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335
AAcheulean
bifacesanthropogenic controls, 373D geometric morphometric
analyses, 262D shape, 37handaxe, 24
Castel di Guidosite of, 26toolmakers, 37
dispersal, drift and selectiongeographic distance, 222neutral drift, 223–224non-African start points, 222–223replicative success, 220–221route, minimum-spanning network, 223serial founder effect model, 221–222symmetry, 224
industrial complex, characteristics, 24phylogenetic methods, utility, 211–219population genetic principles
goodness-of-fit, 224–225regression analyses, 226southern dispersal, 225waypoints, 224
Acheulean handaxesinter-assemblage comparisons (see
Hierarchical cluster analyses)inter-group comparisons (see
Mann–Whitney U-test)methodology
distribution, Indian subcontinent, 141–142
elongation vs. refinement, 136, 140histograms generation, 136, 137inter-assemblage, elongation and
refinement values, 136, 139locational map, South Asian, 123–124
metric values, specimens, 124–135primary variables, 123regression, linear variables, 136, 138statistical data, cleavers vs. handaxe
assemblages, 122–123ranking exercise, 143South Asian paleolithic record
early/late developmental phases, 122Indian localities, 121Satpati Hill site, 121–122site distribution, 120–121
Alle-Pré Monsieurdiscovery, 68–69Mousterian affiliation, 69superimposed landmark configurations, 74
AllometryBuhlen and Pech de l’Azé I, 246equation, 237multivariate, 238PC1, 244, 246
Anatomically modern humans (AMHs)geometric morphometric techniques, 4serial founder effect model, 221
Area-to-thickness (AT) ratios, 286Artefact outline
geometric morphometrics, 26linear caliper measurements, 238polar coordinates, 239
Aterian, 43Auvernier-la-Saunerie
artifacts, 69and Auvernier-Port, 68
Auvernier-Portartifacts, 69Auvernier-la-Saunerie, 68landmarks
endscrapers, 71, 75retouched blades, 71
Azilian, 67
Index
336 Index
BBacked tools
Howiesons Poort (HP) type, 62, 64, 65standardization, 62
Barnescumulative survivorship, 288fluted and Gainey bifaces, 287Parkhill affinity, 285
Behavioural modernity. See Stone tool standardization
Bernoulli core modelevaluation
fine-grained materials, 186Oldowan technologies, 186, 187probability, 188weight-standardized core flake scar
counts, 187raw materials, high probabilities, 184–185reduction, 184standard deviation, 185
Biased random walks (BRWs), 86Bifaces
discoidal and Levallois cores, 47Hunzicker, 285, 287, 288layer 4, Pech de l’Azé I, 244North American, 276, 284reduction, 285–286
Blade corescutting edge and mass ratios, 55mesoamerican pressure, 45pressure and hard hammer, 47
Blade shape. See ResharpeningBlank selection, 65Bone
biface shape, 26Castel di Guido, 29flaked (see Flaked bone)Paleolithic
implements, 24–25utilization, 24
sample, components, 33, 34side-by-side procrustes, 32and stone
biface, 27, 35jpeg images, 27–28samples, 34
toolsmetric analysis, 35Paleolithic flaked, 24–25
unflaked, 38BRWs. See Biased random walksBuhlen III
late Middle Paleolithic lithic assemblages, 243
multivariate regression method, 242
CCastel di Guido, Italy
2D outline evaluation, 23null hypothesis test, 26
Chaînes OpératoiresBernoulli core technology (see
Bernoulli core model)cores, 183Markov core technology
boundary curves, 191–193discard distributions, 194, 195errors, statistical distribution, 189flake production, 188model evaluation (see Markov
core model)reduction trajectories, 189–190target utility, 191weeding out, 195
Price core technologyflaking actions, 197fractional utilities, 199–200mean utility, 201model evaluation, 201–203relative payoff, 199utility, flakes, 198–199
school, 249Cladistics
analysisFolsom and Plainview points, 269phylogenetic hypotheses, 56RI value, 218taxonomic units, 210–211
characters, 214–215divergence coding, 213handaxe analyses, 219–220homologous characters, 320phylogenetic reconstruction, 210RI value, 218steps, analysis, 210–211
Clarke, D.L., 1–18, 84–85, 112Clovis
assemblages, 258–259blade shape and, 266MANOVA, 263–264misclassification, 263, 264Plainview and, 266
Clovis–Gainey, 285Cluster analysis
Acheulean cleavers, 300dendrogram generation, 144–146inter-assemblage, 136, 143
Cognitionstandardization, stone tool, 63stone tool-making and
language, 64
337Index
Core reduction intensityBernoulli core model, 185chert, 186, 187mean, 184Oldowan, 187
Coresaxial measurements, 48description, 44–45design, 183, 197HP
cutting edge to mass ratios, 55flakes, 54raw material, 56
methods testing, 50–51productivity, 200regional variability, HP
appearance, 52assemblages, 54discriminant function scores, 53–54raw material, 52–53
technology, variation quantificationangle measurements, 47–48attributes, production technology, 493D scar analysis, 46, 47holistic measure, 45lateral and distal convexity degree,
48–49platform angles, 49–50Suffolk flint, 46–47
Correlated random walks (CRWs), 86Cultural transmission
and artefactual traditionskeystones, 12–14raw material, 14
core technology, 45, 55lithic assemblages, descent with
modificationdescription, 208inheritance, 207–208lithic artefacts, 208–209population genetics, 209
phylogeny (see Phylogenetic methods)population genetic models
(see Population genetics)projectile-point technology, 319
Curationcurves, 175–178distance–decay model, 170–171unifacial reduction, 171
Curation curvesdevelopment, 176, 177distribution, use-life data, 175–176Gompertz–Makeham “b” parameters,
176, 178
DDemography
models, 290population, 10stone-tool (see Reduction)
Descent with modificationdescription, 208inheritance, 207–208Linnaean taxonomy, 209–210lithic artefacts, 208–209population genetics, 209social transmission, 210
Descriptive statistics, 6, 91Developed Oldowan
assemblages, 175description, 169–170Koobi Fora region data, 174–175
DFA. See Discriminant function analysis2D geometric morphometrics, 14–15, 613D geometric morphometrics
core analysis, 49revolution, 15
Diepkloofflakes comparison, 54HP, 55
Discard behaviourallometry, 285biface, 284curation rates, 289utilities, 283
Discoidal corescentripetal flaking, 47Levallois, 50, 54
Discriminant function analysis (DFA)3D scar pattern, 51raw material testing, 4shape variables
projectile point type, 263three size grades, 267, 268two size grades, 265, 266
South African Howiesons Poort, 52Dispersal
Acheulean handaxes, 220–224minimum-spanning network, route, 223route, Acheulean, 224–226serial founder effect model, 221–222
Dobe !Kungdata
step lengths, 95, 107waiting-time, 98–99
foraging strategybest-fit Lévy and lognormal curves,
102–103fractal environment, 101
338 Index
Dobe !Kung (cont.)hunter-gatherer mobility, 100subgroup, 102
rainy season camp movements, 93turning angles, 95–96, 98
DriftAcheulean handaxes, 220–224neutral, 223
3D scar analysisdescription, 46pattern, shape and technological data,
50–51result, core types, 47
EEffective population size
description, 220serial founder effect model, 221, 222shifts in, 220
Elliptical Fourier analysis (EFA)Americanists, 235Buhlen IIIb (see Buhlen III)Fourier methods, 239–241Pech de l’Azé I (see Pech de l’Azé I)reliability and rejuvenation rate, 236shape and size
allometry, 237deformation modeling, 239handaxes, 238–239linear caliper measurements, 238
trajectoriesdescription, 241multivariate regression, 241–242PCA, 242
typesfunctional and economic differences, 238technological terms, 237
typologies, 236Evo–Devo, 227
FFlaked bone
bifaces, 24, 36and stone artifacts, 37–38tool group, 24–25
Flake sizecalculation, 167–168platform surface, assessment, 172–173regression model, 173–174three-dimensional techniques, 179–180
Fluted bifacesabundance, 289curation, 285
density, 289Gainey and Barnes, 287North American Paleoindian, 284Paleoindian, 286
Folsomassemblages, 259Clovis, 258lanceolate-shaped blades, 257MANOVA, 263misclassification, 264Southern Plains, 259
Fourier analysis, 17
GGeneralized procrustes analysis (GPA)
consensus configuration, 261landmarks, alignment steps, 260–261procrustes distances, 261
Geometric morphometrics (GM)biface plan shape, natural vs. artificial
forcesbone, 36–37flaked bone and stone artifacts,
37–38size and reduction intensity, 37
biface shape, 262D and 3D, 14–15description, 16evaluation
materials, 36method, 34–35
landmark coordinates, 16materials, methods and predictions
digitization and formatting, 27–28eigenshape analysis, 30–31orientation protocol, 27procrustes fitting/superimposition,
28–29scanning, 26–27thin-plate spline deformations, 29–30
Neolithic artefacts and Neanderthals, 4Paleolithic bone utilization, 24–25results
MANOVA/CVA, 34–35PCA (see Principal component
analysis)steps
image acquisition, 259landmarks, choice and digitization,
259–260partial warps and uniform
component, 262shape space to tangent space, 261–262superimposition, 260–261
339Index
Gompertz-Makeham parameterage distribution, 282curation measure, 282and Weibull, 283, 287
HHandaxe cladogram model, 217, 218Handaxe measurement
Delhi, 136Nepal, 123unilinear, 139–140
Handaxes. See also Acheulean handaxesBed II Olduvai Gorge, 213cladistic analyses, 219–220definition, 211
Hierarchical cluster analysesclustering variation, 147dendrogram generation
elongation and refinement values, 145, 147
five variables, 146, 147length, breadth and thickness values,
143–144Late Acheulean assemblages, 148
Homologyanalogy and, 313–317morphometric analysis, 16transmission, 313
Howiesons Poort (HP). See also Coreslevels comparison, 44standardization, 64–65
Hunter-gatherers, Lévy walk modelDobe !Kung foraging strategy, 100–105mobility recognition
graphical realizations, 90–91logarithmic binning, 92power-law behavior, 91
step lengths, 93–95turning angles, 95–97waiting times, 97–100
Hypotheses. See also Hypothesis testingcladistics, 320standardization, 4–5testable, 10, 17testing and formal analysis, 3–5
Hypothesis testingdevelopment, 3and formal analysis
behavioral modernity, 4–5experimental archaeology, 5models, archaeology, 3–4shape-types, 4
models, 8–12
IIndia
Acheulean sites, 120–121, 147–148Didwana assemblages, 149handaxe assemblages
geographic region, 123intermediate refinement levels, 142locational map, 141Tamil Nadu, 140
Indian subcontinent, handaxe assemblages
clustering variation, 147locational map, 141, 142
Inferential statisticsanalysis and quantification
description, 5discriminant function, 7lithic artefacts, 6–7procedures, 7–8
models, analogue, 10Iterative founder effect model. See Serial
founder effect model
KKarari Scrapers, 169Keilmessergruppen, 236, 243Keilmesser handaxe
Buhlen, 243plano-convex cross section, 243
Koobi Foracollections, 170developed Oldowan data, 174–175formation, 169–170landscape distribution, 169Okote member, 173, 174
LLandmarks. See also Semilandmarks
biology, 16choice and digitization, 259–260data capturing, 17homologous, 16image acquisition, 259superimposition, 260–261type I, II and III, 16–17
Later stone age (LSA)vs. MSA, 65Namibia, 296
Length-to-thickness (LT) ratiosdescription, 286observed to maximum ratio, 286Paleoindian bifaces, analysis, 287
340 Index
Levalloiscores
and bifaces, 49centripetal flaking, 47Mousterian affiliation, Alle-Pré
Monsieur, 69and Mousterian retouched flake
tools, 69overlap, 50
reduction intensity, 197remnant use life, 198, 203, 204unidirectional and bidirectional cores, 196
Lévy distributionDobe !Kung waiting-time data, 98–99, 100multiple lognormal walks, 107–108m values, 87step lengths, 90
Lévy walk modeldistribution, 89–90ecological foundations
biased and correlated random walks, 86distribution, 87–88SRWs, 85
foraging patterns, spider monkeys, 88–89hunter-gatherers
Dobe !Kung foraging strategy, 100–105mobility recognition, 90–92step lengths, 93–95turning angles, 95–97waiting times, 97–100
Lithic analysis, Old Worldantiquity archaeology, 295debit and credit, 303developments
genetic changes, 297material culture, 299Morphometrics, 300Neanderthals, 298social brain, 298–299typology, 299–300
dynamics, big picture, 296–297human evolution, 296ideas, 297material culture, 304space and time, slices
excavations, 300form and function study, 301landscape studies, 301–302superbands and dialect tribes, 302
trends interpretation, 304–305Lithic analytical history, 235Lithic curation
definitions, 279distributions
age, 280
cumulative survivorship, 280–282discard rates, 283Gompertz-Makeham model, 282
utility, 280Lithic reduction
process, 249retouched flakes and notches, 276tool types, integrity, 276
Lithic resharpeningAmericanists, 235reliability and rejuvenation rate, 236shape and size, 237–239trajectories, 241–242types, 237typologies, 236
Lithic shape (variance)calculation, 752D geometric morphometric approach, 61sample, information and variances, 76
Lithic standardization. See Stone tool standardization
Lithic typologyPaleolithic tools, 276reduction measurement, 277
LSA. See Later stone age
MMagdalenian
occupations, 67populations, 78
Mann–Whitney U-testdescription, 140Satna and Didwana groups, 149statistical levels, regional groups, 148–149variable
breadth, 152–153elongation, 156–157length, 150–151refinement, 158–159thickness, 154–155
Markov core modelflake scars, 195–196remnant use life, 196, 198U-shaped profiles, 197
Markov core reductionmodel, 189termination, 189, 191
Mass-to-thickness (MT) ratios, 286Mathematical models
coreBernoulli, 186–188Markov, 195–197Price, 201–203
reduction/curation distributions, 289
341Index
Maximum Parsimony (MP)Kishino–Hasegawa (K–H) test, 218RI value, 217, 218sister-taxon relation-ship, 216
Measuring reductionallometry, 278geometric, 277–278typology, 277
Mental templatesarbitrary form and notion, 64clarity, 65production, 62tools, impose form, 77
Metric landmarks, 239Metric variables
assemblages placement, 160early vs. late Acheulean,
136, 139South-Asian handaxe data, 120
Micoquian. See KeilmessergruppenMiddle Paleolithic (MP)
assemblages, 66, 77European, 64Upper Paleolithic stone tools,
62, 64, 65Middle stone age (MSA)
African, 62vs. LSA, 65standardization, 62
Mobilitycamp movement, 103Dobe !Kung, 100recognition, Lévy, 90–92
Model building, 5, 18Model-fitting
curation, 282definition, 283Weibull and Gompertz–Makeham, 284
Modern human behaviourblade technology, 63clarity, mental templates, 65feature, 62–63standardization, 67, 77–78stone tools, 77
MorphometricsBordes/Roe/Isaac system,
biface measurements, 15correspondence/homology, 16description, 14d-mac tracer, 15geometric tecniques, resharpening (see
Resharpening)lithic studies, sophisticated methods,
15–16
outline methods, 17palaeontology, 14–15revolution, 15semilandmark approaches, 16–17
Mousterianaffiliation, 69burin sample, 65open-air site, 68–69tool types, 78
Mousterian of Acheulean tradition (MTA), 243
MP. See Middle PaleolithicMSA. See Middle stone ageMultiscaled random walks (MRWs), 111Multivariate
allometry, 238multiple linear regression, 241regression, advantage, 133
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)blade shape, 266canonical variate analysis (CVA), 34–35group means, 31partial warps and uniform component
matrices, 262shape variables, 263
NNeuchâtel-Monruz
discovery, 67variances, 76
North America, Paleoindian toolsbifaces, 276curation analysis, 284Folsom assemblages, 279rejuvenation, 285
OOkote member
flakes, Gombe Basalt, 173, 174Karari Industry, 170
Oldowanassemblages, 175and Bernoulli core technology, 203core-and-flake industries, 186core reduction intensity, 187data, Koobi Fora region, 174–175industry, 169–170platforms, 173–174technology, 179
OlduvaiBed I and Bed II, 186, 187core reduction intensity, 203
342 Index
Operational modelsanalogue, 10–11description, 8mathematical, 9–10null, 11–12
PPaleoindian
bifacesfluted, 284, 286Folsom, 285LT analysis, 287
periodprojectile points, 255Southern Plains, 256
reduction distributions (see Reduction)Paleoindian projectile point types
blade shape (see Resharpening)identification, 256MANOVA analyses, 263
Paleolithic studies, New Worldanalogy from homology
braided stream and cable, 315heritable continuity, 314–315imagined and actual phase
assemblage, 317similarities, 313specific and structural similarity, 314trajectory and transform, 315
Clovis-point technology, 326copying error, 325–326cultural transmission
bow-and-arrow technology, 318–319Darwinian fitness, 318description, 317guided variation, 318–319theoretical models, 319
culture history, 312lineages
artifacts and assemblages, 321cladistics, 320–321horizontal and vertical transmission,
322–323languages, 320phylogenetic trees, 323phylogeny, 322technologies, 321–322
Modern Synthesis, 326–327modes, 323–324occurrence seriation, 324punctuated equilibrium and stimulated
variation, 325relatedness, 313
Solutrean tools, 327–328stone tools, 311successive transformations, 324–325
Parkhill, 284, 285Parsimony
cladogram, 211, 216, 219trees, 213
PCA. See Principal component analysisPech de l’Azé I
allometric regression, Buhlen, 246bifaces, 244isometry, 248Keilmesser and handaxes, 243
Phylogenetic methodsAcheulean handaxes
bootstrap tree, 217characters, cladistic analyses, 214–215definition, 211divergence coding, 213human cultural datasets, 217–218Kishino-Hasegawa (K-H) test, 218–219Lower and Middle Palaeolithic age, 212maximum parsimony cladogram, 216operational taxonomic units (OTUs),
212–213raw material, 219RI value, 216–217signal determination, 215–216stone artefact and socially inherited
knowledge., 211–212historical diversification and descent
cladistics, 210Linnaean taxonomy, 209–210OTUs, 211
Plainviewassemblages, 259blade shape, 269dating, 258MANOVA, 263–264misclassification, 266Southern Plains, 257
Platform areacapture, 172–173flake size, 175, 179–180
Platform attributesDibble’s method, 172–173flake size prediction, 167–168, 179–180three-dimensional techniques, 173–174
Population geneticsAcheulean handaxes
non-African start points, 222–223serial founder effect model, 221–222symmetry, 223–224variation parameters, 220–221
343Index
cultural transmission theory, 220description, 220dispersal route, Acheulean
southern, 225waypoints, 224
Population thinking, 220, 226Power-laws
distribution, step lengths, 88, 107Dobe !Kung, 96waiting times, 93
PredictionBernoulli model, 10flake size, 173points, 4southern dispersal route, 225standardization hypothesis, 4–5
Price core modelLevallois blade cores, 203Markov cores, 201remnant use life, 196, 198simulated free boundary, 202
Principal component analysis (PCA)bone and stone sample, 34convex hulls, 31, 332D shape, 23EFA, 242harmonics, 244procrustes-adjusted XY outline data, 29samples, 31shape variance, 32thin-plate spline deformations, 33–34
Procrustesanalysis, CoordGen, 70distances, 261, 262generalized orthogonal least-squares,
260, 261GPA, 260–261
Procrustes fitting/superimposition, 28–29
QQuantifying reduction. See Reduction
RRadial cores, 55Random walk
biased and correlated, 86MRWs, 111SRWs, 85as stochastic process, 84structure, 85–86
Raw materialBernoulli model, 10
description, 4differences, 4, 51–52hominin action, 14HP, 56model tree, 11and regional traditions, 4
Reductionallometric, 278, 285analysis
cumulative survivorship, 288curation rate, 289Hunzicker specimens, 287scanning, 289Weibull and Gompertz–Makeham
estimation, 287data
bifaces, 285–286cumulative-survivorship curves, 284Hunzicker specimens, 285sites and isolates, 284–285
essentialism, 275freight
assemblage formation models, 279curation, 279–280distributions, 280–283model-fitting, 283–284
geometricGeometric Index of Unifacial
Reduction (GIUR), 277retouch indices, 278
measurementallometry, 278geometric, 277–278typology, 277
parameters, 236resharpening, 241sequence, 268thesis
biface types, 276flakes, 276retouch flakes, 276, 277
Regional variationAcheulean bifaces, 120core technologies, HP (see Cores)HP, 44, 54locational map, handaxe assemblages, 141
Re-juvenation, 285, 286Resharpening
materialsClovis points, 257Folsom and Plainview points, 259projectile and isolated points, 258Southern Plains, 256–257
methods
344 Index
Resharpening (cont.)digital image, projectile point, 260geometric morphometrics, 259image acquisition, 259landmarks, choice and digitization,
259–260MANOVA (see Multivariate analysis of
variance)partial warps and uniform component,
262specimens, shape space to tangent
space, 261–262superimposition, landmarks, 260–261
projectile point typology, 255–256results
discriminant function analysis (DFA), 263–265, 267
MANOVA, 263, 264misclassification rate, 268Plainview, 264, 266
shape variables, 266–267Retouched tools
Levallois flakes, 69lithic industry, 67Middle Paleolithic, 65semilandmarks, 70
Rose Cottage Cavecores, 52function scores, 53solid black dots, 54
SScanning, 2D and 3D, 289Semilandmarks
categories, 16–173D caliper, 239tool axis, 70
Serial founder effect modeldispersal route
northern, 226southern, 225
handaxemanufacturing, 221symmetry, 223, 224
minimum-spanning network, 224sequential reduction, 222shape variance, 222
Sharpeninginduced convergence, 4resharpening, 276, 280, 286
Shuidonggou, Chinacore reduction intensity, 203discard pattern, 204
Levallois blade cores, 196reduction intensity, Levallois cores, 197remnant use life, 196
Simple random walks (SRWs), 85Simulation
boundary curve, 191core reduction, 204Lévy walk simulation, 107models, 203parameters, 192, 193
Social transmissionbehaviour traditions, 209descent with modification, 210distinctive regional traditions, 45
South Asian paleolithic recordearly/late developmental phases, 122Indian localities, 121Satpati Hill site, 121–122site distribution, 120–121
Southern Capecore technologies, 54HP, 52
Spatial analysisarchaeology, USA, 84!Kung population, 102rank-size distribution and inferences, 90
Spatial organizationhunter-gatherer, 103vs. social organization, 105
SRWs. See Simple random walksStandardization
hypothesis, 4stone tool and behavioral modernity (see
Stone tool standardization)Statistics
inferential analysis and quantification, 5–8
model tree, 11procedures, 7
Still Bayand HP, 56industry, 52
Stone tool resharpening, EFA. See Elliptical Fourier analysis
Stone tool standardizationargument
MP/UP, 64stone tools, 63
Auvernier-Saunerie, 78behavioral modernity, 66landmark location and artifacts orientation,
69–74materials
Alle-Pré Monsieur, 68–69
345Index
artifacts selection, 69Auvernier-Port and
Auvernier-la-Saunerie, 68Neuchâtel-Monruz, 67
modern humans behavior, 77–78MP and UP assemblages, 66–67results, 76–77shape variance calculation, 75testing
clarity, mental templates, 65Howiesons Poort, 64–65MP/UP, 64
Superimpositionlandmarks, 260–261procrustes, 28–29, 31slide, 70
Switzerland Neolithicassemblages, 67standardization, 61
Switzerland Paleolithic, 61Symbolic behaviour
modern humans, 62standardization, 63
UUniformity, 67Upper Paleolithic (UP)
artifacts, 78assemblages, 64, 66vs. MP, 62, 65Neolithic sites, 67stone tools, 64
WWeibull b
Hunzicker specimens, 287similarities, 287
Weibull parameterb parameter, 287cumulative-survivorship curves, 282description, 284
Western Capecores, 54flakes comparison, 54function scores, 53HP, 52