi emphasied that he had come as an individual- representing no one but

himself- Outcome

- No agreement achieved

- Reasons for and the Nature of Independence

Reasons

- 1945, Congress leaders released and British had to face the question of their role in India

- Churchill realised that the end of the British Raj was in sight

- British public exhausted by the long war- would not accept another period of

repression and bloodshed- Process of Indianisation- begun by the government before the war

- By 1948- only 3000 civil servants of British nationality would remain in India

- British power and prestige had been diminished by the war

- Viceoy Wavell- in no doubt that the British had to leave India

- Announced that self-government would be granted to India- British couldn't maintain their prewar imperial power

- Restructure an executive council- equal numbers of Congress and Muslim

League representatives

- Muslim strength= result of the Quit India campaign- Jinnah popular

with the British (helped them when war was going badly-

recruitment and against anti-British demonstrations)

- 1945 elections won by the Labour Party

- New government- committed to granting India independence

- Question of whether it should be granted one state or two?

- Sent cabinet mission to India, 1946

- To find a solution to the difficulties separating the Congress and Muslim

League

- Proposed an end to British rule in India

- Gandhi- “my conviction abides that it is the best document

that the British government could have produced under the

circumstances”- Direct Action Day- Gandhi received reports of serious communal disorder in eastern

Bengal

- Mass killings of Hindus, houses burned, temples defiled, women raped

- Neighboring Bihar retaliated by slaughtering thousands of defenseless

Muslims

- Gandhi- decided that his presence was needed in Bengal to personally persuade the

people to abandon violence- 1947, Atlee announced the British intention of leaving India by June 1948 no matter the

condition of the country

- Mountbatten sent to take over from Wavell as Viceroy- invited Gandhi to New

Delhi for a meeting- Talked randomly of what interested Gandhi


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- Attempt to the Congress-ML deadlock- Gandhi proposed that Jinnah should

be given the responsibility for running a new India government

- MB- “bold, imaginative and splendidly far-fetched”

- MB more inclined to listen to Nehru, Jinnah and his own

advisers for political guidance

- Gandhi’s last efforts to keep the Indian people

unified had failed- Gandhi- lost his hold over Congress and the masses

- Received hateful and abusive mail- accused of being partial to Muslims-

“Mohammed Gandhi”

- Nation not responding to Gandhi’s plea for peace and brotherhood

- Spent long hours in depressing discussions about the goal of his life,

independent India’s future and the impending partition

- “My life’s work is over. Let it not be said that Gandhi was a

party to India’s vivisection”

- Moutbatten- announced Britain’s intention to act more speedily

- Transfered power on 15th August 1947

- Reasons for and the Nature of Partition

Reasons

- Viceroy Linlithgow- “The Hindus have made the mistake of taking Jinnah seriously aboutPakistan, and as a result they have given substance to a shadow”

- Gandhi-Jinnah talks 1944

- Jinnah insisted that the division of India must precede the British departure

- Gandhi stressed that any division of India must take place by mutual agreement

after the British had left India- not before

-

Jinnah was convinced that one the British left, the Hindus would never

agree to the partition of the country- foresaw a civil war

- Executive council/Interim government

- League insisted ‘on parity’ with Congress and the right to nominate all Muslim members

- Congress would not accept the claim- mean they would have to abandon their own

claims to be a truly national party- not merely Hindu organisation

- The Simla Conference

- 1945- the various parties were summoned to Simla- discuss the future form of India’s

constitution

- Destruction of Hindu-Muslim unity

-

Jinnah- “no Muslim should be given a place on the [Congress] councilunless he was a member of the League

- Congress president Azad- a Muslim

- Jinnah claimed that Azad was merely a show case president

trundled out by Congress to lay its claim

- Conferences broke down when Jinnah refused to negotiate with a Muslim

who was representing Hindus and Sikhs

- 1946 elections- Showed a complete polarisation had taken place

- Congress won all general sears

- League won all Muslim seats

-

The Cabinet Mission


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- Chadha- “Here came British Cabinet ministers, statesmen and diplomates from various

nations, senior members of Indian Civil Service and journalists from all over the world, to

hold conference with Gandhi behind his spinning wheel.”

- “the Congress-League deadlock remained and there could be no agreed basis for

forming a constitution”

- Cabinet warned that “mass partition would be a grave danger of violence, chaos and even

civil war”- Viceroy wrote to the king

- “We must try leave India united and we must secure the cooperation of the

Congress which represents the great majority of India public opinion,

whatever our view on the past record of that party.”

- “I also have much sympathy with Jinnah, more positive and more sincere

than most of the Congress leaders; but he overcalled his hand in the end”

- Chadha- “Soon after the departure of the Cabinet mission, relations between

Congress and the League deteriorated further”

- Nehru stated that there would be no grouping of the provinces

- The league withdrew their acceptance of the plan- declared they

would launch a direct action day to achieve Pakistan- Solution

- An all India union on the old three-tier basis

- The provision that any province would have the powers to opt out of

a group would satisfy the Leagues demand for separate Muslim

zones- At the same time- preserving the conception of a united India

- Impact

- Jinnah and the League withdrew their acceptance of the constitutional plan

- Insisted that Pakistan was the only solution

- Congress- scraped plan

-

Direct Action Day

- Wavell invited Nehru to form an interim government- kept the door open for the League

- He stressed that no one side could bar the nominees of the other

- Jinnah= furious- “we have forged a pistol and are in a position to use it”

- Jinnah declared a Direct Action Day 1946

- “we bid goodbye to constitutional methods.why should I sit with folded hands”

- The streets of Calcutta ran with blood

- 5000 + dead, 20,000 serious injured, 100,000 residents homeless

- Chada- “Hindu population hit back with parallel fury”

- Nehru took office as Prime Minister

-

Jinnah declared it a day of mourning- 2 weeks later- agreed to join the interim government

- More of a tactical nature than a gesture of conciliation

- Finance minister Ali Kahn- made certain that he was able to

obstruct the effective functioning of every department by

arresting funds

- Intended to prove that a unified government was not

practical- 3rd June- Congress accepted MB’s plan for India’s independence and partition

- Punjab and Bengal- divided and parts allocated to India and Pakistan

- Compromises by both parties

-

Congress- accepted parition- League- accepted that Pakistan would not inherit all of the Punjab and

Bengal- a “moth-eaten Pakistan”


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- 4th June, MB announced Britain’s intention to act even more speedily- power transfered on the

15th August 1947- British would leave immediately afterwards

- 2 months to divide India’s joint assets between India and Pakistan

- Practical consequences of partition

- Civil service and armed forces

- Railways

-

Police and revenue services divided- Typewriters

- Rupees and pounds

- 50 committees set up to divide up the government’s assets- proceeded along 50

different lines

Nature

- 15th August 1947- Britain handed authority over to the two new states

- Bharat and Pakistan

- Great rejoicing- not for Gandhi

-

Uncertainty of where the partition lines lay- Sir Radcliffe- given the task of drawing the boundaries

- Problems

- He had never been to the subcontinent

- Did not know any of its people

- Had no first had knowledge of its culture, economics or history- Had to work with Census stats which were outdated and unreliable

- Supplied meagre information- believed that some of the information

was falsified by the communal elements on both sides

- Hardly had anytime to do a proper job of the assignment

- Given the enormous task on deciding a boundary that (one chronicle noted) would

“divide more than 35 million people, thousands of villages, town and cities and a

people who despite their religious differences shared a common colure, language

and history.”

- One will never know his thought process, judgements and discretions that

determine the destiny of two nations

- Insurmountable challenge of creating two homogenous countries which was

perhaps beyond human capabilities

- Religious continuity does not follow geography

- His award satisfied neither the owners of India or Pakistan

- Consequences of partition

-

Horrendous for both countries- doubtful that anything Radcliff could have done wouldhave made a different

- Even the most well crafted border would have provoked the massive population

migrations which resulted

- As mass numbers of Muslims migrated to Pakistan and mass number of

Hindus migrated to India- violence erupted

- Chadha- “when Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims all lost sight of reason

and committed atrocities”- 10,000,000 homeless

- 1,000,000 dead

- Fierce communal riots


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PERSONAL NOTES

Indian Independence 1919-47 (National Study)

Introduction- Who was Gandhi

-

For most Indians

- Considered at saint, mahatma (great soul)-Ended 200 years of British colonial rule in India-Winston Churchill- “ this half-naked fakir” (poor man)

India- Geography & Religion

-Geography -Very large population- 1 billion

-Not evenly spread-Areas with extreme populations vs. sparsely populated jungle or desert

-

Great heat- Monsoon rains- North

- Mountain ranges- Mount Everest- Himalayas

-South of Himalayas-River systems-Large proportion of the population

- Religion -Hinduism

-Islam-Christianity (South)-Sikhism (Punjab)-Parsis-Jews

-Hindu- 4000 since the Aryan invasion of north India- 600 million followers- No single g-d or founder- No single belief- Caste system

-

Accepted by Indian Sikhs

- Very different from British social class division- Based in ancient scriptures- 4 main caste groups (determined by occupation)

-Brahmans, priests-Kshatriyas, warriors-Vaishyas, merchants-Shudras, farmers-Untouchables, unclean or no caste

-Many sub-castes-Enter caste at birth, cannot change

-Promotion can only be achieved in a later life by reincarnation-Must faithfully forfill the duties of one’s caste in the previous lifetime

-Gandhi


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-Opposed the oppression based on caste-Opposed features that gave higher ranked castes privileges which were denied to

lower castes

-Islam-Muslims came to India, around 1000AD-20% of population (1881)

-Not evenly distributed across India

-Majority in north west and eastern Bengal-Founded by the prophet Muhammad-Must observe the five pillars of Islam

-Profession of faith which is recited at the beginning on prayers-Worship-Almsgiving-Pilgrimage to Mecca-Fasting-Holy warfare (jihad, war against nonbelievers)

-Hindus & Muslims- G-d vs. Many G-ds-

Single set of beliefs vs. endless array

- Get along reasonably well- Friction on occasion

-Clashed during the end of British colonial rule-Resulting in the partition of the country in 1947

- British conquest and early nationalism

- British as traders -1660, East India Company founded

-Purpose, trading with the east

-Spice trade- Portuguese had a trade monopoly

- Dutch and English traders took over- British as conquerors

-Opportunity to take over from the Dutch-Mid 18th century-200 yrs, India ruled by the Mughal Dynasty

-Control declined-British fortified their trading posts

- Administration and Economy -British objectives

-

Developing an administration and territories they conquered- Western style administration- Train network- Roads- International economy

-Exploiting economic potential of India- Increase trade, textile

- India of the Princes -2 forms of administration

-British India-Princely India

-Continued to rule over areas not taken over by British-Rules their territories as Despots (Tyrants)-Reliant on the British allowing them to keep their authority


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-On condition that they accept British authority-Allowed British to pursue their conquest of India without having to worry about

the administration of areas left in the hands of the princes

- Indian Mutiny -May 1857-Mutiny of Indian troops serving in the British army

-Reasons

-Greased cartridges-Westernisation-Insensitive to Indian social and religious practices-Land reform-Indian troops to serve overseas

-Loss of caste-Spread over north India-British restored authority by March 1858

-E.I.C abolished-India exclusively ruled by the British crown

-Viceroy-Council of advisors

-Princes had loyalty to the British during the mutiny, alliance-Post mutiny, princes were permitted to rule their states

- Beginning of Indian Nationalism -Nationalism, belief in the unity and independence of a nation

-Slow to evolve, made organised opposition difficult-Several distinct racial groups-Diversity of cultures-Many different languages and religions-Size of the country-Variety of landscapes & climate

-Literacy was poor-90% lived in villages

- Indian National Congress -Some Indians prospered post Mutiny

-Became educated business men-Felt entitled to have a say in how their country was run

-A. O. Hume, Englishman-Started the I.N.C-Believed the growing Indian middle class deserved more consideration by the British

-Characteristics-All members educated in a English style system

-Comparatively wealthy-Engaged in business or associated with-Concentrated in the main cities-No Muslims-Higher castes-No women

-WW1-Attempts to loosen British control

-2 Home Rule leagues founded, 1915-Failure to work together meant their impact was negligible

-Failure of Early Congress

-4 reasons-British perceived it to be unimportant-Congress was a narrow movement primarily concerned with the interests of middle-class India


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-Congress members held little appeal for most Indians-British “trained”

- Clothing- Language- Education

-Received little support from Muslims

-Viewed their activities as dangerous-Majority rule would mean Hindu rule-British rule was the lesser of 2 evils

-The Muslim Question -Muslim leader, Sir Saiyid Ahmad

-“India is a community of communities, a long way from seeing it as a single nation”-Saw India as divided therefore no such thing as a single nation covering the whole Indian

subcontinent

-Gandhi-Opposed to the view of a divided nation-He believed differences in religion were unimportant

Gandhi’s Early Life, 1869-1914

- Introduction -Youngest child of father’s 4th wife-Caste= Banias

-Trading caste-Family history of PM of Porbandar-Modest fortune-Father became PM of Kathiawar-Deeply respected and feared his father-Regarded mother as a saint- very religious and strong common sense-Arranged marriage at 13

-Gandhi’s Childhood -Important aspects

-Banias were traditionally shopkeepers- Regarded as mean and greedy in India

-Gandhi rose above this reputation completely-Gandhi came from Gujarat

-Most mobile and considerable trading fortunes-Willingness to travel overseas

- Religion was a dominant part in Gandhi’s life- Roots created- Grew up as a Hindu

- Early Educational Failure-1887 finished secondary education-University to study a bachelor of arts degree

- Failed and withdrew- Unable to understand what the professors were saying

-Best way to get a head was studying law in London-Gandhi in London

-1888-Difficulties

-Vegetarian-Joined vegetarian society

-

English aspects- Imitated English dress- Dancing


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- Violin-Bhagavad Gita

-Teaches renunciation of desire and the material things in the world-Principals

-Person should remain free from all desire and attachment to worldly things-Seek in acts of service the good of all humankind, no self-benefit

-Spiritual liberation-If followed, higher rebirths until finally the human spirit merges in blissful union with g-d-London society

-Learnt to respect the society-Trust in British authorities

-Western civilisation-Developed a concern for the moral and religious weakness of western society-Enthused abut England’s rich culture

-Education-Galleries-Theatres

- “it was not with deap regret that I left dear London”, Gandhi-Failure back in India

-Sailed for Bombay, 12 June 1891-Seen as an outcast for having left India and crossing “dark waters”-Barrister in India

-Didn’t know anything about Indian law-When rose to defend client he was unable to think of anything to ask him

-Opportunity in South Africa -Gujaratis from Porbandar living and trading in South Africa were locked in a major legal dispute

-A case that required no knowledge of Indian law-Generous payment offered-Contract for 1 yr

-Train journey-Humiliating racist experience-Had a first class ticket-White person objected to the presence of an Indian in the same carriage-Expelled from the train after refusing to move

- Indian Franchise Bill - Natal government intention to introduce a bill to deprive all eligible Indians of the right to vote

- British colony- 250 eligible to vote

-Most illiterate labourers who had been shipped from India to work on sugar plantations ormines

-

Gandhi saw this as depriving Indians of their political rights

- Mounted a vigourous campaign to stop the bill- Founded the Natal Indian Congress- Collected signatures for a petition opposing the bill- Gained admission as a barrister to the Natal supreme court

-Bill passed 1896-Gandhi directed his campaign to the Colonial Office in London

-Had the right to veto the law- Law vetoed on the grounds that it discriminated against another country of the British Empire- Wording changed but had no effect in changing Indian rights- Succeeded in arousing interest of congress back in India

-

Demonstrated what courage and determination could do against a hostile government-Fight against further regulations

- Boer War 1899-1902


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- Boers were still independent of the British living in Transvaal- Gandhi believed it was his duty to the British to help their fight

- Raised an ambulance corps- Argued his action was consistent with his attitude towards British rule and non-violence

?????

-1901, moved back to India

-Summoned back to SA to fight for Indian rights in the Transvaal (British had recently annexed from

the Boers)

-Set up a law practise in Johannesburg- The Phoenix Settlement

- Community of several families living together under strict discipline which Gandhi established- Modelled on an ancient Indian institution called an Ashram (Hindu retreat)- Published a newspaper, Indian Opinion

-Black Ordinance- 1906- Colonial government of Transvaal published the ‘Black Ordinance’ (regulation) which required

every Indian to carry a certificate and produce it on demand

- Gandhi called meeting at the empire theatre

-

Hundreds of angry Indians

- Vowed to reject the certificated-Might mean imprisonment and destruction of business

-Ended with cheers for King Edward and singing ‘G-d save the queen’-Regarded the British government as an ally against the actions of Transvaal’s

colonial government

- Gandhi made it clear that there would be no physical violence-Satyagraha

-“The force which is born of truth and love or non-violence”, Gandhi-Method of political protest-Technique of persuasion based on non-violence

- Development of Satyagraha -1907, Transvaal was granted self-government by the British

- Black Ordinance regulations were passed- Gandhi mounted a campaign against registering to receive a certificate- General Smuts offered to withdraw the Ordinance if the Indians registered voluntarily

- Failed to keep his side of the bargain- Gandhi burned his certificate

- Issues contested by Gandhi- Tax levies on all indentured labourers

- Smuts broke his agreement again to repel the tax- Marriage laws

-

Law passed by SA supreme court that marriages performed according to Hindu or Muslimrites were invalid

- Meant Indian couples were not legally married and their children were illegitimate- Battles raged for many yrs

- Imprisonment for Gandhi and his followers- Protest March of Indian coal miners

-Transvaal government used violence to stop them-World opinion begun to take interest

-The Importance of the South African Phase -Opinion divided on Gandhi’s character-Gandhi’s stance against racism in SA was a failure

-Did not succeed in eliminating racial prejudice and discrimination-SA provided him an opportunity to develop personal courage, powers of communication, qualities of

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Gandhi’s Early Campaigns in India, 1914-18

- Returning to India -Activities in SA had earned him prominence

-Received the title of Mahatma (great soul)-Joined Congress (I.N.C)

-Unknown in Indian politics-Remained quiet-Familiarise himself with the situation in India

-Spoke at the Hindu University College-Regarded as a serious breach of etiquette-He related the true state of India’s misery as he saw it-Challenging the colonial government to do something about it

-Champaran - District in the extreme north-western corner, border with Nepal

- Rajkumar Shukla wanted Gandhi to come see the serious troubles in this district-The Problem

-Much of the land had been permanently leased the the British indigo planters

-Used for producing blue dye- Peasants sub-leased their land from the planters on the tinkathia system

- 3/20ths- Each peasant was forced to use 3/20ths of his leased land to grow indigo- Then required to sell the indigo to the planters at a fixed price by the planter

- German invention of a synthetic substitute produce a serious decline of the price of indigo- Land devoted to its production was cut

-Most British planters sought to maintain their income by increasing the rent for their Indian sub-tenants

-During WW1 there was a high demand for indigo but the British planters demanded that the peasantsgrow more indigo but were keeping the extra profit

-The Satyagraha Campaign -Gandhi toured Champaran

-Enquired into the conditions-Meeting with the Morshead (British commissioner)

-Indicated that he was not prepared to accept assurances that peasant grievances were receivingattention

-Morshead decided that he had an agitator on his hands-Instructed Heycock (district magistrate) to serve a notice to Gandhi to leave the district-Gandhi appeared before Heycock

-Acknowledged his guilt in satyagraha style-Invited the magistrate to imprison him since he refused to leave

-Haycock was perplexed by such peculiar behaviour-Postponed judgement until he contacted his superiors-Provincial government (Sir Edward Gait) made it clear that he strongly disapproved of

Morsheads action

-Created conditions of which Gandhi was known to thrive- Official Committee of enquiry

- Place reserved for Gandhi- Hoped that while Britain’s attention was turned to Europe for WW1 he could push through

controversial issues without much opposition

-Champaran impact on Gandhi-Brought him into contact with peasants of India-Showed him that truly effective communication lay in wearing their traditional clothing, speaking

their language and sharing in their way of life

-No Indian politician had ever done this-Allowed him to bring satyagraha to India


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-Made it clear to the Indian government that the issue in Champaran had to be dealt with viasatyagraha

-Showed weaknesses within satyagraha-When Gandhi left no one stayed on to bring about long-term changes in the society after

victory was won

-Karia -People uninterested in gaining home rule- more in the condition of their crops and cost of living

-By 1912 crops had been poor and cost of living rose-Crisis

-Satyagraha campaign- 2 stage affair

- Appeals to the government (Dec 1917- March 1918)- Satyagraha (March- June 1918)

- Gandhi acquired new followers- Under Gandhi

- Peasants refused to pay tax on grounds were harvest had been poor-Government gave orders for mamlatdars (tax collectors) to seize possessions and

crops

-

Government called off the mamlatdars not to force payment by the peasants

-Only provided a compromise and not a victory (according to the govt)-Strengthened Gandhi’s ties with the peasants

-Only Gandhi was able to live as one of the people and use language the ordinary personwould be able to understand

-Satyagraha in Ahmedabad -Indian cotton mill owners

-1918-Locked out all their workers when they refused to accept the withdrawal of a bonus which had

perviously been paid to keep them on the job after a recent outbreak of the plague

-Gandhi conducted satyagraha against the mill owners

-Won the workers an increase in their wages-Significance-Used not only against the British but to target Indians-Gandhi fasted, mill owners frightened he would die, gave in

-Debate weather this method was compatible to with satyagraha method-Gandhi’s Recruitment Campaign

-1918, tested the loyalty of Gandhi’s followers-Gandhi felt that it was his duty to help the empire in its time of need (WW1)-Became a recruiter for the army, persuade men to enlist

-Revealed the inconsistencies in his thinking concerning non-violence

Rowlatt and Khilafat 1918-1920

-The Rowlatt Bills (Black Laws) -During the war in the Indian government had been granted special powers

-Defence of India Act-Prevent any possibility of terrorist violence by the enemies of British rule

-Suspended many civil liberties (including censorship of the press)-After the war it was recommended that any area that was seen as trying to overthrow the

law, the government should be authorised to take strong action (martial law)

-Attempt by the government to prolong its wartime powers-Gandhi offers Satyagraha

-Virtually every Indian politician was opposed to the bill

-Saw that the governments policy was repressive-Offended his religious instincts-Deprive people of their g-d given right of free expression


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- Congress rightfully believed that Gandhi had no national support or backing from a political partybut had no other option

- Had little assistance from Congress or the people (unknown)-Hartal

-The closing of all shops and businesses, 6th April-Day spent fasting and praying

-Response

-Delhi got the date wrong-Effective in Bombay, 4/5th of businesses

-Violence-Police fired on a procession in Delhi-Bombay, police swung steel-tipped lathis (long batons), charged at a crowd of protesters

-Government response-Reluctant to arrest him

-Seen as a martyr- Gandhi arrested on April 8th

-Released on the condition he did not leave Bombay-News of Gandhi’s arrest

-Had the effect the British feared-British officer killed-Government buildings set on fire-Attempts to tear up railroad lines

- Violence coming from his own people upset Gandhi- Jalliaqala Bagh, Amriter massacre

-Meeting to protest Gandhi’s arrest-Meeting in the area had been forbiden by the Rawlatt acts

-Home of the sikhs-Protest meeting held in Jalliagala Bagh-Military commander (Dyer) forbid meetings of any kind and sent in armed troops

-Kills 379 people (disputed)-Set up (british) the hunter commission to inquire into what happened

-Gandhi doesn’t hear about the event (bad communication)-Himalayan miscalulation

-Crawling Orders-Law issued by the British-All Indians passing though the lane where Miss Sherwood had been seriously assaulted by rioters

-Required to crawl along their stomachs-Those who refused to crawl were publicly flogged

-Indians who refused to salaam (greet) British officers were also flogged-Pulling down of official notices= flogging

-Censoring of the press-Meant that news of these events didn’t reach the rest of India for some weeks

-Failure of Campaign-Satyagraha suspended, 18th April-Rowlatt campaign had been a failure

-Government had not been intimidated in any way-The violence outbreaks had opposed the fundamental principle if satyagraha

- Success of the Campaign- Showed that Indian were concerned about other issues besides not being allowed to vote- Showed India that there was an alternative to the kind of politics that had been practised for decades

without result

-

Those who worked the land were hit by a monsoon failure, 1918-19-Those who were less well-off were outraged by the ability of a few Indians to make large

fortunes


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-The brutality of Amritsar shooting and the humiliating British response represented a turning pointof modern India

-Destroyed any moral justification Britain might have claimed for its conquering presence inIndia

-Unrest in India was widespread-The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (govt of India act)

Change to the constitution

-1919-Review of the administration of India

-Dyarchy-Some aspects of government were allocated to elect provincial assemblies

-Giving the provinces limited Home Rule-Britain held control of defence and taxation

-Right to vote in elections was very limited-Viceroy had the power to veto the actions of any province-Secretary of state

-Rate of change- Glacial (extremely slowly)- The Hunter Report

-

Hunter commission of inquiry

- Consider allegations of police brutality during the period of martial law in the Punjab- The shootings at Jallianwala Bagh

-Partially condemned Dyers actions although he was heavily praised but the Britishpublic- ‘sword of honour’

-The Khilafat Issue -1920-Matter of serious concern for Muslims-Gandhi took close interest

-Propelled him to the forefront of National politics-Pre WW1

-Turkish empire included Islam’s holy places-The cities of Mecca-Medina-Jerusalem

- Sultan of turkey- regarded as the Muslim Khalif (spiritual protector of the holy places)- Bestowed by G-d

-Post WW1-Turkey stripped of its empire and the sultan lost control of all 3 holy places

-Muslims in India demanded that the Sultan have his authority restored- Gandhi supported the Muslims

-

Many people couldn’t understand why Gandhi supported this cause-Wanted to let the Muslims handle it

- Hindu-Muslim Unity? -For the sake of Indian unity all Indians should take up the cause, Gandhi

-Opportunity for India and Gandhi to rise above the politics of separate communities and establish anational political movement

-All religions in India would demonstrate to the British their ability to work together in the interest ofan independent India

-Khilafat and Amristar- 2 main wrongs the British had done to India-Primary reasons for the Non-cooperation movement of 1920-22

Non-cooperation, 1920-1922

- Non-cooperation-If Indians refused to cooperate with their British rulers the British would be unable to rule them


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-If everyone spun then villages would become more self-sufficient-Fire bombs were lit with people burning cloths of foreign origin

-Gandhi the Leader - Swadeshi

- Very important to him- Set aside half an hour for spinning

-

Dressed symbolically- Only in loincloth (dhoti) with a shawl

-Personal belongings- Wooden staff- Small metal pot for washing- Pair of spectacles- A writtin-box- A watch- A book a sacred songs- ‘The moneys figure’

-One day a week he maintained complete silence, only communicating though writing-Fasted on his day of silence-Constantly on the move

-Urging Indian everywhere to support the non-cooperation movement-Only travelled 3rd class, much travelling on foot

-Nehur-Completely won over by Gandhi

-Political methods and personality-Called him Bapu (father)

-The Effects of Non-cooperation -Many Indian renounced their British titles and medals-Thousands of Lawyers abandoned their legal practises and left the British court system-Many students and teachers left the cities to teach literacy and no-cooperation in the villages-Indians urged to stop paying taxes-20000 Indians had been imprisoned

-Campaign Collapse -Outbreaks of violence increased as the campaign spread-Support of the Ali brothers and the Khilafat movement was crumbling

-Non-violence was regarded as foolish-An Indian mob attacked a police station

-Hacked to death and burned 22 Indian policemen-Chauri Chaura massacre-Gandhi thought that the people had demonstrated that they were not yet ready for satyagraha

-Gandhi on Trial

-

Several of the campaign leaders were appalled how a single incident could terminate the entire operation

- Gandhi believed people needed to be further educated in the theory of satyagraha-Gandhi surrendered to the police

-Plead guilty to the charge-Invited the severest penalty

-Got 6 yrs-They did not want to increase his following by making him a martyr

- Serious mistake for the British-Made him a popular hero-Never gave Gandhi a trial/ the opportunity to embarrass them again

Social Reform and the Muslim Issue, 1922-1930

- Introduction


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-During Gandhi’s time in prison- Relatively quiet

-Release from prison-Focused more on improving living conditions in India and Hindu-Muslim relations rather then

getting rid of the British

- No-changers vs. Pro-changers

-Post collapse of non-cooperation

-Congress divided into 2 groups-No-changers

-Led by Rajendra Prasad and Patel-Wanted the gandhian program to continue-Politics and Religion should not be separated-Ultimate objective

-Ram Rajya (truth, Kingdom of G-d)-Wanted the people to work on some of the more important aspects of Satyagraha-Emphasis on spinning-Emphasis on repairing the Hindu-Muslim relations-Continuing the campaign against the existence of untouchables

-Pro-changers-Led by C. D. Das and Nehru-India was not ready for the full program of satyagraha-A new political strategy was required-The government of India act 1921 (Montagu-Chelmsford reforms)

-Provided a new opportiuntiy for Indian political development-Frustrate the British government intentions from within-Indians should be non-cooperative by legal, constitutional means

-The Swaraj Party-1922 congress meeting, Pro-changers were defeated-1923, Pro-changers formed a separate political party

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Congress Swaraj Party

-Only congress members could join-Lacked necessary political support to make much impression on the British-1925, C. R. Das died

-Nehru could not hold the party together-Gandhi’s Activities

-Released in 1924-Ill health-Did not rejoin politics

-The violence in his 2 previous campaigns demonstrated that the people of India were notready for swaraj (self-rule, independence)

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Returned to his Sabarmati Ashram- Devoted himself to social reform and fostering Hindi-Muslim relations

-Frequently toured the country, visiting the villages-Preached message

-Discrimination against untouchables was wrong-Hindu-Muslim relations must be kept-Spinning and use of their own Khadi

-Revive village industry-Save expense of buying cloth

-Improvements in the village-Preached

-Cleanliness-Swept streets-Uncluttered drains


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-Personal hygiene-Critics believed that village reform was a side-track from the real need for

swaraj

-Gandhi believed that village reform was necessary-Essential means to sarvodaya-Good of India as a whole

-India’s strength lied within her people

-Not machinery but manual labour- Ashrams

- Group life lived in religious spirit- Rules

-Truth at all times-Observe ahimsa (non-violence)-Maintain strictly the rule of self-restraint

-Ate-Wore-Sexual continence

-Do manual labour-Even cleaning toilets (generally untouchable jobs)

-Open and close everyday with prayer-Any g-d or religious system

- Undergo training in self-sacrifice- Gandhi’s way

- Ahimsa (non-violence)- Personal Swaraj (personal liberation)- Satyagraha- National Swaraj- Sarvodaya (welfare of all)

- All must be achieved to gain India’s liberation from the British

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The Muslim Situation

- Hindu-Muslim relations were rapidly deteriorating- 1924, Turkeys president (Ataturk) abolished the position of Sultan and Sultan as Khaif

- India Khilafat committee broke up- Publication of a book offending Muslims resulted in the Murder of author and massacre of 36 Hindus

- Gandhi fasted for 3 weeks-Muslims deliberately killed cows the public-Hindus directed religious processions playing loud music past mosques-Riots between Hindu and Muslim communities became more rapid

- Bardoli Tax Campaign-Peasant dispute over high tax increase imposed by the British in Gujarat, 1928

-Gandhi persuaded Patel to lead the peasants peaceful revolt-Peasants refused to submit to government pressure to pay the taxes-British sent in troops to confiscate their property in return for unpaid taxes-Patel challenged the government to try and take their land to England-4 days later, government backed down

-Property returned to peasants-Slashed the tax from 22% to 5.7%

-The Simon Commission -November 1927

-Britain announced another of their proposals to advance India towards self-government-During the failing Hindu-Muslim campaigns

-Every 10 yrs British reviewed the Indian administration-Conservative party was afraid the Labour party would win the next elections and

allow changes in India to occur more rapidly


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-Appointed the Simon Commission to visit India-Report on India’s readiness for further progress to self-government-Commission consisted only of British MP’s

-Indian political parties responded by calling an all-parties conference-Aims

-Establish a committee to draft alternative proposals to whatever the Simoncommission might propose

-Nehru report-The Nehru Report, Proposals

-Won widespread support from Indians-Some electorates should be joint and some reserved

-Issue affecting the future rights of Muslims-Joint electorates

-All electors(citizens) would be listed on a common roll and vote for candidateswho could be from any community

-Reserved electorates-Only Muslims could stand as candidates in them-Anyone (Hindu or Muslims) could vote for them

-Separate exclusively Muslim electorates-Rejected by the Nehru report-Caused opposition from the Muslim politicians

- Dominion Status- Not complete independence, recommended goal- Caused disagreement between Motilal Nehru and son (Jawaharlal)- Have independence but remain part of the British empire

-Owing allegiance to the British crown- Dominion v.s full independence?

- Brought Gandhi back into Indian politics- Worked out a compromise on the dominion status

-If Britain granted dominion status during 1929 then congress would accept-If Britain had not granted it by the end of 1929, congress would opt for complete

independence (purna swaraj)

-A win for full independence as Britain was unlikely to grant dominionstatus immediately

-1929, on the advice of Viceroy (Irwin), British government declared dominion was theirobjective

-Implications of Dominion for India?-Lahore Congress, 1929-30

-Complete independence was accepted and the congress objective

The Salt Satyagraha and Civil Disobedience, 1930-32

- Introduction-New years day, flag of Independence

-Shouts of Inqilab Zindabab (long live the revolution)-26th Jan, Independence Day-Gandhi involved in politics

- Congress committed to following Gandhi-Gandhi’s Decision

-Prepared a set a social and economic demands-If accepted by the British would give India independence-Did not know what strategy to adopt for achieving British acceptance

-Came to a decision via his “inner voice”-Focus on 1 of his 11 demands

-The abolishment of the salt tax


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-Personally and publicly he would break the salt laws-Made it illegal for for individuals to manufacture salt in

India

-Encourage some of his followers to join him inbreaking the law

-Only those who had been school in thetechniques of Satyagraha

-No violence- Salt laws in India

- Government had a monopoly on salt manufacturing- Indians regarded salt as an absolute necessity in their diet

- British government would be seen to be defending the indefensible against the starvingmillions of India

- Breaking the salt laws would not seriously threaten government finances- Provide Gandhi with an opportunity to educated people about satyagraha

- British government resisted the salt campaign- Accepting Gandhi’s demands would have looked like giving in- Make it harder to resist his other 10 demands

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Gandhi wrote to the viceroy issuing an ultimatum- 11th on March

- Break the Salt Laws- Irwin refused to negotiate

- The Dandi Salt March- March from Satyagraha Ashram (Sabar Mati) to Dandi (385kms)

- Through Gujarat- Gandhi home town- Most support

- Last about 1 month- Gradually demand the attention of all of India

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78 men- Stopped in villages where Gandhi addressed the people- Press became interested

- Overseas support- Number of marchers grew with every village visited- Reached Dandi

- Bent down and scooped up a lump of salt left by the evaporation of sea water- Proclaimed that he had made salt an illegal act

- Anniversary of the Amritser massacre- Gandhi Broadens the Campaign

- Urged his followers to follow prohibition

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Total abstinence from liquor- Played a part in persuading women to join in demonstrations

- Patna- Protesting crowd defined police order to disperse

- Lay on the ground as the horses galloped towards them- Horses pulled up

- Arrest of Gandhi- Viceroy (Irwin)

- At first followed the advice to do nothing- Arrest would make Gandhi a martyr- Government embarrassment of him fasting in Jail

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Gandhi announced that there would be a raid on the Dharasana salt works- Gandhi was arrested

- March went on- Protesters were beaten by British but non struggled back


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- Witnessed by reporter- International opinion was anti British

- British said they were morally superior- loss of British morals- Civil Disobedience Continues

- Gandhi arrest- widened the civil disobedience movement- June

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Congress meetings were declared illegal- Many congress leaders were arrested

- Muslim community- Hardened against cooperation with the predominately Hindu congress

- Viceroy allowed his representatives and two congress moderates to meet with Gandhi in prison- Other jailed congress members were allowed to join the talks- Cased considerable embarrassment in Britain

- As if they are on the same level and negotiate- Churchill- “I did not become the first minister to see its empire disintegrate”

- The Campaign Recedes - Government of India took control

- Decline in the imported cloth trade-

Reduction of those who took part in the September elections, 1930

- First Round Table Conference- 3 round table conferences were to be held in London to discuss ways ways of implementing its

recommendations (Simon Commission) that Indian self-rule could be granted

- Congress (most of its leaders in prison) refused to attend- Gandhi-Irwin Pact

- Irwin realised that without the involvement of Gandhi ad congress no lasting solutions were likely to emergefrom the round table conferences

- Did not want to be seen as bargaining with congress- Decided to release the congress leaders from jail- Made a pact, 1931

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Congress would immediately end civil disobedience

- All future negotiations would involve congress- The future constitution would be federal

- Government of India would retain authority over some matters- Radicals in congress were unhappy

- The Second Round Table Conference- Gandhi goes to London, 1931

- Represented the congress and all the Indian communities- Made a tremendous impact on the British people

- Welcomed as a hero- Given extensive media attention

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Dress- Simple, traditional, Indian clothing- Symbolised how much his political views had influenced people over the last century

- No more westernised suits unlike his early days- Conference

- Muslim league had representative- Did not accept

- His claim that congress fairly represented Muslims- Reserved electorates would guarantee them just treatment

- British were now much less sympathetic to Indian ambitions than it had been at the first conferencewhy????

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Gandhi was isolated and frustrated- Returned to India with nothing to show for his efforts

- End 1931, Irwin replaced by much less sympathetic Willingdon


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- Gandhi view by British as a devious politician- Second Civil Disobedience Movement

- January 1932, declared renewal of civil disobedience- Wasn’t as effective

- Government was no longer prepared to handle it lightly- Gandhi arrested 4th January

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30,000 Indian convicted of political offences- Worldwide depression was passing and Indians were finding their circumstances easing

why????

- No longer any significant local issues on which to build a powerful national movement- Election due in 1934

- Many congressmen wanted to work for their own election- Not for an outdated tactic like civil disobedience

- Civil disobedience became more spasmodic (sporadic)- Gandhi demonstrated his willingness to compromise to preserve the unity of congress

- Communal Award- Round table conference

- Muslim demand for separate electorates was accepted-

Untouchables were also granted separate electorates

- Gandhi fasted in jail- Maintained that untouchables were a part of Hindu India

The Lull before the Storm, 1932-40

- Introduction- Gandhi fasting

- Life was slipping away- British not wanting to be held responsible for his death

- The award was amended to Gandhi’s satisfaction

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Third round table conference- 1932- Very few Indian representatives, none from congress

- Gandhi fasts again- Protesting the lack on progress with his untouchability campaign- Gandhi released from jail

- ‘Cat and mouse’- Indian politics- Routine lasted the rest of the 1930s- No clear winner

- Gandhi resigned from congress, 1934

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Devoted himself to village reform- Civil disobedience resulted in violence

- Moved to a village near Wardha- Segaon- Intended it to become a model village

- Which could be copied all over India- Cleanliness- Personal hygiene- Nutritious diet

- Based on a crop grown locally- Clean water

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Revival of simple village industries such as????- Basic education

- Village crafts- Continued to be consulted by congress leaders


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- Government of India Act, 1935- British approved the Government of India act

- The largest act ever passed by British parliament- Final outcome of the round table conferences and the Simon commission

- India was to become a federation (several areas united under a central government)- Central government in New Delhi

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Responsible government granted to the provinces- Limited emergency powers?? To each provinces governor

- Appointed by the British- Central power

- Diarchy in theory- Power shared between the viceroy and 2 federal assemblies

- Members from princely states???- Elected members from the provinces of British India???

- Congress Attitude- Would the congress agree to participate in the new constitution?

- Nerhu- Branded the act as a charter of slavery-

Made it clear that he thought that act would never work

- Most congress politicians wanted to give it a try- Support of Gandhi- Wanted to unite congress- Azard wanted to continue- Muslim

- Won 716 of the 1585 seats- Joined in coalition (temporary political alliance of separate political parties)

- Won them the majority in most provinces- Except bangal and punjab

- Who could vote???- Congress now had the opportunity to govern most of the provinces in India

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