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Including Students with Special Needs
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Including Studentswith Special NeedsA Practical Guide for Classroom TeachersF O U R T H E D I T I O N
Marilyn FriendUniversity of North Carolina at Greensboro
William D. BursuckUniversity of North Carolina at Greensboro
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Friend, Marilyn Penovich, 1953–Including students with special needs : a practical guide for classroom teachers/Marilyn
Friend, William D. Bursuck.—4th ed.p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and indexes.ISBN 0-321-31774-2
1. Inclusive education—United States. 2. Mainstreaming in education—United States. 3.Special education—United States. 4. Children with disabilities—Education—United States.I. Bursuck, William D. II. Title.LC1201.F75 2005371.9’046—dc22
2005045914
Text and photo credits appear on page 562, which constitutes an extension of the copyright page.
Printed in the United States of America10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 WEB 10 09 08 07 06 05
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To Beth and Bruce for their love, support, and infinitepatience with our sometimes unkept promises—“Just onemore weekend and I’ll be done with this,” and “I’ll be rightthere”—and our obsessive concern about meeting (andmissing) deadlines.
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CHAPTER 1 The Foundation for Educating Students with SpecialNeeds xxx
CHAPTER 2 Special Education Procedures and Services 32
CHAPTER 3 Building Partnerships through Collaboration 72
CHAPTER 4 Assessing Student Needs 106
CHAPTER 5 Planning Instruction by Analyzing Classroom andStudent Needs 144
CHAPTER 6 Students with Low-Incidence Disabilities 186
CHAPTER 7 Students with High-Incidence Disabilities 232
CHAPTER 8 Other Students with Special Needs 264
CHAPTER 9 Instructional Adaptations 304
CHAPTER 10 Strategies for Independent Learning 354
CHAPTER 11 Evaluating Student Learning 396
CHAPTER 12 Responding to Student Behavior 430
CHAPTER 13 Building Social Relationships 470
Glossary 505
References 519
Brief Contents
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1C H A P T E R
page xxx
vii
Features xviii
Preface xxii
The Foundation for Educating Students with Special Needs xxxLearner Objectives 1Key Terms and Concepts 1
What Key Terms and Concepts Define Special Education? 2
Least Restrictive Environment 3Mainstreaming 4Inclusive Practices 4
How Did Today’s Special Education Services Come to Exist? 6
The Development of Education for Students with Disabilities 6The Impact of the Civil Rights Movement on Special Education 7The Legislative Basis for Contemporary Special Education 10
What Are Current Perspectives on Inclusive Practices? 14
A Problem of Definition 14Perceptions of School Professionals 16Perceptions of Parents 17Student Outcomes 18Putting the Pieces Together 18
Who Receives Special Education and Other Special Services? 20
Categories of Disability in Federal Law 20Cross-Categorical Approaches to Special Education 25Other Students with Special Needs 26
Summary 28Applications in Teaching Practice: Understanding Contemporary Special
Education Practices 29
Working the Standards 30
Further Readings 31
Contents
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2C H A P T E R
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3C H A P T E R
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Special Education Procedures and Services 32Learner Objectives 33Key Terms and Concepts 33
Who Are the Professionals in Special Education? 34
General Education Teachers 34Special Education Teachers 36Other Specialists and Related Service Providers 37
How Can You Decide Whether a Student Need Might Be a Disability? 44
Analyze Unmet Needs 44Communicate Your Observations and Try Your Own Interventions 46
How Do Students Obtain Special Services? 47
Initial Consideration of Student Problems 49The Special Education Referral and Assessment Process 49Decision Making for Special Services 53Monitoring Special Education Services 53
What Is an Individualized Education Program? 56
Required Components of an IEP 56The Value of IEPs 60
What Services Do Students with Disabilities Receive? 61
Special Education and Related Services 61Student Placement 62
Summary 67Applications in Teaching Practice: A Visit to an MDT Meeting 67
Working the Standards 69
Further Readings 71
Building Partnerships through Collaboration 72Learner Objectives 73Key Terms and Concepts 73
What Are the Basics of Collaboration? 75
Characteristics of Collaboration 75Prerequisites for Collaboration 78
What Are Effective Applications of Collaboration in Schools That Foster Inclusion? 81
Shared Problem Solving 81Co-Teaching 87
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4C H A P T E R
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Contents ix
Working on a Team 90Consultation 92
How Can You Work Effectively with Parents? 94
Understanding the Perspective of Family Members 94Parents’ Reactions to Their Child’s Disability 95Family-Centered Practices 96Collaborating with Parents 98
How Can You Work Effectively with Paraprofessionals? 100
Understanding Your Working Relationship with Paraprofessionals 100
Collaborating with Paraprofessionals 102
Summary 102Applications in Teaching Practice: Collaboration in the Washington
School District 103
Working the Standards 104
Further Readings 105
Assessing Student Needs 106Learner Objectives 107Key Terms and Concepts 107
How Do Your Student Assessments Contribute to Special Education Decisions? 108
Screening 108Diagnosis 109Program Placement 110Curriculum Placement 111Instructional Evaluation 111Program Evaluation 112
What Information Sources Are Used in Programming for Students with Special Needs? 112
High-Stakes Achievement Tests 112Standardized Achievement Tests 114Psychological Tests 116Alternate Assessments 117Curriculum-Based Assessments 121
What Kinds of Curriculum-Based Assessments Can You Create for Your Students? 122
Probes of Basic Academic Skills 122Content-Area Assessments 126
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How Are Curriculum-Based Probes Used to Make Special Education Decisions? 133
Peer Comparison in Screening 133Fluency and Accuracy in Diagnosis 136Skill Mastery and Curriculum Placement 138Monitoring Student Progress and Instructional Evaluation 138
Summary 139Applications in Teaching Practice: Collecting and Using Assessment
Information 139
Working the Standards 141
Further Readings 143
Planning Instruction by Analyzing Classroom and Student Needs 144Learner Objectives 145Key Terms and Concepts 145
How Can the INCLUDE Strategy Help You Make ReasonableAdaptations for Students with Special Needs? 146
Step 1: Identify Classroom Demands 148Step 2: Note Student Learning Strengths and Needs 150Step 3: Check for Potential Areas of Student Success 151Step 4: Look for Potential Problem Areas 151Step 5: Use Information to Brainstorm Adaptations 152Step 6: Decide Which Adaptations to Implement 155Step 7: Evaluate Student Progress 156
How Is an Inclusive Classroom Organized? 156
Physical Organization 156Routines for Classroom Business 158Classroom Climate 159Classroom Rules 160Monitoring 160The Use of Time 161
How Can You Group All Your Students for Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms? 162
Whole-Class or Large-Group Instruction 163Small-Group Instruction 164One-to-One Instruction 164
How Can You Evaluate Instructional Materials for Inclusive Classrooms? 165
Textbooks 165Manipulatives and Models 169Technology 170
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6C H A P T E R
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How Can You Analyze Instructional Methods in Relation to Student Needs? 171
Elements of Direct Instruction 173Indirect Methods of Instruction 176Scaffolding 177Independent Student Practice 180Evaluation of Student Performance 181
Summary 182Applications in Teaching Practice: Planning Adaptations in the Instructional
Environment 184
Working the Standards 184
Further Readings 185
Students with Low-Incidence Disabilities 186Learner Objectives 187Key Terms and Concepts 187
What Are Low-Incidence Disabilities? 188
What Accommodations Can You Make for Students with Moderate, Severe, or Multiple Disabilities? 190
Students with Moderate to Severe Intellectual Disabilities 191Accommodations for Students with Moderate
to Severe Intellectual Disabilities 195Students with Multiple Disabilities 198Deaf-Blindness 200
What Accommodations Can You Make for Students with Sensory Impairments? 200
Students with Visual Impairments 201Students with Hearing Loss 201Accommodations for Students with Visual Impairments 203Accommodations for Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 205
What Accommodations Can You Make for Students with Physical, Medical, or Health Disabilities? 212
Orthopedic Impairments 213Other Health Impairments 215Traumatic Brain Injury 219
What Accommodations Can You Make for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders? 222
Characteristics of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders 223Accommodations for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders 224
Contents xi
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7C H A P T E R
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Summary 226
Applications in Teaching Practice: Planning Adaptations for Students with Low-Incidence Disabilities 228
Working the Standards 229
Further Readings 231
Students with High-Incidence Disabilities 232Learner Objectives 233Key Terms and Concepts 233
What Are High-Incidence Disabilities? 234
What Accommodations Can You Make for Students with Communication Disorders? 234
Understanding Speech Problems 234Understanding Language Problems 236Accommodations for Students with Communication
Disorders 238
What Are the Academic Needs of Students with Learning and Behavioral Disabilities? 241
Reading Skills 243Written Language Skills 243Math Skills 246Learning Skills 248
What Are the Social and Emotional Needs of Students with Learning and Behavioral Disabilities? 249
Interpersonal Skills 252Personal and Psychological Adjustment 254
What Accommodations Can You Make for Students with Learning and Behavioral Disabilities? 255
Addressing Academic Needs 255Addressing Social and Emotional Needs 256
Summary 260
Applications in Teaching Practice: Using the INCLUDE Strategy with Students with High-Incidence Disabilities 261
Working the Standards 261
Further Readings 262
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9C H A P T E R
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8C H A P T E R
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Other Students with Special Needs 264Learner Objectives 265Key Terms and Concepts 265
Which Students Are Protected by Section 504? 267
Understanding Section 504 268Section 504 and Students with Medical and Health Needs 268
How Can You Accommodate Students with AttentionDeficit–Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? 271
Characteristics and Needs of Students with Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder 272
Interventions for Students with Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder 274Families of Children with Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder 276
How Can You Accommodate Students Who Are Gifted and Talented? 278
Characteristics and Needs of Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 279Cognitive Abilities and Academic Skills 280Interventions for Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 281
What Are the Needs of Students from Culturally Diverse Backgrounds? 283
Diversity and Special Education 285Cultural Awareness 286Families and Diversity 290Multicultural and Bilingual Education 291
How Can You Meet the Needs of Students Who Are at Risk? 292
Characteristics and Needs of Students at Risk 292Interventions for Students at Risk 296
Summary 300Applications in Teaching Practice: Diversity in a High School Class 300
Working the Standards 302
Further Readings 303
Instructional Adaptations 304Learner Objectives 305Key Terms and Concepts 305
How Can You Make Accommodations for Students with Special Needs in Basic Skills Instruction? 307
Teaching Preskills 307Selecting and Sequencing Examples 308Deciding the Rate of Introduction of New Skills 310Providing Direct Instruction and Opportunities for Practice and Review 312
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10C H A P T E R
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How Can You Make Accommodations for Students with Special NeedsWhen Teaching Subject-Area Content? 316
Activating Background Knowledge 317Organizing Content 322Teaching Terms and Concepts 328
How Can You Improve Clarity in Written and Oral Communication? 334
Clarity in Written Communication 335Clarity in Oral Communication 337
How Can You Involve Parents in Teaching Their Children? 340
What Adaptations Can You Make to Help Students Succeed in Independent Practice? 341
Adapting Seatwork Assignments 341Providing Feedback on Independent Practice Activities 342Adapting Homework Assignments 344Involving Parents in the Homework Process 346Making Instructional Modifications for Students with Moderate
to Severe Disabilities 347
Summary 350Applications in Teaching Practice: Developing a Repertoire
of Instructional Adaptations 350
Working the Standards 351
Further Readings 353
Strategies for Independent Learning 354Learner Objectives 355Key Terms and Concepts 355
How Can You Encourage Student Self-Awareness and Self-Advocacy? 357
How Can You Effectively Teach Independent Learning Strategies in Class? 360
Assessing Current Strategy Use 360Clarifying Expectations 361Demonstrating Strategy Use 361Encouraging Students to Memorize Strategy Steps 362Providing Guided and Independent Practice 362Administering Posttests 364
What Are Some Examples of Successful Learning Strategies? 365
Word Identification and Reading Fluency Strategies 365
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11C H A P T E R
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Vocabulary Strategies 366Reading Comprehension Strategies 367Listening and Note-Taking Strategies 371Writing Strategies 379Strategies for Using Technology to Improve Student Writing 382Strategies for Problem Solving in Math 384Strategies for Managing Time and Resources 387
How Can Students Learn to Use Strategies Independently? 389
Self-Instruction 390Self-Monitoring 390Self-Questioning 391Self-Reinforcement 391
Summary 393Applications in Teaching Practice: Designing Strategies for Independence 393
Working the Standards 394
Further Readings 395
Evaluating Student Learning 396Learner Objectives 397Key Terms and Concepts 397
How Can Classroom Tests Be Adapted for Students with Special Needs? 398
Adaptations before the Test 399Adaptations during the Test 404Adaptations after the Test 406
How Can Report Card Grades Be Adapted for Students with Special Needs? 410
Changes to Letter and Number Grades 411Making Grading Adaptations for Students with Disabilities 414
How Can Performance-Based Assessment Benefit Students with Special Needs? 422
How Can Portfolio Assessment Benefit Students with Special Needs? 424
Summary 426Applications in Teaching Practice: Adapting Evaluations for Students
with Special Needs 428
Working the Standards 428
Further Readings 429
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12C H A P T E R
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Responding to Student Behavior 430Learner Objectives 431Key Terms and Concepts 431
What Are Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports? 434
How Can You Prevent Discipline Problems? 434
Instructional Environments Conducive to Learning 435Effective Classroom Communication 435Effective Teaching Methods 437Schoolwide Strategies 437
How Can You Promote Positive Group Behavior? 438
Token Economy 438Other Peer-Mediated Approaches 439
What Are Effective Strategies for Responding to Minor Individual Behaviors? 440
Use Minimum Interventions 440Manage Students’ Surface Behaviors 441
How Can Functional Behavior Assessment Help You Respond to Serious Individual Behaviors? 442
Rationale for Functional Behavior Assessment 442Verifying the Seriousness of the Problem 446Defining the Problem Behavior 447Collecting Data to Better Understand the Behavior 448Analyzing the Data and Forming Hypotheses 451Developing a Behavior Intervention Plan 451Implementing the Plan 453Monitoring the Plan’s Effectiveness 454
What Are Effective Strategies for Responding to Serious Individual Behaviors? 455
Increasing Desirable Behaviors 455Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors 458Using Behavior Contracts 462
How Can You Help Students Manage Their Own Behavior? 464
Cognitive Behavior Management Strategies 464Teaching Cognitive Behavior Management Strategies 465
Summary 466Applications in Teaching Practice: Developing Strategies for Responding
to Individual Student Behavior 466
Working the Standards 467
Further Readings 468
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13C H A P T E R
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Building Social Relationships 470Learner Objectives 471Key Terms and Concepts 471
What Is Your Role in Promoting Positive Social Interactions among Students with and without Disabilities? 473
Creating Opportunities for Social Interactions 474Nurturing Support and Friendship 476Providing Positive Role Models 479
How Can You Provide Education about Individuals with Disabilities? 481
Informing through Direct Instruction 481Using Video and Print Media 482Demonstrating and Using Adaptive Technology 483
How Can You Develop and Support Peer Tutoring? 483
Developing Peer Tutoring Programs 485Supporting Peer Tutoring Programs 488
How Can You Use Cooperative Learning Strategies to Facilitate Social Inclusion? 489
The Rationale for Cooperative Learning 490Characteristics of Cooperative Learning Approaches 491Developing Cooperative Learning Programs 491
How Can You Help Students with Disabilities Improve Their Social Skills? 497
Using Informal Instruction 498Using Behavioral Interventions 498Using Social Skills Training Programs 499Final Thoughts About Inclusion and the INCLUDE Strategy 500
Summary 500Applications in Teaching Practice: Planning for Promoting Positive Peer
Relations 501
Working the Standards 502
Further Readings 504
Glossary 505
References 519
Name Index 543
Subject Index 552
Contents xvii
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Professional Edge Case in Practice
• Special Education for Young Children withDisabilities, 11
• Accountability Requirements of the NoChild Left Behind Act of 2001, 15
• Checklist of Inclusive Practices, 16• IDEA Disability Categories, 21• Myths of Multicultural Education, 27
• Working with Paraprofessionals, 41• Self-Determination for Students with
Disabilities, 43• Sample IEP Goals and Objectives, 59
• Secondary Teachers and Collaboration, 76• Barriers to Effective Communication, 80• Involving Immigrant Parents of Students with
Disabilities, 97
• Accommodations for Students withDisabilities on Standardized Tests, 114
• Standardized Tests Commonly Used inSpecial Education Decision Making, 119
• Assessing Student Rates on Basic AcademicSkills, 123
• Using DIBELS Probes to Identify Children atRisk for Reading Problems, 126
• Selecting Appropriate InstructionalAdaptations, 152
• Using “Sponges” to Increase AcademicLearning Time, 162
• Guidelines for Evaluating Basals or OtherBasic Skills Curricula, 166
• Features of Effective Drill-and-PracticeSoftware, 172
• Questions to Ask When Working withStudents with Low-Incidence Disabilities, 191
• The Vocabulary of Sensory Impairments, 201• Warning Signs That Students May Have Vision
or Hearing Loss, 202• What to Do When a Student Has a
Seizure, 216• Teaching Students with Autism Spectrum
Disorder, 226
• Understanding Dyslexia, 244• Controversial Therapies in Learning and
Behavior Disabilities:What Does theResearch Say?, 250
• Disciplining Students with EmotionalDisturbance, 252
Problem Solving in InclusiveSchools:The ClassroomTeacher’s Role, 23
Participating in anIntervention Assistance Team Meeting, 50
A Problem-Solving Meeting, 93
• Using Story Grammars,128
• Using a Classroom-BasedProblem-Solving Model, 136
A Direct Instruction Lesson, 177
Including Students Who are Deaf or Hard ofHearing, 211
A Social Skills TrainingSession, 259
CHAPTER 1The Foundation forEducating Students withSpecial Needs
CHAPTER 2Special EducationProcedures and Services
CHAPTER 3Building Partnershipsthrough Collaboration
CHAPTER 4Assessing Student Needs
CHAPTER 5Planning Instruction byAnalyzing Classroom andStudent Needs
CHAPTER 6Students with Low-IncidenceDisabilities
CHAPTER 7Students with High-Incidence Disabilities
Features at a Glance
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Special Applications in Technology Notes Working Together Emphasis On . . . Teaching Practice
The Opportunities ofAssistive Technology, 25
Using Technology for IEPs, 57
Electronic Collaboration, 82
ComputerizedCurriculum-BasedMeasurement, 134
Using INCLUDE toDetermine Assistive-Technology Needs, 174
• Augmentative andAlternativeCommunication, 199
• Assistive Technology forStudents with SensoryImpairments, 206
• Making Sense of AssistiveTechnology, 215
Changing Behavior UsingVideo Self-Modeling, 240
The Importance ofCollaboration, 19
Understanding theIntervention, Assessment,and Decision-MakingProcess, 61
Collaborating with RelatedServices Personnel, 77
Communicating Effectivelywith Parents, 110
The Reluctant Co-Teacher, 154
Collaborating to SupportStudents with SignificantDisabilities, 197
Learning from Others, 254
Inclusive Practices forChoral Music, 5
The Arts, 65
Collaboration betweenSchool Library MediaSpecialists and Teachers, 83
Strategies for FairAssessment of DiverseStudents, 118
Teaching Vocabulary toEnglish-Language Learners with LearningDisabilities, 182
Physical Education, 192
Adapting Math Instructionfor Students Who AreLinguistically and CulturallyDiverse, 247
UnderstandingContemporary SpecialEducation Practices, 29
A Visit to an MDT Meeting, 67
Collaboration in theWashington SchoolDistrict, 103
Collecting and Using AssessmentInformation, 139
Planning Adaptations in the InstructionalEnvironment, 184
Planning Adaptations forStudents with Low-Incidence Disabilities, 228
Using the INCLUDEStrategy with Studentswith High-IncidenceDisabilities, 261
(continued)
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Professional Edge Case in Practice
• Section 504 Accommodations, 270• Gifted Underachievers, 284• Differentiating for Students Who Are Gifted
and Talented, 285• Levels of Language Proficiency, 289
• Providing Differentiated Instruction inReading, 314
• How to Develop Study Guides, 325• Using Graphic Organizers to Teach
Algebra, 332
• Developing Your Own Learning Strategies, 360
• The Key Word Strategy for Solving MathStory Problems: Is There a Better Way?, 388
• Teaching Strategies for Taking ObjectiveTests, 402
• Modifications in Test Construction forStudents with Disabilities, 405
• Adaptations in Administering ClassroomTests, 407
• Using Grading Rubrics with Students, 408• The Legalities of Grading Students with
Disabilities, 415
• Addressing School Violence, 433• Strategies for Managing Students’ Surface
Behaviors, 443• Bullying:The Problems and Some
Interventions, 447
• Understanding the Perspectives of HighSchool Students, 475
• Teaching Students How to Make Friends, 478• On the Issue of Fairness, 479• Teaching Cooperative Skills, 495
Meeting the Needs of aGifted Student, 282
• Applying INCLUDE to aBasic Skills Lesson, 316
• Teaching with Story Maps, 330
• Making InstructionalModifications in a MiddleSchool Consumer andFood Science Class, 349
• Using INCLUDE to GuideInstruction in LearningStrategies, 359
• Teaching Script forDemonstrating KWL Plus, 363
• Teaching Script forDemonstrating POSSE, 372
Explaining Grades, 412
Supporting a Student withAutism Using FunctionalBehavior Assessment, 446
Intervening to Promote Positive SocialInteractions, 481
CHAPTER 8Other Students with SpecialNeeds
CHAPTER 9Instructional Adaptations
CHAPTER 10Strategies for IndependentLearning
CHAPTER 11Evaluating Student Learning
CHAPTER 12Responding to Student Behavior
CHAPTER 13Building Social Relationships
Features at a Glance, continued
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Special Applications in Technology Notes Working Together Emphasis On . . . Teaching Practice
• Using ComputerTechnology to FosterCultural Awareness, 287
• Technology and Studentsat Risk, 299
Supporting Student JournalWriting Using Word-Recognition and Speech-Synthesis Software, 318
Thinking Reader:The Textbook of theFuture, 374
Conducting AlternativeAssessments UsingElectronic Portfolios, 426
Help on the Web forResponding to StudentBehavior, 459
• Using Technology toBuild Positive PeerRelationships, 484
• Using AssistiveTechnology to Facilitate CooperativeLearning, 497
Creating a SchoolEnvironment forCollaborating with Parents, 291
Asking for Help, 311
Fostering TeamCommunication and Self-Advocacy, 358
Communicating withParents about Grades, 413
When Differences ofOpinion Occur, 455
Collaborating withFamilies, 480
Counselors and Studentsat Risk, 297
Strategies for TeachingScience to English-Language Learners, 320
Getting Students to Studyin Study Hall, 376
Testing English-LanguageLearners in Math-ProblemSolving, 406
Discipline in Related ArtsClasses, 437
Fostering Social Skills inDrama Class, 499
Diversity in a High SchoolClass, 300
Developing a Repertoire of InstructionalAdaptations, 350
Designing Strategies forIndependence, 393
Adapting Evaluations forStudents with SpecialNeeds, 428
Developing Strategies forResponding to IndividualStudent Behavior, 466
Planning for PromotingPositive Peer Relations, 501
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When the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Actwas signed into law in December 2004, a critical piece of the future of edu-cation for students with disabilities was put into place. Combined with theprovisions of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, a clear mandate hasbeen given that nearly all students, whether or not they have disabilities orother special needs, should be educated in the same curriculum and, inmost instances, in classrooms with their peers without disabilities. Like allstudents, those who struggle to learn because of intellectual, physical, sen-sory, emotional, communication, or learning disabilities or other specialneeds are to be taught using research-based practices, and they are ex-pected to reach the same high standards as all students. Importantly,teachers, administrators, and other professionals are more accountablethan ever before for ensuring that these lofty goals are accomplished.
The fourth edition of Including Students with Special Needs: A Prac-tical Guide for Classroom Teachers reflects our continued strong com-mitment to inclusive practices, a commitment tempered by ourknowledge and experience of the realities of day-to-day teaching. We
know that inclusive practices are essential to meet the requirements of cur-rent legislation, and these practices are most likely to succeed with strong and sus-tained administrative support, extensive professional preparation for classroomteachers as well as special education staff, and a significant dollop of professional com-mon sense regarding the necessity of tailoring educational programs to meet students’needs without assigning students indiscriminately to a single physical location. Wehave brought to this project our own backgrounds as teachers in the field and as teachereducators, researchers, and staff developers. We also bring our own diversity: Marilynwith expertise in elementary and secondary education, especially in urban settings, andin collaboration, inclusive practices, and co-teaching; Bill with expertise in secondaryeducation, literacy, instructional strategies, assessment, and grading practices.
The organization of the book and the amount of space devoted to various topics andsubtopics reflect our priorities for preparing general education teachers to instruct ef-fectively the students they will encounter. These priorities are based on our own experi-ences in teaching undergraduate and graduate educators, our conversations with ourcolleagues across the country, and our analysis of the professional literature on preserviceand inservice teacher preparation on inclusive practices. We also have listened carefullyto the many teachers we have met who are facing the challenges of twenty-first-centuryclassrooms. We hope that the results of all our discussions, our interactions with others,and our individual struggles to “get it right” have resulted in a book that is reader-friendlyyet informative, and research-based yet readable. We hope that this text presents infor-mation and suggestions that are effective for teaching students with diverse needs andfeasible for today’s classroom teacher. Above all, we hope this fourth edition is responsiveto the many issues confronting teachers as they attempt to help all their students succeed.
N ew to the Fourth Edition■ Chapter 1 includes updated information on the No Child Left Behind Act and
IDEA 2004.■ Chapter 4, Assessing Student Needs, is presented earlier in order to underscore
the importance of developing effective assessment practices to influence classroom
Preface
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instruction. It includes new coverage of high-stakes testing of students with dis-abilities.
■ Chapter 5 presents updated information about the concepts of differentiated in-struction and universal design and how they apply to including students withspecial needs.
■ Chapter 6 presents the most current information about autism spectrum disor-der.
■ Chapter 8 includes updated coverage of attention defict–hyperactivity disorderand the best ways to accommodate students with ADHD in the general educationclassroom.
■ Chapter 11 includes updated ideas on ways to make grading adaptations for stu-dents with disabilities.
■ The new INCLUDE margin icon highlights text dis-cussion in which the unique INCLUDE model is applied.
■ The new Working Together boxed feature provides increased attention to teach-ers’ collaboration with special education professionals, families, and paraprofes-sionals.
■ The new Working the Standards feature includes infor-mation on INTASC and CEC standards and what class-room teachers should know about them.
O rganization of the BookThe textbook is divided into four main sections. The first section provides funda-mental background knowledge about the field of special education as well as currentinformation on how students with disabilities are served within inclusive school envi-ronments. Chapter 1 outlines key concepts for understanding special education, in-cluding new provisions of IDEA. Chapter 2 introduces the people who specialize inworking with students with disabilities and the procedures through which studentsmay be identified to receive special education services. Chapter 3 discusses the prin-ciples of collaboration and the school situations in which professionals are most likelyto collaborate to meet the needs of students with disabilities.
The second section of the book provides a framework for thinking about effec-tive instructional practices for students who struggle to learn. Chapter 4 explores bothformal and informal assessment strategies that help teachers contribute to the decision-making process for students with disabilities. Chapter 5 introduces a step-by-stepstrategy for making instructional adjustments, called INCLUDE, that helps teachersaccommodate students with special needs in a more deliberate way. This chapter alsoaddresses the dimensions along which accommodations can occur.
The third section of the book introduces readers to students with specific dis-abilities and other special needs. Chapters 6 and 7 address the various federally es-tablished categories of exceptionality and provide information about them essential forgeneral education teachers in today’s schools. Chapter 8 considers students who maynot receive special education but who nonetheless are at risk for school failure. How-ever, the overall approach taken in these chapters (and in the text as a whole) is non-categorical. Even though students with disabilities or other special needs are unique,they share many physical, psychological, learning, and behavior characteristics, andthey often benefit from similar instructional approaches.
The material in the fourth section of the text represents the heart of any courseon inclusive practices: instructional approaches that emphasize teaching students
I N TA S C
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effectively both in academic and in social and behavior areas, regardless of disability orspecial need. Chapter 9 provides strategies for adapting curriculum materials, teacherinstruction, and student practice activities for both basic skills and content-area in-struction. The emphasis is on adaptations that are relatively easy to make. Chapter 10focuses on ways to help students with and without special needs become more inde-pendent learners by teaching them specific strategies. Chapter 11 explores optionsfor adapting classroom evaluations for diverse learners to ensure that the informationgathered is accurate and helpful in guiding instruction. In Chapter 12, readers learnapproaches for addressing a common teacher concern—student discipline, includingprocedures designed for mild through significant classroom behavior problems. Fi-nally, Chapter 13 explores several approaches for building positive relations amongstudents with and without special needs.
F eatures of the Fourth EditionMany of the popular features from the first three editions have been retained and en-hanced in this fourth edition. These features have been designed to help readers learnmore effectively, as well as to add to the general discussion in-depth information abouttopics such as teaching strategies, cultural diversity, and technology:
■ Learner Objectives are listed at the start of each chapter as an organizationaland study tool for readers.
■ Key Terms and Concepts are listed at the start of each chapter and are high-lighted throughout the text with boldface type. They are explained with easy-to-understand definitions provided both in context and in a glossary at the backof the book.
■ Chapter-opening vignettes serve as introductory cases to help readers thinkabout how the content of chapters relates to teachers and students. They con-clude with critical-thinking questions. These cases serve as examples through-out the chapters and are revisited in the Working the Standards feature at theend of each chapter.
■ Professional Edge features provide numerous research-validated, practicalteaching applications related to each chapter’s topics.
MR. RODRIGUEZTEACHES world history at a largeurban high school. When he introducesnew content to his students, he teachesto the whole class at once. First, he re-views material that has already beencovered, pointing out how that materialrelates to the new content being pre-sented. Next, he provides any additionalbackground information that he thinkswill help students understand the newmaterial better. Before Mr. Rodriguezactually presents new material he handsout a partially completed outline of themajor points he will make. This outlinehelps students identify the most impor-tant information. Every 10 minutes orso he stops his lecture and allows stu-
dents to discuss and modify the outline andask questions. When Mr. Rodriguez completes his lec-ture he organizes students into cooperative learninggroups of four to answer a series of questions on the lec-ture. Manuel is a student with a learning disability in Mr.Rodriguez’s class. He has a history of difficulty staying ontask during lectures and figuring out what information towrite down. He also has trouble remembering informa-tion from one day to the next. ● How well do you think
Manuel will perform in Mr. Rodriguez’s class? What changes in the
classroom environment might help Manuel to succeed?
JOSH HAS CEREBRAL PALSY. He is in thenormal range in ability. However, he has lots of troublewith muscle movements, has little use of his lower bodyand legs and also has problems with fine muscle coordi-nation. As a result, Josh uses a wheelchair, has troublewith his speech (he speaks haltingly and is difficult tounderstand) and struggles to write letters and numberscorrectly. Josh is included in Ms. Stewart’s second-gradeclass. ● What aspects of the classroom environment do you
think Ms. Stewart will need to adapt for Josh? How do you think
she could use technology to facilitate Josh’s inclusion?
Academic learning time (p. 161)
Assistive technology (AT) (p. 171)
Differentiated instruction (p. 148)
Direct instruction (p. 173)
INCLUDE strategy (p. 146)
Indirect instruction (p. 176)
Inquiry learning (p. 176)
Instructional accommodations(p. 152)
Instructional modifications(p. 154)
Mixed-skill groupings (p. 164)
One-to-one instruction (p. 164)
Same-skill groupings (p. 164)
Scaffolding (p. 177)
Transition time (p. 161)
Universal design (p. 147)
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
LEARNER OBJECTIVESAfter you read this chapter, you will be able to
1. Explain what it means to make reasonable adaptations forstudents with special needs.
2. Describe the steps of the INCLUDE decision-making processfor accommodating students with special needs in yourclassroom.
3. Identify and describe the key elements of a classroomenvironment.
4. Describe the major components of classroom organization,and explain how they can be adapted for students withspecial needs.
5. Explain various ways that students can be grouped forinstruction in an inclusive classroom.
6. Explain how the use of effective classroom materials andinstructional methods can benefit students with specialneeds.
145
Planning Instructionby AnalyzingClassroom andStudent Needs
C H A P T E R5
as possible for as much time as possible. Further, they judge the effectiveness of inclu-
d t by student basis, monitoring student progress whether or
d
16 CHAPTER 1 The Foundation for Educating Students with Special Needs
PROFESSIONAL EDGE
Are you wondering what types of activities schools under-
take to become inclusive? The following are some of the key
questions school professionals should ask. The more positive
the responses educators make, the more likely it is that suc-
cessful inclusive practices will be implemented.
● Does your school have a mission statement that expresses
the belief that the professionals and other staff strive to
meet the needs of all students? Is this mission statement
discussed by staff and used to guide instructional
practices?
● Have teachers and other staff members recognized that
working toward an inclusive environment continues each
year, that the process does not end?
● Have teachers had opportunities to discuss their concerns
about student needs, and have steps been taken to ad-
dress these concerns?
● Has planning to meet all students’ needs included class-
room teachers, special education teachers, other support
staff, administrators, parents, and students?
● Have you clarified the expectations for students with spe-
cial needs who are to be integrated into classrooms?
● Has shared planning time as well as possibly shared in-
structional time been arranged for teams of teachers?
● Have staff members received adequate professional de-
velopment on pertinent topics (for example, collabora-
tion, behavior supports, and curricular adaptations)?
● Have staff members become comfortable with working
collaboratively?
● Has the plan for your inclusive school truly addressed the
needs of all students?
● Have pilot programs been undertaken prior to full
implementation?
● Have start-up resources been allocated for moving toward
inclusive practices?
● Have steps been taken to ensure that teachers will be re-
warded for experimentation and innovation, even if efforts
are sometimes not successful?
● Have all teachers, even those who may not at first par-
ticipate in teaching students who are more challenging
learners, learned that they are integral to a schoolwide be-
lief system?
● Have students had opportunities to learn about all types
of diversity, including individuals with disabilities?
● Have parents and families of students with and without
disabilities been involved in the development, implemen-
tation, and evaluation of the school’s inclusive services?
● Has a plan been developed for carefully monitoring the
impact of approaches for meeting student diversity? Does
this plan include strategies for revision?
● Have teachers and other staff identified benchmarks, in-
cluding student outcome data, so that they have attain-
able goals to celebrate after 1 year? 2 years? 3 years?
SOURCE: From Special Education: Contemporary Perspectives for
School Professionals, by M. Friend, 2005, Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Checklist of Inclusive Practices
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■ Case in Practice features clarify key principles byproviding brief case studies related to chapter con-cepts and teaching scripts as models.
■ Technology Notes features illustrate the applica-tion of many types of technology available to sup-port students with disabilities in inclusive schools.
■ Special Emphasis On . . . features highlight top-ics related to nonacademic areas (for example, thearts, physical education, and counseling) that arefrequently overlooked in other texts as well as pro-vide up-to-date information on addressing theneeds of students from diverse backgrounds andEnglish-language learners.
■ New! Working Together features present casesin which professional and family collaboration isneeded and provide tips for optimizing collabora-tive efforts.
■ Marginal annotations are designed to stimulatehigher level thinking and provide additional infor-mation on cultural and linguistic diversity, research,and useful websites.
■ Chapter summaries review key informationcovered in each chapter for easy synthesis andreference.
■ Applications in Teaching Practice cases andactivities at the end of each chapter are de-signed to encourage students to apply the textcontents to real-life classroom situations.
■ New! Working the Standards features listrelevant INTASC Principles and CEC Con-tent Standards for each chapter and revisitthe chapter-opening vignettes to illustratethe application of those principles and stan-dards. Questions and activities help providecontext for understanding the standards.Additional information linking these prin-ciples and standards to the text contents is provided on the companion website (http://www.ablongman.com/friend4e).
■ New! Further Readings features suggest carefully chosen books and journal ar-ticles related to chapter topics.
Preface xxv
Using Technology to BuildPositive Peer RelationshipsTechnology can be a powerful tool for buildingpositive social peer relationships in yourclassroom. Two examples of how to use tech-nology with students with and without dis-abilities follow.
Dialogue JournalsMost teachers have learned that computers areimportant tools for motivating reluctant writ-ers to share their thoughts and ideas. Usingcomputers to create dialogue journals also canfacilitate communication between studentswith and without disabilities. A dialogue journal is a real-istic writing situation in which each student is encouragedto share thoughts and feelings with an age-mate whileteachers simply manage and monitor the process. Dialoguejournals focus on meanings rather than on formality, andthey provide a nonthreatening climate for students’ writingactivities. A student is matched with either a known peer ora “mystery” peer from another class, and the two write toeach other approximately once each week. Computer disks,CDs, or thumb drives make transferring journals from classto class a relatively simple task. At some point, teachersprobably should arrange for partners to meet each otherand discuss the journals face to face, but this is not as es-sential as the writing process itself.
By pairing students with and without disabilities, stu-dents can gain greater understanding of each other’s per-ceptions. In a project in which hearing and deaf studentsparticipated (Kluwin, 1996), students responded very pos-itively to the experience. However, teachers commentedthat some problems occurred when students were mis-matched with regard to maturity or developmental levels, orwhen students in general did not have skills for personalwriting. To maximize the effectiveness of dialogue journals,teachers should encourage students to use a conversationalstyle in their writing; students without disabilities shouldnot be overprepared for the experience, or else prejudicemay occur; teachers should suggest topics as needed; stu-dents should be well matched; and teachers should moni-tor the writing, paying attention to issues of privacy.
Problem-Solving VideosTeachers can use videotapes of popular television shows,movies, or other instructional video materials to work with
students on social skills and problem solving. They canguide students to use the following steps in real-life in-teractions by applying them as they view a video:
1. Look for signs of different feelings.2. Tell yourself what the problem is.3. Decide on a goal.4. Stop and think of as many solutions to the problem as
you can.5. For each solution, picture all the things that might hap-
pen.6. Choose the best solution.7. Plan it and make a final check.8. Try it and rethink it.
This approach to addressing social skills and problemsolving appears to have great value because it draws ontelevision as a means of focusing student attention, en-ables even nonreaders to participate, promotes discussion,and presents opportunities for later role-playing. Youngerstudents and those with attentional problems can beshown shorter videotapes, perhaps 15 minutes or less;older students and those with better attentional skills canview longer tapes. Teachers, of course, play a critical rolein guiding student thinking and facilitating student dis-cussion.
SOURCE: Adapted from “Building Social and Academic Skills viaProblem Solving Videos,” by M. J. Elias and M. E. Taylor, 1995,Teaching Exceptional Children, 27(3), pp. 14–17; and “Getting Hear-ing and Deaf Students to Write to Each Other through DialogueJournals,” by T. N. Kluwin, 1996, Teaching Exceptional Children,28(2), pp. 50–53.
Students with disabilities sometimes communicate with peers andothers by using adaptive technology.
TECHNOLOGY NOTES>
Fostering Team Communication andSelf-Advocacy
Avery was a student in Mr. Katz’s sophomore biology class.In about the third week of school, Avery approached Mr.Katz after class. Avery said he had a learning disability andthat his special education teacher said he had a legal rightto receive more time to take his classroom tests. Mr. Katzwas concerned. He felt that it wasn’t fair to let Avery haveextra time when he couldn’t do that for the rest of the class.Mr. Katz also knew that new state tests in science weregoing into effect soon and that getting more time to takeclassroom tests was not a good way to prepare Avery forthese tests. In Mr. Katz’s eyes, if Avery failed to meet stan-dards in science, he, Avery’s teacher, would be accountable.Furthermore, Mr. Katz was furious that no one had told himabout this issue. He knew Avery had learning disabilitiesand that he might need extra help, but no one had said any-thing about changing how he took tests. Mr. Katz remem-bered that he had been unable to attend Avery’s IEP meet-ing due to a scheduling conflict, but shouldn’t someonehave told him about something as important as this?
What has gone wrong here? What should Mr. Katz do?
● Even though Avery has a legal right to testing accommo-dations, Mr. Katz seems to have little knowledge of whatthis right involves and how eligibility for testing accom-modations is determined by the IEP team. The proper timeto address Mr. Katz’s concerns about testing accommoda-
tions was before the plan was put in place, not afterward.At the high school level, it is common for some teachersnot to attend IEP meetings. However, even if a teacher isnot at the IEP meeting, it is the responsibility of the teamto inform all relevant staff members about what has beendecided.
● The more basic problem here is that Avery’s IEP team hasnot been operating as such. In effective teaming, thegroup’s goals, as well the means toward attaining thosegoals, need to be clear to all team members. While Avery’sspecial education teacher might be doing the right thingin teaching Avery to advocate for himself, the success ofthis effort depends on all of the team members’ under-standing the goal and working together to help the stu-dent attain it.
● Unfortunately, communication problems such as this onecan happen in this era of teacher shortages and schoolregulation. What should Mr. Katz do? An understandableresponse would be to play the victim and complain bit-terly to whomever would listen. However, this responsewould undermine Mr. Katz’s obligations as a member ofAvery’s IEP team, the purpose of which is to work togetherfor the betterment of Avery’s education. A more proactiveapproach would be to view the situation as a team com-munication problem in need of a solution. Mr. Katz shouldrequest a meeting, express his concerns about Avery’s ac-commodations, and work to reach a team consensus con-sistent with Avery’s unique needs.
WORKING TOGETHER
CEC Content Standard #10 states that special educators■ Use collaboration to ensure that the needs of individualswith exceptional learning needs are addressed through-out schooling.
■ Promote and advocate the learning and well-being of in-dividuals with exceptional learning needs across a widerange of settings and a range of different learning expe-riences.
BACK TO THE CASESThe standards and principles just listed relate to the casesdescribed at the beginning of this chapter: Stan, Jennifer,and Lucille. The questions and activities that follow demon-strate how these standards and principles, along with otherconcepts that you have learned about in this chapter, con-nect to the everyday activities of all teachers.StanStan’s reading problem during tests is a common one forstudents with learning disabilities. Many teachers face thedilemma that Mr. Stevens must solve to give Stan an oppor-tunity to demonstrate what he has learned rather than re-flect his disability for reading quickly. One obvious andsometimes-used accommodation is to allow the studentmore time on the test. However, this may place students ata disadvantage during mandated state assessments, col-lege-placement exams, and other standardized testing situ-ations. Review the information in your text regardingadaptations that can be made before, during, and after atest. Develop plans for working with Stan to improve histest-taking situation and for grading procedures that mightbe used to assess his learning. (See INTASC Principles 4.05,8.03, and 8.05; and CEC Content Standards 8 and 10.)Share your plan with a peer to discuss its pros and cons.
JenniferJennifer’s parents have questions about her grade in read-ing, but they are not the only ones who have noticed thedifference. Jennifer shared her report card with a classmate,who then reported Jennifer’s A to several other classmates.Three of those classmates are distressed, because they didnot earn A’s and feel that they are reading much harderbooks than Jennifer. You overhear two of the studentstaunting Jennifer by calling her the “teacher’s pet” andlaughing about the “baby books” she reads. When you stopthe girls and ask them why they are being cruel to Jennifer,they complain about the unfairness of Ms. Robinson’s grad-ing system. What can teachers do to avoid situations suchas this one? How might you respond to the girls? (See INTASC Principle 10.04; and CEC Content Standard 10.)Lucille
Lucille’s previous teachers used one of the five types of grad-ing adaptations identified by researchers: progress based onIEP objectives. This year, Lucille will be in your classroom,and you have thought carefully about the issue of adaptingyour grading procedures to reflect Lucille’s learning andprogress in your class. You are planning a conference with herguardians and the special education teacher to discuss achange in the grading adaptation. You would like to use an-other of the five adaptations that you feel is more appropri-ate for your grade and content area. To prepare for theconference, outline your plan for using one of the other grad-ing adaptations in your content area and list your reasons forselecting this alternative adaptation. (See INTASC Principles4.05, 8.03, and 10.04; and CEC Content Standards 8 and 10.)
Visit the companion website (http://www.ablongman.com/friend4e) for a complete correlation of thischapter to the INTASC Principles and CEC Standards.
WORKING THE STANDARDS (continued)
Guskey, T. R.,& Bailey, J. M. (2001). Developing grading andreporting systems for student learning. Thousand Oaks, CA:Corwin. This thoughtful book provides essential background knowl-edge on effective grading and reporting practices in education.Munk, D. D. (2003). Solving the grading puzzle for studentswith disabilities. Whitefish Bay, WI: Knowledge by Design. This very practical book includes a careful description of aresearch-based process that IEP teams can follow to gradestudents with disabilities. The book contains numerous casestudies and many reproducible grading adaptation tools.Popham, W. J. (2004). Classroom assessment: What teachers needto know (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
This readable text covers practical ways teachers can use andinterpret assessments within an educational context of ac-countability, including No Child Left Behind.Thurlow, M. L., Elliott, J. L., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (2002). Test-ing students with disabilities: Practical strategies for complyingwith district and state requirements (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks,CA: Corwin. This practical book covers a range of topics, including maxi-mizing the IEP; fostering collaboration among teachers,parents, and administrators; optimizing assessment accom-modations; and using test scores to improve instruction. The book also features many reproducible tools.
Further Readings
Further Readings 429
428 CHAPTER 11 Evaluating Student Learning
www.ablongman.com/friend4eApplications in Teaching PracticeAdapting Evaluations for Students with Special NeedsEugene, Tara, and Jamie are students in your fourth-grade class. Eugene has been identified
as having a specific learning disability. He has good study skills, but his problems in reading
and written expression place him at a disadvantage when he takes tests. Failure on tests has
increased his test anxiety; he often misses items he knows because when he is anxious during
a test he tends to get careless.Tara has a learning disability and receives intensive reading instruction in the resource
room. Her short-term objectives for this marking period include reading a first-grade liter-
ature book at a rate of 20 words correct per minute with four or fewer errors per minute, and
discerning who the main character of the story is, what the main problem in the story is, and
how the problem is solved.Jamie is a student with mild intellectual disabilities. You are about to start a unit on adding
and subtracting fractions. The IEP objective for Jamie is to identify the fractions , , and .Q U E S T I O N S
1. What tests will you be giving in this class?2. For one of these tests, what adaptations might you need to make for Eugene before test-
ing? In constructing the test? In administering the test? In grading the test?
3. At the end of the marking period, should you give Tara a grade in reading? Why or why
not? Assuming that Tara has met her short-term objectives in reading, what do you think
her grade for the marking period should be? Should her grade be adapted in any way?
4. Describe a performance-based test that you could use to measure Jamie’s knowledge of
her target fractions. How would you score this test? How could you use portfolio assess-
ment to measure Jamie’s progress on this unit?
12
13
14
INTASC PRINCIPLES REFLECTED IN THIS CHAPTER:Principle #4 states that all teachers provide a variety ofways for students with disabilities to demonstrate theirlearning (Principle 4.05).Principle #8 states that all teachers■ Use a variety of assessment procedures to document stu-
dents’ learning, behavior, and growth within multipleenvironments appropriate to the students’ age, interests,and learning (Principle 8.02).■ Collaborate with others to incorporate accommodationsand alternative assessments into the ongoing assess-ment process of students with disabilities when appro-priate (Principle 8.03).
■ Understand that students with disabilities are expectedto participate in district and statewide assessments andthat accommodations or alternative assessments may berequired when appropriate (Principle 8.05).
Principle #10 states that all teachers communicate withfamilies in ways that honor families’ beliefs and practices,and seek to promote families’ confidence and competencein furthering their children’s development and learning(Principle 10.04).
CEC CONTENT STANDARDS REFLECTED IN THIS CHAPTER:CEC Content Standard #8 states that special educators■ Use multiple types of assessment information for a vari-ety of educational decisions.
■ Understand the appropriate use and limitations of vari-ous types of assessments.
■ Conduct formal and informal assessments of behavior,learning, achievement, and environments to designlearning experiences that support the growth and development of individuals with exceptional learningneeds.
WORKING THE STANDARDSI N TA S C
ANALYZE A N D REFLECT
WWWR E S O U R C E S
DIMENSIONSO F DIVERSITY
C O N N E C T I O N S
RESEARCHN O T E
FYI
What Services Do Stud
The ArtsIf you are an art, music, dance, or drama teacher, you
might wonder what role you play in the education of stu-
dents with disabilities. In fact, in many school districts
you are the professional who is most likely to work with
most, if not all, of the students with disabilities attending
your school. In many cases, these students come to your
class along with typical peers. In a few cases, a separate
class has been arranged for them. Teachers in the arts often
express the concern that little attention is paid to the sup-
port needs of students with disabilities in their classes,
and few materials are available to prepare teachers in the
arts for working with students with disabilities.
One website that you will find particularly helpful is
VSA Arts (formerly Very Special Arts), at http://www.
vsarts.org. Founded in 1974 by Jean Kennedy Smith, VSA
Arts is an international organization that creates learning
opportunities through the arts for children and adults with
disabilities. The organization has affiliates across the
United States and in 60 other countries.
VSA Arts includes an online gallery of works by indi-
viduals with disabilities, a showcase of recordings from re-
cent awards for playwrights and musicians with disabilities,
a link to frequently asked questions, a chronicle of the dif-
ference that the arts have made in the lives of individuals
with disabilities and the programs serving them, and other
information about the organization and its work. Educators
can link to a VSA Arts site to search for information and
websites on topics related to their teaching.
VSA Arts also distributes materials to assist educators
in working with students with disabilities. One instruc-
tional program, Start with the Arts, is designed to foster
literacy skills for young children in inclusive settings. An-
other resource is Express Diversity!, a set of five modules
with art activities designed for fifth graders but adaptable
for students in grades 1 through 7. The intent of the mod-
ules is to demonstrate that students with a wide range of
abilities and disabilities share in the joy of arts. The mod-
ules include one simulation activity (with cautions about
the shortcomings of this approach for trying to understand
individuals with disabilities), a creative-writing exercise,
an art mural activity, a performance arts activity, and a vi-
sual arts activity. The package of materials also includes
letters (in Spanish as well as English) that can be sent
home to explain the program to parents, bulletin board
items, video biography cards about people with disabilities,
and other support materials.
SOURCE: Adapted from “Publications and Resources for Educators
and Parents,” by VSA Arts, 2003. Retrieved September 15, 2004,
from http://www.vsarts.org/x572.xml.
Special EMPHASIS On . . .
of students can be recorded in a notebook or journal, directly on a calendsticking notes.
Wh
g dent Learning
www.ablongman.com/friend4e
Jose is a student in Ms. Wittrup’sfourth-grade class. When Ms. Diaz,Jose’s grandmother, received Jose’smost recent report card, she had somequestions and made an appointmentto see Ms. Wittrup and Ms. Talbot,Jose’s special education teacher.Ms. Wittrup: Ms. Diaz and Jose, I’mso glad you came in today. Ms. Diaz,I understand you have some ques-tions about Jose’s report card.Ms. Diaz: Thank you for taking thetime to see me. Yes, I do have somequestions about Jose’s report card.First of all, I noticed that Jose got a Bin reading. This is an area where he’sgetting help in special education.Does this mean he doesn’t need anymore help?
Ms. Talbot: Jose’s IEP objective forthe first grading period was to readfluently and comprehend literaturebooks that are at the second-gradereading level. His word-identificationskills in that material are good, but heis still having some trouble with com-prehension. Sometimes he has trou-ble summarizing what he has justread; other times he has a hard timeanswering questions that I ask him.
That is why he received a B ratherthan an A. I think Jose has a goodchance of meeting this objective bythe end of this marking period. Still,he is pretty far behind his fourth-grade classmates, so I think he needsto keep getting help from me.Ms. Diaz: I think I understand betterwhat his reading grade means, but Idon’t understand how Jose got only aC in math. He has always done betterin math than in reading. Has he beenfooling around in class and not pay-ing attention?Ms. Wittrup: No, Jose has beenworking hard in math. Jose doesn’thave any special needs in math so heis in the regular program. As you cansee from looking at my grade book,Jose scored an average of 75 percenton his math tests. His average forhomework and in-class work was 80percent. His overall average for themarking period was 78 percent,which is a C.
Ms. Diaz: Is there something I cando to help Jose with his math so thatmaybe he can get a B next time?Ms. Wittrup: One thing that hurtsJose on his tests is that he is still
making careless mistakes on basicmath facts, particularly the multipli-cation facts. If you could help himwith these at home, I think Josemight be able to pull his grade up to a B.Ms. Talbot: We’re very proud of Josefor getting an A in social studies. Re-member we had all agreed that be-cause Jose had reading problems wewould let him use a taped text andtake his tests orally. Well, Ms. Wit-trup told me that Jose had an averageof 95 percent on the two tests, whichis an A. Good for Jose!
REFLECTIONSMs. Diaz had a difficult time under-standing what Jose’s grades meant.What could Jose’s teachers have doneto prevent this confusion from occurring? Jose received a grade of A in social studies because he wasallowed to use a taped textbook andto take the tests orally. How wouldyou explain this adaptation to a con-cerned student who took the testwithout any of these supports and received only a C?
Explaining Grades
CASE IN PRACTICE
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S upplements
For Instructors■ The Instructor’s Resource Manual contains chapter overviews, outlines, activi-
ties, discussion questions, transparency and handout masters, and test items. Theupdated test item file, which also is available in computerized format for Windowsand Macintosh operating systems, includes multiple-choice items, true–false items,performance-based items, and case-based application items. Answer feedback andguidelines are provided.
■ Professionals in Action: Teaching Students with Special Needs Videotape (closedcaptioned, 120 minutes). This video contains five 15- to 30-minute modules pre-senting viewpoints and approaches to teaching students with various disabilities ingeneral education classrooms, special education settings, and various combinationsof the two. Each module explores its topic using actual classroom footage and in-terviews with general and special education teachers, parents, and students.
■ The Snapshots Video Series for Special Education (all are closed captioned)
Snapshots: Inclusion Video (22 minutes) profiles three students of differing agesand with various levels of disability in inclusive class settings. In each case, par-ents, classroom teachers, special education teachers, and school administratorstalk about the steps they have taken to help the students succeed in inclusivesettings.
Snapshots 2: Video for Special Education (20–25 minutes) is a two-video set of sixsegments (covering traumatic brain injury, behavior disorders, learning disabilities,mental retardation, hearing loss, and visual impairments) designed specifically foruse in college classrooms. Each segment profiles three individuals and their fami-lies, teachers, and experiences. These programs are of high interest to students;instructors who have used the tapes in their courses have found that they help in disabusing students of stereotypical views and put a “human face” on coursematerial.
■ Powered by Blackboard and hosted nationally,Allyn & Bacon’s own course management system, CourseCompass, helps youmanage all aspects of teaching your course. For colleges and universities withWebCTTM and BlackboardTM licenses, special course management packages areavailable in these formats as well.
■ PowerPoint Slides are easily accessed by instructors from the home page of theCompanion Website. More than 100 slides, organized by chapter, are ideal for useas lecture presentations and/or handouts for students.
■ Allyn & Bacon Transparencies for Special Education (© 2005) include ap-proximately 100 acetates, more than half of which are in full color.
■ The Allyn & Bacon Digital Media Archive (DMA) for Special Education elec-tronically provides charts, graphs, tables, figures, web links, and video clips on onecross-platform CD-ROM.
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Preface xxvii
For Students■ The Companion Website with Online Practice Tests (http://www.
ablongman.com/friend4e) features chapter learning objectives, activities,web links, cases, and practice tests for students.
■ Available free when packaged with the textbook, the Video Workshopfor Special Education CD-ROM contains 10 modules of 3- to 5-minute digitized video clips featuring real classroom settings. The Vid-eoWorkshop CD comes with a Student Study Guide containing all the
materials needed to help students get started. With questions for reflection before,during, and after viewing, this guide extends classroom discussion and allows formore in-class time spent on analysis of material. An Instructor’s Teaching Guidealso is available to provide ideas and exercises to assist faculty in incorporating thisconvenient supplement into course assignments and assessments. (Visit http://www.ablongman.com/videoworkshop for more details.)
■ The “What’s Best for Matthew?” Interactive CD-ROM Case Study forLearning to Develop IEPs, Version 2.0 CD-ROM helps preservice and inserviceteachers develop their understanding of IEP’s and how they are written through thecase study of Matthew, a 9-year-old boy with autism. It is sold separately and is alsoavailable at a reduced price as a “value package” with the textbook.
■ MyLabSchool is a collection of online tools designedto help prepare students for success in this course as
well as in their teaching careers. Visit http://www.mylabschool.com to access thefollowing:■ video footage of real-life classrooms■ help with research papers using Research Navigator■ help with lesson planning■ tools for planning a teaching career, including developing portfolios and
preparing for licensure■ Research NavigatorTM (with ContentSelect Research Data-
base) (http://www.researchnavigator.com) is the easiest way forstudents to start a research assignment or research paper. Com-plete with extensive help on the research process and three exclu-
sive online databases of credible and reliable source material, including EBSCO’sContentSelectTM Academic Journal Database, New York Times Search by SubjectArchive, and “Best of the Web” Link Library, Research NavigatorTM helps stu-dents quickly and efficiently make the most of their research time. ResearchNavigatorTM is free when packaged with the textbook and requires an access code.
A cknowledgmentsWe know that we are very fortunate to be surrounded by people who are committed tohelping us in our work. We are grateful to the many individuals who helped us duringthe preparation of the fourth edition of Including Students with Special Needs, for with-out their assistance and encouragement the project undoubtedly would have stalled.First and most important, we express our gratitude to our families. They have listenedto us worry about how to meet the deadlines that sometimes seemed impossibly near,
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agonize over which new material to add and which existing material to delete, andobsess about the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that teachers must have to workwith students with disabilities in this age of high standards and teacher accountability.They helped us sort through the conundrums, offered suggestions with the perspectiveof outsiders who deeply cared, and tolerated our need to hide in our offices as we wroteand rewrote. We cannot possibly say thank you in enough ways for their support.
We also thank the individuals who helped us with all the details that are necessaryin writing a textbook. Graduate assistants Kazuko Matsuda, Kim Pope, and Erin An-derson confidently said “I can do that” when asked to find obscure bits of information,proofread, and check references. Lauri Susi helped with the Technology Notes. SoniaMartin, department administrative assistant at UNCG, not only assisted in checkingthe manuscript for accuracy and in ensuring that the project was well managed, but alsocompleted the time-consuming task of obtaining all the permissions to reproduce oth-ers’ work. We especially thank her for lending a sympathetic ear as we worked throughmany moments of deadline stress. Through it all, she kept the essential ingredient ofhumor in the mix of our work.
The professionals at Allyn & Bacon also have supported this effort with bothwords and actions. Executive editor Virginia Lanigan has steered this fourth editionthrough the many steps of its creation, offering guidance and encouragement with justthe right touch of patience. Developmental editor Sonny Regelman was meticulous inher efforts to keep the book clear, responsive to the needs of the field, and on targetwith the correct number of pages!
Special thanks go to the reviewers for this edition: Opal Effie Laman, Texas TechUniversity; Susan L. O’Rourke, Carlow College; Gina Scala, East Stroudsburg Uni-versity; Linda Domanski, Westminster College; Melisa A. Reed, Marshall University;Kalie R. Kossar, West Virginia University; Daniel P. Joseph, Coppin State College;Beth Day-Hairston, Winston-Salem State University; Philip Lanasa, Cameron Uni-versity; Kimberly Bright, Shippensburg University; Judith Terpstra, University ofNevada–Las Vegas; Laura M. Frey, East Carolina University; and Paula W. Adams,Sam Houston State University. We were impressed with the care with which they re-viewed the manuscript and the insightful suggestions they made. We freely admit thatwe sometimes questioned their opinions, but we know that they definitely helped uscreate a better textbook.
Finally, we continue to be grateful to all of our colleagues and students who influ-ence our thinking about educating students with special needs in general educationclassrooms. Their questions about best practices, their challenges to our thinking, andtheir ideas for better communicating our message have been invaluable. We especiallyare appreciative of the individuals who have taken the time to correspond with us toshare their impressions of the book, their concerns, and their ideas for what we mightdo the next time to improve our outcomes. We hope they see their influence in the cur-rent edition, and they can know with certainty that we continue to welcome their—andall readers’—input.
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A bout the Authors
Marilyn Friend has worked in the field of education in a va-riety of roles for 30 years. In addition to teaching in both spe-cial education and general education, she has worked as ateacher educator and staff developer and currently is chair-person of the Department of Specialized Education Servicesat the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Her par-ticular areas of expertise—the focus of her research, teach-ing, writing, and work in the field—include inclusive school-ing, co-teaching and other collaborative school practices, andfamily–school partnerships.
William Bursuck has been an educator for more than 35years. During that time he has worked as both a general andspecial education teacher in the public schools as well as auniversity teacher educator. Although he has written numer-ous research articles and is a successful grant writer, Dr. Bur-suck takes particular pleasure in providing classroom andfuture teachers with practical, evidence-based strategies tohelp students with special needs be more successful in school.He is professor in the Department of Specialized EducationServices at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro.
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