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In the Name of God
Obstetrics Study Guide 3
Mitra Ahmad Soltani2008
References• Iranian Council for graduate Medical Education. Board and pre-board Exam questions for
OBS and Gyn .2001-2006• Panda S . IUGR. Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology Medical College of India 2002
• Pritchard JA, MacDonald PC, Gant NF. Williams Obstetrics. 22nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2005.
• Tan T and Yeo G. IUGR. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology 2005, 17: 135-142
emedicine e-journal:• Butler J. postterm delivery. emedicine. June 19. 2006• Gaufberg S. Abruptio placenta. emedicine. Aug 29. 2006• Gibson P. HTN in Pregnancy. emedicine. DEC 13 2007• Hernandez E . GTN. emedicine. Jan 26, 2007• Marinnan G. Placenta Previa. emedicine. Aug 26. 2005• Ross M. preterm. emedicine. 31 may 2007
Pictures and material of multiple pregnancy are adapted with permission from:
• Zach T. multiple pregnancy.emedicine. Oct 2. 2007
HTN in Pregnancy
classification
• Hypertension is the most common medical problem encountered during pregnancy, complicating 2-3% of pregnancies.
• HTN is classified into 4 categories1) chronic hypertension, 2) preeclampsia-eclampsia, 3) preeclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension4) gestational hypertension (transient hypertension of
pregnancy or chronic hypertension identified in the latter half of pregnancy).
Chronic HTN
• blood pressure exceeding 140/90 mm Hg before pregnancy or before 20 weeks' gestation. It persists after 12 wks postpartum.
Gestational Age–New-onset or worsening hypertension
after 20 weeks' gestation should lead to a careful evaluation for manifestations of preeclampsia.
–The diagnosis of severe hypertension or preeclampsia in the first or early second trimester necessitates exclusion of GTD and/or molar pregnancy.
Maternal Risk factors
Placental Risk factor
– Multiple gestations – Hydrops fetalis – Gestational trophoblastic disease – Triploidy
BP measurement
Blood pressure should be measured in the sitting position, with the cuff at the level of the heart.
Women should be allowed to sit quietly for 5-10 minutes before each blood pressure measurement.
Korotkoff sounds I (the first sound) and V (the disappearance of sound) should be used to denote the systolic blood pressure (SBP) and DBP, respectively.
Indications of preg. terminationMild Severe
Diastolic blood pressure <100mmhg 110 mmhg or higher
Proteinuria Trace to 1+ Persistent 2+ or more
Headache Absent present
Visual disturbances Absent present
Upper abdominal pain Absent Present
Oliguria Absent Present
Convulsion Absent Present
Serum Cr Normal Elevated
thrombocytopenia Absent Present
Liver enzyme elevation Minimal Marked
IUGR Absent Present
Pulmonary edema Absent present
CBC
• Platelet counts less than 100,000/µL suggest preeclampsia or ITP.
• Hemoglobin levels greater than 13 g/dL suggest hemoconcentration.
• Low Hbg levels may be due to microangiopathic hemolysis or iron deficiency.
Proteinurea
– Trace levels to +1 proteinuria are acceptable, but levels of +2 or greater are abnormal and should be quantified with a 24-hour urine collection or spot urine protein:creatinine ratio.
– In a 24-hour urine collection, the reference range for protein excretion in pregnancy is up to 300 mg/d.
Protein:Cr ratio
• Creatinine clearance increases approximately 50% during pregnancy, and levels less than 100 mL/min suggest renal dysfunction that is either chronic or due to preeclampsia.
• protein:Cr ratios appear to be more accurate than urinalysis, although an abnormal result should still be confirmed with a 24-hour urine collection.
Coagulation tests
• LDH, • bilirubin, • haptoglobin,• fibrinogen,• D-dimers • If:• PT/INR/aPTT results are abnormal, • thrombocytopenia is present, • the hemoglobin level is dropping
Fetal Monitoring
–Alternate a biophysical profile with a fetal NST twice each week.
– Ask for Serial fetal ultrasound starting at 18 weeks.
Methyldopa (Aldomet)
Centrally acting antihypertensive agent widely considered the first-line agent for treatment of hypertension during pregnancy.
250 mg PO bid/tid; increase q2d prn; not to exceed 3 g/d
Hydralazine (Apresoline)
Intravenous form is useful when treating severe hypertension due to preeclampsia/eclampsia.
10-20 mg/dose IV q4-6h prn initial; increase to 40 mg per dose prnBP >170/110 mm Hg: 0.1-0.2 mg/kg/dose IV q4-6h prn; not to exceed 20 mg or 1.7-3.5 mg/kg/d IV divided q4-6h
Life-threatening complications in preeclampsia
• Seizures • Cerebral hemorrhage • Pulmonary edema• Acute renal failure• DIC • HELLP syndrome• Hepatic infarction/rupture and subcapsular
hematoma
IMP: mild preeclampsia• General: condition/position/diet =low salt,high prot• Lab: CBC ,BG, Rh, U/A,24hr urine (prot,cr,vol), BUN/Cr,
PT,PTT,Fib, ALT,AST,Al P, Bil (T, D)
• reserve of 2 units of PC• IV :Ringer at heparin lock
• OTHER: Control of vital sign q4hrs, control of FHR, FAD chart , NST, sono OB, daily weight inform if BP>160/110, blurred vision, head ache, epigastric pain, seizure
IMP: Severe preeclampsia• General: condition/position/diet =NPO• Lab: CBC ,BG, Rh, BUN/Cr, PT, PTT,Fib ,ALT,AST,Al P, Bil (T, D) • prep 2 units of PC• IV :Ringer 1000cc +10 u of oxytocin• if BP>160/110,blurred vision, head ache, epigastric pain, seizure then amp
hydralazine 5 mg iv prn MgSO4 (4 gr) in 200cc DW5% in 20 min then 10 gr(1/2) im in
each buttock then 5 gr im q4h If platelet is below 100000 then 20 gr in 1000cc infused in
100cc/hrs (check of I/O, RR, DTR, prep CPR set with 2 gr 20% MgSO4 ready) +Amp Dexa 6 mg bid for 4 doses
OTHER: Control of vital sign q15 min , control of FHR, fix foley,
Preterm Pregnancy
Definition
• Preterm labor is defined as the presence of uterine contractions of sufficient frequency and intensity to effect progressive effacement and dilation of the cervix prior to term gestation (between 20 and 37 wk).
• It is the leading cause of neonatal mortality.
Causes of preterm Labor• decidual hemorrhage, (eg, abruption, mechanical factors such
as uterine overdistension from multiple gestation or polyhydramnios),
• cervical incompetence (eg, trauma, cone biopsy), • uterine distortion (eg, müllerian duct abnormalities, fibroid
uterus), • cervical inflammation (bacterial vaginosis [BV], trichomonas), • maternal inflammation/fever (eg, urinary tract infection), • hormonal changes (eg, mediated by maternal or fetal stress), • Uteroplacental insufficiency (eg, hypertension, insulin-
dependent diabetes, drug abuse, smoking, alcohol).
Risk factors of preterm birth
• Demographic factors for preterm labor include nonwhite race, extremes of maternal age (<17 y or >35 y), low socioeconomic status, and low prepregnancy weight.
• Preterm labor and birth can be associated with stressful life situations (eg, domestic violence; close family death; insecurity over food, home, or partner; work and home environment)
• Previous preterm delivery
Methods for predicting preterm birth• home uterine activity monitoring (HUAM)
• salivary estriol : DHEA increases before the onset of labor. This results in an increase of maternal estriol.
• FFN is a basement membrane protein that helps bind placental membranes to the decidua. FFN has a predictive value in identifying patients who will or will not deliver within the subsequent 1-2 weeks.
• A short cervical length in the early or late second trimester has been associated with a markedly increased risk of preterm labor and delivery.
Contraindication to tocolysis
1-Fetal growth restriction 2-Oligohydramnios 3-Nonreactive NST,Positive CST 4-Absent or reversed diastolic flow upon Doppler examination of umbilical blood flow 5-Repetitive severe variable decelerations 6-Significant vaginal bleeding consistent with abruption.
Definition of IAI(Intra Amniotic Infection)
A temperature greater than 38.0°C (100.0°F) and 2 of the 5 following signs:
1-WBC > 15,000 cells/mm3 2-Maternal HR> 100 (bpm)
3- Fetal HR> 160 bpm 4-Tender uterus 5-Foul-smelling discharge
Chorioamnionitis Order
• General: condition/position/diet=NPO• Lab: CBC diff, MP, WW, B/C X2, U/A , U/C,CXR,BUN/Cr • IV : 1000cc Ringer +10 units of oxytocin start at 2 drops /min, add 2 drops every 15 min if FHR and
contractions are normal Amp ampicillin 2gr iv qid +gentamicin im 80mg stat then 60
mg TDS AMP clindamycin 900 mg iv TDS for allergic women to
penicillin(continue antibiotics after delivery until the mother is a febrile
OTHER: Control of vital sign hourly
IMP:PLP before 37 weeks out patient:(contractions 4 in 20 min or 8 in 60 min +progressive change in cervixcervical dilation of more than onecervical effacement of more than 80 % or greater)
if:Check of contractions:+
U/A, U/C: -Fern:-
Then: Hydrate and sedate
Stop of contractions: dischargeWith:isoxsuprine 10 mg TDS for 10 days
Contractions persist: hospitalizeNext slide
IMP:PLP before 37 weeks, hospitalized
• General: condition/position/diet• Lab: CBC, BG, Rh, U/A, U/C, fern, reserve of 2 units of PC• IV : 1-1000cc Ringer free 2-MgSO4 (4 gr) in 200cc DW5% in 20 min then 20 gr in 1000cc infused in
100cc/hrs (check of I/O, RR,DTR, prep CPR set- I/O with measure) 3-Amp pethidine 25 mg iv 25 mg im4-Amp ampicillin 2 gr IV qid 5-Amp erythromicin 400 mg QID 6- Amp betamethasone 12 mg im, repeat after 24 hrs for GA below 34 wks • OTHER: Control of vital sign q4hrs, Inform if LP, leakage, VB, ab VS or FHR
Contraindication for beta mimetics
Maternal • cardiac disease• Diabetes• Thyrotoxicosis• HTN
Contraindication for MgSO4
• Hypocalcemia• Myasthenia gravis• Renal failure
Dosage of Ritodrine or Terbutaline for tocolysis
• 50-100 mcg/min increase by 50 mcg/min every 10 min
• max dose:350mcg/minIf labor is arrested continue the infusion for at
least 12 hrs• SC:250 mcg q3-4 hrs
Length of GA with multiple fetuses
• Twin=36 wks• Triplets=33.5 wks• Quadruplets=31 wks
Postterm
Definition of postterm
• Postterm pregnancies define pregnancies extending up to or after 42 weeks.
• The reported frequency is 3-12%.
Cause of postterm P.
• The most frequent cause of postterm pregnancy is inaccurate dating criteria
• primiparity, • prior postterm pregnancy, • male gender of the fetus, • genetic factors
Risks of postterm P
• Macrosomia complications like shoulder dystocia, CPD and Maternal risks like an increase in labor
dystocia, perineal injuries, and cesarean deliveries.
• dysmaturity syndrome: affects 20% of postterm fetuses and is thought to be caused by chronic uteroplacental insufficiency resulting in oligohydramnios, meconium aspiration, and reversible neonatal complications.
surveillance
• NST and AFI 2 times per week for pregnancies continuing past 41 weeks.
Intra Uterine Growth Retardation
Definition • Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR)
occurs when the unborn baby is at or below the 10th weight percentile for his or her age (in weeks). The fetus is affected by a pathologic restriction in its ability to grow.
• Low birth weight (LBW) means a baby with a birth weight of less than 2500Gms, which could be due to IUGR or Prematurity
Classification
SymmetricSymmetricll AAsymmetricalsymmetrical
baby's brain is abnormally baby's brain is abnormally large when compared to the large when compared to the liverliver..may occur when the may occur when the fetusfetus experiences a problem experiences a problem during during laterlater development development
the baby's head and body the baby's head and body are proportionately smallare proportionately small. . may occur when the may occur when the fetus fetus experiences a problem experiences a problem during during earlyearly development. development.
Etiology of IUGRIdiopathic- In a majority of cases (40%)
Maternal Risk Factors• Has had a previous baby with IUGR• Extremes of age • Small mothers (Ht & Wt)• poor weight gain and malnutrition during preg.• socially deprived• Substance abuse (like tobacco,narcotics, alcohol)• low total blood volume during early pregnancy
Maternal Risk Factors• Multiple pregnancy• Living in High altitude locations• Drugs like anticoagulants, anticonvulsants• Cardio-vascular disease:preeclampsia, HTN,
cyanotic heart disease, cardiac disease Gr III & IV, diabetic vascular lesions
• Chronic kidney disease • Chronic infection- UTI, Malaria, TB, genital
infections• Antibody abnormality like antiphospholipid
antibody syndrome, SLE
Fetal Risk Factors• Intrauterine infection:German measles (rubella),
cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex, tuberculosis, syphilis, or toxoplasmosis, TB, Malaria, Parvo virus B19.
• Birth defect (cardiovascular, renal, anencephally, limb defect, etc).
• Chromosome defect(trisomy-18 (Edwards’ syndrome),21(Down’s syndrome), 16, 13, xo (turner’s syndrome.)
• Primary disorder of bone or cartilage.• Chronic lack of oxygen during development
(hypoxia).• Developed outside of the uterus.• Placenta or umbilical cord defects.
Placental Factors
• Uteroplacental insufficiency:
– Improper / inadequate trophoblastic invasion and placentation in the first trimester.
• Lateral insertion of placenta.
• Reduced maternal blood flow to the placental bed.
• Fetoplacetal insufficiency due to:
• Vascular anomalies of placenta and cord
• Decreased placental functioning mass:
• Small placenta, abruptio placenta, placenta previa, post term pregnancy.
Screening: • US fetal biometry: HC- BPD- AC
• Uterine Doppler studies (Doppler Velocimetry): bilateral notches and a mean resistance index of at least 0.55
Or• Unilateral notches and a mean resistance index
of at least 0.65 at 20 weeks.
• Biochemistry: CRH level at 33 weeks
Neonatal Diagnosis
Low ponderal index (Wt./Fl).Decreased subcutaneous fat.Presence / appearance of –
Hypoglycemia, Hyperbilirubinemia, Necrotizing enterocolitis, Hyper viscosity syndrome
Prevention
Strong evidence of benefit only for the following interventions: • balanced protein/energy supplementation,• strategies to reduce maternal smoking, • antibiotic administration to prevent urinary tract
infections • antimalarial prophylaxis.
Surveillance • Non-Stress Test,• Amniotic Fluid Index, • Doppler of the Umbilical Artery • Biophysical Profile
Surveillance
The current recommendations are The current recommendations are that if the AFI decreases below 5 that if the AFI decreases below 5 after 35 weeks, then delivery should after 35 weeks, then delivery should occur. occur.
Amniotic Fluid Index (AFI)Amniotic Fluid Index (AFI)
Treatment
• Bed rest• Aspirin before 20 wk GA• Nutritional supplementation: zinc , fish oil,
hormones • Oxygen therapy.
For cases termination is indicated:
• Corticosteroids with a delay in delivery for 2.4 days
• Mode of delivery depends on the bishop score and IUGR severity
• For dichorionic twins : injection of KCl into the heart of the weaker fetus ( in most cases management is expectant)
• For monochorionic twins photocoagulation of anastomoses or diathermy in cases of TTTS and AAA
Short Term Risks of IUGR for the neonate
• Meconium Aspiration Syndrome,
• infection,
• hypoglycemia,
• hypothermia,
• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome,
Long term Prognosis • Fetal Death• low blood sugar• low body temperature • abnormal development of the nervous systemAdulthood aftermath :• CAD• HTN• Diabetes II• Dyslipidemia • Stroke• Depression• Suicide attempts
abruptio
Definition
• Abruptio placentae (ie, placental abruption) refers to separation of the normally located placenta after the 20th week of gestation.
• Abruptio placentae occurs in about 1% of all pregnancies.
Symptoms and signs
– Vaginal bleeding - 80% – Abdominal or back pain and uterine tenderness -
70% – Fetal distress - 60% – Abnormal uterine contractions (eg, hypertonic,
high frequency) - 35% – Idiopathic premature labor - 25% – Fetal death - 15%
Classification of abruptio
• extent of separation (ie, partial vs complete)
• location of separation (ie, marginal vs central)
• Clinical
classificationClass VB Uterus
tendernessBP-HR coagulopathy Fetal
distress0 mild --------- NL ----------- ---------1 mild mild NL ------------- ---------2(I=27%) Mild-mod Mod-
severeTilt + Hypofibrinogene
mia (ie, 50-250 mg/dL)
present
3(I=24%) Mild-severe
tetanic shock Fib<150 mg/dl death
Causes1• Maternal HTN(44% of all cases) • Maternal trauma• Cigarette smoking • Alcohol consumption • Cocaine use • Advanced maternal age
causes2
• Short umbilical cord • Sudden decompression of the uterus (eg,
PROM, delivery of first twin) • Retroplacental fibromyoma • postamniocentesis • Idiopathic (probable abnormalities of uterine
blood vessels and decidua)
Imaging Studies
• Ultrasonography is not very useful in diagnosing placental abruption. – Retroplacental hematoma may be recognized in 2-
25% of all abruptions. – Recognition of retroplacental hematoma depends
on the degree of hematoma and on the operator's skill level.
IMP: R/O abruption• Condition/position/diet:NPO• Lab: CBD-BG-Rh-U/A-U/C-PT-PTT-Fib-FDP-D-Dimer-• Prep 4 units of crossmatched packed red blood cells• Prep 5 units of platelets, prep 10 units of FFP• Continuous high-flow supplemental oxygen • One or 2 large-bore IV lines with normal saline (NS) or lactated Ringer (LR)
solution+10 units of oxytocin in 1 lit of ringer start at 2 drops/min add 2 drops every 15 min if fetal heart rate and uterine contractions are favorable.
• perform amniotomy • Closely observe the patient. Monitor vital signs and urine output, fetal
heart rate and uterine height measurement.• Prepare OR for emergent C/S
Placenta Previa
subtypes
• (1) complete or total: the placenta covers 360° of the internal cervical os;
• (2) incomplete or partial: 0°-360° of the internal cervical os is covered by placental tissue;
• (3) marginal: the placental tissue does not cover the internal cervical os;
• (4) low lying: the edge of the placenta lies abnormally close to but does not abut the internal cervical os.
Risk factors
• prior placenta previa, • prior cesarean delivery, • increased maternal age, • large placentae (eg, multiple gestations or
erythroblastosis), • maternal history of smoking.
Frequency
• 1 in 200 deliveries
Vaginal Bleeding
• painless vaginal bleeding during the second half of pregnancy (70%).
• It can occur without an inciting cause, although pelvic examination, intercourse, or labor may provoke it.
• The average gestational age at presentation is 32 weeks.
• Hemorrhage recurs, and, in nearly all cases, it is more severe the second time.
management
• Patients are treated expectantly, with:• volume replacement, • transfusions, • tocolytics, • emergent cesarean delivery • Without endangering the life of the mother,
all attempts are made to delay delivery until the fetal lungs mature.
Preferred Examination
• Physical examination should be performed only with a fetus that has achieved pulmonary maturity and only in a fully staffed operating room.
Preferred examination
• TA sonography is the test of choice to confirm placenta previa.
• When the internal cervical os cannot be visualized or when the results are inconclusive, transperineal or transvaginal sonography is recommended as an adjunct.
• No increased risk of hemorrhage has been associated with transvaginal or transperineal sonography in this clinical setting.
Blood loss classifications
med-ed-online 2007
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
Blood LossVolume (mls) in
adult750mls 800 - 1500mls 1500 - 2000mls >2000mls
Blood Loss% Circ. blood
volume<15% 15 - 30% 30 - 40% >40%
Systolic Blood Pressure
No change Normal Reduced Very low
Diastolic Blood Pressure
No change Raised ReducedVery low /
Unrecordable
Pulse (beats /min)Slight tachy-
cardia100 - 120 120 (thready) >120 (very thready)
Capillary Refill Normal Slow (>2s) Slow (>2s) Undetectable
Respiratory Rate Normal Normal Raised (>20/min) Raised (>20/min)
Urine Flow (mls/hr)
>30 20 - 30 10 - 20 0 - 10
med-ed-online 2007
Estimated blood loss
Suitable fluid regimes
1000 mls 3000 mls crystalloidor
1000 mls colloid
1500 mls1500 mls crystalloid & 1000mls
colloidor
4500 mls crystalloid
2000 mls1000 mls crystalloid, 1000mls colloid
& 2 units bloodor
3000 mls crystalloid & 2 units blood
Multiple pregnancyPictures and material of multiple pregnancy are adapted from:
Zach T. multiple pregnancy. emedicine. Oct 2. 2007
with permission
pathophysiology1• Dizygotic twins(fraternal) are produced when 2 sperm
fertilize 2 ova. Separate amnions, chorions, and placentas are formed in dizygotic twins. The placentas in dizygotic twins may fuse if the implantation sites are proximate. The fused placentas can be easily separated after birth.
• Monozygotic twins (Identical)develop when a single fertilized ovum splits during the first 2 weeks after conception. An early splitting (ie, within the first 2 d after fertilization-30%) of monozygotic twins produces separate chorions and amnions. These dichorionic twins have different placentas that can be separate or fused.
pathophysiology2
• Later splitting (ie, 3-8 d after fertilization) results in monochorionic/diamniotic placentation .
• Approximately 70% of monozygotic twins are monochorionic/diamniotic.
pathophysiology3
• If splitting occurs even later (ie, during 9-12 d after fertilization), monochorionic/monoamniotic placentation occurs .
• Monochorionic/monoamniotic twins are rare; only 1% of monozygotic twins have this form of placentation.
pathophysiology4
• Monochorionic/monoamniotic twins have a common placenta with vascular communications between the 2 circulations.
pathophysiology5
• Trizygotic triplets occur when 3 sperm fertilize 3 ova.
• Dizygotic triplets develop from one set of monozygotic cotriplets and a third cotriplet derived from a different zygote.
• Finally, 2 consecutive zygotic splittings with one split results in a vanished fetus and monozygotic triplets.
Frequency
• The birth rate of monozygotic twins is constant worldwide (approximately 4 per 1000 births).
• Birth rates of dizygotic twins vary by race. (Highest in Africans and lowerest in Asians)
mortality• low birth weight infants( due to prematurity and
(IUGR) • congenital anomalies, • placenta previa, abruptio placenta, • preeclampsia, • cord accidents, • malpresentations, • asphyxia/perinatal depression,• group B streptococcal (GBS) infections,• hyaline membrane disease (HMD),• TTTS.
History
• excessive weight gain,• hyperemesis gravidarum, • sensation of more than one moving fetus• use of ovulation-inducing drugs• family history of dizygotic twins
Neonatal Lab Studies
• CBC count: In TTTS, the donor twin is frequently anemic at birth. The recipient twin is polycythemic at birth.
• Calcium level: Hypocalcemia is common in premature infants, especially the donor twin in TTTS.
• Glucose level: Hypoglycemia is common in premature infants, especially if TTTS is present.
• Bilirubin level: Hyperbilirubinemia due to TTTS may develop in polycythemic infants.
TRAP
• Twin reversed arterial perfusion (TRAP) sequence occurs when an acardiac twin receives all of the blood supply from the normal "pump" twin. This only occurs in monochorionic twins.
TTTS• Occurs in monochorionic/monoamniotic or
monochorionic/diamniotic twins. Vascular anastomoses in the monochorionic placenta result in transfusion of blood from one twin (ie, donor) to the other twin (ie, recipient). Polyhydramnios develops in the sac of the recipient twin and oligohydramnios develops in the sac of the donor twin.
Conjoined twins
– Incomplete late division of monozygotic twins produces conjoined twins.
– Classification:• Thoracopagus - Joined at chest (40%) • Xiphopagus/omphalopagus - Joined at abdomen (34%) • Pygopagus - Joined at buttocks (18%) • Ischiopagus - Joined at ischium (6%) • Craniopagus - Joined at head (2%)
Discordant
. Birth weight discrepancies of more than 20-25% are considered discordant. Discordant birth weights occur in 10% of twins.
Gestational Trophoblastic Neoplasia
classification
• hydatidiform mole : is the most common form of gestational trophoblastic neoplasia it can behave in a malignant or benign fashion,
• invasive mole (chorioadenoma destruens), • choriocarcinoma,• and placental site trophoblastic tumor (PSTT).
Clinical course
• In 80% of patients with a benign hydatidiform mole, serum HCG titers steadily drop to normal within 8-12 weeks after evacuation of the molar pregnancy.
• In the other 20% of patients with a malignant hydatidiform mole, serum HCG titers either rise or plateau.
staging
• Stage I – Confined to the uterus • Stage II – Limited to the genital structures • Stage III – Lung metastases • Stage IV – Other metastases
WHO prognostic criteria1
• Age 40 years or older = 1 point • Antecedent pregnancy terminated in abortion = 1 point • Antecedent full-term pregnancy = 2 points • Interval of 4 months to less than 7 months between
antecedent pregnancy and start of chemotherapy = 1 point • Interval of 7-12 months between antecedent pregnancy and
start of chemotherapy = 2 points • Interval of more than 12 months between antecedent
pregnancy and start of chemotherapy = 4 points
WHO prognostic criteria 2
• Beta-HCG level in serum is 1000 mIU/mL but less than 10,000 mIU/mL = 1 point
• Beta-HCG level in serum is 10,000 mIU/mL but less than 100,000 mIU/mL = 2 points
• Beta-HCG level in serum is 100,000 mIU/mL or greater = 4 points
• Largest tumor is 3 cm but less than 5 cm = 1 point • Largest tumor is 5 cm or greater = 2 points • Site of metastases is spleen or kidney = 1 point
WHO prognostic criteria3
• Site of metastases is gastrointestinal tract = 2 points • Site of metastases is brain or liver = 4 points • Number of metastases is 1-4 = 1 point • Number of metastases is 5-8 = 2 points • Number of metastases is more than 8 = 4 points • Prior chemotherapy with single drug = 2 points • Prior chemotherapy with multiple drugs = 4 points
Sign and Symptoms
• Patients with a hydatidiform mole present with signs and symptoms of pregnancy. – The most frequent symptom of gestational
trophoblastic neoplasia (GTN) is abnormal uterine bleeding.
– Patients have a history of amenorrhea. Occasionally, the typical hydatid vesicles (edematous villi) are passed through the vagina.
Sign and Symptoms
• Prolonged hyperemesis gravidarum • preeclampsia • Hyperthyroidism• signs and symptoms associated with the metastatic
disease, such as hematuria, hemoptysis, abdominal pain, and neurologic symptoms
Physical Exam
• a positive pregnancy test result occurs in the absence of a fetus.
• vesicles in the vagina is diagnostic• Enlarged ovaries secondary to theca lutein
cysts are found in up to 20% of cases.– The cysts regress after evacuation of the
hydatidiform mole for 12 weeks.
Cause• A hydatidiform mole occurs when a haploid
sperm fertilizes an egg that has no maternal chromosomes and then duplicates its chromosomal complement. – Most complete hydatidiform moles are 46,XX, and all
the chromosomes come from the male. – Of hydatidiform moles, 10-15% are 46,XY. This occurs
when 2 sperm, 1 carrying an X and the other carrying a Y, fertilize an "empty" egg.
• Partial moles are 69,XXY, and 2 sets of chromosomes are of paternal origin.
Medical care1
• Emergency department care involves :• starting intravenous (IV) fluids (crystalloids) • sending blood for type and antibody screen• Rh-negative patients should receive anti–RhD
immune globulin, such as RhoGAM, if not already immunized
Medical Care2
• Patients with benign do not require medical therapy.
• observing patients with weekly serum HCG titers.
• Only patients with rising or plateauing titers should be treated with chemotherapy.
Medical care3• Patients with malignant nonmetastatic or metastatic low-
risk GTN are treated with single-agent chemotherapy like MTX or actinomycin D in patients with poor liver function
• During treatment, the serum HCG titers are monitored every week.
• One additional course of chemotherapy is administered after a normal serum HCG titer.
• After 3-4 normal serum HCG titers, the titers are followed once per month for 1 year.
• A switch from MTX to actinomycin D is made if the patient receiving MTX for nonmetastatic or metastatic low-risk GTN develops rising or plateauing serum HCG titers.
Medical care4
• Patients with high-risk metastatic are subdivided into 2 groups:– In patients with a WHO score of less than 8, a
combination of MTX, actinomycin D, and cyclophosphamide can be used. This is known as the MAC regimen. This chemotherapeutic regimen is administered every 19-21 days (from day 1 of the previous chemotherapy cycle) until the serum HCG titers normalize.
Medical Care5
– Patients with WHO scores of 8 or higher are treated with a combination of etoposide, MTX, and actinomycin D administered in the first week of a 2-week cycle and cyclophosphamide and vincristine (Oncovin) administered in the second week. This is known as the EMA-CO regimen. Two additional courses of EMA-CO or EMA-CE are administered after a normal serum HCG titer in very high-risk patients.
Medical care6
– Patients with metastasis to the brain receive whole brain irradiation (3000 cGy) in combination with chemotherapy. Corticosteroids (Decadron) with systemic effect are administered to reduce brain edema.
– Patients with liver metastasis are considered for liver irradiation (2000 cGy).
Surgical care
• The treatment of a hydatidiform mole is evacuation of the uterus by suction and sharp curettage. – To avoid excessive bleeding, oxytocin is
administered intravenously at the initiation of the suctioning of the uterine contents.
– The largest possible suction curet is used, usually a 10F or 12F.
Further Care
• Obtain follow-up serum HCG titers :• once per week until 3-4 normal values are
obtained. • Then, obtain them once per month for 6
months. • Have patients use reliable contraception, such
as oral contraceptives or depot progesterone injections, during the period of follow-up care.
Prognosis1
• Nonmetastatic GTN has a cure rate with chemotherapy of close to 100%.
• Metastatic low-risk gestational trophoblastic neoplasia has a cure rate with chemotherapy of close to 100%.
• Metastatic high-risk gestational trophoblastic neoplasia has a cure rate with chemotherapy of approximately 75%.
• After 12 months of normal HCG titers, less than 1% of patients with malignant gestational trophoblastic neoplasia have recurrences.
Prognosis2• The rate of occurrence of a repeat molar pregnancy is
approximately 1-2%. • The rate of occurrence of a repeat molar pregnancy in
a patient with a history of 2 previous hydatidiform moles is approximately 10-20%.
• The pregnancy rate after chemotherapy with MTX and cyclophosphamide is 80%. Of women treated with EMA-CO, 46% have had at least 1 live birth after chemotherapy.
• Patients who become pregnant after treatment for GTN should have a pelvic ultrasound early during the pregnancy to confirm that the pregnancy is normal.
PREGNANT DIABETICS
ADAPTATION TO PREGNANCY
• In early pregnancy Estrogen and Progesterone stimulate beta cell hyperplasia and increased insulin secretion
• Glycogenolyis and peripheral utilization increase
• The net result is relative hypoglycemia
GLUCOSE LEVELS IN NORMAL PREGNANCY
• Fasting levels decline by 10 – 11 mg/dl• Postprandial levels rarely exceed 120-140
mg/dl• Glucose excursions with meals 30 – 35 mg/dl• Marked increase in insulin levels with feeding
CHO METABOLISM 20- 24 WEEKS
• Increased human placental lactogen – diabetogenic
• Increased prolactin – insulin resistance• Increased cortisol – decreased glycogen
storage
OTHER METABOLIC CHANGES
• Stable amounts of FFA• Increased cholesterol and TG• Reduced amino acid levels
MATERNAL COMPLICATIONS
• Retinopathy• Nephropathy• Chronic hypertension• Preeclampsia
RETINOPATHY
• Remains the leading cause of blindness in women ages 24-64
• Every patient with pre-gestational diabetes should have a retinal examination in early pregnancy
• Laser therapy is safe and effective during pregnancy
• Has a variable course during pregnancy
NEPHROPATHY
• Accounts for 1/3 of the deaths in diabetics < 31
• Renal findings are present as early as 1-2 years after diagnosis
• Creatinine clearance may improve in pregnancy due to increased renal blood flow
• Proteinuria may increase substantially
CHRONIC RENAL FAILURE
• Pregnancy is possible even in patients requiring hemodialysis
• Reliable contraception is advised• Fertility and successful pregnancy outcomes
are reduced with serum Cr > 2.0
CHRONIC HYPERTENSION
• Should be aggressively controlled• ACE inhibitors are contraindicated• Calcium channel blockers are probably a
reasonable alternative and are safe during pregnancy
• Increases the incidence of fetal growth restriction and superimposed preeclampsia
PREECLAMPSIA
• BP > 140/90• Proteinuria > 300 mg/24 hours or increase in
baseline• May be difficult to diagnose in the presence of
renal disease and chronic HTN• 25% incidence of superimposed disease with
CHTN
SEVERE PREECLAMPSIA
• BP > 180/110• Proteinuria > 5 g/24 hours• Lab: elevated LFT’s. thrombocytopenia• Sxs: headache, epigastric pain, blurred vision• Oliguria, pulmonary edema, fetal growth
restriction
PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS
• Hydramnios• Spontaneous abortions• Congenital malformations• Macrosomia• Diabetic ketoacidosis• Neonatal metabolic complications
HYDRAMNIOS
• 1-2 % in normals and 18% of diabetics• Fetal osmotic diuresis is etiologic• May also be due to fetal cardiac CNS
malformations• May be associated with preterm labor• ?Associated with level of glycemic control
SPONTANEOUS ABORTIONS
• In well controlled patients the rate is similar to the non-diabetic
• Glycosylated hemoglobin levels are higher in women who have a SAB
• Higher rates of spontaneous abortion in diabetics with vascular disease
CONGENITAL MALFORMATIONS
• Associated with periconceptual glucose control
• In general the rate is 2-3 x that of the non-diabetic gravida
• No increase when the father is diabetic• “Fuel mediated teratogenesis”
TYPES OF CONGENITAL MALFORMATIONS
• Fetal cardiac anomalies may be complex• CNS – Spina Bifida, Anencephaly• Caudal regression syndrome• Must consider family history of other
malformations that are unrelated to DM
GLYCOSYLATED HGB AND MALFORMATIONS• HBA1C <8.5% , 3.4% malformations • HBA1C > 8.5% , 22.4 % malformations• Reflects glucose control over the preceeding
60 – 90 days
MACROSOMIA
• Seen more frequently with GDM and IDDM without vascular complications
• Related to level of 3rd trimester glucose control
• May occur in up to 25% of diabetics
DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS
• Seen in type I DM• Infection, fever, beta – agonists are frequent
predisposing factors• Suspected with +serum ketones and blood
glucose levels above 300• Fetal distress is common
NEONATAL METABOLIC COMPLICATIONS
• Hypoglycemia• Hypocalcemia• Hypothermia• Hypomagnesemia• Hyyperbilirubinemia
PRECONCEPTION COUNSELING
• “Tight” periconceptual control is essential• The diabetes should be stable• Multidisciplinary team maybe helpful• Diabetic education• Dietary counseling• Assessment of renal function• Retinal exam
PRECONCEPTION GLUCOSE CONTROL
• Fasting blood glucose < 100 mg/dl• Pre-meal levels <110 mg/dl• Post-meal levels <140 – 150 mg/dl• Avoid wide swings in control• Normalize hemoglobin A1C
PREVENTION OF MALFORMATIONS
• Normal glucose levels• Folic acid supplementation• Dose: 4 mg/day from 1 month pre-pregnancy
to 12 weeks
FOLIC ACID
• All women of reproductive age should consume at least 0.4 mg of folic acid
• High risk women should consume 4 mg/day• This reduces the risk of neural tube defects• Newer evidence suggests a lower risk of facial
clefting and congenital heart disease as well
INDICATIONS FOR HOSPITALIZATION
• Persistent nausea and vomiting• Significant maternal infection• DKA• Poor control/compliance • Preterm labor
ASSESSMENT OF FETAL WELL-BEING
• Daily fetal movement counting• Twice weekly NST by 32 weeks• At least weekly assessment of AFV OR• Weekly biophysical profiles• With more advanced disease, earlier testing is
recommended
FIRST PRENATAL VISIT
• Routine prenatal lab• Baseline 24 hour UA for protein and Cr
Clearance• Baseline retinal exam• EKG • Thyroid function tests in Type 1 Diabetics• Hemoglobin A1C• Schedule 10-12 week USN
EARLY PREGNANCY CARE
• Diabetic education and dietary instruction• Multi-disciplinary care is helpful• Calibrate reflectance meters• Adjust caloric needs for pregnancy and
lactation• Review benefits of physical activity
TIMING OF DELIVERY
• Well controlled IDDM: at term• Poorly controlled: after documentation of
fetal lung maturity• If fetal surveillance reassuring, delivery before
39 weeks should be unusual
INTRAPARTUM GLUCOSE CONTROL
• No breakfast the morning of induction• Establish IV with D5/.45% NaCl at 125 cc/hour• Capillary blood glucose levels every 1 – 2
hours• Begin continuous infusion of insulin with
levels above 120 mg/dl• Avoid fluid boluses with D5
SHOULDER DYSTOCIABW (g) No diabetes(%) Diabetes(%)
< 4000 0.1-1.1 0.6-3.7
4000-4499 1.1-10.0 4.9-23.1
> 4500 4.1-22.6 20.0-50.0
NERVE INJURY
• Rate varies from 4-40% following shoulder dystocia
• Most (90%) resolve without sequelae• Can occur with EFW < 4000 g• Can occur in utero and therefore not
preventable by cesarean
POSTPARTUM GLUCOSE CONTROL
• Insulin requirements may fall 50% in the 1st 24 hours
• Little need for treatment if under 200 mg/dl
CONTRACEPTION
• Reliable contraception should be offered• Low-dose combination OCP’s do not
significantly impair carbohydrate metabolism• Progestin only oral contraceptives appear to
accelerate the development of Type 2 DM in women with gestational diabetes
• Barrier methods and even IUD may be acceptable
ACOG Low Risk
• Age < 25• Not a member of an at risk ethnic group
(Hispanic, African, Native American, South or East Asian, Pacific Islanders)
• BMI < 25 (non-obese)• No history of abnormal glucose tolerance or
FH• No adverse outcomes
Screening
• If FBS is 110-126:• Then 1 hr 50 gr or 3 hrs 100 gr• remember 105– 195—165---145
Summary
• Every practice should adopt a screening strategy, either by historical or laboratory means
• Screening best between 24-28 weeks• Remember to screen post delivery
Some diabetic cases
Bita Hazrati A PLP case complicated by HTN and GD
• 24 yrs old • G2 P1 L0 D1/ first fetal loss due to preterm c/s
delivery• ( because of placenta previa)• GA on admission 32-33 w• CC: LP ( contractions mild/20 seconds D/ 2 in a • 10- minute interval)• WB: Intact• ROM: - ( detected by Fern test)• Reduced fetal movement: -
• Ph E: PR= 86/min RR:16/min T:36 BP= 140/90 mmHg
• BS:FBS=112 /10am=134 /4pm=145 /8pm=163
20-30 units total : 2/3 intermediate 1/3 regularMorning: 10 units of NPH- 4 units of regularAfternoon: 4 units of NPH – 4 units of regular
FBS is used to adjust evening NPH2-hr PP (10 am) is used to adjust morning RegularAfternon preprandial (4 pm) is used to adjust morning NPH2hr PP is used to adjust evening Regular
What is your management of this combined case of :1- preeclampsia2- GD3- PLP
Answer:Mg so4 Ampicillin+ ErythroIsoxsuprineSedation
FBS-BSNST-FAD-OB US (AFI and GA)Insulin
Which is true about gestational diabetes?
A-This happens during pregnancy with FBS less than 105 mg/dl. Its treatment is insulin.
B-It is a kind of type 2 diabetes.C- All cases will develop overt diabetes within 20
years.D- It happens because of reduced pancreas b
cell function.Ans:B
Which is an independent cause of IUFD in diabetes?
A-hydramniosB-abruptioC-oligohydramniosD-oxygen and metabolites transportation
Ans:D
Which is not a good method of contraception in a diabetic woman?
A-LD OCPB-medroxy progesterone acetateC- HD OCPD-norplant
Ans:C
What is the test for a 30 year old 10 wk pregnant woman whose FBS is 85/ 2hr PP is 125?
A- 3 hr GTTB-Repeat of FBS and 2hr PP next week.C-Repeat of FBS and 2hr PP in 24-28 wk.D-Repeat of FBS and 2hr PP in 34 wk.
Ans: C
Which is not a cause of PIH for a diabetic pregnant woman?
A-poor blood glucose controlB-albuminureaC-high creatinineD-chronic HTN
Ans: A
What is the most common cause of perinatal mortality in diabetic pregnancies?
A- malformationsB- RDSC-metabolic errorsD- IUFD
Ans:A
What is one stage screening test for diabetes in pregnancy?
A-100 grs oral glucose in 24-28 wk.B-50 grs oral glucose in 20-22 wk.C-75 grs oral glucose in 18-20 wk.D-25 grs oral glucose in 30-32 wk.
Ans:A
What is your plan for a 35 wk diabetic pregnant woman whose BP is 140/90 mmHg/ is on 60 units of insulin /FBS=120 mg/dl?
A-increasing the insulin doseB- no treatmentC-hospitalization and adjusting insulin dose D-termination of pregnancy
Ans:C
What is your management of a 30 yr old 35 wk pregnant woman class R diabetic with severe retinopathy?
A-termination of pregnancyB-Laser photocoagulationC- high dose steroidsD-No action is needed now.
Ans:B
Which is not among the complications of type A2 diabetes in pregnancy?
A- macrosomiaB-increased C/SC- still birthD-malformations
Ans:D
A woman with a history of gestation diabetes is asking for follow-up management after her delivery. Her FBS is 108 mg/dl and 2hr PP 135 mg/dl. What do you suggest?
A-repeat of FBS and 2hr PP a year after delivery.B- repeat of FBS and 2hr PP 3 yrs after delivery.C-GTT with 100 grs glucose.D-HbA1C 6 months after delivery.
Ans:B
In a woman with overt diabetes , BS is reported to be 130 mg/dl . What do you suggest for her IV infusion?
A- RL and DW5% B-RL and DW5% +insulin 1 unit/hrC-NS +insulin 1.5 units/hrD- NS+insulin 2 units/hr
Ans:B
Points to remember about diabetic labor:
• BS below 100 mg/dl : no insulin is needed• 100-140 mg/dl:1 unit insulin • 140-180 mg/dl:1.5 units insulin• 180-220 mg/dl:2 units insulin• More than 220 mg/dl:2.5 units insulin
• BS more than 140 mg/dl needs NS as IV infusion
