Environmental Assessment Report _______________________________________________

The summary environmental impact assessment is a document of the borrower. The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of ADB’s Board of Directors, Management, or staff, and may be preliminary in nature.

Summary Environmental Impact Assessment Project Number: 41627 April 2008

India: Himachal Pradesh Clean Energy Development Investment Program

Prepared by the Government of Himachal Pradesh for the Asian Development Bank (ADB).

CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS (as of 25 April 2008)

Currency Unit – Indian rupees/s (Re/Rs)

Re1.00 – $0.025 $1.00 – Rs40.15

ABBREVIATIONS

AAQ – ambient air quality ADB – Asian Development Bank BIS – Bureau of Indian Standards CAT – catchment area treatment CO2 – carbon dioxide DPR – detailed project report EMF – electromagnetic fields EMP – environmental management plan EIA – environmental impact assessment HEP – Hydroelectric project HPCEDIP – Himachal Pradesh Clean Energy Development

Investment Program HPPCL – Himachal Pradesh Power Company Ltd. HPSEB Himachal Pradesh State Electricity Board HPSEPPCB – Himachal Pradesh State Environment

Protection and Pollution Control Board IEE – initial environmental examination MFF – multi-tranched financing facility MOP – Ministry of Power PGCIL – Power Grid Corporation of India Limited PIU – project implementation unit R&R – resettlement and rehabilitation SEIA – summary environmental impact assessment SIEE – summary initial environmental examination SO2 – sulphur dioxide SPM – suspended particulate matter

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

ASL – above sea level °C – degree celsius cm – centimeter DC – direct current dB(A) – decibels measured in the audible noise bands g – gram GW – gigawatt GWh – gigawatt-hour ha – hectare ha m – hectare meter kg – kilogram km – kilometer

kV – kilovolt kWh – kilowatt-hour kV – kilovolt l – liter Leq – equivalent noise level m – meter m2 – square meter m3 – cubic meter mg – milligram mld – million liters per day mm – millimeter MW – megawatt MVA – megavolt ampere qtls – quantitative trait loci (Indian yield measurement) sec – second t – ton (metric) V – volt VA – volt-ampere W – watt yr – year

NOTES

(i) The fiscal year (FY) of the Government of India and its agencies ends on 31 March. FY before a calendar year denotes the year in which the fiscal year ends, for example, FY2008 ends on 31 March 2008.

(ii) In this report, "$" refers to US dollars.

CONTENTS

Page

MAP I. INTRODUCTION 1 II SAWRA KUDDU HYDROPOWER PROJECT 4

A. Description of the Project 4 B. Description of the Environment 6 C. Alternatives 13 D. Anticipated Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures 15 E. Human Environment 23

F. Environmental Impacts of Operation Activities 25 G. Environmental Management Plan 31

H. Institutional Arrangements 31 I. Organization Support System 33 J. Disaster Management Plan 37 K. Public Consultation and Disclosure 38 L. Due Diligence Review of Associated Facilities 39 M. Subprojects: Transmission Lines 39

III. KASHANG STAGE I HYDROPOWER PROJECT 40

A. Description of the Project 41 B. Description of the Environment 43 C. Alternatives 52 D. Anticipated Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures 55 E. Economic Assessment 67

F. Potential Cumulative and Induced Impacts 68 G. Environmental Management Plan 69

H. Disaster Management Plan 75 I. Public Consultation and Disclosure 75 J. Due Diligence Review of Associated Facilities 77

IV. CONCLUSIONS 80 APPENDIXES 1. Details of Sawra Kuddu HPP 81 2. Details of Kashang Stage I HPP 95 3. Standards 104 4. Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy of the state government 110 5. Second Public Hearing at Sawra Kuddu HPP 115 6. Summary Cumulative Impacts due to Associated Facilities at Pabbar River 123 7. Second Public Hearing at Kashang Stage I HPP Environmental Management 132 8. Environmental Management Plan (including Check List of Anticipated Impacts) 137 9. Environmental Assessment and Review Framework 150

I. INTRODUCTION

1. The Government of India recognizes the importance of increasing the share of hydropower generation in the energy mix and introduced a 50,000 megawatt (MW) hydropower initiative in 2003. Under this initiative, the northwest and northeast states, including Himachal Pradesh, receive special incentives to promote hydropower development. Himachal Pradesh has abundant water resources in five major rivers that originate in the Western Himalayas. The power generation potential of Himachal Pradesh is 20,386 MW, about 25% of the total hydropower potential of India. About 6,204 MW of the state’s total potential has been harnessed as of year 2007. The main strategy of the government of Himachal Pradesh, as outlined in 2006 in its state hydropower policy, is to become the “Hydropower State” of India, by providing affordable, reliable, and quality power to its residents. It plans to export power to India’s northern grid as a major source of revenue for the state. The state government views the exploitation of the immense hydropower potential as a means to prosperity and intends to speed up hydropower development, adding 9,000 MW of additional capacity by the end of the Government of India’s 11th Five Year Plan in 2012. Table 1 presents a breakdown of the existing capacity in the state of Himachal Pradesh.

Table 1: Existing Capacity of Himachal Pradesh(MW)

Existing Hydropower Installed Capacity (MW) State Sector 467.0 Central Sector 3,829.6 Joint Sector 1,500.0 Private Sector (IPPs) 386.0 Under HIMURJA 21.2 Total 6,203.8

HIMURJA = Himachal Pradesh Energy Development Agency, IPP = independent power producer, MW = megawatt. Source: Central Electricity Authority of India

2. In 1988, Himachal Pradesh became the first of India’s hill states to achieve 100% electrification of all census villages, despite its dispersed customer base and mountainous terrain. As of 2007, it has about 19,000 distribution transformers, 28,000 kilometers (km) of high tension lines, and 50,000 km of low tension lines. It is one of the few states in the country where energy delivered to consumers is 100% metered. It has achieved more than 90% metering on distribution transformers and feeders of up to 33 kilovolts (kV). The aggregated technical and commercial losses in Himachal Pradesh are comparatively low (18%). The state transmission system, as of 2007, consists of 2,100 km of transmission lines rated at 66 kV and above and about 100 power transformers aggregating to about 2,000 MVA of capacity. Significant additional transmission capacity will be needed to handle the planned increase in power production. At present, the available power is less than the requirement, however, resulting in an energy shortage of 1% and a peak shortage of 4.9%. Table 2 gives comparative electrification and consumption data for Himachal Pradesh and India.

Table 2: Status of Electrification and Consumption in Himachal Pradesh

(percent) Item

India National Average

Himachal Pradesh Average

Village Electrification 86.6 100.0 Household Electrification 55.8 98.0 Per Capita Consumption (kWh) 592 726 kWh = kilowatt-hour. Source: Central Electricity Authority of India

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2 3. The hydropower potential in Himachal Pradesh is distributed in various river basins; potential and harnessed status is summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: Hydro Potential (MW)

HIMURJA = Himachal Pradesh Energy Development Agency, MW = megawatt. a A state-owned entity dealing with mini and micro hydro oprojects up to 5 MW capacities. Source: The Central Electricity Authority of India, 2006. 4. Recent developments in the power sector of Himachal Pradesh include: (i) the state government elucidated a comprehensive hydropower development policy; (ii) a new corporate entity, the Himachal Pradesh Power Company Ltd. (HPPCL), was created to develop and operate new hydropower plants; (iii) the proposed Himachal Pradesh Clean Energy Development Investment Program (HPCEDIP) is included in the Asian Development Bank (ADB) India: Country Operations Business Plan as a firm loan project for 2008; and (iv) ADB approved a project preparatory technical assistance (TA) of India. Investment proposals identified for ADB support under the HPPCL include the Kashang Hydroelectric Project, stage I (65 MW), and stages II and III (130 MW); the Shongtong-Karcham Hydroelectric Project (402 MW); the Sainj Hydroelectric Project (100 MW); and the Sawra Kuddu Hydroelectric Project (111 MW). These five hydropower projects will provide a total capacity of 808 MW with a combined generation of 3,256.3 gigawatt-hours (GWh) per year at 90% dependability. The estimated total cost of these projects is $1.4 billion. The state government will finance $420 million (30%). It has requested ADB financing for $800 million, and it will finance $180 million (13%) from other sources. 5. Under the first tranche (tranche 1), HPPCL will implement Kashang stage I (65 MW) and Sawra Kuddu (111 MW), both designed as run-of-river schemes. Construction at Kashang will begin in October 2008; the first unit is scheduled for commissioning in April 2012, and the final unit will come on line in August 2012. The construction of tunnels at Sawra Kuddu started in November 2007; the first unit is scheduled for commissioning in August 2012. The final unit will come on line in December 2012, although efforts are being made to accelerate the final commissioning to October 2012. The two projects will add 176 MW of installed capacity to India’s northern grid—a substantial contribution to meeting the regional shortfall in peak supply. It will be controlled through the Northern Region Load Dispatch Center. 6. All necessary national and state government approvals for both projects have been obtained, as detailed in Table 4.

Item River Basin Hydro Potential Installed

capacity Harnessed % of

Potential

Balance

1. Beas 4,582 1,634.50 35.67 2,947.50 2. Chenab 2,748 5.30 0.20 2,742.70 3. Ravi 2,294 1,043.50 45.49 1,250.50 4. Satluj 9,422 3,150.75 33.44 6,271.25 5. Yamuna 592 211.52 35.73 380.48

6. HIMURJA Projectsa 1,362 21.20 1.56 1,340.80

Total 21,000 6,066.77 28.89 14,933.23

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Table 4: Status of Project Documentation and Clearances Item Details Kashang Stage I

(65 MW) Sawra Kuddu (111 MW)

A. Reports 1. Comprehensive EIA document 2002 2006 2. Catchments area treatment plan 2002 2006 3. Detailed project reports April 2000 March 2003 4. Detailed socioeconomic survey of all

project-affected families consisting of village and household surveys

August 2002, December 2007

March 2005, December 2007

5. Public hearings 5 May 2001 (first meeting), 14 March 2008 (second meeting)

15 June 2006 (first meeting); 12 March 2008 (second meeting)

B. Clearances 1. Technical economic clearance by

HPSEB Board 21 November 2001 10 November 2004

2. Central Electricity Authority clearance Not required prior to 2000–2001

6 December 2007

3. Environmental clearance by Ministry of Environment & Forests

Valid up to 15 November 2008a

17 May 2007

4. First award by land acquisition officer 20 April 2005 (Ragura Village)

18 July 2007

5. No-objection certificate by the Himachal Pradesh Environment Protection and Pollution Control Board

12 June 2001 September 2006

6. Forest clearance by Ministry of Environment & Forests

23 June 2001 2 June 2006

EIA = environmental impact assessment, HPSEB = Himachal Pradesh State Electricity Board, MW = megawatt. a The EIA studies are ongoing, and final clearance for the integrated Kashang (243 MW) hydropower project would be obtained before the current clearance expires. Source: HPPCL 7. This summary environmental impact assessment (SEIA) was prepared by the HPPCL and is to be posted on ADB’s website 120 days before the requested loan is considered by the ADB Board of Directors. The proposed projects covered by the first tranche are classified as ADB environmental category A due to potential irreversible impacts associated with reduced water flows in the river section between the diversion structure and tailrace outlet at the Sawra Kuddu project. The features of each hydropower project and their impacts are described separately in this SEIA -Sawra Kuddu in chapter II, and Kashang stage I in chapter III. The Appendixes include tables that present a scoping matrix (Appendix 1) and a summary of data collection for the environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies conducted by the HPPCL (Appendix 1, Table 1.2). This SEIA covers (i) environmental assessments of the projects under the first tranche, (ii) cumulative impact assessment, and (iii) an environmental assessment and review framework for projects under subsequent tranches in Appendix 9. SEIAs or SIEEs for subsequent tranches will be available to the general public 120 days before a Periodic Financing Request is submitted to ADB.

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II. SAWRA KUDDU HYDROPOWER PROJECT A. Description of the Project 8. The layout plan for the Sawra Kuddu project is shown below. 9. The description of the Sawra Kuddu Hydropower Project in this SEIA is based on the information contained in the comprehensive EIA and catchment area treatment (CAT) plan documents, and disaster management plans prepared by the Himachal Pradesh State Electricity Board (HPSEB) in August 2006. A socioeconomic survey for project-affected persons at project sites was conducted in December 2007 by an ADB consultant. 10. The Sawra-Kuddu project is designed as a run-of-the river facility with a diversion tunnel. Located on the Pabbar River in the state of Himachal Pradesh in the Yamuna Basin, the facility is

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Layout Plan of Sawra-Kuddu HEP

HRT

TRT

Barrage

5

Proposed Barrage

HRT

Surge Shaft

Powerhouse site

Penstock

TRT

1

2

3

41, 2, 3 & 4 = Adits

LAY OUT PLAN – SAWRA-KUDDU HEP FIGURE-2.1

Submergence Area

5

Proposed Barrage

HRT

Surge Shaft

Powerhouse site

Penstock

TRT

1

2

3

41, 2, 3 & 4 = Adits

LAY OUT PLAN – SAWRA-KUDDU HEP FIGURE-2.1

5

Proposed Barrage

HRT

Surge Shaft

Powerhouse site

Penstock

TRT

1

2

3

41, 2, 3 & 4 = Adits

LAY OUT PLAN – SAWRA-KUDDU HEP FIGURE-2.1

Submergence Area

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5planned to deliver peak supply to the northern grid. With an average gross head1 of 213.50 meters (m), the installed capacity of the project will generate 111 MW from three units of 37.00 MW each, with overall generation efficiency of 0.89. The proposed Sawra-Kuddu subproject is a key government project in its commitment to increasing hydropower generation in the state.

11. The project includes the following features:

(i) A 13.5 m high diversion barrage at an average river bed elevation of 1,410.5 m. The height of the barrage above the river bed level would be 9.2 m. twelve gated spillways at the crest elevation 1,412.5 m designed to pass the estimated average of 3,000 m3/sec. The energy dissipation arrangement would be a stilling basin.

(ii) Intake structure having four bays of 4 m x 3 m on left bank of the river. (iii) A surface desilting tank composed of four basins 80 m long, 19.5 m wide, and 0.5 m

deep. Maximum particle size to be removed is about 0.2 millimeters (mm). (iv) A D-shaped concrete-lined headrace tunnel, 5 m in diameter and 11.3 km long,

designed to discharge 65 m3/sec. (v) A underground, restricted-orifice-type high surge shaft, 14 m in diameter and 73.10 m

long, at the end of headrace tunnel. (vi) An underground steel lined pressure shaft 3.5 m in diameter and 312 m long, with

three branches each 2 m in diameter and 49 m long. (vii) An underground powerhouse 12 m wide and 15 m long, housing 3 no. vertical axis

Francis turbines driving three generating units of 37 MW each, to provide installed capacity of 111 MW under a gross head of 213.5 m.

(viii) A D-shaped concrete-lined tailrace tunnel, 5 m diameter and 440 m long, to discharge water back into Pabbar River on the left bank at the boundary of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.

(ix) About 9 km of new approach roads and widening of some existing roads. (x) The project will generate 386 and 507 million kWh, respectively, in 90% and 50%

dependable years. 12. The Pabbar River is a major tributary of the Tons River, which in turn is the tributary of the Yamuna River. The Tangnu Romai Hydroelectric Project is in the upper reaches of the Pabbar River with proposed installed capacity of 50 MW, while Sawra Kuddu is the one of the last on the Pabbar. On completion, Sawra Kuddu will help mitigate growing power demand for the northern region. The Yamuna basin in Himachal Pradesh has total power potential of 1,003.82 MW, which represents about 5% of the total hydropower potential of the state. 13. The Sawra Kuddu project is located between 77º 45’ 00” E and 77º 49’ 33” E longitudes and 31º 07’ 54” N and 31º 03’ 30” N latitudes at Rohru Tehsil, Shimla District in Himachal Pradesh. The catchment area of the Pabbar River above the proposed barrage site near Hatkoti Village is 1,034 km2 in an elongated leaf shape. The bed gradient of the river over the entire stretch ranges between 15 and 40 m/km but reaches values up to 200 m/km in the uppermost regions. The river valley is located between steep and high mountain ranges in its upper regions and is very narrow. Along the lower stretches, the valley is usually wider, and part of the flood plains form cultivated land. 14. The average net operating head2 for power generation is 198 m between the full reservoir level of 1,423.50 m and normal tailwater level of 1,210 m, and the minimum drawdown level of 1,418 m and normal tailwater level of 1,210 m. The diversion structure is a barrage with a total height of 13.5 m, of 1 Gross head is the vertical distance between the penstock (the pipe that takes wate from the river) and where the

water leas the turbine. 2 Average operating head is the gross head adjusted for the reservoir level.

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6 which only 9.2 m would be above the river bed level. Due to the barrage construction, anreservoir with a submergence area of 0.5 km2 will be involved. From the reservoir, the water will flow through the headrace tunnel into pressure shaft to be fed into the powerhouse. It will be let out via a tailrace tunnel into the Pabbar River. The headrace tunnel runs parallel to Pabbar River, with very little area between it and the river. 15. The power generated at Sawra Kuddu will be evacuated by 11 km of double circuit 220 kV power evacuation transmission line to the Kuddu substation pooling point, which is not part of the project. HPSEB, the state government’s transmission utility, will run an 11 km double circuit 220 kV transmission line from the Kuddu 220 kV substation for evacuating power from the Pabbar valley projects to a 220/132 kV capacity grid substation at Moginand. This component is not under the tranche 1 investments. A separate assessment will be done by the state transmitter utility (STU) after state-level technical clearances for lines are given by competent authorities. 16. The 1997 flash flood in the catchment area led to the suggestion of adopting 3,000 m3/sec as the design flood level. Sawra Kuddu’s diversion structure of is designed with spillways to release of excess flows and to pass the floods instead of storing them. There is minimum downstream discharge, which will be maintained throughout the year in the downstream sections. This design feature preserves two water mills located between the diversion barrage and the tailrace tunnel outlet. It also ensures fulfilling of irrigation and environmental needs. The design of the barrage provides for maintaining fish migration in any season. In addition, the provision of the minimum downstream discharge will ease fish passages. 17. The design discharge of 65 m3/sec, which is available 18% of the time, affords economical results. Studies of power generation with different installed capacity were carried out. No appreciable energy gain was found at 115 MW versus 111 MW, and accordingly the installed capacity has been fixed at 111 MW. The annual generation in 90% and 50% dependable years works out to be 385.78 GWh and 506.61 GWh. Minimum power generation on average ten daily flow basis in 90% and 50% dependable years will be about 22.8 MW and 16.8 MW, respectively. At a unit size of 37 MW, generation at any given time will not fall below 51% of the rated unit capacity. Considering the pattern of water flows and minimum generation, three units of 37 MW each were proposed.

B. Description of the Environment 1. Physical Resources 18. Air Quality. The project area represents a mainly rural environment. The prime sources of air pollution in the region are vehicular traffic, dust (from unpaved village roads), and domestic fuel burning. In 2005, four locations monitored ambient air quality at a regular frequency 5 days in a week to develop a baseline of air quality and to establish the existing (pre-project) ambient air quality level in the area for the following pollutants: total suspended particulate, sulphur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). 19. The ambient air quality monitoring survey was conducted during March–April 2005, and the results are summarized in Appendix 1, Table 1.9. The Himachal Pradesh State Environment Protector and Pollution Control Board (HPSEPPCB) found the NOx levels from 3.16 to 6.66 µg/m3 (equivalent to 10-12 kilograms per cubic meter [kg/m3]), the SO2 levels from 0.44 to 1.56 µg/m3 and the suspended particulate matter levels from 27.14 to 50.87 µg/m3. The highest NOx value (6.66 µg/m3) was observed at a station located in Hatkoti Village near the temple site. The NOx levels observed were much lower than the permissible limit of 80 µg/m3 specified for the rural and residential areas. The highest average SO2 value (1.38 µg/m3) was observed at station located in the Sawra Village barrage site, while the highest value (1.56 µg/m3) was observed at Snail Village near powerhouse site. The SO2 levels observed were much lower than the permissible limit of 80 µg/m3 specified for the rural and residential areas. The

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7maximum suspended particulate matter level of 57.35 µg/m3 was observed at station located near Hatkoti temple. At all the ambient air quality monitoring stations, the suspended particulate matter levels was much below the permissible limits, as shown in the Appendix I, Table 1.10. 20. Climate. The daily maximum temperature in the region varies from 30ºC (degrees centigrade) to 40º C in summer and 10ºC to 20 ºC in winter, whereas the daily minimum temperature is about 10ºC to 20º C in summer and a few degrees below the freezing point in winter. Mean monthly and mean annual precipitation in millimeters (mm) at the three stations within the catchment is 1,003 at Rohru, 1,068 at Jubbal, and 1,673 at Khadrala with the maximum precipitation happening in July and August. All these stations are situated in the lower part of the catchment area and upstream of the Sawra Kuddu project. The difference in the catchment areas at Dhamwari and Sawra is about five times and the precipitation in Dhamwari is mostly snow and at Sawra is mostly rain. 21. Hydrology. The maximum and minimum ten daily discharges at the diversion site are 292.64 m3/sec and 8.38 m3/sec respectively. The discharges of the Pabbar River, like other rivers in Himachal Pradesh, are least during winter months (November to February) and start increasing in March because of melting of snow, with the bulk contribution from June to August. Discharge measuring stations at Tagnu, Dhamwari, Mandly, and Sawra Bridge have been set up by the HPSEB. Based on the available computed data from 1978–1979 to 1999–2000 of the Pabbar River at the diversion site, about 13.00 m3/sec of discharge was available for 90% of the time and 30 m3/sec for 50% of the overall period. The design discharge of 65 m3/sec was available for 18% of the total duration of 28 years. 22. Water Quality. The proposed project is located in an area where apple growing is the mainstay of the people. The catchment area villages and small townships have a population of 104,000 located near the diversion structure site. The major sources of water in the project area are streams, springs, and nallahs adjacent to habitations; water is conveyed to consumers under gravity. The Pabbar River’s water quality was studied by the HPSEPPCB during the month of April 2005 as a part of the baseline environmental quality studies for the EIA. Samples from various tributaries of the Pabbar River were collected and analyzed. Although the sewage falls into various streams or nallahs flowing adjacent to the settlements, the biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand values were found to be very low, indicating reduced organic pollution load and absence of industries in the area. The water quality is assessed as class A, which means that water can be used for drinking purposes after disinfecting, without conventional treatment. A summary analysis of Pabbar River surface water quality is given in Appendix 1, Tables A1.4 and A1.5. Samples of groundwater were also collected and analyzed; the results are summarized in Appendix 1, Tables A1.6 and A1.7. 23. The total biological oxygen demand loading from domestic sources in the catchment area monitored at the diversion structure site is about 28 kg/day. The biological oxygen demand of the surface water as monitored at 13 sites is 0.01 milligrams/liter (mg/l) and that of the groundwater as monitored at seven sites is between 0.01 and 0.09 mg/l (Appendix 1, Table 1.8). Low calcium and magnesium levels make the water soft. The total hardness in various water samples was well below the permissible limit of 200 mg/l. The carbonate hardness accounts for the entire hardness in the water samples; the noncarbonate hardness is virtually absent in the project area. The total dissoved solids values ranged from 35 mg/l to 123 mg/l, which are well below the permissible limit of 500 mg/l specified for drinking water. The fluoride levels were much lower than the permissible limit for drinking water. 24. Noise. The noise levels were monitored continuously for 12 hours at each location, and hourly equivalent noise levels were measured in daytime and nighttime. The equivalent noise levels (Leq) at various locations as monitored by the HPSEPPCB have been tabulated in Appendix 1, Table A1.11 (under the ambient air quality). The noise levels at various sampling stations (Appendix 1,

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8 Table A1.13) ranged from 62.00 to 76.00 dB(A) (decibels measured in the audible noise bands) (day) and 42 to 48.00 dB(A) (night). These levels were higher than the permissible limit specified for residential areas and are attributable to the noise of the river. 25. Topography and Soils. The Pabbar River, a major tributary of the Tons River, which in itself is a prominent tributary of the Yamuna River, is a rain- and snow-fed river. It originates in the Gangdari Dhar in the western Himalayas at an elevation of about 5,400 m above sea level (ASL) and flows mainly in a southwesterly direction. The headwaters are close to the water divide to the Baspa River in the Satluj basin. After the confluence, upstream of Tangnu with the Supin Khad, the river flows into a narrow valley, which widens after the confluence with Andhra Khad near Chirgaon. It traverses southwest until its confluences with the Yamuna River. The bed gradient of the river over its entire stretch ranges between 15 m/km and 40 m/km, but reaches 200 m/km in the uppermost regions. In its upper regions, the river valley is located between steep and high mountain ranges, and is very narrow. Along the lower stretches, the valley is usually wider, and part of the flood plains form cultivated land. The Pabbar River delivers a substantial amount of sediment load, particularly during snowmelt and flood seasons. In the winter, higher regions of the Himalayas receive precipitation as snow while moderate rainfall occurs in the foothills and adjoining plains. 26. Detailed geological appraisal of various components of the project was carried out. It is expected that 40% of tunnel rock mass encountered would be good to very good; about 37% would be fair, 13% poor, and 2% very poor. The soil profiles (Appendix 1, Table A1.12) from the catchment area are generally well-developed with clear demarcation of horizons. The soils are brown and transitional podsols. They have a fine texture akin to clays and clayey loams. Spruce and fir grow on a wide range of soils, especially brown soils and podsols. Kale and deodar (a tall cedar native to the Himalayas) generally thrive on brown soils. Large quantities of decomposing vegetative material enrich the forest soils with a good deal of humus. The following textures of soil generally of good depth are found within the area:

(i) loam or clayey loam in Jakhil village, in Khashdhar area; (ii) sandy loam in Kuddu and Batar forest areas; (iii) loamy clays with black color as in oak bearing areas; and (iv) loamy soil with a cover of humus suited for fir spruce.

In the Larot, Guas, and Chhachpur areas, which contain ridges, precipitous slopes, and southern aspects, the soils tend to be shallow and dry—a common feature around villages because of frequent fires and excessive grazing. 27. Bedded and gneissose quartzite belonging to the Jatog formation is exposed on one bank of the proposed diversion structure. Geological investigations in the form of seismic refraction measurements at the barrage site revealed overburden and well-compacted strata of 50 m at the barrage site. In view of the thick overburden in the riverbed, it was decided to construct a small barrage at the diversion structure. The headrace tunnel will pass through quartzite, chloride schist with bands of quartzite aguen gneiss, carbonaceous phyllites, and quartzite gneiss. This will generally be a receptive tunnel drilling media. Quartzite and schist are fair to good quality tunneling media, and phyllites vary from poor to good quality tunneling conditions. Rock mass in the underground powerhouse cavity was found to be good to moderately jointed. Rock mass likely to be encountered will be quartzite phyllite. Quartzite is assessed to contain 80% to 100% quartz. It is highly permeable in nature due to brittleness, so grouting would be carried out. 28. Seismology. The project area falls in the Zone V of the Seismic Zoning Map of India. The magnitude frequency relationship of seismic events of the area within 31º N–32º N latitude and

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977º E–79º E longitude corresponding to the Yamuna and Satluj basins shows that the maximum acceleration in the area was a magnitude of 6 and occurred once. Detailed spectrum acceleration studies for the project are being conducted by the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. Diversion barrage and underground structures would be designed as per the peak acceleration response spectrum obtained from these studies. 2. Ecological Resources 29. Forests. The project area lies in the Rohru forest division of Shimla District. The elevation of the catchment is between 1,400 m and 5,000 m above mean sea level. About 25% of the area is located lower than 2,000 m above mean sea level, 35% between 2,000 m and 3,000 m above mean sea level, and 40% higher than 3,000 m above mean sea level. The permanent snow line in the basin is about 4,500 m above mean sea level. Only 2% of the catchment area is situated above this level. Thus, based on elevation and as per A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India by H.G. Champion and S.K. Seth,3 the main forest types observed in the project area (including the catchment area) are listed in Table 5 below.

Table 5: Types of Forests Found 1. Group 9: Subtropical Pine Forests 1.1 Upper Himalayan Chir Pine Forests (Pinus roxburghii) 2. Group 12: Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests 2.1 Ban Oak Forest (Quercus leucotricophora) 2.2 Mohru Oak Forest (Quercus dilitata) 2.3 Moist Deodar Forest (Cedrus deodara) 2.4 Western Mixed Coniferous Forest 2.5 Moist Temperate Deciduous Forest 2.6 Low Level Blue Pine Forest (Pinus wallichiana) 2.7 Kharsu Oak Forest (Quercus semicarpifolia) 2.8 Alder Forest (Alnus nitida) 2.9 Montane Bamboo Brakes 2.10 Himalayan Temperate Parkland 3. Group 15 Moist Alpine Scrub Forests 3.1 Birch Rhododendron Scrub Forest 3.2 Deciduous Alpine Scrub Forest 3.3 Alpine Pastures

Source: Environmental Impact Assessment Report prepared by GOHP 30. Flora and Fauna. As per the report of the Himachal Pradesh Forest Department, there are no protected, rare, or sensitive species of animals or plants within the project area. A flora survey was carried out at representative sites in the project area and adjacent areas for two seasons. A 10 tree species, five shrub species, and 14 herb and grass species were observed in project area. Pinus roxburghii and Alnus nitida were observed as dominant trees in the project area while Berberis asistata and Indigofera spp were the dominant shrubs. 31. No major faunal species were sighted in the project area except for few reptiles during the field survey. The rocky terrain exhibits little bird life. Occasional observations are made of the Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea melanope), Blue Rock Thrush (Monicola solitarius) and Alpine Swift (Apus melba). Among birds of prey frequent encounters took place with the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), the Central Asian Hobby (Falco subbuteo centralasiae), and Shahi Falcon (Falco peregrinus peregrinator. Three bird species were strongly associated with the riparian and aquatic habitat. These are the (i) Plumbeous Redstart (Rhyacornis fuliginosus), (ii) Blue Whistling Thrush (Myophonus caeruleus), and (iii) Brown Dipper (Cinclus pallasii), all common for Himalayan streams.

3 Champion, H.G., and S.K. Seth. 2005. A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Dehra Dun: Natraj

Publications.

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10 32. Aquatic Fauna. The plankton population in the nallah is inherently poor and subject to constant change; it has very ecological little role to play. Benthic organisms, particularly the epiphytic and epilithic genera represented by Melosira, Nitzschia, Fragelaria, and Synedra, play an important role in propagation of benthic fauna and fish life. The fish fauna of the river and its tributaries with in the tract are of two types:

(i) Indigenous fish. The important local fish are Schizothorax plagiostomus (snow trout) and Tor tor; commonly known as gugli and mahaseer respectively.

(ii) Introduced fish. The only introduced fish is Salmo trutta, which is very well known by the name of brown trout. It has naturalized in these waters and provides good sport fishing.

3. Economic Development

33. Population. The total population of the villages in the project area is 5,000. The family size is about 5–7. The number of females per 1,000 males is 842. The literacy rate is about 75%. The population in these panchayats is engaged mainly in agriculture and horticulture, while some carry on trade and other business activities. A growing trend is observed toward contract work for a variety of jobs but mainly for government-sponsored activities. 34. Land use. The entire project area is located in the Jubbal Block, Tehsil Rohru, District Shimla, in the State of Himachal Pradesh. The project components (including the roads, tunnels, etc.) are located in nine panchayats, which will be affected because of (i) land acquisition, (ii) location above the proposed tunnel; (iii) road construction; (iv) water regime disruption; or (v) project camp construction. These panchayats are listed in Table 6.

Table 6: List of Affected Panchayats

Item Name of Gram Panchayat Remarks 1 Ranwi Jubbal Block, Left Bank of Pabbar River 2 Thana Jubbal Block, Left Bank of Pabbar River 3 Mandhol Jubbal Block, Left Bank of Pabbar River 4 Jhalta Jubbal Block, Left Bank of Pabbar River 5 Giltari Jubbal Block, Left Bank of Pabbar River 6 Saraswati Nagar Jubbal Block, Right Bank of Pabbar River 7 Anty (Anti) Jubbal Block, Right Bank of Pabbar River 8 Kuddu Jubbal Block, Right Bank of Pabbar River 9 Sari Jubbal Block, Right Bank of Pabbar River

Source: Environmental Impact Assessment Report prepared by GOHP 35. The land use classification and coverage in the catchment was found in a land use map procured from NRSA, Hyderabad. Survey of India Topo-sheet and others are in Table 7 below. The rate of erosion in the catchment area is estimated at 36.15 tons/square kilometer/year (t/km2/yr), as per the HPSEB studies. Wasteland is recorded as 24.6511 hectares (ha) against the total land requirement of 97.6206 ha.

Table 7: Land Use Pattern in the Project Area (including Catchment Area) Item Land Use Percentage of Catchment 1 Built-up land 0.15 2 Degraded or scrub land 3.25 3 Evergreen and/or semi-evergreen forest 20.00 4 Forest plantation 15.00 5 Grass land and grazing land 10.00 6 Agricultural land 15.00 7 Wasteland without scrub 30.00 8 Plantation 3.00

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119 Snow covered and glacial area 2.00 10 Rocky unusable waste near areas of steams and river

beds 1.60

Total 100.00 Source: Environmental Impact Assessment Report prepared by GOHP 36. Agriculture, Industry, Infrastructure. There is currently no industry in the Jubbal area, which is mostly a traditional tourism site. It has good access to other major towns by road and has good infrastructure facilities (water supply, sewerage, flood control). Agricultural production (apple and other crops) is the main activity in the subproject affected area. All the families rely on agriculture as the main economic activity, although some family members also engage in other professions such as government services (46.94%) and trading (3.06%), as shown in Table 8.

Table 8: Major Economic Activities of the Households Item Activity No. of Households % of Total 1 Agriculture 98 100.00 2 Working for other farmers 0 0.00 3 Small enterprise 3 3.06 4 Government and NGO 46 46.94 5 Business and trading 3 3.06 6 Hunting or gathering 0 0.00 7 Daily wage 2 2.04 8 Others 1 1.02 Total 98 100.00

NGO= nongovernment organization. Source: Socio Economic Survey, 2007, GOHP

4. Social and Cultural Resources

37. Population and Communities. Himachal Pradesh Power Corportion Ldt. (HPPCL) and its contracting agencies comply with the recent hydropower policy of the government of Himachal Pradesh with respect to providing employment to the members of project-affected families or persons (and other bona fide Himachalis) on a “suitability and availability basis.” The area is already has interaction with people from other parts of the country because of the large harvests of fruits, mainly apple. Traders and orchard harvesting labor make seasonal visits to the area. A large amount of Nepali labor is employed by the orchardists in a number of operations. The impact of outside influence on social and economic life of the local people from the project will not be either significant or permanent. 38. Socioeconomic Structure. Temporary migratory workers from various parts of the country and from abroad will be involved in the project activities. This will have cultural, ethnic, and social impacts on local communities. Such a mixture of population has its own advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include exchange of ideas and cultures between various groups of people that would not be possible otherwise. Due to longer residence of this population in one place, a new culture with distinct socioeconomic conditions and its own identity would develop. A dramatic increase in temporary job opportunities will attract many people. 39. Landholding Status. There are no landless households found in the project area. All the households have land holdings as shown in Table 9.

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Table 9: Landholding Status Item Particulars No. of Households % of Total 1. Landholder Households 98 100.00 2. Landless Households 0 0.00 Total Households 98 100.00

Source: Socio Economic Survey, 2007, GOHP 40. The average cultivated plots have 9.90 bigha (a tradition unit of land area; in India, it is usually less than 0.4 ha), whereas the average uncultivable landholding is 7.7 bigha, as shown in Table 10.

Table 10: Type of Landholding

(bigha) Item Type of Land Average Holding 1. Cultivable 9.90 2. Uncultivable 7.77 3. Landless 0.00 4. Total Households (number) 98

Source: Socio Economic Survey, 2007, GOHP 41. Major Cropping Pattern. Fruits and vegetables (84.69% and 57.14% respectively) are the major produce cultivated by the majority of the households in the subproject-affected area. Wheat is the third major crop (38.78%) being cultivated by households followed by dal (pulses or dried beans, including kidney bean), which is cultivated by 35.71% of the households, as shown in Table 11.

Table 11: Major Cropping Pattern Item Type of Crop Number of Households % of Total

1. Wheat 38 38.78 2. Dal 35 35.71 3. Rice 29 29.59 4. Maize 10 10.20 5. Vegetables 56 57.14 6. Fruits 83 84.69 7. Others 0 0.00 Total 251 100.00

Source: Socio Economic Survey, 2007, GOHP 42. Average Annual Income. Agriculture and service contribute the most to the average annual household income. Although it differs from household to household, the total average annual income along the project area is Rs304,087. Details are shown in Table 12.

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Table 12: Average Annual Household Income (Rs)

Item Source of Income Average Annual Income 1. Agriculture 217,321 2. Service 81,255 3. Business 4,082 4. Labor 612 5. Professional 2,755 6. Other 0 7. Total Average 304,087

Rs = rupees. Source: Socio Economic Survey, 2007, GOHP

43. There are three archaeological sites in the vicinity of the project—two sites are well above (about 8 m) the full reservoir level, while the remaining one site is about 1.5 m above. These sites are said to be associated with Mahabharat Period and would be preserved in situ. While two sites above the Hatkoti-Rohru road are well-preserved, the one below the road is dilapidated. All three sites are on the right bank of the Pabbar River and would be adjacent to the reservoir area above full reservoir level. A protective wall will be constructed around downhill sides prevent landslides at these three sites. C. Alternatives

1. Without Project

44. There are three “without project” scenarios, as follows:

(i) Scenario 1: no action at all (business as usual). Without the project, the significant energy deficit in the northern region (9.9% deficit in 2006–2007) would not be reduced by 385.78 GWh per year from this renewable energy source. The expansion of industry in the state and adjoining states would be stifled and residential consumption of electricity curbed. An equal amount of power would have to be generated by alternative means, most likely from a fossil fuel-powered plant.

(ii) Scenario 2: no new generation plants are constructed, and power is purchased via PowerGrid Company India Limited (PGCIL) (a central utility) from the northern grid. The Government of India, Ministry of Power (MOP) and and the Department of Power, Government of Himachal Pradesh have dismissed scenarios 1 and 2, because there is a power shortage in the state, combined with a good potential for hydropower and the need to develop a power surplus to foster economic growth.

(iii) Scenario 3: the state’s sources of revenue have been changed from traditional forest and other similar resource exploitation to increase dependence on 12% free power from hydropower projects, leading to the state’s ability to impose a ban on green fellings. Business-as-usual situation may force the state to revert, with consequent deforestation.

2. With Project

45. Fuel Type. Hydropower development in India is being given priority to optimize the efficiency of country’s power system and usage of resources for sustainable power generation in an environment-friendly manner. From the operational angle, hydropower projects also provide synergy for optimizing generation, result in fuel savings, minimize greenhouse gases, and supporting sustainable development. Hydropower results in energy generated through renewable resources and

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14 helps avoid emissions from equivalent thermal plants. The proposed power generation from the Sawra Kuddu project funded under the Himachal Pradesh Clean Energy Development Investment Program (HPCEDIP) is 111 MW. 46. Project Design. The selected barrage site includes a relatively straight section of river, a submerged area, reasonable space for the intake and desilting structures, space for construction activities, no areas of dense forest, and no ecologically sensitive sites within 5 km. Losses in water conductor system corresponding to design discharge of 65 m3/sec from intake to generating units have been worked out as 17.67 m. The design discharge of 65 m3/sec, which is available 18% of the time, assures the highest economic effectiveness. Studies of power generation with different installed capacity found no appreciable energy gain from 111 MW to 115 MW, so installed capacity has been fixed at 111 MW. The annual generation in 90% and 50% dependable years works out to be 385.78 GWh and 506.61 GWh. 47. The hydropower plant will function as a peaking station. The power generated will be evacuated through the state transmission utility HPSEB. Even during the dry season (November–April), a minimum flow will be released to the rivers. Following the construction, HPPCL will ensure water source restoration and stream bank stabilization, continuation of mining in the impacted sites, protecting of riparian vegetation, monitoring of water quality, use eco-friendly techniques for road development and maintenance, and the establishment of strong working partnerships among civil engineers, environmental biologists, and the public. 48. Lessons from the hydropower sector and related ADB projects will have to be taken into account to guide project design, particularly those related to baseline information and mitigation measures. The design includes mitigation measures for maintenance of flow level as there may be dewatering effects downstream during the dry season due to the flow diversion and damming of the river. The effect is local, and it would be overcome to some extent by releasing compensation flow downstream. The minimal ecological flow for the conservation of microflora, aquatic insects, and fish in the dewatering zone will be maintained at 15% of the regular flow. Regular releases of flushing flows will maintain quality of spawning gravel by scouring fine sediments away. The compensation flow would vary from season to season. 49. The “with project” alternative is the proposed generation expansion program. The projects in the investment program do induce negative impact, but with proper environmental mitigation plans and careful site selection, potential adverse environmental impacts associated with hydropower projects will be avoided or minimized. The following factors have been incorporated while selecting the project sites:

(i) Avoidance of deforestation for state’s revenue and also for fuel substitution. (ii) Avoidance of ecologically significant or environmentally sensitive areas, such as

national parks, nature reserves, or wetlands (as designated by Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India).

(iii) Minimization of potential environmental and social impacts (including resettlement, land taken, and cultural or religious sites) associated with initial alignments and locations by selection of alternative sites.

(iv) Minimization of involuntary resettlement. (v) Avoidance of monuments of cultural or historical importance. (vi) No threatening of indigenous peoples, including tribal communities. (vii) No direct impact on social infrastructure such as playgrounds or schools. (viii) Avoidance of clearing of any existing forest resources to the maximum extent

possible; where unavoidable, minimized and compensated according to Indian regulatory criteria.

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15(ix) Consultation with and adequate compensation of affected people as appropriate.

50. Other additional safeguards taken into account include the following:

(i) Road alignments and dumping sites are generally sited 10–15 km away from major towns, whenever possible, to account for future urban expansion.

(ii) Forests are avoided if possible, in consultation with the local divisional forest officer, to cause minimum damage to existing forest resources. National parks and sanctuaries and any other forest area rich in wildlife have been avoided totally.

(iii) Alignments are selected to avoid river beds and unstable areas. 51. Alternative locations for Sawra Kuddu were studied with the help of Government published data, including the Forest Atlas of India and topographical maps from the Survey to arrive at the most optimum sites and routes for detailed survey and assessment of environmental and social impacts. The Government of Himachal Pradesh has decided to encourage generation of power through hydropower sources of energy, and it has framed a policy so that the development of this sector serves as an engine for the overall development of the state. The construction of new hydropower projects and augmentation of existing ones would result in generation of additional power for consumption within the state. D. Anticipated Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures 52. The primary adverse environmental impacts of the project (based on type, duration, extent, and severity) will be changes in the river hydrology, loss of agricultural and forest land, decline in the quality of aquatic ecosystems, and resettlement (Table 13). Most of the likely impacts will occur during project operation because of the altered river hydrology between the barrage and the tailrace outlet.

Table 13: Likely Primary Adverse Environmental and Social Impacts of the Sawra Kuddu Hydropower Project

Issue/Feature Impact Extent Duration

Hydrology • Reduced river flows between barrage and tailrace outlet

• Water impoundment upstream of barrage

• Decline in river water quality

Reduction by 85% of minimum water flow along 13 km stretch of river Volume of impoundment - 0.93 m3 BOD/COD levels affected

Permanent Permanent Permanent

Aquatic ecosystems

• Altered river ecosystem • Prevention of upstream

fish movement

13 km Pabbar River, pondage inundation area Total impediment

Permanent Permanent

Land resources • Loss of agricultural and forest land 50.3 ha total land conversion Permanent

Social • Minimum relocation of households 165 project-affected families (whose land is being acquired)

Permanent

Groundwater • Remote possibility of damage to water supply (to be restored if any damage, even if not directly attributable to project activity)

30 supply sources per latest inventory prepared

Temporary

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16 BOD = biological oxygen demand, COD = chemical oxygen demand, ha = hectare, m = meter, km = kilometer. Source: Environmental Impact Assessment Report prepared by HPSEB.

1. Environmental Impacts Due to Project Location and Design 53. Altered River Volumes. Diversion of water from the river changes the riverine ecology significantly. It not only hinders the connectivity of water passage for fish migration but may also have an impact on downstream drinking water needs, irrigation, watermills, and health if downstream population depends on the river’s water. The Hydro-Power Policy of Himachal Pradesh has made provision to safeguard a minimum water flow of 15% immediately downstream of the diversion structures in all times, including the lean season from November to March. HPPCL commits to comply with the provisions in the state’s Hydro-Power Policy and notifications its government. The observed minimum inflow in the lean season at the barrage site is 8.48 m3 4 of which 15% is 1.27 m3, which will be maintained immediately below the diversion barrage proposed at Hatkoti. 54. The riparian environment between the diversion barrage and the tailrace outlet covers an elongated area of about 13 km along the well-defined and narrow river channel. The steep riverbed slope in this section is about 16 m per km indicates a fast water flow amply with downward transporting of huge boulders along the river course. There are virtually no significant depositions of sand or silt, which means that the riverbed and banks are formed mostly of gravel, rocks and boulders. After construction of the Sawra-Kuddu barrage, the water would be diverted for power generation. The tailrace will discharge into the Pabbar River 13 km downstream of the barrage site, so that 13 km stretch between barrage and tailrace channel may have lower flow during the lean season. 55. There are many streams and nallahs that join the river between the barrage and the tailrace channel from the powerhouse and out fall into the affected stretch. Among these tributaries are Ranvi Khad (less than 100 m downstream of the barrage on the left bank), Salanti Gad, Kunu Gad, and Nalia Khad. Some seasonal streams also join the Pabbar River between the point of diversion and the tailrace outlet. These streams have a total discharge of more than 3.53 m3 per second. The two streams between the diversion location and the tailrace tunnel on the left bank have a varying flow of 0.17 m3 to 1.10 m3 during the lean season, with a total discharge of more than 1.27 m3. On the right bank, there are about 3 nallahs with an average lean season flow of 1.2 m3 to 0.4 m3, with total discharge of about 2.26 m3. The waters from these streams will not be tapped by the project. A minimum lean season downstream discharge from the barrage of about 1.27 m3 would be maintained, thus a total lean season discharge of 4.8 m3 would be available to the local downstream villages. At least 4.8 m3 flow would be maintained between the barrage and tailrace location throughout the year. The available downstream discharge is given in Table 14.

Table 14: Maintaining Downstream Discharge in Pabbar River

(m3) Item Tributary or Source Discharge

(in m3) Remarks

1. Minimum Downstream Discharge from Barrage

1.27 Minimum 15% of dry season discharge

2. Ranwi Khad 0.17 Less than 100 meters downstream of barrage on left bank of Pabbar River

3. Salanti Gad 1.02 Joins on right bank of main Pabbar River 4. Kunnu Gad 1.20 Joins on right bank of main Pabbar River 5. Nalia Khad 0.04 Joins on right bank of main Pabbar River 6. Jakhi Khad 1.10 Joins on left bank of main Pabbar River

Total 4.80 Source: Environmental Impact Assessment Report prepared by GOHP

4 Per the detailed project report (DPR)

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1756. With the lower base flow of water below the diversion barrage, it may be expected that silt will deposit, at least temporarily, in the river section above the tailrace outlet. Flash floods and the flood season discharge will, however, irregularly redistribute the silt and move it downstream. An electronic flow-measuring device will be installed to ascertain and monitor downstream discharge (15% of inflow) in addition to conventional engineering devices such as weirs or flumes. The diversion of water at the barrage means that the riverbed usually will be dry below the barrage during low water periods; however, flood season water will pass the barrage and continue in the old riverbed. Provision for 15% of total environmental flow or discharge through a fish pass has been made to facilitate fish migration, maintain the environment, sustain irrigation and watermills (currently none exists), and for the benefit pilgrims visiting the temple at Hatkoti. 57. Disruption of Fish Migration. Commercial fishing exists only marginally in the project area. The majority of the local population consumes fish occasionally. A few families below Hatkoti and upstream of the tailrace outlet at Sanail hold fishing licenses and fish to supplement their diet and family income. The barrage at Hatkoti will not act as a barrier to the free movement of fish species, because of the fish pass and minimum discharge to be provided. Any fish-dependent livelihood being affected by the project must be addressed. Viable options can be supported by the local area development committee (at 1.5% of total subproject cost) from the funds being provided by the project. The reservoir and proposed fisheries are likely to enhance tourism in the area, providing indirect employment opportunities and fish production. 58. Land Acquisition and Land Use Conversion. Change in land use entails realignment of anthropogenic forces exerting varying degrees of pressure on land and it initiates a pressure readjustment process. Diversion of forestland shifts the pressure of exercise of usage rights to adjoining areas where the pressure increases and may result in degradation of the same. The total land to be acquired for the project is about 97.6206 ha. Out of the total requirement of land, forestland constitutes 53.2076 ha. Forestland in the project area fall into three categories: namely charagah billa darakhtan (pasture without trees), charagah darakhtan (pasture with trees), and wasteland. Area required from each of these three categories is 22.698 ha, 5.8585 ha, and 24.6511 ha, respectively. Land required from private holdings is 44.413 ha, of which 31.7158 ha is cultivated and 12.6972 ha is uncultivated. Of the total 53.2076 ha of forestland required, the largest need (25.3228 ha) would be for the barrage and reservoir component, followed by 9.1284 ha for dumping sites. Private lands are being acquired for surface and aboveground components for the reservoir area, with the remaining being used for housing and site offices. 59. The surface land requirement is 88.3671 ha and the underground requirement is 53.2076 ha. The details are given in Table 15.

Table 15: Land Required for Various Components of the Project (ha)

Land Requirement Area Private Land Government Land

Item

Name of Component Cat-1@ Cat-2$ Subtotal Forestland A

Forestland B Wasteland

Subtotal

Total

A. Surface and Above-ground Components

1. Barrage and Reservoir 17.5339 7.4371 24.971 6.6413 0.0588 18.6227 25.3228 50.2938

2. Approach Roads 1.1838 0.6726 1.8564 1.1791 2.3559 1.0904 4.6254 6.48183. Colony and Site

Offices 5.1408 0.9470 6.0878 0.2660 0.2425 0.8023 1.3108 7.3986

4. Workshops and Stores 5.1174 0.6906 5.8134 0.1460 0.3301 0.2604 0.7365 6.5499

5. Dumping Area 2.4288 1.5973 4.0261 3.7414 2.8312 2.5558 9.1284 13.15456. Quarry Sites 0.3111 0.3746 0.6857 1.4707 0 1.3195 2.7902 3.47597. Adits 0.0000 0.2500 0.2500 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.2500

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18 Land Requirement Area

Private Land Government Land Ite

m Name of

Component Cat-1@ Cat-2$ Subtotal Forestland A Forestland

B Wasteland Subtot

al Total

A. Surface and Above-ground Components 8. Desilting

Arrangement 0.0000 0.7226 0.72260.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.7226

9. Surge Shaft 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0400 0.0000 0.0400 0.0400Subtotal (A) 31.7158 12.697 44.413 13.4445 5.8585 24.6511 43.9541 88.3671

B. Underground Components 1. Surge Gallery 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.4095 0.0000 0.0000 0.4095 0.40952. Penstock 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.1792 0.0000 0.0000 0.1792 0.17923. Powerhouse 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.3000 0.0000 0.0000 0.3000 0.30004. Headrace Tunnel 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 7.9100 0.0000 0.0000 7.9100 7.91005. Tailrace Tunnel 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.4548 0.0000 0.0000 0.4548 0.4548Subtotal (B) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 9.2535 Total (A+B) 31.7158 12.697 44.413 22.698 5.8585 24.6511 53.2076 97.6206Cat-1 = category 1 = cultivated; Cat-2 = category 2 = uncultivated; Forestland A = charagah billa darakhtan (pasture without trees); Forestland B = charagah darakhtan (pasture with trees), ha = hectare. Wasteland is also forestland. Subtotal of Government land is the total forestland required for the project. Source: Environmental Impact Assessment Report prepared by GOHP 60. Most of the land belongs to the Central Government (specifically the Forest Department), measuring 53.2076 ha for all components (both aboveground and underground). In the proposed project, private land of about 44.413 ha from various villages would be acquired. The acquisition will entail inconvenience to, and curtailment of usage of right by, the local communities. During construction, various types of equipment will be brought to the site. These include diesel generator sets, a batch plant, drillers, earthmovers, rock bolters, etc. The storing and working space requirement of this construction equipment would be significant. In addition, land will also be acquired temporarily (for the duration of project construction for storage of the quarried material before crushing, crushed material, cement rubble, etc.). 61. A total of 44.413 ha of private land required for acquisition for Sawra Kuddu subproject. The Implementing Agency, HPPCL, has already started the land acquisition process. About 32 ha of land have already been acquired, and the compensation for land to the affected people has already been disbursed. The assessment of land and identification of affected persons for the remaining 12 ha of land is in process for which section 4 and other relevant sections of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 have been initiated. The compensation amount for the remaining land has also been fixed by the Executing Agency through its designated land acquisition officer. The disbursement of money for the remaining land is due. The compensation is based on the market rate, which is at replacement value. All relevant departments, like revenue and Public Works Department (PWD), are involved in fixing the replacement value of the losses, and the land acquisition process is working smoothly. 62. The total number of affected households due to the land acquisition is 165. A census survey was conducted to assess various impacts of the affected households. A sample socio-economic survey was also conducted to assess the socioeconomic status of the affected persons and the project influence zone. There will be no adverse impact on indigenous peoples or on women. A summary of the land acquisition and resettlement impact is presented in Table 16.

Table 16: Summary Impact due to Land Acquisition

(number) Item Impacts Number

1 Total area of agricultural land (ha) 45.75 2 Households losing agricultural land 163 3 Surveyed households 100

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194 Structures (residential) affected 2 5 Community property resources affected 0 6 Households affected 165 7 Vulnerable households 14 8 Tenants, leaseholders, and sharecroppers 48 9 Trees 1,250 9 Titleholders 165

10 Non-titleholders 0 11 Affected persons 731

Source: Census Survey 2007, GOHP. 63. Resettlement. A total of two dwellings are being acquired for the project. The affected households have expressed a preference to resettle nearby, to minimize disruption and to benefit from kin group support, as well as new development opportunities generated by the project. Assistance in relocation will be provided to the affected households by the project and will be accomplished within a reasonable time. Some affected households have resettled locally, using the compensation provided by HPPCL. A resettlement plan for the project, detailing the impacts and measures to be taken to mitigate various project losses, is being prepared. The resettlement plan is based on the general findings of the census and social survey conducted by GOHP, field visits, and meetings with various affected persons. Community development plans are under preparation in consultation with the stakeholders; initiatives include relocation of common property resources such as schools and temples and creation and augmentation of community infrastructure with a focus on health and education, basic amenities, capacity building, etc.

2. Environmental Problems Due to Design

64. Impact on Forests and Trees. Diversion of forestland and felling of trees adversely impacts the environment and causes stress on the adjoining lands due to shifting of biotic pressure. The total forestland loss for the project is about 53.207 ha, including that for underground components. A total of 887 trees belonging to 10 species having 735.60 m3 by volume will be felled for the project purposes. It is stipulated to afforest a little over double the area of forestland being diverted. As such 107 ha would be afforested as compensatory afforestation at the project cost. All the areas of compensatory afforestation are located within Rohru Forest Division of Pabbar Valley in Shimla District. During the project construction phase, land in addition to reservoir submergence will also be required for location of construction equipment, storage of construction material, muck disposal, widening of existing roads, and construction of approach roads for project appurtenances. Such lands have some vegetation, either trees or grass and bushes. As can been seen from table 17, most of trees to be removed are broad-leaved species.

Table 17: Detail of Trees to Be Removed Abstract

Total Project Area Abstract (Numbers and Volume in m3) Item Species V IV III IIA IIB IA IB IC ID Total

A Conifers 1 Kail 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Volume 0 0.70 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.70

2 Chil 2 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 6 Volume 0.12 0.30 0 1.60 0 8.90 0 0 0 10.92Subtotal (A) No. 2 3 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 8Subtotal (A) Vol. 0.12 1.00 0 1.60 0 8.90 0 0 0 11.62

B Broad-leaves 1 Kunish 204 255 184 75 27 17 15 10 10 797 Volume 16.30 76.50 147.00 113.00 59.40 54.40 64.50 57.00 78.00 665.82

2 Darake 3 9 6 2 1 0 0 0 0 21

Tota

l (A

ll C

ompo

nent

s =

Res

ervo

ir +

Roa

d A

lignm

ent)

Volume 0.24 2.70 4.20 2.60 2.20 0 0 0 0 11.94

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20 3 Chulli 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Volume 0.08 0 0.70 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.78

4 Robinia 5 15 24 3 0 0 0 0 0 47 Volume 0.40 4.50 16.80 4.20 0 0 0 0 0 25.90

5 Kainth 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Volume 0.16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.16

6 Fearu/Ferlu 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Volume 0.08 1.20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.28

7 Willow 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 4 Volume 0 0.30 0 0 2.80 4.90 6.80 0 0 14.80

8 Kokat 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Volume 0 0 0 0 0 3.30 0 0 0 3.30Subtotal (B) No. 216 284 215 80 29 19 16 10 10 879Subtotal (B) Vol. 17.30 85.20 169.00 119.00 64.40 62.60 71.30 57.0 78.0 723.98

Total Conifers and BL (A+B) 218 287 215 81 29 21 16 10 10 887Total Volume of Conifers and

BL (A+B) 17.40 86.20 169.00 121.00 64.40 71.50 71.30 57.00 78.00 735.60

BL = broad-leaves, m3 = cubic meters. Source: Environmental Impact Assessment Report prepared by GOHP

65. The impact of removal of trees and submergence of land is likely to be felt by the local population in the form of increased hardship for grazing and fuelwood collection. This would be addressed through compensatory afforestation and implementing the CAT plan. The CAT plan has been formulated to take care of immediate needs of the population residing in the close vicinity and downstream of the barrage. The treatable area has been extended to cover the affected catchment below the diversion structure. The timber content from these trees could be put to long-term use in for construction material and furniture with an estimated useful life of not less than 60 years. In addition to reducing available resources for the local communities, vegetation reduction affects the carbon cycle of the area. 66. Based on field observations and interaction with locals, no major fauna is observed in the project area, thus no major impacts on terrestrial fauna are expected. The area also does not have significant wild bird population. The whole region supports good vegetation, and birds are well-distributed throughout. These birds are used to human habitation and disturbances. The project could have a positive impact on area birdlife. After commissioning, the reservoir may become a nesting and breeding ground for number of water birds; and other birds may come to feed in the area because the fish stocking and farming in the reservoir would increase the availability of food. Moreover, migratory birds may also visit the area on the way to and from the wintering grounds in the plains. The creation of a green belt around the reservoir to provide shelter and roosting places for birds would further attract birdlife. 3. Environmental Impact of Preconstruction and Construction Activities 67. The environmental impacts associated with hydoropower project location have been studied case-by-case. Appropriate site selection criteria have been reported in the EIAs to avoid unnecessary problems; and projects are designed to avoid ecologically sensitive areas such as reserve forests, wildlife sanctuaries, etc. The construction will involve removal of trees at the project site, excavation work, erection of equipment, and civil works including construction of the desilting chamber, forebay, penstock, powerhouse, and other works. Standard construction impacts will occur related mainly to specific construction activities, site disturbance, spoil disposal, river flow disruption, and worker influx. These types of construction impacts, common to most hydropower projects, are described below, as are associated mitigation measures.

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21 a. Physical Resources 68. Impact on Topography. During the construction period, the topography will change due to excavation of the tunnel and erection of building, fill and cuts for leveling the tunnel and construction of powerhouse, forebay, desilting chamber, and penstock. Removal of soil at the underground powerhouse, barrage, and tunnel construction site and along construction access roads and power evacuation transmission line will cause change of surface features. The most prominent impact on the surface topography will be the creation of an impoundment upstream of the barrage. The impact will be local, but irreversible. The present features will be changed due to presence of the hydropower facilities—portals for powerhouse and adits, tunnels, roads, barrage, etc. 69. Material Extraction. A project of this magnitude requires a significant amount of construction material. It is proposed to use one existing quarry, which was used for construction of Andhra Hydropower Project in Pabbar Valley for this purpose. Other quarries have been identified at Jakhi Khad and at Anty between the barrage and tailrace tunnel outlet for meeting the construction material requirement for this project. Three crushers are to be located, one at the barrage site near Gunsa, another at Jakhi for tunnel lining works and the like, and the third at Mungra Nandal at the powerhouse site.Crushing operations will generate fugitive emissions of total particulate material. The quarrying operations cause noise, air (dust), and water pollution unless suitable measures are taken. All the three crushers would be provided with water sprinklers and/or cyclones to control the dust generated by primary crushing of stone aggregates. The contractors would provide the labor working in the underground components with respirators. The mined-out areas become prone to erosion and may contribute significantly to silt loads in streams and rivers. The mined-out areas will require remedying as described in the Mining Area Rehabilitation Plan attached to the EIA document. 70. Impact on Air Quality. Construction activities will involve soil excavation for the tunnel and barrage construction, movement of vehicles carrying the construction material, and the like. Such activities give rise to dust particle emissions that affect air quality marginally at the site; these are transitory in nature. Spraying of water during excavation will reduce the dust emission to a great extent. The most likely air pollution sources are increased vehicle traffic, primary crushing, and fugitive dust from the crushed material, followed by vehicular emissions from diesel-operated machines and transport vehicles. 71. Impact on Noise Levels. The major source of noise in a hydroelectric project is operation and movement of equipment during construction. For tunnel, barrage, and powerhouse construction, the major sources of noise pollution are movement of vehicles transporting the construction material and equipment to the site. The major work of the construction is expected to be carried out during the daytime. The noise produced during the construction will have a significant impact on the existing ambient noise levels. There are habitations within 2–3 km of the project site. The baseline data obtained in the surveys has returned a high value for the project area—66.4 dB to 61.6 dB for daytime and 50 dB to 68.1 dB for the nighttime. Additional noise will be disturbing for the local population and the labor deployed on the construction works. All the equipment has been assumed to operate at a common point and at the same time. The increase in noise levels has been estimated, with the above assumption, to be about 10 dB(A) at distance of 1 km from the noise source. Given the high baseline, however, the noise levels in the area may remain high until water is abstracted for diversion through the headrace tunnel. Once the project is commissioned, the high noise levels existing today are bound to reduce very significantly. To reduce the noise from machinery, it is suggested that mufflers be provided and exhausts be kept in good condition. The labor working in close proximity to this equipment during construction would be affected. The contractors would be required to provide earplugs to the labor engaged in the underground work.

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22 Although most of the project work would be underground, the aboveground operations (mainly stone crushers) would need to be provided with walls or barriers around them as defined by the Industries Department, GOHP. 72. Impact on Surface Water Quality. The construction will have significant impact on the surface and groundwater quality in the area. Local villagers express fears about disturbance to groundwater regime and springs and hand pumps drying up due to blasting for tunneling operations. Contamination of water bodies may result if construction material spills and surface runoff from the construction site join the water body. There may be an increase in turbidity levels where the proposed road alignment crosses if the surface runoff during construction meets the river. Even during the barrage construction phase, the turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS) and some other water quality parameters like biological oxygen demand are likely to increase. This can be avoided by careful selection of the sites and the access roads so that the surface runoff does not meet the river. 73. Care will be taken to locate the temporary construction worker camps away from the water bodies. Adequate drinking water, sanitary facilities, and drainage should be provided in the camps to avoid the surface water pollution. Also to be provided is an adequate washing and toilet facilities with septic tanks in labor camps and a sewage treatment system for the project’s worker housing. Solid waste management with an appropriate refuse collection and disposal system should be made obligatory. Oil-confining basins and oil–water separation should be provided at the work sites to avoid the surface water pollution. Oil traps should be provided for separation of oily waste. Sedimentation ponds should be provided at the site during the construction phase. The sludge generated at the trap should be kept in a specified place inside the premises and sold to authorized contractors or third parties. No sludge disposal on land should be allowed. 74. Impact on Soil and Geology. The impact on soils will come from soil erosion at the construction site and along the access routes due to excavation activity and land clearance. Erosion-prone areas will be strengthened before construction begins. Leveling and stabilization of construction sites will be done after completion of activity. Construction chemicals, if any, must be handled properly to avoid any soil contamination. 75. Spoil Disposal. The balance muck will be about 0.312 million m3 (or 311,922 m3); and after swell, it would become about 0.435 Mm3 (or 435,131 m3), which will require disposal. Five muck-dumping sites have been identified involving an area of about 13.16 ha. These sites have a combined capacity of 0.827 Mm3 without ramming and compaction of the muck. The muck dumping sites would be rammed, compacted, and, if need be, sprayed with water. A large quantity of muck is expected to be generated as a result of tunneling operations, construction of the diversion barrage, desilting tank construction, powerhouse cavern, and road construction. 76. Rolling down of muck along hill slopes that ultimately flow into the streams and rivers is a potential threat to the environment. During hot and dry weather, muck in dumping sites could start blowing in the form of dust. Normally, muck disposal sites are cleared of vegetation before disposal begins. Trees are cut; and any shrubs, grass, or undergrowth on which muck is disposed perishes. At dumping site No. 3 at Katinda Chak in Katinda Dogri, however, tree retention is preferred; and the site has been subdivided into three sites. Unplanned disposal portends serious danger to the health of the aquatic flora and fauna, as well. The total quantity of muck to be generated during the construction phase of the proposed project is about 0.728 Mm3 (728,404 m3). About 0.336 Mm3 (336,482 m3) will be utilized in activities of the project, such as inverted filter, earth backfill, soil macdur, road construction, and for aggregate, etc. About 0.08 Mm3 (80,000 m3) is expected to be disposed through free of cost lifting by other development departments and individuals. Thus, the total disposal would be about 0.416 Mm3 (416,482 m3).

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23Muck disposal site maps, engineering plans, environmental measures, and methodology for siting, disposal, and stablizing are the same as given in the muck disposal plan attached to the EIA document completed by HPPCL. 77. Road Construction Impacts. The topography of the area is not adverse to road construction, and threat of erosion due to road construction is minimal. The project construction would entail significant vehicular movement for transportation of large construction material and heavy construction equipment. Some of the roads in the project area may require widening. Approach roads would have to be constructed for various components of the project. About 9 km of new roads will be constructed. In addition to generating muck, the road construction also causes dust during the construction phase, when vehicular movement would probably be the highest and the road cannot be tarred. Dust from truck and heavy vehicle movement is not expected to travel for long distances, however. Land requirements are shown in Table 18.

Table 18: Land Requirement

(ha) Private Land Government Land

Name of Component Cat-1@ Cat-2$ Subtotal Forestland A

Forestland B Wasteland Subtotal

Total

Approach Roads 1.1838 0.6726 1.8564 1.1791 2.3559 1.0904 4.6254 6.4818

Cat-1@ = category 1 cultivated, Cat-2$ = category 2 uncultivated, forestland A = charagah billa darakhtan (pasture without trees), forestland B = charagah darakhtan (pasture with trees), ha = hectare. Wasteland is also forestland. Subtotal of Government land is the total forestland required for the project. Source: Environmental Impact Assessment Report prepared by GOHP b. Ecological Resources 78. Impact on Terrestrial Ecology. The initial construction work along roads and for tunnel alignment involves land clearance, cutting, filling, and leveling that may cause loss of vegetation. This impact will be an irreversible. Care should be taken to avoid thick vegetation and, as far possible, the sites where the vegetation is thin. This will greatly minimize the tree loss and compensation that needs to be paid to the tree owners. Compensatory afforestation must be done in association with Himachal Pradesh Forest Department; cutting of trees should be done in consultation with it. 79. The removal of herbaceous vegetation from the soil and loosening of the topsoil generally causes soil erosion. Such impacts would be confined primarily to the initial periods of construction and would need to be minimized by mitigative measures like paving, surface treatment, and water sprinkling. 80. Terrestrial Fauna. During the construction stage, the fauna in the forests may be disturbed by various construction activities and move to the other areas. Although no wildlife habitat is reported in the area, care will be taken not to disturb any wildlife even by labor moving into adjoining forests. There are no significant commercial fisheries that will be affected, although water quality impacts from construction may affect fish habitat. E. Human Environment 81. Impact from Construction Workers. The construction period for Sawra-Kuddu Hydropower Project is about 5 years. Due to terrain characteristics, the direct impact of construction activity for any water resource project in a Himalayan terrain is generally limited in the vicinity of the construction sites only. During the peak construction phase about 1,000 to 1,200 workers would be deployed on various works. On average, however, the number of workers would be about 1,000. The labor in these areas tends to be dependent on the surrounding environment not only for their own but also for their

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24 families’ needs. Such needs range from fuelwood for cooking and heating to fishing for supplementing their diet and family incomes. Open defecation by these temporary immigrants has been a problem in project areas. Making a conservative assumption for cooking and heating needs at 1.5 kg per day (averaged for the whole year) per person for 1,200 persons, the consumption of fuelwood (Appendix 1, Table A1.17) would be about 18 quintals per day, totaling to 29,160 quintals for the project period, which equals 6,480 m3 (converted) or 8,100 m3 (standing) volume. At a value of 3.0 m3 per tree, a total of 2,700 trees would have to be cut to meet this requirement. Using an average stocking density of about 100 trees per ha (much higher than usually available), in all 27.0 ha area would have to be sacrificed for this purpose. If the calculations are based in terms of standing volume per ha, at an average of about 250 m3 per ha, a total area of 32.4 ha would be felled. 82. The domestic water requirement of the immigrant population is expected to be about 0.105 million liters per day (mld) at 70 litres per capita daily, assuming about 80% of the water supplied will be generated as sewage. Thus, the total quantum of sewage generated is expected to be about 0.084 mld. The biological oxygen demand load contributed by domestic sources will be about 110 kg/day. At this level, no significant impact on river water is anticipated due to disposal of untreated water from the septic tanks and community toilets. However, installation of appropriate sewage treatment systems for the project worker housing is proposed at Hatkoti and at Kuddu, Jhalta. In the operational phase, about 25 families (total population of 125) will be residing in the area. About 0.007 mld of sewage will be generated. The total biological oxygen demand loading will be of an order of 12 kg/day. With the proposed sewage treatment system treating sewage generated by the worker housing, the biological oxygen demand load after treatment will reduce to 2 kg/day, thus minimizing the adverse impact on water quality. 83. Agriculture. Impact on agriculture would be due to the permanent and temporary loss of agricultural land due to construction activity in the agricultural fields and loss of crops along the access routes. Land acquisition will occur. As far as possible, prime agricultural land will be avoided and the construction will be done after crop harvesting. Adequate compensation will be given to the land losers as shown in Table 19.

Table 19: Compensation (Rs)

Item Type of Land Rate Paid to Landowners Remarks 1. Irrigated Land 821.44 The type land represents for Kayar abbal and

Bagicha Kayar Billa Phaldar 2. Unirrigated Land 509.16 The type of land represents for Bakhal Abbal

and Baigha Bakhal Abbal Bila Phaldar 3. Uncultivated Land 161.23 This type of land represents Banjeer Khadeem,

Ghasni and Giar Mumkin Rs = rupees. Source: Based on land acquisition officer awards (February–March 2008). 84. Socioeconomics. There will be job opportunities for the local population in marginal activities and road construction during the construction period. Subproject construction will lead to removal of trees, as well as reduction in agricultural land, as covered in the socioeconomic survey. 85. Resettlement. Issues related to resettlement and rehabilitation are discussed separately in the resettlement plans of the sub projects. 86. Cultural Sites. There are no sites of archaeological, historic, or cultural importance in the area of the barrage or powerhouse, hence the no significant impacts are foreseen.

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2587. Traffic and Transport. During the construction phase, traffic disturbance needs to be minimized by avoiding high density areas, posting proper traffic signs, ensuring proper access roads, and avoiding road blockages.

F. Environmental Impacts of Operation Activities 88. Once operation begins, most construction-phase impacts will have been stabilized. During operation and maintenance of the project, the impacts will be very limited. 1. Physical Resources 89. Impact on Topography. No topographical changes are envisioned during the operation phase because the access roads built during construction will be used for operation and maintenance. 90. Impact on Climate. The area along the hydropower project encompasses forest areas , but the operation phase will not involve tree removal. Humidity and moisture regimes might change in specific locations, however. 91. Impact on Hydrology. The headwork for hydropower projects consists of a barrage for diversion purposes, so the operation will have moderate impacts. A section of the river from the intake point (barrage) to the tailrace outlet might experience water flow deficiencies, especially during dry seasons. The project might have recharge impacts on the water table in the area. In the catchment area, some erosion will take place, mainly on the soil-covered terraces and slopes. The terraces are glaciofluvial in origin, and soil gets eroded through runoff water. Along the steep slopes and escarpment, gravity fall of fragmented rock boulders is common. 92. Imbalances. Tectonically, the project area has undergone three to four phases of deformation. It is located north of the main central thrust, a well-